Wikipedia enwiki https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.32.0-wmf.23 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk Portal Portal talk Book Book talk Draft Draft talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Gadget Gadget talk Gadget definition Gadget definition talk 0 10 854851586 834079434 2018-08-14T06:47:24Z Godsy 23257138 remove from category for seeking instructions on rcats wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Computer accessibility]] {{R from move}} {{R from CamelCase}} {{R unprintworthy}} 42l0cvblwtb4nnupxm6wo000d27t6kf 0 12 861930049 861929318 2018-10-01T01:41:02Z Barek 1746167 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contribs/73.88.25.111|73.88.25.111]] ([[User talk:73.88.25.111|talk]]) to last version by Tajotep wikitext text/x-wiki {{redirect2|Anarchist|Anarchists|the fictional character|Anarchist (comics)|other uses|Anarchists (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{short description|Political philosophy}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}} {{use British English|date=January 2014}} {{Anarchism sidebar}} {{Basic forms of government}} '''Anarchism''' is a [[political philosophy]]{{sfn|McLaughlin|2007|p=59}}{{sfn|Flint|2009|p=27}} that advocates [[Self-governance|self-governed]] societies based on voluntary institutions. These are often described as [[Stateless society|stateless societies]],{{sfn|Woodcock|ps=:ANARCHISM, a social philosophy that rejects authoritarian government and maintains that voluntary institutions are best suited to express man's natural social tendencies}}<ref>{{harvnb|Kropotkin|1910}}:''"In a society developed on these lines, the voluntary associations which already now begin to cover all the fields of human activity would take a still greater extension so as to substitute themselves for the state in all its functions."''</ref>{{sfn|Craig|2005|p=14|ps=: Anarchism is the view that a society without the state, or government, is both possible and desirable}}{{sfn|Sheehan|2003|p=85}} although several authors have defined them more specifically as institutions based on non-[[Hierarchy|hierarchical]] or [[Free association (communism and anarchism)|free associations]].{{sfn|Suissa|2006|p=7|ps=:[...] as many anarchists have stressed, it is not government as such that they find objectionable, but the hierarchical forms of government associated with the nation state.}}{{sfn|iaf-ifa|ps=:The IAF – IFA fights for : the abolition of all forms of authority whether economical, political, social, religious, cultural or sexual.}}{{sfn|Kropotkin|1898|ps=: That is why Anarchy, when it works to destroy authority in all its aspects, when it demands the abrogation of laws and the abolition of the mechanism that serves to impose them, when it refuses all hierarchical organization and preaches free agreement — at the same time strives to maintain and enlarge the precious kernel of social customs without which no human or animal society can exist.}}{{sfn|The Anarchist FAQ Editorial Collective|2017|loc= B.1 Why are anarchists against authority and hierarchy?|ps=:anarchists are opposed to irrational (e.g., illegitimate) authority, in other words, hierarchy — hierarchy being the institutionalization of authority within a society}} Anarchism holds the [[State (polity)|state]] to be undesirable, unnecessary and harmful.<ref name="definition"> * {{cite journal|last=Malatesta|first=Errico|title=Towards Anarchism|journal=MAN!|publisher=International Group of San Francisco|location=Los Angeles|oclc=3930443|url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/malatesta/1930s/xx/toanarchy.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107221404/http://marxists.org/archive/malatesta/1930s/xx/toanarchy.htm|archivedate=7 November 2012|deadurl=no|authorlink=Errico Malatesta|ref=harv}} * {{cite journal|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070514.wxlanarchist14/BNStory/lifeWork/home/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070516094548/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070514.wxlanarchist14/BNStory/lifeWork/home|archivedate=16 May 2007|deadurl=yes|title=Working for The Man|journal=[[The Globe and Mail]]|accessdate=14 April 2008|last=Agrell|first=Siri|date=14 May 2007|ref=harv}} * {{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9117285|title=Anarchism|year=2006|work=Encyclopædia Britannica|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service|accessdate=29 August 2006|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061214085638/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9117285|archivedate=14 December 2006<!--Added by DASHBot-->}} * {{cite journal|year=2005|title=Anarchism|journal=The Shorter [[Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]|page=14|quote=Anarchism is the view that a society without the state, or government, is both possible and desirable.|ref=harv}}{{sfn|McLean|McMillan|2003|loc= Anarchism}}</ref> While [[Anti-statism|opposition to the state]] is central,{{sfn|McLaughlin|2007|p=28|ps=:Anarchists do reject the state, as we will see. But to claim that this central aspect of anarchism is definitive is to sell anarchism short}} anarchism specifically entails opposing authority or hierarchical organisation in the conduct of all human relations.{{sfn|Proudhon|1849|ps=:Anarchy is the condition of existence of adult society, as hierarchy is the condition of primitive society. There is a continual progress in human society from hierarchy to anarchy."}}{{sfn|Bakunin|1882|ps=:In a word, we reject all legislation, all authority, and all privileged, licensed, official, and legal influence, even though arising from universal suffrage, convinced that it can turn only to the advantage of a dominant minority of exploiters against the interests of the immense majority in subjection to them. This is the sense in which we are really Anarchists.}}{{sfn|Armand|1926|ps=:In practice, any individual who, because of his or her temperament or because of conscious and serious reflection, repudiates all external authority or coercion, whether of a governmental, ethical, intellectual, or economic order, can be considered an anarchist. Everyone who consciously rejects the domination of people by other people or by the social ambiance, and its economic corollaries, can be said to be an anarchist as well}} Anarchism is usually considered a [[Far-left politics|far-left]] ideology{{sfn|Brooks|1994|p=xi|ps=:Usually considered to be an extreme left-wing ideology, anarchism has always included a significant strain of radical individualism, from the hyperrationalism of Godwin, to the egoism of Stirner, to the libertarians and anarcho-capitalists of today.}}{{sfn|Kahn|2000}}{{sfn|Moyihan|2007}} and much of [[anarchist economics]] and [[Anarchist law|anarchist legal philosophy]] reflects [[Libertarian socialism|anti-authoritarian interpretations]] of [[Anarcho-communism|communism]], [[Collectivist anarchism|collectivism]], [[Anarcho-syndicalism|syndicalism]], [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]], or [[participatory economics]].{{sfn|Guerin|1970|ps=:The anarchists were unanimous in subjecting authoritarian socialism to a barrage of severe criticism. At the time when they made violent and satirical attacks these were not entirely well founded, for those to whom they were addressed were either primitive or "vulgar" communists, whose thought had not yet been fertilized by Marxist humanism, or else, in the case of Marx and Engels themselves, were not as set on authority and state control as the anarchists made out."}} Anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a single particular world view, instead fluxing and flowing as a philosophy.{{sfn|Marshall|2010|p=16}} Many types and traditions of anarchism exist, not all of which are mutually exclusive.{{sfn|Sylvan|2007|p= 231}} [[Anarchist schools of thought]] can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme [[individualism]] to complete [[collectivism]].{{sfn|McLean|McMillan|2003|loc= Anarchism}} Strains of anarchism have often been divided into the categories of [[Social anarchism|social]] and [[individualist anarchism]] or similar dual classifications.{{sfn|Ostergaard|p=14|loc= Anarchism}}{{sfn|Kropotkin|2002|p=5}}{{sfn|Fowler|1972}} == Etymology and terminology == {{see also|Anarchist terminology}} The word "[[wikt:anarchism|anarchism]]" is composed from the word "[[anarchy]]" and the suffix [[-ism]],{{sfn | ''Origin and meaning of anarchism by Online Etymology Dictionary''}} themselves derived respectively from the Greek {{lang|grc|ἀναρχία}},{{sfn|Kropotkin|1910}} i.e. ''anarchy''<ref>{{LSJ|a)narxi/a|ἀναρχία|ref}}</ref>{{sfn | ''Definition of Anarchy by Merriam-Webster'' | 2018}}<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=anarchy&allowed_in_frame=0 Anarchy], [[Online etymology dictionary]].</ref> (from {{lang|grc|ἄναρχος}}, ''anarchos'', meaning "one without rulers";<ref>{{LSJ|a)/narxos|ἄναρχος|ref}}</ref> from the [[privative]] prefix [[privative alpha|ἀν]]- (''an-'', i.e. "without") and {{lang|grc|ἀρχός}}, ''archos'', i.e. "leader", "ruler";<ref>{{LSJ|a)rxo/s|ἀρχός|ref}}</ref> (cf. ''[[archon]]'' or {{lang|grc|ἀρχή}}, ''arkhē'', i.e. "authority", "sovereignty", "realm", "magistracy")<ref>{{LSJ|a)rxh/|ἀρχή|ref}}</ref>) and the suffix {{lang|grc|-ισμός}} or {{lang|grc|-ισμα}} (''-ismos'', ''-isma'', from the verbal [[infinitive]] suffix {{lang|grc|-ίζειν}}, ''-izein'').<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=-ism&allowed_in_frame=0 -ism], [[Online etymology dictionary]].</ref> The first known use of this word was in 1539.<ref>{{harvnb| ''Definition of Anarchy by Merriam-Webster'' | 2018}}: meaning ''absence of government''</ref> Various factions within the [[French Revolution]] labelled opponents as anarchists (as [[Maximilien Robespierre]] did the [[Hébertists]]){{sfn | Dictionnaire des usages socio-politiques (1770–1815) | 1985 | p=9}} although few shared many views of later anarchists. There would be many revolutionaries of the early nineteenth century who contributed to the anarchist doctrines of the next generation, such as [[William Godwin]] and [[Wilhelm Weitling]], but they did not use the word "anarchist" or "anarchism" in describing themselves or their beliefs.{{sfn|Joll|1964|p=27-37}} The first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist was [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], marking the formal birth of anarchism in the mid-nineteenth century. Since the 1890s and beginning in France,{{snf|Nettlau|1996|p=162}} the term "[[libertarianism]]" has often been used as a synonym for anarchism <ref>{{harvnb|Guerin|1970|loc=The Basic Ideas of Anarchism}}: "At the end of the century in France, Sebastien Faure took up a word used in 1858 by one [[Joseph Dejacque]] {{sic}} to make it the title of a journal, Le Libertaire. Today the terms "anarchist" and "libertarian" have become interchangeable"</ref> and its use as a synonym is still common outside the United States.<ref> * Ward, Colin. Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press 2004 p. 62 * Goodway, David. [[Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow]]. Liverpool Press. 2006, p. 4 * MacDonald, Dwight & Wreszin, Michael. Interviews with [[Dwight Macdonald]]. University Press of Mississippi, 2003. p. 82 * Bufe, Charles. The Heretic's Handbook of Quotations. See Sharp Press, 1992. p. iv * Gay, Kathlyn. Encyclopedia of Political Anarchy. ABC-CLIO / University of Michigan, 2006, p. 126 * Woodcock, George. Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements. Broadview Press, 2004 (uses the terms interchangeably, such as on p. 10). * [[Alexandre Skirda|Skirda, Alexandre]]. Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May 1968. AK Press 2002. p. 183. * Fernandez, Frank. Cuban Anarchism. The History of a Movement. See Sharp Press, 2001, p. 9.</ref> On the other hand, some use libertarianism to refer to individualistic free market philosophy only, referring to free market anarchism as [[libertarian anarchism]].<ref>{{harv|Morris|2002|p=61|ps=(Using "libertarian anarchism" synonymously with "individualist anarchism" when referring to individualist anarchism that supports a [[market economy|market society]]}}</ref> == History == {{main|History of anarchism}} === Origins === [[File:Levellers declaration and standard.gif|thumb|upright|[[Woodcut]] from a [[Diggers]] document by [[William Everard (Digger)|William Everard]]]] <!-- Anarcho-communist Joseph Déjacque, the first person to use the term "libertarian" in a political sense and self-proclaimed advocate of libertarianism, needs to be added here. His work and stances on anarchism are very relevant to this particular section of the article. Additionally, his criticisms of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's mutualism are very relevant here. --> The earliest anarchist themes can be found in the 6th century BC among the works of [[Taoism|Taoist]] philosopher [[Laozi]]<ref>{{harvnb|Kropotkin|1910}}: ''" At the same time it evidently found its expression in the writings of some thinkers, since the times of Lao-tsze, although, owing to its non-scholastic and popular origin, it obviously found less sympathy among the scholars than the opposed tendency"''</ref> and in later centuries by [[Zhuang Zhou|Zhuangzi]] and Bao Jingyan.{{sfn|Graham|2005}} Zhuangzi's philosophy has been described by various sources as anarchist.<ref name="ZhuangziAnarchist"> * {{cite web | last=Hansen | first=Chad | title=Taoism | website=plato.stanford.edu | date=February 19, 2003 | url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/taoism/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130624092211/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/taoism/ | archive-date=June 24, 2013 | dead-url=yes | ref=harv | access-date=September 17, 2018|quote ="The priority of dao over tiannature:sky underwrites the themes of dependency and relativism that pervade the Zhuangzi and ultimately the skepticism, the open-minded toleration and the political anarchism (or disinterest in political activity or involvement)." [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/taoism/ "Taoism" at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]}} * {{cite web | title=Zen Anarchy | website=The Anarchist Library | date=August 14, 2009 | url=https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/max-cafard-zen-anarchy | ref={{sfnref | The Anarchist Library | 2009}} | access-date=September 17, 2018|quote = Doing nothing [wu wei] is the famous Daoist concept for natural action, action in accord with Dao, action in which we freely follow our own way and allow other beings to do likewise. Zhuangzi, the great anarchic Daoist sage, compared it to "riding on the wind."}} * {{cite web | title=Zhuangzi – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy | website=iep.utm.edu | date=March 3, 2016 | url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/zhuangzi/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303175106/http://www.iep.utm.edu/zhuangzi/ | archive-date=March 3, 2016 | dead-url=yes | ref={{sfnref | iep.utm.edu | 2016}} | access-date=September 17, 2018|quote = "The next group of interpreters have also become incorporated into the extant version of the text. They are the school of anarchistically inclined philosophers, that Graham identifies as a "Primitivist" and a school of "Yangists," chapters 8 to 11, and 28 to 31. These thinkers appear to have been profoundly influenced by the Laozi, and also by the thought of the first and last of the Inner Chapters: "Wandering Beyond," and "Responding to Emperors and Kings." There are also possible signs of influence from Yang Zhu, whose concern was to protect and cultivate one's inner life-source. These chapters combine the anarchistic ideals of a simple life close to nature that can be found in the Laozi with the practices that lead to the cultivation and nurturing of life. }}</ref> Zhuangzi wrote: "A petty thief is put in jail. A great [[wikt:brigand|brigand]] becomes a ruler of a Nation".<ref>{{cite journal |author=[[Murray Rothbard]] |date=1990 |title=Concepts of the Role of Intellectuals in Social Change Toward Laissez Faire |url=https://www.mises.org/journals/jls/9_2/9_2_3.pdf |accessdate=28 December 2008 |journal=[[Journal of Libertarian Studies]] |volume=9 |number=2 |pages=43–67 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216214953/https://www.mises.org/journals/jls/9_2/9_2_3.pdf |archivedate=16 December 2008<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> [[Diogenes of Sinope]] and the [[Cynicism (philosophy)|Cynics]] as well as their contemporary [[Zeno of Citium]], the founder of [[Stoicism]], also introduced similar topics.{{sfn|Kropotkin|1910}}<ref>{{cite IEP|c/cynics.htm|Cynics|Julie Piering}}</ref> [[Jesus]] is sometimes considered the first anarchist in the [[Christian anarchism|Christian anarchist]] tradition. Georges Lechartier wrote: "The true founder of anarchy was Jesus Christ and&nbsp;[...] the first anarchist society was that of the [[Apostle (Christian)|apostles]]".<ref>Cited in George Woodcock, ''Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements'' (Cleveland: Meridian Books, 1962), p. 38.</ref> In early [[History of Islam|Islamic history]], some manifestations of anarchic thought are found during the [[Second Fitna|Islamic civil war]] over the [[Caliphate]], where the [[Kharijites]] insisted that the [[imamate]] is a right for each individual within the Islamic society.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/mohamed-jean-veneuse-anarca-islam#fn_back31|title=Anarca-Islam|work=theanarchistlibrary.org|access-date=19 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140225023248/http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/mohamed-jean-veneuse-anarca-islam|archive-date=25 February 2014}}</ref> The French [[Renaissance humanism|Renaissance]] political philosopher [[Étienne de La Boétie]] wrote in his most famous work the ''[[Discourse on Voluntary Servitude]]'' what some historians consider an important anarchist precedent.<ref>Several historians of anarchism have gone so far as to classify La Botie's treatise itself as anarchist, which is incorrect since La Botie never extended his analysis from tyrannical government to government per se, but while La Botie cannot be considered an anarchist, his sweeping strictures on tyranny and the universality of his political philosophy lend themselves easily to such an expansion. [https://books.google.com/books?id=6o-8P3iqf7IC&pg=PA18&lpg=PA18&dq=anarchism+la+boetie&source=bl&ots=z79GU1rW1t&sig=4ini7oZUie2U8-P0BpMLogXYWPs&hl=en&sa=X&ei=eAOFUJCYJ4Le9AT_iYG4DA&ved=0CD0Q6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=anarchism%20la%20boetie&f=false ''Introduction to The Politics of Obedience: The Discourse of Voluntary Servitude''] by Murray Rothbard. Ludwig Von Mises Institute. p. 18.</ref><ref>"Quite rightly, La Boëtie recognizes the potential for domination in any democracy: the democratic leader, elected by the people, becomes intoxicated with his own power and teeters increasingly towards tyranny. Indeed, we can see modern democracy itself as an instance of voluntary servitude on a mass scale. It is not so much that we participate in an illusion whereby we are deceived by elites into thinking we have a genuine say in decision-making. It is rather that democracy itself has encouraged a mass contentment with powerlessness and a general love of submission." [http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/saul-newman-voluntary-servitude-reconsidered-radical-politics-and-the-problem-of-self-dominatio "Voluntary Servitude Reconsidered: Radical Politics and the Problem of Self-Domination"] [[Saul Newman]].</ref> The radical [[Protestant Christianity|Protestant Christian]] [[Gerrard Winstanley]] and his group the Diggers are cited by various authors as proposing anarchist social measures in the 17th century in England.<ref>"Anarchists have regarded the secular revolt of the [[Diggers]], or True Levellers, in seventeenth-century England led by Gerrard Winstanley as a source of pride. Winstanley, deeming that property is corrupting, opposed clericalism, political power and privilege. It is economic inequality, he believed, that produces crime and misery. He championed a primitive communalism based on the pure teachings of God as comprehended through reason." [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Kenneth_C._Wenzer__Godwin_s_Place_in_the_Anarchist_Tradition___a_Bicentennial_Tribute.html Kenneth C. Wenzer. "Godwin's Place in the Anarchist Tradition — a Bicentennial Tribute"]</ref><ref>"It was in these conditions of class struggle that, among a whole cluster of radical groups such as the Fifth Monarchy Men, the [[Levellers]] and the Ranters, there emerged perhaps the first real proto-anarchists, the Diggers, who like the classical 19th-century anarchists identified political and economic power and who believed that a social, rather than political revolution was necessary for the establishment of justice. Gerrard Winstanley, the Diggers' leader, made an identification with the word of God and the principle of reason, an equivalent philosophy to that found in [[Tolstoy]]'s ''[[The Kingdom of God is Within You]]''." Marlow. "Anarchism and Christianity"</ref><ref>"Although Proudhon was the first writer to call himself an anarchist, at least two predecessors outlined systems that contain all the basic elements of anarchism. The first was Gerrard Winstanley (1609 – c. 1660), a linen draper who led the small movement of the Diggers during the Commonwealth. Winstanley and his followers protested in the name of a radical Christianity against the economic distress that followed the Civil War and against the inequality that the grandees of the New Model Army seemed intent on preserving. In 1649–1650 the Diggers squatted on stretches of common land in southern England and attempted to set up communities based on work on the land and the sharing of goods." George Woodcock Anarchism The Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref> The term "anarchist" first entered the English language in 1642 during the [[English Civil War]] as a [[Pejorative|term of abuse]], used by [[Cavalier|Royalists]] against their [[Roundhead]] opponents.<ref name=bbc>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20061207.shtml "Anarchism"], [[BBC Radio 4]] program, [[In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)|In Our Time]], Thursday 7 December 2006. Hosted by [[Melvyn Bragg]] of the BBC, with John Keane, Professor of Politics at [[University of Westminster]], [[Ruth Kinna]], Senior Lecturer in Politics at [[Loughborough University]], and [[Peter Marshall (author)|Peter Marshall]], philosopher and historian.</ref> By the time of the [[French Revolution]], some such as the [[Enragés|Enraged Ones]] began to use the term positively<ref>Sheehan, Sean. ''Anarchism'', London: Reaktion Books Ltd., 2004. p. 85.</ref> in opposition to [[Jacobin (politics)|Jacobin]] centralisation of power, seeing "revolutionary government" as [[oxymoron]]ic.<ref name=bbc /> By the turn of the 19th century, the English word "anarchism" had lost its initial negative connotation.<ref name=bbc/> Modern anarchism emerged from the secular or religious thought of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], particularly [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]'s arguments for the moral centrality of freedom.<ref name=Encarta>"Anarchism", ''[[Encarta]] Online Encyclopedia'' 2006 (UK version).</ref> As part of the political turmoil of the 1790s in the wake of the French Revolution, [[William Godwin]] developed the first expression of modern anarchist thought.<ref name="Everhart, Robert B 1982. p. 115">Everhart, Robert B. The Public School Monopoly: A Critical Analysis of Education and the State in American Society. Pacific Institute for Public Policy Research, 1982. p. 115.</ref><ref name="godwinsep" /> According to [[Peter Kropotkin]], Godwin was "the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work"{{sfn|Kropotkin|1910}} while Godwin attached his anarchist ideas to an early [[Edmund Burke]].<ref>Godwin himself attributed the first anarchist writing to Edmund Burke's '' [[A Vindication of Natural Society]]''. "Most of the above arguments may be found much more at large in Burke's ''Vindication of Natural Society''; a treatise in which the evils of the existing political institutions are displayed with incomparable force of reasoning and lustre of eloquence&nbsp;..." – footnote, Ch. 2 ''[[Political Justice]]'' by William Godwin.</ref> [[File:WilliamGodwin.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[William Godwin]], was "the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work" according to Kropotkin.{{sfn|Kropotkin|1910}}]] Godwin is generally regarded as the founder of the school of thought known as [[philosophical anarchism]]. He argued in ''[[Political Justice]]'' (1793)<ref name="godwinsep" /><ref name="Adams, Ian 2001. p. 116">Adams, Ian. Political Ideology Today. Manchester University Press, 2001. p. 116.</ref> that government has an inherently malevolent influence on society and that it perpetuates dependency and ignorance. He thought that the spread of the use of reason to the masses would eventually cause government to wither away as an unnecessary force. Although he did not accord the state with moral legitimacy, he was against the use of revolutionary tactics for removing the government from power. Rather, he advocated for its replacement through a process of peaceful evolution.<ref name="godwinsep">{{cite SEP|url-id=godwin|title=William Godwin|last=Philip|first=Mark|date=20 May 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=[[Political Justice|Enquiry Concerning Political Justice and its Influence on Modern Morals and Manners]]|last=Godwin|first=William|authorlink=William Godwin|year=1796|publisher=G.G. and J. Robinson|oclc=2340417|origyear=1793}}</ref> His aversion to the imposition of a rules-based society led him to denounce as a manifestation of the people's "mental enslavement" the foundations of law, [[property rights]] and even the institution of marriage. He considered the basic foundations of society as constraining the natural development of individuals to use their powers of reasoning to arrive at a mutually beneficial method of social organisation. In each case, government and its institutions are shown to constrain the development of our capacity to live wholly in accordance with the full and free exercise of private judgement. The French [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] is regarded as the first self-proclaimed anarchist, a label he adopted in his groundbreaking work ''[[What is Property?]]'', published in 1840. It is for this reason that some claim Proudhon as the founder of modern anarchist theory.<ref>Daniel Guerin, ''Anarchism: From Theory to Practice'' (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1970).</ref> He developed the theory of [[spontaneous order]] in society, where organisation emerges without a central coordinator imposing its own idea of order against the wills of individuals acting in their own interests. His famous quote on the matter is "Liberty is the mother, not the daughter, of order". In ''What is Property?'', Proudhon answers with the famous accusation "[[Property is theft]]". In this work, he opposed the institution of decreed "property" (''propriété''), where owners have complete rights to "use and abuse" their property as they wish.<ref name="proudhon-prop">Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph. ''"[http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/economics/proudhon/property/ch03.htm Chapter 3. Labour as the efficient cause of the domain of property]"'' from ''"[[What is Property?]]"'', 1840</ref> He contrasted this with what he called "possession", or limited ownership of resources and goods only while in more or less continuous use. However, Proudhon later added that "Property is Liberty" and argued that it was a bulwark against state power.<ref>Edwards, Stewart. Introduction to ''Selected Writings of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon'', Anchor Books, Doubleday & Company, Inc. 1969, p. 33</ref> His opposition to the state, organised religion and certain [[capitalist]] practices inspired subsequent anarchists and made him one of the leading social thinkers of his time. The [[Anarcho-communism|anarcho-communist]] [[Joseph Déjacque]] was the first person to describe himself as "[[Libertarianism|libertarian]]".<ref name="Dejacque">Joseph Déjacque, [http://joseph.dejacque.free.fr/ecrits/lettreapjp.htm De l'être-humain mâle et femelle – Lettre à P.J. Proudhon par Joseph Déjacque] (in French)</ref> Unlike Proudhon, he argued that "it is not the product of his or her labour that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature".<ref>"l'Echange", article in ''Le Libertaire'' no 6, 21 September 1858, New York. [http://joseph.dejacque.free.fr/libertaire/n06/lib01.htm]</ref> In 1844, the [[post-Hegelian]] philosopher [[Max Stirner]] published in Germany the book, ''[[The Ego and Its Own]]'', which would later be considered an influential early text of [[individualist anarchism]].<ref name="SEP-Stirner">{{cite SEP|url-id=max-stirner|title=Max Stirner|last=Leopold|first=David|date=4 August 2006}}</ref> French anarchists active in the [[Revolutions of 1848|1848 Revolution]] included [[Anselme Bellegarrigue]], Ernest Coeurderoy, Joseph Déjacque<ref name="Dejacque"/> and Proudhon himself.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/pierre-joseph-proudhon-toast-to-the-revolution|title=Toast to the Revolution|work=theanarchistlibrary.org|access-date=13 November 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121003195513/http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/pierre-joseph-proudhon-toast-to-the-revolution|archivedate=3 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books/about/L_acitivit%C3%A9_d_un_socialiste_de_1848.html?id=wbrfSAAACAAJ|title=L'acitivité d'un socialiste de 1848|work=google.com.ec|accessdate=5 June 2016}}</ref> {{clear}} === First International and the Paris Commune === {{main|International Workingmen's Association|Paris Commune}} [[File:Bakunin.png|thumb|upright|Anarchist [[Mikhail Bakunin]] opposed the [[Marxism|Marxist]] aim of [[dictatorship of the proletariat]] in favour of universal rebellion and allied himself with the federalists in the [[International Workingmen's Association|First International]] before his expulsion by the Marxists<ref name=bbc/>]] In Europe, harsh reaction followed the [[revolutions of 1848]], during which ten countries had experienced brief or long-term social upheaval as groups carried out nationalist uprisings. After most of these attempts at systematic change ended in failure, [[conservative]] elements took advantage of the divided groups of [[Socialism|socialists]], [[Liberalism|liberals]] and [[Nationalism|nationalists]] along with anarchists to prevent further revolt.<ref>{{cite book |last=Breunig |first=Charles |title=The Age of Revolution and Reaction, 1789–1850 |year=1977 |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] |location=New York, N.Y |isbn=0-393-09143-0 }}</ref> In Spain, Ramón de la Sagra established the anarchist journal ''El Porvenir'' in La Coruña in 1845 which was inspired by Proudhon's ideas.<ref name="britannica.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/22753/anarchism/66525/Anarchism-in-Spain#ref539322|title=anarchism :: Anarchism in Spain|work=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=24 April 2014}}</ref> The Catalan politician [[Francesc Pi i Margall]] became the principal translator of Proudhon's works into Spanish<ref>[[George Woodcock]]. ''Anarchism: a history of libertarian movements''. Pg. 357</ref> and later briefly became President of Spain in 1873 while being the leader of the [[Federal Democratic Republican Party]]. According to George Woodcock: "These translations were to have a profound and lasting effect on the development of Spanish anarchism after 1870, but before that time Proudhonian ideas, as interpreted by Pi, already provided much of the inspiration for the federalist movement which sprang up in the early 1860's".<ref>George Woodcock. ''Anarchism: a history of libertarian movements''. Pg. 357</ref> According to the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'': "During the Spanish revolution of 1873, Pi y Margall [[Cantonal Revolution|attempted to establish a decentralised, or "cantonalist," political system]] on Proudhonian lines".<ref name="britannica.com" /> In 1864, the [[International Workingmen's Association]] (sometimes called the First International) united diverse revolutionary currents including French followers of Proudhon,<ref>{{cite book | last = Blin | first = Arnaud | title = The History of Terrorism | publisher = University of California Press | location = Berkeley | year = 2007 | isbn = 0-520-24709-4 |page=116}}</ref> [[Blanquism|Blanquists]], [[Philadelphes]], English trade unionists, socialists and [[Social democracy|social democrats]]. Due to its links to active workers' movements, the International became a significant organisation. [[Karl Marx]] became a leading figure in the International and a member of its General Council. Proudhon's followers, the [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualists]], opposed Marx's [[state socialism]], advocating political [[abstentionism]] and small property holdings.<ref>{{cite book | last = Dodson | first = Edward | title = The Discovery of First Principles: Volume 2 | publisher = Authorhouse | page=312 | year = 2002 | isbn = 0-595-24912-4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Thomas | first = Paul | title = Karl Marx and the Anarchists | publisher = Routledge & Kegan Paul |ref=harv | location = London | year = 1985 | isbn = 0-7102-0685-2 |page=187}}</ref> Woodcock also reports that the [[Individualist anarchism in the United States|American individualist anarchists]] [[Lysander Spooner]] and [[William Batchelder Greene]] had been members of the First International.<ref name="Woodcock">{{cite book|last=Woodcock|first=G.|authorlink=George Woodcock|title=Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements|year=1962|publisher=Penguin|location=Melbourne|page=460}}</ref> In 1868, following their unsuccessful participation in the [[League of Peace and Freedom]] (LPF) Russian revolutionary [[Mikhail Bakunin]] and his [[collectivist anarchist]] associates joined the First International, which had decided not to get involved with the LPF.<ref>{{cite book | last = Thomas | first = Paul | title = Karl Marx and the Anarchists | publisher = Routledge and Kegan Paul | location = London | year = 1980 | isbn = 0-7102-0685-2 |page=304}}</ref> They allied themselves with the [[federalist]] socialist sections of the International,<ref>{{cite book | last = Bak | first = Jǹos | title = Liberty and Socialism | publisher = Rowman & Littlefield Publishers | location = Lanham | year = 1991 | isbn = 0-8476-7680-3 |page=236}}</ref> who advocated the revolutionary overthrow of the state and the collectivisation of property. At first, the collectivists worked with the Marxists to push the First International in a more revolutionary socialist direction. Subsequently, the International became polarised into two camps, with Marx and Bakunin as their respective figureheads.<ref>{{cite book | last = Engel | first = Barbara | title = Mothers and Daughters | publisher = Northwestern University Press | location = Evanston | year = 2000 | isbn = 0-8101-1740-1 |page=140}}</ref> Bakunin characterised Marx's ideas as [[centralism|centralist]] and predicted that if a Marxist party came to power, its leaders would simply take the place of the [[ruling class]] they had fought against.<ref name="bakuninmarx" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Bakunin|first=Mikhail|authorlink=Mikhail Bakunin|origyear=1873|year=1991|title=Statism and Anarchy |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-36973-8}}</ref> Anarchist historian George Woodcock reports: "The annual Congress of the International had not taken place in 1870 owing to the outbreak of the Paris Commune, and in 1871 the General Council called only a special conference in London. One delegate was able to attend from Spain and none from Italy, while a technical excuse – that they had split away from the Fédération Romande – was used to avoid inviting Bakunin's Swiss supporters. Thus only a tiny minority of anarchists was present, and the General Council's resolutions passed almost unanimously. Most of them were clearly directed against Bakunin and his followers".<ref name="Anarchism 1962">[[George Woodcock]]. ''Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements'' (1962)</ref> In 1872, the conflict climaxed with a final split between the two groups at the [[Hague Congress (1872)|Hague Congress]], where Bakunin and [[James Guillaume]] were expelled from the International and its headquarters were transferred to New York. In response, the federalist sections formed their own International at the [[Anarchist St. Imier International|St. Imier Congress]], adopting a revolutionary anarchist programme.<ref name=Graham-05>Graham, Robert '[http://www.blackrosebooks.net/anarism1.htm ''Anarchism''] (Montreal: Black Rose Books 2005) {{ISBN|1-55164-251-4}}.</ref> The [[Paris Commune]] was a government that briefly ruled Paris from 18 March (more formally, from 28 March) to 28 May 1871. The Commune was the result of an uprising in Paris after France was defeated in the Franco-Prussian War. Anarchists participated actively in the establishment of the Paris Commune. They included [[Louise Michel]], the Reclus brothers ([[Élie Reclus]] and [[Élisée Reclus]]) and [[Eugene Varlin]] (the latter murdered in the repression afterwards). As for the reforms initiated by the Commune, such as the re-opening of workplaces as co-operatives, anarchists can see their ideas of associated labour beginning to be realised. Moreover, the Commune's ideas on federation obviously reflected the influence of Proudhon on French radical ideas. The Commune's vision of a communal France based on a federation of delegates bound by imperative mandates issued by their electors and subject to recall at any moment echoes Bakunin's and Proudhon's ideas (Proudhon, like Bakunin, had argued in favour of the "implementation of the binding mandate" in 1848 and for federation of communes), thus both economically and politically the Paris Commune was heavily influenced by anarchist ideas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/anarchism/writers/anarcho/commune.html|title=The Paris Commune|work=blackened.net|accessdate=30 April 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120625232340/http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/anarchism/writers/anarcho/commune.html|archivedate=25 June 2012}}</ref> George Woodcock states that "a notable contribution to the activities of the Commune and particularly to the organization of public services was made by members of various anarchist factions, including the mutualists Courbet, Longuet, and Vermorel, the libertarian collectivists Varlin, Malon, and Lefrangais, and the bakuninists Elie and Elisée Reclus and Louise Michel".<ref name="Anarchism 1962"/> === Organised labour === {{main|Anarcho-syndicalism|International Workers' Association|Anarchism in Spain|Spanish Revolution of 1936}} The [[Anti-authoritarianism|anti-authoritarian]] sections of the First International were the precursors of the [[Anarcho-syndicalism|anarcho-syndicalists]], seeking to "replace the privilege and authority of the State" with the "free and spontaneous organization of labour".<ref>Resolutions from the St. Imier Congress, in ''Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas'', Vol. 1, p. 100 [http://www.blackrosebooks.net/anarism1.htm]</ref> In 1886, the [[Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions]] of the United States and Canada unanimously set 1 May 1886 as the date by which the [[Eight-hour day|eight-hour work day]] would become standard.<ref name=foner/> [[File:ChicagoAnarchists.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A sympathetic engraving by [[Walter Crane]] of the executed anarchists of Chicago after the [[Haymarket affair]], which is generally considered the most significant event for the origin of international [[International Workers' Day|May Day]] observances]] In response, unions across the United States prepared a [[general strike]] in support of the event.<ref name=foner/> On 3 May, a fight broke out in Chicago when [[strikebreaker]]s attempted to cross the picket line and two workers died when police opened fire upon the crowd.<ref>{{cite book |last=Avrich |first=Paul |title=[[The Haymarket Tragedy]] |year=1984 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |isbn=0-691-00600-8 |page=190}}</ref> The next day on 4 May, anarchists staged a rally at Chicago's Haymarket Square.<ref>{{cite book |last=Avrich |title=[[The Haymarket Tragedy]] |page=193 |isbn=0-691-04711-1 }}</ref> A bomb was thrown by an unknown party near the conclusion of the rally, killing an officer.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.odmp.org/officer/3972-patrolman-mathias-j.-degan |title=Patrolman Mathias J. Degan |access-date=19 January 2008 |publisher=The Officer Down Memorial Page, Inc | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080118084649/http://www.odmp.org/officer/3972-patrolman-mathias-j.-degan| archivedate= 18 January 2008<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> In the ensuing panic, police opened fire on the crowd and each other.<ref>''[[Chicago Tribune]]'', 27 June 1886, quoted in {{cite book |last=Avrich |title=[[The Haymarket Tragedy]] |page=209 |isbn=0-691-04711-1 }}</ref> Seven police officers and at least four workers were killed.<ref name="the bomb">{{cite web |url=http://www.chicagohistory.org/dramas/act2/act2.htm |title=Act II: Let Your Tragedy Be Enacted Here |access-date=19 January 2008 |year=2000 |work=The Dramas of Haymarket |publisher=Chicago Historical Society | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080115030929/http://www.chicagohistory.org/dramas/act2/act2.htm| archivedate= 15 January 2008<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> Eight anarchists directly and indirectly related to the organisers of the rally were arrested and charged with the murder of the deceased officer. The men became international political celebrities among the labour movement. Four of the men were executed and a fifth committed suicide prior to his own execution. The incident became known as the [[Haymarket affair]] and was a setback for the labour movement and the struggle for the eight-hour day. In 1890, a second attempt—this time international in scope—to organise for the eight-hour day was made. The event also had the secondary purpose of memorialising workers killed as a result of the Haymarket affair.<ref>{{cite book |last=Foner |title=May Day |page=42 |isbn=0-7178-0624-3 }}</ref> Although it had initially been conceived as a once-off event, by the following year the celebration of [[International Workers' Day]] on May Day had become firmly established as an international worker's holiday.<ref name=foner>{{cite book | last = Foner | first = Philip Sheldon | title = May day: a short history of the international workers' holiday, 1886–1986 | publisher = International Publishers | location = New York | year = 1986 | isbn = 0-7178-0624-3 |page=56}}</ref> In 1907, the [[International Anarchist Congress of Amsterdam]] gathered delegates from 14 different countries, among which were important figures of the anarchist movement, including [[Errico Malatesta]], [[Pierre Monatte]], [[Luigi Fabbri]], [[Benoît Broutchoux]], [[Emma Goldman]], [[Rudolf Rocker]] and [[Christiaan Cornelissen]]. Various themes were treated during the Congress, in particular concerning the organisation of the anarchist movement, [[popular education]] issues, the general strike or [[antimilitarism]]. A central debate concerned the relation between anarchism and [[syndicalism]] (or [[trade union]]ism). Malatesta and Monatte were in particular disagreement themselves on this issue as the latter thought that syndicalism was revolutionary and would create the conditions of a [[social revolution]] while Malatesta did not consider syndicalism by itself sufficient.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fondation-besnard.org/article.php3?id_article=225 |title=Extract of Malatesta's declaration |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928002329/http://www.fondation-besnard.org/article.php3?id_article=225 |archive-date=28 September 2007 |language=fr |date=7 April 2005 |access-date=24 July 2018 |work=Fondation Besnard}}</ref> He thought that the trade union movement was [[reformism|reformist]] and even conservative, citing as essentially bourgeois and anti-worker the phenomenon of professional union officials. Malatesta warned that the syndicalists aims were in perpetuating syndicalism itself, whereas anarchists must always have anarchy as their end and consequently refrain from committing to any particular method of achieving it.<ref>{{cite book | last = Skirda | first = Alexandre | title = [[Facing the Enemy|Facing the enemy: a history of anarchist organization from Proudhon to May 1968]] | publisher = A. K. Press| year = 2002 | isbn = 1-902593-19-7 |page=89 }}</ref> In 1881, the [[Federación Anarquista Ibérica|Spanish Workers Federation]] was the first major anarcho-syndicalist movement—anarchist trade union federations were of special importance in Spain. The most successful was the [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo]] (National Confederation of Labour, CNT), founded in 1910. Before the 1940s, the CNT was the major force in Spanish working class politics, attracting 1.58&nbsp;million members at one point and playing a major role in the [[Spanish Civil War]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Beevor|first=Antony|authorlink=Antony Beevor|year=2006|title=The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War 1936–1939|publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson|location=London|isbn=978-0-297-84832-5|page=24}}</ref> The CNT was affiliated with the [[International Workers Association]], a federation of anarcho-syndicalist trade unions founded in 1922, with delegates representing two million workers from 15 countries in Europe and Latin America. In Latin America in particular, "[t]he anarchists quickly became active in organising craft and industrial workers throughout South and Central America, and until the early 1920s most of the trade unions in [[Anarchism in Mexico|Mexico]], [[Anarchism in Brazil|Brazil]], Peru, Chile, and Argentina were anarcho-syndicalist in general outlook; the prestige of the Spanish C.N.T. as a revolutionary organisation was undoubtedly to a great extent responsible for this situation. The largest and most militant of these organisations was the [[Federación Obrera Regional Argentina]]&nbsp;[...] it grew quickly to a membership of nearly a quarter of a million, which dwarfed the rival socialdemocratic unions".<ref name="Anarchism 1962"/> {{clear}} === Propaganda of the deed and illegalism === {{main|Propaganda of the deed|Illegalism|Expropriative anarchism}} [[File:Lugi Gallean2.jpg|thumb|upright|Italian American anarchist [[Luigi Galleani]] whose followers, known as Galleanists, carried out a series of bombings and assassination attempts from 1914 to 1932 in what they saw as attacks on "tyrants" and "enemies of the people"]] Some anarchists, such as [[Johann Most]], advocated publicising violent acts of retaliation against counter-revolutionaries because "we preach not only action in and for itself, but also action as propaganda".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bright/most/actionprop.html |title="Action as Propaganda" by Johann Most, 25 July 1885 |publisher=Dwardmac.pitzer.edu |date=21 April 2003 |access-date=20 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110521211430/http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bright/most/actionprop.html |archive-date=21 May 2011 }}</ref> Scholars such as Beverly Gage contend that this was not advocacy of mass murder, but [[targeted killings]] of members of the [[ruling class]] at times when such actions might garner sympathy from the population, such as during periods of heightened government repression or labor conflicts where workers were killed.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gage|first=Beverly|title=The Day Wall Street Exploded: A Story of America in its First Age of Terror|location=New York|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2009|ISBN=978-0199759286|page=48}}</ref> However, Most himself once boasted that "the existing system will be quickest and most radically overthrown by the annihilation of its exponents. Therefore, massacres of the enemies of the people must be set in motion".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/kill-the-banker-0000525-v21n12|title=When Revolution Came to America|last=Ketcham |first=Christopher |date= 16 December 2014|website=[[Vice (magazine)|Vice]] |publisher= |access-date=8 April 2017}}</ref> Most is best known for a pamphlet published in 1885, ''The Science of Revolutionary Warfare'', a how-to manual on the subject of making explosives based on knowledge he acquired while working at an explosives plant in New Jersey.<ref>{{cite book |last=Most|first=Johann|date=1978 |title=Science of Revolutionary Warfare|url= |location= |publisher=Desert Publications|page=v|isbn=0879472111|author-link=Johann Most}}</ref> By the 1880s, people inside and outside the anarchist movement began to use the slogan, "propaganda of the deed" to refer to individual bombings, [[regicide]]s and [[tyrannicide]]s. From 1905 onwards, the Russian counterparts of these anti-syndicalist anarchist-communists become partisans of economic terrorism and illegal "[[Confiscation|expropriations]]".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zabalaza.net/theory/txt_anok_comm_ap.htm |title="Anarchist-Communism" by Alain Pengam |access-date=12 March 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090312022528/http://www.zabalaza.net/theory/txt_anok_comm_ap.htm |archivedate=12 March 2009 |df= }}</ref> [[Illegalism]] as a practice emerged and within it "[t]he acts of the anarchist bombers and assassins ("[[propaganda by the deed]]") and the anarchist burglars ("[[individual reappropriation]]") expressed their desperation and their personal, violent rejection of an intolerable society. Moreover, they were clearly meant to be exemplary invitations to revolt".<ref name="Imrie">{{cite web|url=http://recollectionbooks.com/siml/library/illegalistsDougImrie.htm |title=The Illegalists |first=Doug|last= Imrie |work=recollectionbooks.com |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908072801/http://recollectionbooks.com/siml/library/illegalistsDougImrie.htm |archivedate=8 September 2015 |access-date=9 December 2010 }}</ref> France's [[Bonnot Gang]] was the most famous group to embrace illegalism. However, important figures in the anarchist movement distanced themselves from such individual acts as soon as 1887. Peter Kropotkin thus wrote that year in ''Le Révolté'' that "a structure based on centuries of history cannot be destroyed with a few kilos of dynamite".<ref>quoted in [[James H. Billington|Billington, James H.]] 1998. ''[[Fire in the minds of men: origins of the revolutionary faith]]'' New Jersey: Transaction Books, p 417.</ref> A variety of anarchists advocated the abandonment of these sorts of tactics in favour of collective revolutionary action, for example through the trade union movement. The anarcho-syndicalist [[Fernand Pelloutier]] argued in 1895 for renewed anarchist involvement in the labour movement on the basis that anarchism could do very well without "the individual dynamiter".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blackrosebooks.net/anarism1.htm |title=Table Of Contents |publisher=Blackrosebooks.net |date= |access-date=20 September 2010}}</ref> [[Political repression|State repression]] (including the infamous 1894 French ''[[lois scélérates]]'') of the anarchist and [[labour movement]]s following the few successful bombings and assassinations may have contributed in the first place to the abandonment of these kinds of tactics, although reciprocally state repression may have played a role in these isolated acts. The dismemberment of the French [[socialist movement]] into many groups and—following the suppression of the 1871—Paris Commune the execution and exile of many ''[[communards]]'' to [[penal colonies]] favoured individualist political expression and acts.<ref>Historian [[Benedict Anderson]] thus writes: <blockquote> "In March 1871 the Commune took power in the abandoned city and held it for two months. Then [[Adolphe Thiers|Versailles]] seized the moment to attack and, in one horrifying week, executed roughly 20,000 Communards or suspected sympathizers, a number higher than those killed in the recent war or during [[Robespierre]]'s '[[Reign of Terror|Terror]]' of 1793–1794. More than 7,500 were jailed or deported to places like New Caledonia. Thousands of others fled to Belgium, England, Italy, Spain and the United States. In 1872, stringent laws were passed that ruled out all possibilities of organising on the left. Not till 1880 was there a general amnesty for exiled and imprisoned Communards. Meanwhile, the Third Republic found itself strong enough to renew and reinforce [[Napoleon III of France|Louis Napoleon]]'s imperialist expansion – in Indochina, Africa, and Oceania. Many of France's leading intellectuals and artists had participated in the Commune ([[Gustave Courbet|Courbet]] was its quasi-minister of culture, [[Arthur Rimbaud|Rimbaud]] and [[Pissarro]] were active propagandists) or were sympathetic to it. The ferocious repression of 1871 and thereafter, was probably the key factor in alienating these milieux from the Third Republic and stirring their sympathy for its victims at home and abroad." {{Cite journal | last = Anderson | first = Benedict | author-link = Benedict Anderson | title = In the World-Shadow of Bismarck and Nobel | journal = [[New Left Review]] | volume = II | issue = 28 | pages = 85–129 | publisher = New Left Review | date = July–August 2004 | url = http://newleftreview.org/II/28/benedict-anderson-in-the-world-shadow-of-bismarck-and-nobel | ref = harv | postscript = .| access-date = 2016-01-07 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151219130121/http://newleftreview.org/II/28/benedict-anderson-in-the-world-shadow-of-bismarck-and-nobel | archive-date = 2015-12-19 }} </blockquote> According to some analysts, in [[History of Germany since 1945|post-war Germany]], the prohibition of the [[Communist Party of Germany|Communist Party]] (KDP) and thus of institutional far-left political organization may also, in the same manner, have played a role in the creation of the [[Red Army Faction]].</ref> Numerous heads of state were assassinated between 1881 and 1914 by members of the anarchist movement, including Tsar [[Alexander II of Russia]], President [[Marie François Sadi Carnot|Sadi Carnot]] of France, [[Empress Elisabeth of Austria]], King [[Umberto I of Italy]], President [[William McKinley]] of the United States, King [[Carlos I of Portugal]] and King [[George I of Greece]].<ref>{{cite book |last= Jun|first=Nathan|date=2011 |title=Anarchism and Political Modernity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cueoAwAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA109|location= |publisher=Continuum|page=109 |isbn=978-1441166869}}</ref> McKinley's assassin [[Leon Czolgosz]] claimed to have been influenced by anarchist and [[Feminism|feminist]] Emma Goldman.<ref>{{cite web|title = American Experience {{!}} Emma Goldman {{!}} Transcript {{!}} PBS|url = https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/goldman/filmmore/pt.html|website = www.pbs.org|access-date = 12 January 2016}}</ref> === Russian Revolution and other uprisings of the 1910s === {{main|Anarchism in Russia|Russian Revolution (1917)||Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine|Revolutions of 1917–23}} [[File:Makhno group.jpg|thumb|left|[[Nestor Makhno]] with members of the anarchist [[Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine]]]] Anarchists participated alongside the [[Bolshevik]]s in both [[February Revolution|February]] and [[October Revolution|October revolutions]] and were initially enthusiastic about the Bolshevik revolution.<ref>{{cite book | last = Dirlik | first = Arif | title = Anarchism in the Chinese Revolution | publisher = University of California Press | location = Berkeley | year = 1991 | isbn = 0-520-07297-9 }}</ref> However, following a political falling out with the Bolsheviks by the anarchists and other left-wing opposition the conflict culminated in the 1921 [[Kronstadt rebellion]], which the new government repressed. Anarchists in central Russia were either imprisoned, driven underground or joined the victorious Bolsheviks; the anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow fled to [[Ukraine]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Avrich|first=Paul|title=The Russian Anarchists|publisher=AK Press|location=Stirling|year=2006|isbn=1-904859-48-8|page=204}}</ref> In the [[Free Territory]], they fought in the [[Russian Civil War|civil war]] against the [[White movement|Whites]] (a grouping of monarchists and other opponents of the October Revolution) and then the Bolsheviks as part of the Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine led by Nestor Makhno, who established an anarchist society in the region for a number of months. Expelled American anarchists Emma Goldman and [[Alexander Berkman]] were among those agitating in response to Bolshevik policy and the suppression of the Kronstadt uprising, before they left Russia. Both wrote accounts of their experiences in Russia, criticising the amount of control the Bolsheviks exercised. For them, Bakunin's predictions about the consequences of Marxist rule that the rulers of the new "socialist" Marxist state would become a new elite had proved all too true.<ref name="bakuninmarx">"[http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/bakunin/works/1872/karl-marx.htm On the International Workingmen's Association and Karl Marx]" in ''Bakunin on Anarchy'', translated and edited by Sam Dolgoff, 1971.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Goldman|first=Emma|title=My Disillusionment in Russia|chapter=Preface|page=xx|publisher=Dover Publications|location=New York|year=2003|isbn=0-486-43270-X|quote=My critic further charged me with believing that "had the Russians made the Revolution à la Bakunin instead of à la Marx" the result would have been different and more satisfactory. I plead guilty to the charge. In truth, I not only believe so; I am certain of it.}}</ref> The victory of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War did serious damage to anarchist movements internationally. Many workers and activists saw Bolshevik success as setting an example and [[Communist party|communist parties]] grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the United States, for example, members of the major syndicalist movements of the [[General Confederation of Labour (France)|General Confederation of Labour]] and [[Industrial Workers of the World]] (IWW) left the organisations and joined the [[Comintern|Communist International]].<ref>{{cite book | editor1-last = Drachkovitch | editor1-first = Milorad M. |first=Max |last=Nomad |contribution=The Anarchist Tradition |title = Revolutionary Internationals 1864 1943 | publisher = Stanford University Press |page=88 | year = 1966 | isbn = 0-8047-0293-4 }}</ref> The [[Revolutions of 1917–1923|revolutionary wave of 1917–1923]] saw the active participation of anarchists in varying degrees of protagonism. In the German uprising known as the [[German Revolution of 1918–19]]19 which established the [[Bavarian Soviet Republic]], the anarchists [[Gustav Landauer]], [[Silvio Gesell]] and [[Erich Mühsam]] had important leadership positions within the revolutionary [[Council communism|councilist]] structures.<ref>"The Munich Soviet (or "Council Republic") of 1919 exhibited certain features of the TAZ, even though — like most revolutions — its stated goals were not exactly "temporary." Gustav Landauer's participation as Minister of Culture along with Silvio Gesell as Minister of Economics and other anti-authoritarian and extreme libertarian socialists such as the poet/playwrights Erich Mühsam and Ernst Toller, and Ret Marut (the novelist B. Traven), gave the Soviet a distinct anarchist flavor." [[Hakim Bey]]. [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Hakim_Bey__T.A.Z.__The_Temporary_Autonomous_Zone__Ontological_Anarchy__Poetic_Terrorism.html "T.A.Z.: The Temporary Autonomous Zone, Ontological Anarchy, Poetic Terrorism"]</ref><ref name="br.de">{{cite web|url=http://www.br.de/themen/bayern/inhalt/geschichte/bayern-revolution-1919-erste-raeterepublik100.html |title=Die bayerische Revolution 1918/19: Die erste Räterepublik: Literaten an der Macht |trans-title=The Bavarian Revolution 1918/19: The first Soviet Republic: Literati in Power |language=German |work=br.de |location=Munich, Bavaria, Germany |publisher=[[Bayerischer Rundfunk]] |access-date=1 September 2012 |deadurl=no |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120140503/http://www.br.de/themen/bayern/inhalt/geschichte/bayern-revolution-1919-erste-raeterepublik100.html |archive-date=20 November 2012 |df= }}</ref> In the Italian events known as the ''[[biennio rosso]]'',<ref name="Dallacasa">Brunella Dalla Casa, ''Composizione di classe, rivendicazioni e professionalità nelle lotte del "biennio rosso" a Bologna'', in: AA. VV, ''Bologna 1920; le origini del fascismo'', a cura di Luciano Casali, Cappelli, Bologna 1982, pag. 179.</ref> the anarcho-syndicalist trade union [[Unione Sindacale Italiana]] "grew to 800,000 members and the influence of the Italian Anarchist Union (20,000 members plus ''[[Umanita Nova]]'', its daily paper) grew accordingly&nbsp;[...] Anarchists were the first to suggest occupying workplaces."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://libcom.org/history/articles/italy-factory-occupations-1920|title=1918–1921: The Italian factory occupations and Biennio Rosso|work=libcom.org|access-date=31 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111105224302/http://libcom.org/history/articles/italy-factory-occupations-1920|archive-date=5 November 2011}}</ref> In the [[Mexican Revolution]], the [[Mexican Liberal Party]] was established and during the early 1910s it led a series of military offensives leading to the conquest and occupation of certain towns and districts in [[Baja California]] with the leadership of anarcho-communist [[Ricardo Flores Magón]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/1999/january/magonista/ |title=The Magonista Revolt in Baja California |first=Lawrence D. |last=Taylor|year=1999|work=Journal of San Diego History|deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629114820/http://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/1999/january/magonista/ |archivedate=29 June 2016 |access-date=31 July 2011 }}</ref> In Paris, the [[Dielo Truda]] group of Russian anarchist exiles, which included Nestor Makhno, concluded that anarchists needed to develop new forms of organisation in response to the structures of Bolshevism. Their 1926 manifesto, called the ''[[Platformism|Organisational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft)]]'',<ref name=Platformtext>{{cite book |last=Dielo Trouda |authorlink=Dielo Truda |title=Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft) |origyear=1926 |url=http://www.anarkismo.net/newswire.php?story_id=1000 |access-date=24 October 2006 |year=2006 |publisher=FdCA |location=Italy| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070311013533/http://www.anarkismo.net/newswire.php?story_id=1000| archivedate= 11 March 2007<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> was supported. [[Platformist]] groups active today include the [[Workers Solidarity Movement]] in Ireland and the [[NEFAC|North Eastern Federation of Anarchist Communists]] of North America. [[Synthesis anarchism]] emerged as an organisational alternative to platformism that tries to join anarchists of different tendencies under the principles of [[anarchism without adjectives]].<ref name="infoshop1">{{cite web |author=Starhawk |url=http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionJ3 |title="J.3.2 What are "synthesis" federations?"|work=[[An Anarchist FAQ]]|publisher=Infoshop.org |date= |access-date=20 September 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20101007160139/http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionJ3| archivedate= 7 October 2010<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> In the 1920s, this form found as its main proponents [[Volin]] and [[Sebastien Faure]].<ref name="infoshop1" /> It is the main principle behind the anarchist federations grouped around the contemporary global [[International of Anarchist Federations]].<ref name="infoshop1"/> === Conflicts with European fascist regimes === {{main|Anti-fascism}} {{see also|Anarchism in France|Anarchism in Italy|Anarchism in Spain|Anarchism in Germany}} In the 1920s and 1930s, the rise of [[fascism in Europe]] transformed anarchism's conflict with the state. Italy saw the first struggles between anarchists and [[Benito Mussolini]]'s [[Fascism|fascists]]. Italian anarchists played a key role in the [[Anti-fascism|anti-fascist]] organisation ''[[Arditi del Popolo]]'', which was strongest in areas with anarchist traditions and achieved some success in their activism, such as repelling [[Blackshirts]] in the anarchist stronghold of [[Parma]] in August 1922.<ref>Holbrow, Marnie, [http://www.socialistreview.org.uk/article.php?articlenumber=8205 "Daring but Divided"] (''Socialist Review'' November 2002).</ref> The veteran Italian anarchist Luigi Fabbri was one of the first critical theorists of fascism, describing it as "the preventive counter-revolution".{{sfn|Graham|2005}} In France, where the [[far-right leagues]] came close to insurrection in the [[6 February 1934 crisis|February 1934 riots]], anarchists divided over a [[united front]] policy.<ref>Berry, David. "Fascism or Revolution." ''Le Libertaire''. August 1936.</ref> [[Anarchism in France|Anarchists in France]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/anarchism/texts/war/anarFranceWW2.html|title=Anarchist Activity in France during World War Two|work=blackened.net|access-date=22 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306024016/http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/anarchism/texts/war/anarFranceWW2.html|archive-date=6 March 2012}}</ref> and [[Anarchism in Italy|Italy]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://libcom.org/history/articles/italian-resistance-anarchist-partisans-1943|title=1943–1945: Anarchist partisans in the Italian Resistance|work=libcom.org|access-date=22 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100720232747/http://libcom.org/history/articles/italian-resistance-anarchist-partisans-1943|archive-date=20 July 2010}}</ref> were active in the [[Resistance during World War II]]. In Germany, the anarchist [[Erich Mühsam]] was arrested on charges unknown in the early morning hours of 28 February 1933, within a few hours after the [[Reichstag fire]] in Berlin. [[Joseph Goebbels]], the [[Nazi Party|Nazi]] [[Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda|propaganda minister]], labelled him as one of "those Jewish subversives". Over the next seventeen months, he would be imprisoned in the concentration camps at [[Sonnenburg]], Brandenburg and finally, [[Oranienburg]]. On 2 February 1934, Mühsam was transferred to the [[Nazi concentration camps|concentration camp]] at [[Oranienburg concentration camp|Oranienburg]] when finally on the night of 9 July 1934, Mühsam was tortured and murdered by the guards, his battered corpse found hanging in a latrine the next morning.<ref name=" Shepherd">{{cite book |last=Mühsam|first=Erich|editor=David A. Shepherd|title=Thunderation!/Alle Wetter!: Folk Play With Song and Dance/Volksstuck Mit Gesang Und Tanz|url=https://books.google.com/?id=jspUxzlyZIQC&pg=PA18&dq=%22Erich+M%C3%BChsam%22+Oranienburg|year=2001|publisher=[[Bucknell University Press]]|isbn=978-0-8387-5416-0|page=18|access-date=29 October 2015}}</ref> === Spanish Revolution === {{main|Spanish Revolution of 1936}} In Spain, the national anarcho-syndicalist trade union CNT initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance and abstention by CNT supporters led to a right-wing election victory. In 1936, the CNT changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power. Months later, conservative members of the military, with the support of minority extreme-right parties, responded with an attempted coup, causing the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939).<ref>{{cite book|last=Beevor|first=Antony|authorlink=Antony Beevor|year=2006|page=46|title=The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War 1936–1939|publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson|location=London|isbn=978-0-297-84832-5}}</ref> In response to the army rebellion, an [[Anarchism in Spain|anarchist-inspired]] movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of [[Barcelona]] and of large areas of rural Spain where they [[Collective farming|collectivised]] the land.<ref name="Bolloten 1984, p.54">{{cite book | last = Bolloten | first = Burnett | authorlink = Burnett Bolloten | coauthors = | title = The Spanish Civil War: Revolution and Counterrevolution | publisher = University of North Carolina Press | date = 15 November 1984 | page =1107 | isbn = 978-0-8078-1906-7 }}</ref> However, the anarchists were losing ground even before the fascist victory in 1939 in a bitter struggle with the [[Stalinism|Stalinists]], who controlled much of the distribution of military aid to the [[Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)|Republicans]] cause from the [[Soviet Union]]. According to [[Noam Chomsky]], "the communists were mainly responsible for the destruction of the Spanish anarchists. Not just in Catalonia—the communist armies mainly destroyed the collectives elsewhere. The communists basically acted as the police force of the security system of the [[Second Spanish Republic|Republic]] and were very much opposed to the anarchists, partially because [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] still hoped at that time to have some kind of pact with Western countries against [[Adolf Hitler]]. That failed and Stalin withdrew the support to the Republic. They even withdrew the Spanish gold reserves".<ref>[http://thehumanist.com/magazine/july-august-2016/features/rescuing-memory "Rescuing Memory: the Humanist Interview with Noam Chomsky"] [[The Humanist]] TheHumanist.com N. p., 2016. Web. 30 June 2016.</ref> The events known as the [[Spanish Revolution of 1936|Spanish Revolution]] was a workers' social revolution that began during the outbreak of the [[Spanish Civil War]] in 1936 and resulted in the widespread implementation of anarchist and more broadly [[Libertarian socialism|libertarian socialist]] organisational principles throughout various portions of the country for two to three years, primarily [[Catalonia]], [[Anarchist Aragon|Aragon]], [[Andalusia]] and parts of [[Levante, Spain|Levante]]. Much of Spain's economy was put under worker control and in anarchist strongholds like Catalonia the figure was as high as 75%, but lower in areas with heavy [[Communist Party of Spain]] influence as the Soviet-allied party actively resisted attempts at collectivisation enactment. Factories were run through worker committees, [[Agriculture|agrarian]] areas became collectivised and run as libertarian [[commune]]s. Anarchist historian [[Sam Dolgoff]] estimated that about eight million people participated directly or at least indirectly in the Spanish Revolution,<ref name=Dolgoff1974>{{cite book|title=[[The Anarchist Collectives|The Anarchist Collectives: Workers' Self-Management in the Spanish Revolution]]|year=1974|author=Dolgoff, S.|isbn=978-0-914156-03-1|ref=harv}}</ref> which he claimed "came closer to realising the ideal of the free stateless society on a vast scale than any other revolution in history".<ref>Dolgoff (1974), p. 5</ref> Spanish Communist Party-led troops suppressed the collectives and persecuted both [[POUM|dissident Marxists]] and anarchists.<ref>{{cite book |isbn=1-57181-542-2 |page=29 |title=Sartre Against Stalinism |first=Ian |last=Birchall |year=2004 |publisher=Berghahn Books}}</ref> The prominent Italian anarchist [[Camillo Berneri]], who volunteered to fight against [[Francisco Franco]] was killed instead in Spain by gunmen associated with the Spanish Communist Party.<ref>"When clashes with the Communist Party broke out, his house, where he lived with other anarchists, was attacked on 4 May 1937. They were all labelled "counter-revolutionaries", disarmed, deprived of their papers and forbidden to go out into the street. There was still shooting in the streets when, on 5 May 1937, news arrived from Italy of Antonio Gramsci's death in a fascist prison...Leaving Radio Barcelona, Berneri set off for the Plaça de la Generalitat, where some Stalinists shouted after him. Before he could turn and look, they opened fire with machine guns, and left his dead body there on the street."[http://libcom.org/history/berneri-luigi-camillo-1897-1937 "Berneri, Luigi Camillo, 1897–1937" at libcom.com]</ref><ref>[[Paul Avrich]]. ''[[Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America]]''. AK Press. 2005. p. 516.</ref><ref>{{cite web |quote=Spain: Return to "normalization" in Barcelona. The Republican government had sent troops to take over the telephone exchange on 3 May, pitting the anarchists & Poumists on one side against the Republican government & the Stalinist Communist Party on the other, in pitched street battles, resulting in 500 anarchists killed. Squads of Communist Party members took to the streets on 6 May to assassinate leading anarchists. Today, among those found murdered, was the Italian anarchist Camillo Berneri" |url=http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/Encyclopedia/BerneriCamillo.htm |title=Camillo Berneri |work=The Anarchist Encyclopedia: A Gallery of Saints & Sinners ... |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060219235710/http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/Encyclopedia/BerneriCamillo.htm |archive-date=19 February 2006}}</ref> The city of [[Madrid]] was turned over to the Francoist forces by the last non-francoist mayor of the city, the anarchist [[Melchor Rodríguez García]].<ref>"Sí se ha aprobado por unanimidad, también a propuesta de Ciudadanos, dedicar una calle al anarquista Melchor Rodríguez García, el último alcalde de Madrid republicano, ante "el gran consenso social y político" al respecto y por "su gran relevancia para la reconciliación y la concordia tras la Guerra Civil". ''[[El País]]''. [http://ccaa.elpais.com/ccaa/2016/01/27/madrid/1453905439_934798.html?rel=cx_articulo#cxrecs_s "Madrid sustituirá las calles franquistas por víctimas del terrorismo"].</ref> === Post-war years === <!-- Commented out: [[File:Paul Goodman.jpg|thumb|[[Paul Goodman (writer)|Paul Goodman]], influential American anarchist author of ''[[Growing Up Absurd|Growing Up Absurd: Problems of Youth in the Organized Society]]'' among other works critical of contemporary societies]] --> Anarchism sought to reorganise itself after the war and in this context the organisational debate between synthesis anarchism and platformism took importance once again especially in the [[Anarchism in Italy#Postwar years and today|anarchist movements of Italy]] and [[Anarchism in France#The Fourth Republic (1945–1958)|France]]. The [[Mexican Anarchist Federation]] was established in 1945 after the Anarchist Federation of the Centre united with the Anarchist Federation of the Federal District.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.portaloaca.com/historia/historia-libertaria/1735-regeneracion-y-la-federacion-anarquista-mexicana-1952-1960-tesis.html|title=Regeneración y la Federación Anarquista Mexicana (1952–1960) [Tesis] – Portal Libertario OACA|author=Coordinación del Portal Libertario OACA|work=portaloaca.com|access-date=11 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726051942/http://www.portaloaca.com/historia/historia-libertaria/1735-regeneracion-y-la-federacion-anarquista-mexicana-1952-1960-tesis.html|archive-date=26 July 2011}}</ref> In the early 1940s, the Antifascist International Solidarity and the Federation of Anarchist Groups of Cuba merged into the large national organisation Asociación Libertaria de Cuba (Cuban Libertarian Association).<ref>"The surviving sectors of the revolutionary anarchist movement of the 1920–1940 period, now working in the SIA and the FGAC, reinforced by those Cuban militants and Spanish anarchists fleeing now-fascist Spain, agreed at the beginning of the decade to hold an assembly with the purpose of regrouping the libertarian forces inside a single organization. The guarantees of the 1940 Constitution permitted them to legally create an organization of this type, and it was thus that they agreed to dissolve the two principal Cuban anarchist organizations, the SIA and FGAC, and create a new, unified group, the Asociación Libertaria de Cuba (ALC), a sizable organization with a membership in the thousands."[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Frank_Fernandez__Cuban_Anarchism__The_History_of_A_Movement.html#toc8 ''Cuban Anarchism: The History of A Movement'' by Frank Fernandez]</ref> From 1944 to 1947, the Bulgarian Anarchist Communist Federation reemerged as part of a factory and workplace committee movement, but was repressed by the new Communist regime.<ref name="robertgraham.wordpress.com">{{cite web|url=http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/anarchism-a-documentary-history-of-libertarian-ideas-volume-two-the-emergence-of-the-new-anarchism-1939-1977/|title=Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas, Volume Two: The Emergence of the New Anarchism (1939–1977)|work=Robert Graham's Anarchism Weblog|access-date=5 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101028071133/http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/anarchism-a-documentary-history-of-libertarian-ideas-volume-two-the-emergence-of-the-new-anarchism-1939-1977/|archive-date=28 October 2010}}</ref> In 1945 in France the [[Fédération Anarchiste]] and the anarchosyndicalist trade union [[Confédération nationale du travail]] was established in the next year while the also [[Synthesist anarchism|synthesist]] [[Federazione Anarchica Italiana]] was founded in Italy. Korean anarchists formed the League of Free Social Constructors in September 1945<ref name="robertgraham.wordpress.com" /> and in 1946 the [[Japanese Anarchist Federation]] was founded.<ref>[http://flag.blackened.net/af/ace/japchap3.html THE ANARCHIST MOVEMENT IN JAPAN Anarchist Communist Editions § ACE Pamphlet No. 8] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.is/20120726135313/http://flag.blackened.net/af/ace/japchap3.html |date=26 July 2012 }}</ref> An International Anarchist Congress with delegates from across Europe was held in Paris in May 1948.<ref name="robertgraham.wordpress.com" /> After World War II, an appeal in the ''[[Fraye Arbeter Shtime]]'' detailing the plight of [[Anarchism in Germany|German anarchists]] and called for Americans to support them. By February 1946, the sending of aid parcels to anarchists in Germany was a large-scale operation. The Federation of Libertarian Socialists was founded in Germany in 1947 and Rudolf Rocker wrote for its organ, ''Die Freie Gesellschaft'', which survived until 1953.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Vallance |date=1 July 1973 |first=Margaret |title=Rudolf Rocker—a biographical sketch |journal=[[Journal of Contemporary History]] |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=75–95 |publisher=Sage Publications |place=London/Beverly Hills |doi=10.1177/002200947300800304 |issn=0022-0094 |oclc=49976309 |ref=harv }} p. 94–95</ref> In 1956, the [[Uruguayan Anarchist Federation]] was founded.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.anarkismo.net/newswire.php?story_id=3701|title=50 años de la Federación Anarquista Uruguaya|work=anarkismo.net|access-date=22 December 2010}}</ref> In 1955, the Anarcho-Communist Federation of Argentina renamed itself as the [[Argentine Libertarian Federation]]. The [[Syndicalist Workers' Federation]] (SWF) was a syndicalist group in active in post-war Britain,<ref name="Political Encyclopedia">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of British and Irish Political Organizations'|year=2000|publisher=Pinter Publishers|location=United Kingdom|isbn=978-1855672642|url=https://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-British-Irish-Political-Organizations/dp/1855672642|access-date=22 April 2013}}</ref> and one of [[Solidarity Federation]]'s earliest predecessors. It was formed in 1950 by members of the dissolved Anarchist Federation of Britain (AFB).<ref name="Political Encyclopedia" /> Unlike the AFB, which was influenced by anarcho-syndicalist ideas but ultimately not syndicalist itself, the SWF decided to pursue a more definitely syndicalist, worker-centred strategy from the outset.<ref name="Political Encyclopedia" /> Anarchism continued to influence important literary and intellectual personalities of the time, such as [[Albert Camus]], [[Herbert Read]], Paul Goodman, Dwight Macdonald, [[Allen Ginsberg]], George Woodcock, [[Leopold Kohr]],<ref name="NYT-Obit">[https://www.nytimes.com/1994/02/28/obituaries/dr-leopold-kohr-84-backed-smaller-states.html Dr. Leopold Kohr, 84; Backed Smaller States], ''[[The New York Times]]'' obituary, 28 February 1994.</ref><ref name="Sale-foreword">{{cite web|url=http://www.ditext.com/kohr/foreword.html|title=The Breakdown of Nations|work=ditext.com|access-date=12 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121028023032/http://www.ditext.com/kohr/foreword.html|archive-date=28 October 2012}}</ref> [[Julian Beck]], [[John Cage]]<ref name="cage">Cage self-identified as an anarchist in a 1985 interview: "I'm an anarchist. I don't know whether the adjective is pure and simple, or philosophical, or what, but I don't like government! And I don't like institutions! And I don't have any confidence in even good institutions." [http://www.ubu.com/papers/cage_montague_interview.html John Cage at Seventy: An Interview] by Stephen Montague. ''American Music'', Summer 1985. Ubu.com. Accessed 24 May 2007.</ref> and the French [[Surrealism|Surrealist]] group led by [[André Breton]], which now openly embraced anarchism and collaborated in the Fédération Anarchiste.<ref>"It was in the black mirror of anarchism that surrealism first recognised itself," wrote André Breton in "The Black Mirror of Anarchism," Selection 23 in Robert Graham, ed., ''Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas, Volume Two: The Emergence of the New Anarchism (1939–1977)''{{cite web|url=http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/anarchism-a-documentary-history-of-libertarian-ideas-volume-two-the-emergence-of-the-new-anarchism-1939-1977/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=5 March 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101028071133/http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/anarchism-a-documentary-history-of-libertarian-ideas-volume-two-the-emergence-of-the-new-anarchism-1939-1977/ |archivedate=28 October 2010 }}. Breton had returned to France in 1947 and in April of that year Andre Julien welcomed his return in the pages of Le Libertaire the weekly paper of the Federation Anarchiste "[http://libcom.org/history/1919-1950-the-politics-of-surrealism "1919–1950: The politics of Surrealism" by Nick Heath] on libcom.org</ref> [[Anarcho-pacifism]] became influential in the [[Anti-nuclear movement]] and [[anti war movement]]s of the time<ref>"In the forties and fifties, anarchism, in fact if not in name, began to reappear, often in alliance with pacifism, as the basis for a critique of militarism on both sides of the Cold War.{{cite web|url=http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/anarchism-a-documentary-history-of-libertarian-ideas-volume-two-the-emergence-of-the-new-anarchism-1939-1977/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=2011-03-05 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101028071133/http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/anarchism-a-documentary-history-of-libertarian-ideas-volume-two-the-emergence-of-the-new-anarchism-1939-1977/ |archivedate=2010-10-28 }} The anarchist/pacifist wing of the peace movement was small in comparison with the wing of the movement that emphasized electoral work, but made an important contribution to the movement as a whole. Where the more conventional wing of the peace movement rejected militarism and war under all but the most dire circumstances, the anarchist/pacifist wing rejected these on principle."[http://www.monthlyreview.org/0901epstein.htm "Anarchism and the Anti-Globalization Movement" by Barbara Epstein]</ref><ref>"In the 1950s and 1960s anarcho-pacifism began to gel, tough-minded anarchists adding to the mixture their critique of the state, and tender-minded pacifists their critique of violence. Its first practical manifestation was at the level of method: nonviolent direct action, principled and pragmatic, was used widely in both the Civil Rights movement in the US and the campaign against nuclear weapons in Britain and elsewhere."[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Geoffrey_Ostergaard__Resisting_the_Nation_State._The_pacifist_and_anarchist_tradition.html#toc13 Geoffrey Ostergaard. ''Resisting the Nation State. The pacifist and anarchist tradition'']</ref> as can be seen in the activism and writings of the English anarchist member of [[Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament]] [[Alex Comfort]] or the similar activism of the American catholic anarcho-pacifists [[Ammon Hennacy]] and [[Dorothy Day]]. Anarcho-pacifism became a "basis for a critique of militarism on both sides of the [[Cold War]]".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.monthlyreview.org/0901epstein.htm|title=Anarchism and the Anti-Globalization Movement|work=Monthly Review|access-date=22 June 2006}}</ref> The resurgence of anarchist ideas during this period is well documented in Robert Graham's [[Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas]], ''Volume Two: The Emergence of the New Anarchism (1939–1977)''.<ref name="robertgraham.wordpress.com"/> === Contemporary anarchism === {{main|Contemporary anarchism}} [[File:ParcGuellOkupas.jpg|thumb|left|The famous ''okupas'' [[Squatting|squat]] near [[Park Güell|Parc Güell]], overlooking Barcelona (on the roof: "Occupy and Resist"), since squatting was a prominent part of the emergence of renewed anarchist movement from the [[counterculture]] of the 1960s and 1970s]] A surge of popular interest in anarchism occurred in western nations during the 1960s and 1970s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Thomas|1985|page=4}}</ref> Anarchism was influential in the [[Counterculture of the 1960s]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.katesharpleylibrary.net/dnckhs|title=Islands of Anarchy: Simian, Cienfuegos, Refract and their support network|work=katesharpleylibrary.net|access-date=22 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604120204/http://www.katesharpleylibrary.net/dnckhs|archive-date=4 June 2011}}</ref><ref>Farrell provides a detailed history of the Catholic Workers and their founders Dorothy Day and Peter Maurin. He explains that their pacifism, anarchism, and commitment to the downtrodden were one of the important models and inspirations for the 1960s. As Farrell puts it, "Catholic Workers identified the issues of the sixties before the Sixties began, and they offered models of protest long before the protest decade."[http://library.nothingness.org/articles/SA/en/display/268 "The Spirit of the Sixties: The Making of Postwar Radicalism" by James J. Farrell]</ref><ref>"While not always formally recognized, much of the protest of the sixties was anarchist. Within the nascent women's movement, anarchist principles became so widespread that a political science professor denounced what she saw as "[[The Tyranny of Structurelessness]]." Several groups have called themselves "Amazon Anarchists." After the [[Stonewall Rebellion]], the New York [[Gay Liberation Front]] based their organization in part on a reading of Murray Bookchin's anarchist writings." [http://www.williamapercy.com/wiki/images/Anarchism.pdf "Anarchism" by Charley Shively in ''Encyclopedia of Homosexuality'']. p. 52</ref> and anarchists actively participated in the [[Protests of 1968|late sixties students and workers revolts]].<ref>"Within the movements of the sixties there was much more receptivity to anarchism-in-fact than had existed in the movements of the thirties&nbsp;... But the movements of the sixties were driven by concerns that were more compatible with an expressive style of politics, with hostility to authority in general and state power in particular&nbsp;... By the late sixties, political protest was intertwined with cultural radicalism based on a critique of all authority and all hierarchies of power. Anarchism circulated within the movement along with other radical ideologies. The influence of anarchism was strongest among radical feminists, in the commune movement, and probably in the Weather Underground and elsewhere in the violent fringe of the anti-war movement." [http://www.monthlyreview.org/0901epstein.htm "Anarchism and the Anti-Globalization Movement" by Barbara Epstein]</ref> In 1968, in [[Carrara]], Italy the [[International of Anarchist Federations]] was founded during an international anarchist conference held there in 1968 by the three existing European federations of France (the [[Fédération anarchiste|Fédération Anarchiste]]), the Federazione Anarchica Italiana of Italy and the [[Iberian Anarchist Federation]] as well as the [[Bulgaria]]n federation in French exile.<ref>[http://www.iisg.nl/archives/en/files/l/10760196.php London Federation of Anarchists involvement in Carrara conference, 1968] International Institute of Social History. Retrieved 19 January 2010</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20010420050237/http://flag.blackened.net/liberty/ifa-hist-short.html Short history of the IAF-IFA] A-infos news project. Retrieved 19 January 2010</ref> In the United Kingdom in the 1970s, this was associated with the [[punk rock]] movement as exemplified by bands such as [[Crass]] and the [[Sex Pistols]].<ref>{{cite book | last = McLaughlin | first = Paul | title = Anarchism and Authority | publisher = Ashgate | location = Aldershot | year = 2007 | isbn = 0-7546-6196-2 | page = 10}}</ref> The housing and employment crisis in most of Western Europe led to the formation of communes and squatter movements like that of Barcelona, Spain. In Denmark, [[squatter]]s occupied a disused military base and declared the [[Freetown Christiania]], an autonomous haven in central Copenhagen. Since the revival of anarchism in the mid-20th century,<ref name="revival">{{cite journal |last=Williams |first=Leonard |date=22 August 2007 |title=Anarchism Revived |journal=New Political Science |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=297–312 |doi=10.1080/07393140701510160 |ref=harv }}</ref> a number of new movements and schools of thought emerged. Although feminist tendencies have always been a part of the anarchist movement in the form of [[anarcha-feminism]], they returned with vigour during the second wave of feminism in the 1960s. Anarchist anthropologist [[David Graeber]] and anarchist historian [[Andrej Grubacic]] have posited a rupture between generations of anarchism, with those "who often still have not shaken the sectarian habits" of the 19th century contrasted with the younger activists who are "much more informed, among other elements, by [[Traditional knowledge|indigenous]], [[Feminism|feminist]], ecological and cultural-critical ideas" and who by the turn of the 21st century formed "by far the majority" of anarchists.<ref name="graeber">{{cite web |first=David |last=Graeber |first2=Andrej |last2=Grubacic |url=http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=41&ItemID=4796 |title=Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary Movement Of The Twenty-first Century |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080317082822/http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=41&ItemID=4796 |archive-date=17 March 2008 |work=[[ZNet]] |access-date=13 December 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.punksinscience.org/kleanthes/courses/UK04S/WV/Graeber-Grubacic.pdf |last=Graeber |first=David |last2=Grubacic |first2=Andrej |date=6 January 2004 |title=Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary Movement Of The Twenty-first Century |accessdate=26 July 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723130708/http://www.punksinscience.org/kleanthes/courses/UK04S/WV/Graeber-Grubacic.pdf|archivedate=23 July 2011}}</ref> Since the 1980s, anarchism has grown into a strong political force in [[Latin America]], with the development of [[Fejuve]] (1979),<ref>{{cite book|title=Dispersing Power: Social Movements as Anti-State Forces|last=Zibechi|first=Raul|publisher=AK Press|year=2010|isbn=9781849350112|location=|pages=}}</ref> [[CIPO-RFM]] (1980s),<ref name="Gelderloos 2010">{{cite book|title=Anarchy Works|last=Gelderloos|first=Peter|publisher=|year=2010|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref> [[Rebel Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities|Zapatistas]] (1994),<ref>{{cite book|title=Territories in Resistance: A Cartography of Latin American Social Movements|last=Zibechi|first=Raul|publisher=AK Press|year=2012|isbn=9781849351072|location=|pages=}}</ref> [[December 2001 riots in Argentina|Horizontilidad]] (2001)<ref>{{cite book|title=Taking Back Control: A Journey Through Argentina's Popular Uprising|last=Gordon|first=Natasha|publisher=University of Leeds Press|year=2004|isbn=|location=Leeds (UK)|pages=}}</ref> and the [[2006 Oaxaca protests|Oaxaca Uprising]] (2006).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Teaching Rebellion: Stories from the Grassroots Mobilisation in Oaxaca|last=Denham|first=Diana|publisher=|year=2008|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref> Around the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and influence as part of the anti-war, anti-capitalist, and [[anti-globalisation movement]]s.<ref name=rupert>{{cite book | page=66 |last = Rupert | first = Mark | title = Globalization and International Political Economy | publisher = Rowman & Littlefield Publishers | location = Lanham | year = 2006 | isbn = 0-7425-2943-6 }}</ref> Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the meetings of the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), [[Group of Eight]] (G8) and the [[World Economic Forum]] (WEF). Some anarchist factions at these protests engaged in rioting, property destruction, and violent confrontations with police. These actions were precipitated by ad hoc, leaderless, anonymous cadres known as [[black bloc]]s—other organisational tactics pioneered in this time include [[security culture]], [[affinity group]]s and the use of decentralised technologies such as the internet.<ref name=rupert/> A significant event of this period was the confrontations at [[World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference of 1999 protest activity|WTO conference in Seattle in 1999]].<ref name=rupert/> According to anarchist scholar [[Simon Critchley]], "contemporary anarchism can be seen as a powerful critique of the pseudo-libertarianism of contemporary [[neo-liberalism]] [...] One might say that contemporary anarchism is about responsibility, whether sexual, ecological or socio-economic; it flows from an experience of conscience about the manifold ways in which the West ravages the rest; it is an ethical outrage at the yawning inequality, impoverishment and disenfranchisment that is so palpable locally and globally".<ref>''[[Simon Critchley#Infinitely Demanding|Infinitely Demanding]]'' by [[Simon Critchley]]. [[Verso Books|Verso]]. 2007. p. 125.</ref> [[File:Rojava Sewing Cooperative.jpg|thumb|[[Rojava]] is supporting efforts for workers to form cooperatives, such as this sewing cooperative]] International anarchist federations in existence include the [[International of Anarchist Federations]], the [[International Workers' Association]] and [[International Libertarian Solidarity]]. The largest organised anarchist movement today is in Spain in the form of the [[Confederacion General del Trabajo de España|Confederación General del Trabajo]] (CGT) and the CNT. CGT membership was estimated at around 100,000 for 2003.<ref>Carley, Mark "Trade union membership 1993–2003" (International:SPIRE Associates 2004).</ref> Anarchist ideas have been influential in the development of the [[Democratic Federation of Northern Syria]] (DFNS), more commonly known as [[Rojava]], a ''de facto'' [[Permanent autonomous zone|autonomous region]] in northern [[Syria]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=McHenry|first1=Keith|last2=Bufe|first2=Chaz|last3=Hedges|first3=Chris|authorlink1=Keith McHenry|authorlink2=Chaz Bufe|authorlink3=Chris Hedges|date=29 September 2015|title=Anarchist Cookbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qmquCgAAQBAJ|publisher=See Sharp Press|page=85|isbn=9781937276782}}</ref> [[Abdullah Öcalan]]—a founding member of the [[Kurdistan Workers' Party]] (PKK) who is currently imprisoned in [[Turkey]]—is an iconic and popular figure in the DFNS whose ideas shaped the region's society and politics.<ref name=utopia>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/29/magazine/a-dream-of-utopia-in-hell.html|title=A Dream of Secular Utopia in ISIS' Backyard|last=Enzinna|first=Wes|date=24 November 2015|website=[[The New York Times]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180228061325/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/29/magazine/a-dream-of-utopia-in-hell.html|archive-date=28 February 2018|dead-url=no|access-date=28 February 2018}}</ref> While in prison, Öcalan corresponded with (and was influenced by) [[Murray Bookchin]], an [[anarcho-communist]] theorist and philosopher who developed [[Communalism]] and [[libertarian municipalism]].<ref name=utopia/> Modelled after Bookchin's ideas, Öcalan developed the theory of [[democratic confederalism]]. In March 2005, he issued his "Declaration of Democratic Confederalism in Kurdistan", calling upon citizens "to stop attacking the government and instead create municipal assemblies, which he called '[[Social anarchism|democracy without the state]]'".<ref name=utopia/> == Anarchist schools of thought == {{main|Anarchist schools of thought}} [[File:Portrait of Pierre Joseph Proudhon 1865.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] was the primary proponent of [[Mutualism (economic theory)|anarcho-mutualism]] and influenced many future [[Individualist anarchism|individualist anarchist]] and [[Social anarchism|social anarchist]] thinkers]] [[Anarchist schools of thought]] had been generally grouped in two main historical traditions, [[individualist anarchism]] and [[social anarchism]], which have some different origins, values and evolution.{{sfn|McLean|McMillan|2003|loc= Anarchism}}{{sfn|Ostergaard|p=14|loc= Anarchism}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://libertarian-labyrinth.org/archive/Anarchism |title=Anarchism|website=libertarian-labyrinth.org|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090405223616/https://libertarian-labyrinth.org/archive/Anarchism|archivedate=5 April 2009|deadurl=yes}}</ref><ref>[https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/1855069954 The New Encyclopedia of Social Reform] (1908).</ref> The individualist wing of anarchism emphasises [[negative liberty]], i.e. opposition to state or [[social control]] over the individual, while those in the social wing emphasise [[positive liberty]] to achieve one's potential and argue that humans have needs that society ought to fulfil, "recognising equality of entitlement".<ref>Harrison, Kevin and Boyd, Tony. ''Understanding Political Ideas and Movements''. Manchester University Press 2003, p. 251.</ref> In a chronological and theoretical sense, there are classical—those created throughout the 19th century—and post-classical anarchist schools—those created since the mid-20th century and after. Beyond the specific factions of anarchist thought is [[philosophical anarchism]], which embodies the theoretical stance that the state lacks moral legitimacy without accepting the imperative of revolution to eliminate it. A component especially of individualist anarchism<ref>Outhwaite, William & Tourain, Alain (Eds.). (2 January 2003). Anarchism. The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought (2nd Edition, p. 12). Blackwell Publishing.</ref><ref>Wayne Gabardi, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1957102 review] of ''Anarchism'' by David Miller, published in ''American Political Science Review'' Vol. 80, No. 1. (March 1986), pp. 300–02.</ref> philosophical anarchism may accept the existence of a [[Minarchism|minimal state]] as unfortunate, and usually temporary, "necessary evil" but argue that citizens do not have a [[moral obligation]] to obey the state when its laws conflict with individual autonomy.<ref>Klosko, George. ''Political Obligations''. Oxford University Press 2005. p. 4.</ref> One reaction against sectarianism within the anarchist milieu was "anarchism without adjectives", a call for [[toleration]] first adopted by [[Fernando Tarrida del Mármol]] in 1889 in response to the "bitter debates" of anarchist theory at the time.<ref>Avrich, Paul. ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America''. Princeton University Press, 1996, p. 6.</ref> In abandoning the hyphenated anarchisms (i.e. collectivist-, communist-, mutualist– and individualist-anarchism), it sought to emphasise the [[anti-authoritarian]] beliefs common to all anarchist schools of thought.<ref>Esenwein, George Richard "Anarchist Ideology and the Working Class Movement in Spain, 1868–1898" [p. 135].</ref> === Mutualism === {{main|Mutualism (economic theory)}} [[Mutualism (economic theory)|Mutualism]] began in 18th-century English and French labour movements before taking an anarchist form associated with Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in France and others in the United States.<ref>"A member of a community," ''The Mutualist''; this 1826 series criticised [[Robert Owen]]'s proposals, and has been attributed to a dissident Owenite, possibly from the Friendly Association for Mutual Interests of Valley Forge; Shawn Wilburn, 2006, "More from the 1826 "Mutualist"?".</ref> Proudhon proposed spontaneous order, whereby organisation emerges without central authority, a "positive anarchy" where order arises when everybody does "what he wishes and only what he wishes"<ref>Proudhon, ''Solution to the Social Problem'', ed. H. Cohen (New York: Vanguard Press, 1927), p. 45.</ref> and where "business transactions alone produce the social order."<ref>{{cite book |last=Proudhon |first=Pierre-Joseph |authorlink=Pierre-Joseph Proudhon |title=The Principle of Federation |publisher=University of Toronto Press |location=Toronto |year=1979 |isbn=0-8020-5458-7 |quote=The notion of ''anarchy'' in politics is just as rational and positive as any other. It means that once industrial functions have taken over from political functions, then business transactions alone produce the social order.}}</ref> Proudhon distinguished between ideal political possibilities and practical governance. For this reason, much in contrast to some of his theoretical statements concerning ultimate spontaneous self-governance, Proudhon was heavily involved in French parliamentary politics and allied himself not with anarchist but socialist factions of workers' movements and, in addition to advocating state-protected charters for worker-owned [[cooperative]]s, promoted certain nationalisation schemes during his life of public service. Mutualist anarchism is concerned with [[Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)|reciprocity]], free association, voluntary contract, federation, and credit and currency reform. According to the American mutualist [[William Batchelder Greene]], each worker in the mutualist system would receive "just and exact pay for his work; services equivalent in cost being exchangeable for services equivalent in cost, without profit or discount".<ref>"Communism versus Mutualism", ''Socialistic, Communistic, Mutualistic and Financial Fragments''. (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1875) William Batchelder Greene: "Under the mutual system, each individual will receive the just and exact pay for his work; services equivalent in cost being exchangeable for services equivalent in cost, without profit or discount; and so much as the individual laborer will then get over and above what he has earned will come to him as his share in the general prosperity of the community of which he is an individual member."</ref> Mutualism has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism.<ref>Avrich, Paul. ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America'', Princeton University Press 1996 {{ISBN|0-691-04494-5}}, p. 6<br />''Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought'', Blackwell Publishing 1991 {{ISBN|0-631-17944-5}}, p. 11.</ref> Proudhon first characterised his goal as a "third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property".<ref>Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. ''What Is Property?'' Princeton, MA: Benjamin R. Tucker, 1876. p. 281.</ref> === Social anarchism === {{main|Social anarchism}} [[Social anarchism]] calls for a system with common ownership of means of production and democratic control of all organisations, without any government authority or [[coercion]]. It is the largest school of thought in anarchism.<ref>"This does not mean that the majority thread within the anarchist movement is uncritical of individualist anarchism. Far from it! Social anarchists have argued that this influence of non-anarchist ideas means that while its "criticism of the State is very searching, and [its] defence of the rights of the individual very powerful," like Spencer it "opens&nbsp;... the way for reconstituting under the heading of 'defence' all the functions of the State." [http://anarchism.pageabode.com/afaq/secGint.html Section G – Is individualist anarchism capitalistic?] ''[[An Anarchist FAQ]]''</ref> Social anarchism rejects private property, seeing it as a source of social inequality (while retaining respect for [[personal property]])<ref name="theanarchistlibrary.org">"The revolution abolishes private ownership of the means of production and distribution, and with it goes capitalistic business. Personal possession remains only in the things you use. Thus, your watch is your own, but the watch factory belongs to the people."[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Alexander_Berkman__What_Is_Communist_Anarchism_.html Alexander Berkman. "[[Now and After|What Is Communist Anarchism?]"]</ref> and emphasises cooperation and [[mutual aid (organization)|mutual aid]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Ostergaard |date=1991 |first=G. |section=Anarchism |editor=Thomas Bottomore |title=A Dictionary of Marxist Thought |edition=revised |url=https://gruppegrundrisse.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/bottomore-a-dictionary-of-marxist-thought.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804012806/https://gruppegrundrisse.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/bottomore-a-dictionary-of-marxist-thought.pdf |archivedate=8 August 2018 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |p=21 |isbn=978-0-631-18082-1 |authorlink=Geoffrey Ostergaard |editorlink=Thomas Bottomore }}</ref> ==== Collectivist anarchism ==== {{main|Collectivist anarchism}} [[Collectivist anarchism]], also referred to as revolutionary socialism or a form of such,<ref>Morris, Brian. Bakunin: The Philosophy of Freedom. Black Rose Books Ltd., 1993. p. 76.</ref><ref>Rae, John. Contemporary Socialism. C. Scribner's sons, 1901, Original from Harvard University. p. 261.</ref> is a revolutionary form of anarchism, commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin and Johann Most.<ref name = "Patsouras-p54">Patsouras, Louis. 2005. Marx in Context. iUniverse. p. 54.</ref><ref>Avrich, Paul. 2006. ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America''. [[AK Press]]. p. 5.</ref> Collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of production, instead advocating that ownership be collectivised. This was to be achieved through violent revolution, first starting with a small cohesive group through acts of violence, or propaganda by the deed, which would inspire the workers as a whole to revolt and forcibly collectivise the means of production.<ref name = "Patsouras-p54" /> However, collectivisation was not to be extended to the distribution of income as workers would be paid according to time worked, rather than receiving goods being distributed "according to need" as in anarcho-communism. This position was criticised by anarchist communists as effectively "uphold[ing] the wages system".<ref>{{cite book |last=Kropotkin |first=Peter |title=The Conquest of Bread |publisher=AK Press |location=Edinburgh |year=2007 |chapter=13 |isbn=978-1-904859-10-9}}</ref> Collectivist anarchism arose contemporaneously with [[Marxism]], but opposed the Marxist dictatorship of the proletariat despite the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist stateless society.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bakunin |first=Mikhail |title=Statism and Anarchy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |year=1990 |isbn=0-521-36182-6 |quote=They [the Marxists] maintain that only a dictatorship&nbsp;– their dictatorship, of course&nbsp;– can create the will of the people, while our answer to this is: No dictatorship can have any other aim but that of self-perpetuation, and it can beget only slavery in the people tolerating it; freedom can be created only by freedom, that is, by a universal rebellion on the part of the people and free organization of the toiling masses from the bottom up.}}</ref> Anarchist, communist and collectivist ideas are not [[mutually exclusive]]—although the collectivist anarchists advocated compensation for labour, some held out the possibility of a post-revolutionary transition to a communist system of distribution according to need.<ref>{{cite web|authorlink=James Guillaume|last=Guillaume|first=James|url=http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/guillaume/works/ideas.htm|title=Ideas on Social Organization|year=1876|accessdate=3 April 2006}}</ref> ==== Anarcho-communism ==== {{main|Anarcho-communism}} [[File:Kropotkin2.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Peter Kropotkin]] was influential in the development of [[anarcho-communism]]]] [[Anarcho-communism]] (also known as anarchist-communism, libertarian communism<ref>"Anarchist communism is also known as anarcho-communism, communist anarchism, or, sometimes, libertarian communism."[http://libcom.org/thought/anarchist-communism-an-introduction "Anarchist communism – an introduction"] by libcom.org</ref><ref>"The terms libertarian communism and anarchist communism thus became synonymous within the international anarchist movement as a result of the close connection they had in Spain (with libertarian communism becoming the prevalent term)."[http://www.fdca.it/fdcaen/historical/vault/ancom-libcom.htm "Anarchist Communism & Libertarian Communism" by Gruppo Comunista Anarchico di Firenze. from "L'informatore di parte", No. 4, October 1979, quarterly journal of the Gruppo Comunista Anarchico di Firenze], on libcom.org</ref><ref>"The 'Manifesto of Libertarian Communism' was written in 1953 by Georges Fontenis for the Federation Communiste Libertaire of France. It is one of the key texts of the anarchist-communist current." [http://libcom.org/library/manifesto-of-libertarian-communism-georges-fontenis "Manifesto of Libertarian Communism" by Georges Fontenis] on libcom.org</ref><ref>"In 1926 a group of exiled Russian anarchists in France, the Delo Truda (Workers' Cause) group, published this pamphlet. It arose not from some academic study but from their experiences in the 1917 Russian revolution." [http://www.nestormakhno.info/english/platform/org_plat.htm "The Organizational Platform of the Libertarian Communists" by Delo Truda]</ref> and occasionally as free communism) is a theory of anarchism that advocates abolition of the state, [[market (economics)|markets]], money, [[private property]] (while retaining respect for personal property)<ref name="theanarchistlibrary.org"/> and capitalism in favour of [[common ownership]] of the [[means of production]],<ref name=Mayne>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=6MkTz6Rq7wUC&pg=PA131&dq=Communist+anarchism+believes+in+collective+ownership |title=From Politics Past to Politics Future: An Integrated Analysis of Current and Emergent Paradigms |first=Alan James |last=Mayne |date=1999 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |access-date=20 September 2010|isbn=978-0-275-96151-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=jeiudz5sBV4C&pg=PA14&dq=Communist+anarchism+believes+in+common+ownership#PPA13,M1 |title=Anarchism for Know-It-Alls By Know-It-Alls For Know-It-Alls, For Know-It-Alls |publisher= Filiquarian Publishing, LLC |date= January 2008|access-date=20 September 2010|isbn=978-1-59986-218-7}}</ref> [[direct democracy]] and a horizontal network of [[voluntary association]]s and [[workers' council]]s with production and consumption based on the guiding principle: "[[From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs|From each according to his ability, to each according to his need]]".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/worldwidemovements/fabbrianarandcom.html |title=Luggi Fabbri |publisher=Dwardmac.pitzer.edu |date=13 October 2002 |accessdate=16 March 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302000628/http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/worldwidemovements/fabbrianarandcom.html |archivedate=2 March 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nestormakhno.info/english/platform/constructive.htm |title=Platform: Constructive Section |publisher=Nestormakhno.info |date= |accessdate=16 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206004540/http://www.nestormakhno.info/english/platform/constructive.htm|archivedate=6 February 2012}}</ref> Some forms of anarchist communism such as [[insurrectionary anarchism]] are strongly influenced by egoism and radical individualism, believing anarcho-communism is the best social system for the realisation of individual freedom.<ref name="bobblack">[[Post-left anarchy|Post-left]] anarcho-communist [[Bob Black]] after analysing insurrectionary anarcho-communist Luigi Galleani's view on anarcho-communism went as far as saying that "communism is the final fulfillment of individualism&nbsp;... The apparent contradiction between individualism and communism rests on a misunderstanding of both&nbsp;... Subjectivity is also objective: the individual really is subjective. It is nonsense to speak of "emphatically prioritizing the social over the individual,"...&nbsp;You may as well speak of prioritizing the chicken over the egg. Anarchy is a "method of individualization." It aims to combine the greatest individual development with the greatest communal unity."[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Bob_Black__Nightmares_of_Reason.html#toc22 Bob Black. ''Nightmares of Reason''.]</ref><ref name="dwardmac.pitzer.edu">"Modern Communists are more individualistic than Stirner. To them, not merely religion, morality, family and State are spooks, but property also is no more than a spook, in whose name the individual is enslaved – and how enslaved!&nbsp;... Communism thus creates a basis for the liberty and Eigenheit of the individual. I am a Communist because I am an Individualist. Fully as heartily the Communists concur with Stirner when he puts the word take in place of demand – that leads to the dissolution of property, to expropriation. Individualism and Communism go hand in hand."[http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/goldman/ME/mev2n3.html#142] [[Max Baginski]]. "Stirner: The Ego and His Own" on ''[[Mother Earth (magazine)|Mother Earth]]''<span>. Vol. 2. No. 3 May 1907</span></ref><ref>Christopher Gray, ''Leaving the Twentieth Century'', p. 88.</ref><ref name="creativenothing">{{cite web|url=http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Renzo_Novatore__Toward_the_Creative_Nothing.html|title=Toward the Creative Nothing|work=theanarchistlibrary.org|access-date=14 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101128162745/http://theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Renzo_Novatore__Toward_the_Creative_Nothing.html|archive-date=28 November 2010}}</ref> Most anarcho-communists view anarcho-communism as a way of reconciling the opposition between the individual and society.<ref>{{cite book|quote="Communism is the one which guarantees the greatest amount of individual liberty – provided that the idea that begets the community be Liberty, Anarchy&nbsp;... Communism guarantees economic freedom better than any other form of association, because it can guarantee wellbeing, even luxury, in return for a few hours of work instead of a day's work."|url=http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Petr_Kropotkin__Communism_and_Anarchy.html|title=Communism and Anarchy|author=[[Peter Kropotkin]]|access-date=26 July 2011}}</ref><ref>This other society will be libertarian communism, in which social solidarity and free individuality find their full expression, and in which these two ideas develop in perfect harmony. [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Dielo_Truda__Workers__Cause___Organisational_Platform_of_the_Libertarian_Communists.html ''Organizational Platform of the Libertarian Communists'' by Dielo Truda (Workers' Cause)]</ref><ref>"I see the dichotomies made between individualism and communism, individual revolt and class struggle, the struggle against human exploitation and the exploitation of nature as false dichotomies and feel that those who accept them are impoverishing their own critique and struggle."[http://www.reocities.com/kk_abacus/vb/wd12persp.html "MY PERSPECTIVES" by Willful Disobedience Vol. 2, No. 12] {{Webarchive|url=https://www.webcitation.org/60XT65UUG?url=http://www.reocities.com/kk_abacus/vb/wd12persp.html |date=29 July 2011 }}</ref> Anarcho-communism developed out of radical socialist currents after the French Revolution<ref name="Graham-2005">Robert Graham, ''Anarchism – A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas – Volume One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300CE to 1939)'', Black Rose Books, 2005</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Petr_Kropotkin__The_Great_French_Revolution_1789-1793.html#toc42|title=The Great French Revolution 1789–1793|work=theanarchistlibrary.org|access-date=26 July 2011}}</ref> but was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the First International.<ref name="Nunzio Pernicone pp. 111–13">Nunzio Pernicone, "Italian Anarchism 1864–1892", pp. 111–13, AK Press 2009.</ref> The theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin took importance later as it expanded and developed pro-organisationalist and insurrectionary anti-organisationalist sections.<ref name=" Alain Pengam">{{cite web|url=http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Alain_Pengam__Anarchist-Communism.html|title=Anarchist-Communism|work=theanarchistlibrary.org|access-date=14 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111106234646/http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Alain_Pengam__Anarchist-Communism.html|archive-date=6 November 2011}}</ref> To date, the best known examples of an anarchist communist society (i.e. established around the ideas as they exist today and achieving worldwide attention and knowledge in the historical canon), are the anarchist territories during the [[Spanish Revolution of 1936|Spanish Revolution]]<ref>[[Murray Bookchin|Bookchin, Murray]]. ''[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Murray_Bookchin__To_Remember_Spain__The_Anarchist_and_Syndicalist_Revolution_of_1936.html To Remember Spain: The Anarchist and Syndicalist Revolution of 1936]''. "This process of education and class organization, more than any single factor in Spain, produced the collectives. And to the degree that the CNT-FAI (for the two organizations became fatally coupled after July 1936) exercised the major influence in an area, the collectives proved to be generally more durable, communist and resistant to Stalinist counterrevolution than other republican-held areas of Spain."</ref> and the [[Free Territory]] during the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|Russian Revolution]]. Through the efforts and influence of the [[Anarchism in Spain|Spanish anarchists]] during the Spanish Revolution within the Spanish Civil War, starting in 1936 anarchist communism existed in most of Aragon, parts of the Levante and Andalusia as well as in the stronghold of [[Revolutionary Catalonia|anarchist Catalonia]] before being crushed by the combined forces of the [[Francoist Spain|regime that won the war]], Hitler, Mussolini, Communist Party of Spain repression (backed by the Soviet Union) as well as economic and armaments blockades from the capitalist countries and the Spanish Republic itself.<ref>Bookchin, Murray. ''[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Murray_Bookchin__To_Remember_Spain__The_Anarchist_and_Syndicalist_Revolution_of_1936.html To Remember Spain: The Anarchist and Syndicalist Revolution of 1936]''.</ref> During the Russian Revolution, anarchists such as Nestor Makhno worked to create and defend—through the Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine—anarcho-communism in the Free Territory of the Ukraine from 1919 before being conquered by the Bolsheviks in 1921. ==== Anarcho-syndicalism ==== {{main|Anarcho-syndicalism}} [[File:Manifestación CNT Bilbao.jpg|thumb|left|[[International Workers' Day|May Day]] 2010 demonstration of Spanish [[Anarcho-syndicalism|anarcho-syndicalist]] trade union [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]] in Bilbao, Basque Country]] [[Anarcho-syndicalism]] is a branch of anarchism that focuses on the labour movement.<ref>{{cite book |author=Stuart Isaacs |author2=Chris Sparks |date=2004-05-20 |title=Political Theorists in Context |url={{google books|rlGFAgAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=Routledge |p=248 |isbn=978-0-415-20126-1 }}</ref> Anarcho-syndicalists view labour unions as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society democratically self-managed by workers. The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism are workers' [[wikt:Solidarity|solidarity]], [[direct action]] and [[workers' self-management]]. Anarcho-syndicalists believe that only direct action—that is, action concentrated on directly attaining a goal as opposed to indirect action, such as electing a representative to a government position—will allow workers to liberate themselves.<ref>Rocker, Rudolf. ''Anarcho-Syndicalism: Theory and Practice'' (2004). AK Press. p. 73.</ref> Moreover, anarcho-syndicalists believe that workers' organisations (the organisations that struggle against the wage system, which in anarcho-syndicalist theory will eventually form the basis of a new society) should be self-managing. They should not have bosses or "business agents"—rather, the workers should be able to make all the decisions that affect them themselves. Rudolf Rocker was one of the most popular voices in the anarcho-syndicalist movement. He outlined a view of the origins of the movement, what it sought and why it was important to the future of labour in his 1938 pamphlet ''Anarcho-Syndicalism''. The International Workers Association is an international anarcho-syndicalist federation of various labour unions from different countries. The Spanish CNT played and still plays a major role in the Spanish labour movement. It was also an important force in the Spanish Civil War. === Individualist anarchism === {{main|Individualist anarchism}} [[Individualist anarchism]] refers to several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasise the [[individual]] and their [[Will (philosophy)|will]] over any kinds of external determinants such as groups, society, traditions and ideological systems.<ref name="ryner">{{cite web |quote=What do I mean by individualism? I mean by individualism the moral doctrine which, relying on no dogma, no tradition, no external determination, appeals only to the individual conscience. |url=http://www.marx.org/archive/ryner/1905/mini-manual.htm |title=Mini-Manual of Individualism |first=Han |last=Ryner |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080906233034/http://www.marx.org/archive/ryner/1905/mini-manual.htm |archive-date=6 September 2008}}</ref><ref name="tucker">"I do not admit anything except the existence of the individual, as a condition of his sovereignty. To say that the sovereignty of the individual is conditioned by Liberty is simply another way of saying that it is conditioned by itself.""Anarchism and the State" in ''Individual Liberty''</ref> Individualist anarchism is not a single philosophy, but it instead refers to a group of individualistic philosophies that sometimes are in conflict. In 1793, William Godwin, who has often<ref name="Everhart, Robert B 1982. p. 115"/> been cited as the first anarchist, wrote ''[[Political Justice]]'', which some consider the first expression of anarchism.<ref name="godwinsep" /><ref name="Adams, Ian 2001. p. 116"/> Godwin was a philosophical anarchist and from a [[rationalist]] and [[utilitarian]] basis opposed revolutionary action and saw a [[Limited government|minimal state]] as a present "necessary evil" that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless by the gradual spread of knowledge.<ref name="godwinsep"/><ref>{{cite book|title=[[Political Justice|Enquiry Concerning Political Justice and its Influence on Modern Morals and Manners]]|last=Godwin|first=William|publisher=G.G. and J. Robinson|year=1796|oclc=2340417|authorlink=William Godwin|origyear=1793}}</ref> Godwin advocated individualism, proposing that all cooperation in labour be eliminated on the premise that this would be most conducive with the general good.<ref>{{cite web |author=Britannica editors |date=20 July 1998 |title=William Godwin |url=https://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9037183 |work=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20070624083706/http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9037183 |archivedate=24 June 2007 }}</ref><ref name="pmcl119">Paul McLaughlin. Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007. p. 119.</ref> [[File:Max stirner.jpg|thumb|left|[[Max Stirner]] (here in a sketch by [[Friedrich Engels]]) is usually considered a prominent early individualist anarchist]] An influential form of individualist anarchism, called "egoism",<ref name="Goodway, David 2006, p. 99">Goodway, David. Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow. Liverpool University Press, 2006, p. 99.</ref> or [[egoist anarchism]], was expounded by one of the earliest and best-known proponents of individualist anarchism, the German [[Max Stirner]].<ref name="SEP-Stirner"/> Stirner's ''[[The Ego and Its Own]]'', published in 1844, is a founding text of the philosophy.<ref name="SEP-Stirner"/> According to Stirner, the only limitation on the rights of individuals is their power to obtain what they desire,<ref>The Encyclopedia Americana: A Library of Universal Knowledge. Encyclopedia Corporation. p. 176.</ref> without regard for God, state, or morality.<ref>Miller, David. "Anarchism." 1987. ''The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought''. Blackwell Publishing. p. 11.</ref> To Stirner, rights were "[[Reification (fallacy)|spooks]]" in the mind and he held that society does not exist, but "the individuals are its reality".<ref>{{cite book |last=Ossar |date=1980 |first=Michael |title=Anarchism in the Dramas of Ernst Toller |publisher=SUNY Press |p=27 |isbn=978-0-87395-393-1 |quote=What my might reaches is my property; and let me claim as property everything I feel myself strong enough to attain, and let me extend my actual property as fas as ''I'' entitle, that is, empower myself to take&nbsp;...}}</ref> Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw [[Union of egoists|unions of egoists]], non-systematic associations continually renewed by all parties' support through an act of will,<ref name="nonserviam">{{Cite journal|last=Nyberg|first=Svein Olav|title=The union of egoists|url=http://i-studies.com/journal/n/pdf/nsi-17.pdf#page=13|deadurl=yes|journal=Non Serviam|location=Oslo, Norway|publisher=Svein Olav Nyberg|volume=1|pages=13–14|oclc=47758413|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012091850/http://i-studies.com/journal/n/pdf/nsi-17.pdf|archive-date=12 October 2012|access-date=1 September 2012|ref=harv|df=}}</ref> which Stirner proposed as a form of organisation in place of the state.<ref name="karl">{{cite book|title=Karl Marx and the Anarchists|last=Thomas|first=Paul|publisher=[[Routledge]]/[[Kegan Paul]]|year=1985|isbn=0-7102-0685-2|location=London|page=142}}</ref> Egoist anarchists argue that egoism will foster genuine and spontaneous union between individuals.<ref name="carlson">{{cite book|title=Anarchism in Germany|last=Carlson|first=Andrew|publisher=Scarecrow Press|year=1972|isbn=0-8108-0484-0|location=Metuchen|chapter=Philosophical Egoism: German Antecedents|accessdate=4 December 2008|chapterurl=http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/carlson.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131024210422/http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/carlson.html|archivedate=24 October 2013|deadurl=yes|via=}}</ref> "Egoism" has inspired many interpretations of Stirner's philosophy. It was re-discovered and promoted by German philosophical anarchist and [[homosexual]] activist [[John Henry Mackay]]. [[Josiah Warren]] is widely regarded as the first American anarchist,<ref name="Slate">Palmer, Brian (29 December 2010) [http://www.slate.com/id/2279457/ What do anarchists want from us?], ''[[Slate.com]]''</ref> and the four-page weekly paper he edited during 1833, ''The Peaceful Revolutionist'', was the first anarchist periodical published.<ref name="bailie20">William Bailie, [https://www.webcitation.org/5zzrHbh3b?url=http://libertarian-labyrinth.org/warren/1stAmAnarch.pdf] ''Josiah Warren: The First American Anarchist – A Sociological Study'', Boston: Small, Maynard & Co., 1906, p. 20</ref> For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster, "[i]t is apparent&nbsp;[...] that Proudhonian Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of Josiah Warren and [[Stephen Pearl Andrews]]&nbsp;[...] William B. Greene presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form".<ref name="againstallauthority.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.againstallauthority.org/NativeAmericanAnarchism.html|title=Native American Anarchism: A Study of Left-Wing American Individualism|work=againstallauthority.org|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100801232535/http://www.againstallauthority.org/NativeAmericanAnarchism.html|archivedate=1 August 2010|dead-url=yes|access-date=26 July 2011|df=}}</ref> [[Henry David Thoreau]] (1817–1862) was an important early influence in individualist anarchist thought in the United States and Europe. Thoreau was an American author, poet, naturalist, tax resister, [[Development criticism|development critic]], surveyor, historian, philosopher and leading [[transcendentalist]]. He is best known for his books ''[[Walden]]'', a reflection upon [[simple living]] in natural surroundings, as well as his essay, ''[[Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)|Civil Disobedience]]'', an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state. Benjamin Tucker later fused Stirner's egoism with the economics of Warren and Proudhon in his eclectic influential publication ''[[Liberty (1881–1908)|Liberty]]''. From these early influences, individualist anarchism in different countries attracted a small yet diverse following of Bohemian artists and intellectuals,<ref name="bohemian individualism">{{cite web|url=http://libcom.org/library/socanlifean2|title=2. Individualist Anarchism and Reaction|work=libcom.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123231602/http://libcom.org/library/socanlifean2|archive-date=23 November 2010|access-date=9 December 2010}}</ref> [[free love]] and [[birth control]] advocates (see [[anarchism and issues related to love and sex]]),<ref name="freelove">{{cite web|url=http://www.ncc-1776.org/tle1996/le961210.html|title=The Free Love Movement and Radical Individualism, By Wendy McElroy|work=ncc-1776.org|accessdate=29 November 2009}}</ref><ref name="Diez1">"Proliferarán así diversos grupos que practicarán el excursionismo, el naturismo, el nudismo, la emancipación sexual o el esperantismo, alrededor de asociaciones informales vinculadas de una manera o de otra al anarquismo. Precisamente las limitaciones a las asociaciones obreras impuestas desde la legislación especial de la Dictadura potenciarán indirectamente esta especie de asociacionismo informal en que confluirá el movimiento anarquista con esta heterogeneidad de prácticas y tendencias. Uno de los grupos más destacados, que será el impulsor de la revista individualista Ética será el Ateneo Naturista Ecléctico, con sede en Barcelona, con sus diferentes secciones la más destacada de las cuales será el grupo excursionista Sol y Vida."[https://www.webcitation.org/5zcwSjuqw?url=http://www.acracia.org/1-23a58lainsumision.pdf "La insumisión voluntaria: El anarquismo individualista español durante la Dictadura y la Segunda República (1923–1938)" by Xavier Díez]</ref> individualist [[naturist]]s and [[nudist]]s (see [[anarcho-naturism]]),<ref name="Diez1"/><ref>"Los anarco-individualistas, G.I.A&nbsp;... Una escisión de la FAI producida en el IX Congreso (Carrara, 1965) se produjo cuando un sector de anarquistas de tendencia humanista rechazan la interpretación que ellos juzgan disciplinaria del ''pacto asociativo'' clásico, y crean los GIA (Gruppi di Iniziativa Anarchica). Esta pequeña federación de grupos, hoy nutrida sobre todo de veteranos anarco-individualistas de orientación pacifista, naturista, etcétera defiende la autonomía personal y rechaza a rajatabla toda forma de intervención en los procesos del sistema, como sería por ejemplo el sindicalismo. Su portavoz es L'Internazionale con sede en Ancona. La escisión de los GIA prefiguraba, en sentido contrario, el gran debate que pronto había de comenzar en el seno del movimiento"[http://almeralia.enlucha.info/bicicleta/bicicleta/ciclo/01/17.htm "El movimiento libertario en Italia" by ''Bicicleta. REVISTA DE COMUNICACIONES LIBERTARIAS'' Year 1 No. Noviembre, 1 1977] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425162248/http://almeralia.enlucha.info/bicicleta/bicicleta/ciclo/01/17.htm|date=25 April 2012}}</ref><ref name="aujourdhui">"Les anarchistes individualistes du début du siècle l'avaient bien compris, et intégraient le naturisme dans leurs préoccupations. Il est vraiment dommage que ce discours se soit peu à peu effacé, d'antan plus que nous assistons, en ce moment, à un retour en force du puritanisme (conservateur par essence)."[http://ytak.club.fr/natytak.html "Anarchisme et naturisme, aujourd'hui." by Cathy Ytak] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609184510/http://ytak.club.fr/natytak.html|date=9 June 2007}}</ref> [[freethought]] and [[anti-clerical]] activists<ref name="mises.org">{{cite journal |author=Wendy McElroy |date=1981 |title=Culture of Individualist Anarchism in Late 19th Century America |url=https://mises.org/journals/jls/5_3/5_3_4.pdf |journal=[[Journal of Libertarian Studies]] |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=291–304 |accessdate=13 September 2014 |authorlink=Wendy McElroy }}</ref><ref name="Diez2">{{cite book|url=http://libros.metabiblioteca.org/handle/001/450|title=El anarquismo individualista en España 1923–1938|last1=Díez|first1=Xavier|date=2007|publisher=Virus Editorial|isbn=978-84-96044-87-6|location=Barcelona|p=143}}</ref> as well as young anarchist outlaws in what became known as illegalism and [[individual reclamation]]<ref name="Imrie"/><ref name="Parry, Richard 1987. p. 15">Parry, Richard. The Bonnot Gang. Rebel Press, 1987. p. 15</ref> (see [[European individualist anarchism]] and [[individualist anarchism in France]]). These authors and activists included [[Oscar Wilde]], [[Emile Armand]], [[Han Ryner]], [[Henri Zisly]], [[Renzo Novatore]], [[Miguel Gimenez Igualada]], [[Adolf Brand]] and [[Lev Chernyi]] among others. === Post-classical anarchist schools of thought === {{main|Contemporary anarchism}} [[File:Jarach and Zerzan.JPG|thumb|left|[[Lawrence Jarach]] (left) and [[John Zerzan]] (right), two prominent [[Contemporary anarchism|contemporary anarchist]] authors: Zerzan is known as prominent voice within [[anarcho-primitivism]] while Jarach is a noted advocate of [[post-left anarchy]]]] Anarchism continues to generate many philosophies and movements, at times eclectic, drawing upon various sources and [[Syncretic politics|syncretic]], combining disparate concepts to create new philosophical approaches.<ref>Perlin, Terry M. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mppLKlwHx7oC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Contemporary+_+Anarchism&ei=vSDBSuXHMo2mM8mu-OsP#v=onepage&q=&f=false Contemporary Anarchism]''. Transaction Books, New Brunswick, NJ 1979</ref> [[Insurrectionary anarchism]] is a revolutionary theory, practice, and tendency within the anarchist movement which emphasises [[insurrection]] within anarchist practice.<ref name="sasha">{{cite web|url=http://www.insurgentdesire.org.uk/notes.htm|title=insurgentdesire.org.uk|work=insurgentdesire.org.uk|access-date=19 November 2012}}</ref><ref name="joeblack">{{cite web|url=http://www.ainfos.ca/06/jul/ainfos00232.html|title="Anarchism, insurrections and insurrectionalism" by Joe Black|date=19 July 2006|publisher=Ainfos.ca|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206162459/http://www.ainfos.ca/06/jul/ainfos00232.html|archivedate=6 December 2010<!--Added by DASHBot-->|access-date=20 September 2010}}</ref> It is critical of formal organisations such as [[labour unions]] and federations that are based on a political programme and periodic congresses.<ref name="sasha"/> Instead, insurrectionary anarchists advocate informal organisation and small [[affinity group]] based organisation.<ref name="sasha"/><ref name="joeblack"/> Insurrectionary anarchists put value in attack, permanent [[class conflict]] and a refusal to negotiate or compromise with class enemies.<ref name="sasha"/><ref name="joeblack"/> [[Green anarchism]] (or eco-anarchism)<ref>David Pepper (1996). [https://books.google.com/books?id=PQOvkB7UoWgC&pg=PA44&dq= Modern Environmentalism] p. 44. Routledge.</ref> is a school of thought within anarchism that emphasises environmental issues,<ref>Ian Adams (2001). [https://books.google.com/books?id=apstK1qIvvMC&pg=PA130&dq= Political Ideology Today] p. 130. Manchester University Press.</ref> with an important precedent in anarcho-naturism<ref name=Diez1 /><ref>"Anarchism and the different Naturist views have always been related."[http://www.naturismo.org/adn/ediciones/2003/invierno/7e.html "Anarchism – Nudism, Naturism" by Carlos Ortega at Asociacion para el Desarrollo Naturista de la Comunidad de Madrid. Published on Revista ''ADN''. Winter 2003]</ref><ref name="naturismolibertario">{{cite web |url=http://www.soliobrera.org/pdefs/cuaderno4.pdf#search=%22Antonia%20Maym%C3%B3n%22 |title=EL NATURISMO LIBERTARIO EN LA PENÍNSULA IBÉRICA (1890–1939) |first=Jose Maria |last=Rosello |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130902055046/http://www.soliobrera.org/pdefs/cuaderno4.pdf#search=%22Antonia%20Maym%C3%B3n%22 |archive-date=2 September 2013 |language=es}}</ref> and whose main contemporary currents are anarcho-primitivism and [[Social ecology (theory)|social ecology]]. Writing from a green anarchist perspective, [[John Zerzan]] attributes the ills of today's social degradation to technology and the birth of agricultural civilization.<ref>{{cite book |title=Running On Emptiness |last=Zerzan |first=John |authorlink=John Zerzan |coauthors= |year=2002| publisher=Feral House |location=|isbn= |page= |url= |access-date=}}</ref> While [[Layla AbdelRahim]] argues that "the shift in human consciousness was also a shift in human subsistence strategies, whereby some human animals reinvented their narrative to center murder and predation and thereby institutionalize violence".<ref>{{cite book | last = AbdelRahim | first = Layla | authorlink=Layla AbdelRahim | title = Children’s Literature, Domestication, and Social Foundation: Narratives of Civilization and Wilderness | publisher = Routledge | location = New York | year = 2015 | isbn = 978-0-415-66110-2 |page=8}}</ref> Thus, according to her, civilization was the result of the human development of technologies and grammar for predatory economics. Language and literacy, she claims, are some of these technologies.<ref>{{cite book | last = AbdelRahim | first = Layla | authorlink=Layla AbdelRahim | title = Wild Children – Domesticated Dreams: Civilization and the Birth of Education | publisher = Fernwood | location = Halifax | year = 2013 | isbn = 978-1-552-66548-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = AbdelRahim | first = Layla | authorlink=Layla AbdelRahim | title = Children’s Literature, Domestication, and Social Foundation: Narratives of Civilization and Wilderness | publisher = Routledge | location = New York | year = 2015 | isbn = 978-0-415-66110-2}}</ref> [[Anarcha-feminism]] (also called anarchist feminism and anarcho-feminism) combines anarchism with feminism. It generally views [[patriarchy]] as a manifestation of involuntary coercive hierarchy that should be replaced by [[decentralised]] free association. Anarcha-feminists believe that the struggle against patriarchy is an essential part of [[class struggle]], and the anarchist struggle against the state. In essence, the philosophy sees anarchist struggle as a necessary component of feminist struggle and vice versa. [[L. Susan Brown]] claims that "as anarchism is a political philosophy that opposes all relationships of power, it is inherently feminist".<ref>Brown, p. 208.</ref> Anarcha-feminism began with the late 19th-century writings of early feminist anarchists such as Emma Goldman and [[Voltairine de Cleyre]]. [[Anarcho-pacifism]] is a tendency that rejects violence in the struggle for social change (see [[non-violence]]).<ref name="Anarchism 1962" /><ref name="ppu.org.uk">{{cite web |url=http://www.ppu.org.uk/e_publications/dd-trad8.html#anarch%20and%20violence |title="Resisting the Nation State, the pacifist and anarchist tradition" by Geoffrey Ostergaard |publisher=Ppu.org.uk |date=6 August 1945 |access-date=20 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514052437/http://www.ppu.org.uk/e_publications/dd-trad8.html |archive-date=14 May 2011 }}</ref> It developed mostly in the Netherlands, Britain and the United States before and during the Second World War.<ref name="Anarchism 1962" /> Christian anarchism is a [[Christian movement|movement]] in [[political theology]] that combines anarchism and Christianity.<ref>{{cite book |title=Christian Anarchism: A Political Commentary on the Gospel |last=Christoyannopoulos |first=Alexandre |authorlink=Alexandre Christoyannopoulos |coauthors= |year=2010 |publisher=Imprint Academic |location=Exeter |isbn= |page= |pages=2–4 |url= |access-date=|quote=Locating Christian anarchism&nbsp;... In political theology}}</ref> Its main proponents included [[Leo Tolstoy]], Dorothy Day, Ammon Hennacy and [[Jacques Ellul]]. [[Religious anarchism]] refers to a set of related anarchist ideologies that are inspired by the teachings of (organized) religions, but many anarchists have traditionally been skeptical of and opposed to [[organized religion]]. Many different religions have served as inspiration for religious forms of anarchism, most notably Christianity as Christian anarchists believe that biblical teachings give credence to anarchist philosophy. Non-Christian forms of religious anarchism include [[Buddhist anarchism]], [[Jewish anarchism]] and most recently [[Neopaganism]] [[Synthesis anarchism]] is a form of anarchism that tries to join anarchists of different tendencies under the principles of anarchism without adjectives.<ref name="infoshop.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionJ3|title=An Anarchist FAQ|date=14 February 2010|website=infoshop.org|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100219221557/http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionJ3|archivedate=19 February 2010|deadurl=yes|access-date=7 July 2015}}</ref> In the 1920s, this form found as its main proponents the [[anarcho-communists]] [[Voline]] and [[Sébastien Faure]].<ref name="infoshop1" /><ref>Faure, Sébastien. [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Sebastien_Faure__Libertarian_Communism.html Libertarian Communism]". "The remedy has been found: libertarian communism."</ref> It is the main principle behind the anarchist federations grouped around the contemporary global [[International of Anarchist Federations]].<ref name=infoshop.org/> [[Platformism]] is a tendency within the wider anarchist movement based on the organisational theories in the tradition of Dielo Truda's ''Organisational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft)''.<ref name=Platformtext/> The document was based on the experiences of [[Anarchism in Russia|Russian anarchists]] in the 1917 October Revolution, which led eventually to the victory of the [[Bolsheviks]] over the anarchists and other groups. The ''Platform'' attempted to address and explain the anarchist movement's failures during the Russian Revolution. [[Post-left anarchy]] is a recent current in anarchist thought that promotes a critique of anarchism's relationship to traditional [[left-wing politics]]. Some post-leftists seek to escape the confines of [[ideology]] in general also presenting a critique of organisations and [[morality]].<ref name="ideology">{{cite web|url=http://www.insurgentdesire.org.uk/postleft.htm|title=insurgentdesire.org.uk|work=insurgentdesire.org.uk|access-date=9 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100618101000/http://www.insurgentdesire.org.uk/postleft.htm|archive-date=18 June 2010}}</ref> Influenced by the work of Max Stirner<ref name="ideology"/> and by the Marxist [[Situationist International]],<ref name="ideology"/> post-left anarchy is marked by a focus on social insurrection and a rejection of leftist social organisation.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Introduction|last=Macphee|first=Josh|title=Realizing the Impossible|publisher=AK Press|location=Stirling|year=2007|isbn=1-904859-32-1}}</ref> [[Post-anarchism]] is a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and [[poststructuralist]] thought, drawing from diverse ideas including post-left anarchy, [[postmodernism]], [[autonomism]], [[postcolonialism]] and the [[Situationist International]]. [[Queer anarchism]] is a form of [[socialism]] which suggests anarchism as a solution to the issues faced by the [[LGBT community]], mainly [[heteronormativity]], [[homophobia]], [[transphobia]] and [[biphobia]]. Anarcho-queer arose during the late 20th century based on the work of Michel Foucault ''[[The History of Sexuality]]''. [[Left-wing market anarchism]] strongly affirm the classical liberal ideas of self-ownership and free markets while maintaining that taken to their logical conclusions, these ideas support strongly anti-corporatist, anti-hierarchical, pro-labour positions and anti-capitalism in economics and anti-imperialism in foreign policy.<ref>Gary Chartier and Charles W. Johnson (eds). ''Markets Not Capitalism: Individualist Anarchism Against Bosses, Inequality, Corporate Power, and Structural Poverty''. Minor Compositions; 1st edition (5 November 2011)</ref><ref>Gary Chartier has joined [[Kevin Carson]], [[Charles W. Johnson (philosopher)|Charles Johnson]], and others (echoing the language of Benjamin Tucker and [[Thomas Hodgskin]]) in maintaining that, because of its heritage and its emancipatory goals and potential, radical market anarchism should be seen—by its proponents and by others—as part of the [[socialist]] tradition, and that market anarchists can and should call themselves "socialists." See Gary Chartier, "Advocates of Freed Markets Should Oppose Capitalism," "Free-Market Anti-Capitalism?" session, annual conference, [[Association of Private Enterprise Education]] (Cæsar's Palace, Las Vegas, NV, 13 April 2010); Gary Chartier, [http://c4ss.org/content/1738 "Advocates of Freed Markets Should Embrace 'Anti-Capitalism'"]; Gary Chartier, [http://invisiblemolotov.wordpress.com/2009/09/12/socialist-ends-market-means/ ''Socialist Ends, Market Means: Five Essays'']. Cp. Tucker, "Socialism."</ref><ref>"But there has always been a market-oriented strand of libertarian socialism that emphasizes voluntary cooperation between producers. And markets, properly understood, have always been about cooperation. As a commenter at Reason magazine's Hit&Run blog, remarking on Jesse Walker's link to the Kelly article, put it: "every trade is a cooperative act." In fact, it's a fairly common observation among market anarchists that genuinely free markets have the most legitimate claim to the label 'socialism.'".[http://c4ss.org/content/670 "Socialism: A Perfectly Good Word Rehabilitated"] by [[Kevin Carson]] at website of Center for a Stateless Society</ref> [[Anarcho-capitalism]] advocates the elimination of the state in favour of [[self-ownership]] in a [[free market]].<ref>[[Ronald Hamowy|Hamowy, Ronald]] (editor). ''The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism'', SAGE, 2008, [https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC&pg=PT50&dq=anarcho-capitalism+libertarian&hl=en&ei=guxiTNrmIMP7lweDmPC1Dw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=anarcho-capitalism%20libertarian&f=false pp. 10–12], [https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC&pg=PT50&dq=anarcho-capitalism+libertarian&hl=en&ei=guxiTNrmIMP7lweDmPC1Dw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=radical%20%20libertarian&f=false p 195], {{ISBN|978-1-4129-6580-4}}, {{ISBN|978-1-4129-6580-4}}</ref><ref name=Stringham51>Edward Stringham, ''Anarchy and the law: the political economy of choice'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=nft4e62nicsC&pg=PA51&dq=anarcho-capitalism+libertarian&hl=en&ei=R9JiTMCQOYH6lwfGw-SICg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CE4Q6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=anarcho-capitalism%20libertarian&f=false p 51]</ref> Anarcho-capitalism developed from radical anti-state libertarianism and individualist anarchism,<ref name=Tormey>Tormey, Simon. ''Anti-Capitalism'', One World, 2004.</ref><ref name=Perlin>Perlin, Terry M. ''Contemporary Anarchism'', Transaction Books, NJ 1979.</ref><ref name=Raico>Raico, Ralph. ''Authentic German Liberalism of the 19th Century'', Ecole Polytechnique, Centre de Recherce en Epistemologie Appliquee, Unité associée au CNRS, 2004.</ref><ref name=Heider>Heider, Ulrike. ''Anarchism:Left, Right, and Green'', City Lights, 1994. p. 3.</ref><ref name=Outhwaite>Outhwaite, William. ''The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought'', ''Anarchism'' entry, p. 21, 2002.</ref><ref name=Bottomore>Bottomore, Tom. '' Dictionary of Marxist Thought'', ''Anarchism'' entry, 1991.</ref><ref name="Ostergaard">Ostergaard, Geofrey. Resisting the Nation State – the anarchist and pacifist tradition, Anarchism As A Tradition of Political Thought. Peace Pledge Union Publications [http://www.ppu.org.uk/e_publications/dd-trad6.html]</ref>{{excessive citations inline|date=September 2017}} drawing from [[Austrian School]] economics, study of [[law and economics]] and [[public choice theory]].<ref>Edward Stringham, [http://www.independent.org/publications/tir/article.asp?issueID=53&articleID=686 ''Anarchy, State, and Public Choice''], Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2005.</ref> There is a strong current within anarchism which believes that anarcho-capitalism cannot be considered a part of the anarchist movement due to the fact that anarchism has historically been an [[Anti-capitalism|anti-capitalist]] movement and for definitional reasons which see anarchism as [[Anarchism and capitalism|incompatible]] with capitalist forms.<ref>"The philosophy of "anarcho-capitalism" dreamed up by the "libertarian" [[New Right]], has nothing to do with Anarchism as known by the Anarchist movement proper."[[Albert Meltzer|Meltzer, Albert]]. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=CJhCvx_Z0CAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Anarchism:+Arguments+For+and+Against&ei=GHi-StvuEo6MNfKjyZMD&hl=es#v=onepage&q=&f=false Anarchism: Arguments For and Against]'' AK Press, (2000) p. 50.</ref><ref>"In fact, few anarchists would accept the 'anarcho-capitalists' into the anarchist camp since they do not share a concern for economic equality and social justice, Their self-interested, calculating market men would be incapable of practising voluntary co-operation and mutual aid. Anarcho-capitalists, even if they do reject the State, might therefore best be called [[Right-libertarianism|right-wing libertarians]] rather than anarchists." Peter Marshall. [[Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism]]. Harper Perennial. London. 2008. p. 565</ref><ref>"It is important to distinguish between anarchism and certain strands of right-wing libertarianism which at times go by the same name (for example, Murray Rothbard's anarcho-capitalism)."[[Saul Newman]], ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SiqBiViUsOkC&pg=PA43&dq=anarcho-capitalism+right+libertarian&hl=en&ei=TxeYTKOLFYH-8Aaa77WlAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAjge#v=onepage&q=anarcho-capitalism%20right%20libertarian&f=false The Politics of Postanarchism]'', Edinburgh University Press, 2010, p. 43 {{ISBN|0748634959}}</ref><ref>[http://anarchism.pageabode.com/afaq/secFcon.html Section F – Is "anarcho"-capitalism a type of anarchism?] at An Anarchist FAQ published in physical book form by An Anarchist FAQ as "Volume I"; by AK Press, Oakland/Edinburgh 2008; 558 pp., {{ISBN|978-1902593906}}.</ref><ref>"'Libertarian' and 'libertarianism' are frequently employed by anarchists as synonyms for 'anarchist' and 'anarchism', largely as an attempt to distance themselves from the negative connotations of 'anarchy' and its derivatives. The situation has been vastly complicated in recent decades with the rise of anarcho-capitalism, 'minimal statism' and an extreme right-wing laissez-faire philosophy advocated by such theorists as Murray Rothbard and Robert Nozick and their adoption of the words 'libertarian' and 'libertarianism'. It has therefore now become necessary to distinguish between their [[right libertarianism]] and the [[left libertarianism]] of the anarchist tradition." ''[[Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow: Left-Libertarian Thought and British Writers from William Morris to Colin Ward]]'' by David Goodway. Liverpool University Press. Liverpool. 2006. p. 4.</ref><ref>"Within Libertarianism, Rothbard represents a minority perspective that actually argues for the total elimination of the state. However Rothbard's claim as an anarchist is quickly voided when it is shown that he only wants an end to the public state. In its place he allows countless private states, with each person supplying their own police force, army, and law, or else purchasing these services from capitalist venders...so what remains is shrill anti-statism conjoined to a vacuous freedom in hackneyed defense of capitalism. In sum, the "anarchy" of Libertarianism reduces to a liberal fraud.[http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/peter-sabatini-libertarianism-bogus-anarchy "Libertarianism: Bogus Anarchy" by Peter Sabatini] in issue #41 (fall/winter 1994–1995) of ''[[Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed]]''.</ref>{{excessive citations inline|date=September 2017}} [[Anarcho-transhumanism]] is a recently new branch of anarchism that takes traditional and modern anarchism, typically drawing from [[anarcho-syndicalism]], [[left-libertarianism]] or [[Libertarian socialist|libertarian socialism]] and combines it with [[transhumanism]] and [[post-humanism]]. It can be described as a "liberal democratic revolution, at its core the idea that people are happiest when they have rational control over their lives. Reason, science, and technology provide one kind of control, slowly freeing us from ignorance, toil, pain, disease and limited lifespans (aging)". Some anarcho-transhumanists might also follow [[technogaianism]].<!-- If you are looking to extend this section, please add the content to the proper sub-article [[anarchist schools of thought]] instead. --> == Internal issues and debates == {{see also|Anarchism and violence|Anarchist schools of thought|Issues in anarchism}} [[File:Gadewar.jpg|thumb|left|Which forms of violence (if any) are [[anarchism and violence|consistent with anarchist values]] is a controversial subject among anarchists]] <!-- In the interest of restricting article length, please limit this section to two or three short paragraphs and add any substantial information to the main Issues in anarchism article. Thank you. --> Anarchism is a [[philosophy]] that embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies and schools of thought and as such disagreement over questions of values, ideology and tactics is common. The compatibility of [[Anarchism and capitalism|capitalism]],<ref name=oxcom>"Anarchism." ''[[The Oxford Companion to Philosophy]]'', [[Oxford University Press]], 2007, p. 31.</ref> [[anarchism and nationalism|nationalism]] and [[Anarchism and religion|religion]] with anarchism is widely disputed. Similarly, anarchism enjoys complex relationships with ideologies such as [[Anarchism and Marxism|Marxism]], [[Issues in anarchism#Communism|communism]], [[collectivism]], [[syndicalism]]/[[trade unionism]] and [[capitalism]]. Anarchists may be motivated by [[humanism]], [[God|divine authority]], [[enlightened self-interest]], [[veganarchism|veganism]] or any number of alternative ethical doctrines. Phenomena such as [[civilisation]], [[technology]] (e.g. within anarcho-primitivism) and [[Issues in anarchism#Participation in statist democracy|the democratic process]] may be sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others. On a tactical level, while [[propaganda of the deed]] was a tactic used by anarchists in the 19th century (e.g. the [[nihilist movement]]), some contemporary anarchists espouse alternative direct action methods such as [[nonviolence]], [[counter-economics]] and [[Crypto-anarchism|anti-state cryptography]] to bring about an anarchist society. About the scope of an anarchist society, some anarchists advocate a global one, while others do so by local ones.<ref>Ted Honderich, Carmen García Trevijano, [https://books.google.com/books?id=s9iwZGv44psC&pg=PA402&dq=Enciclopedia+teor%C3%ADa+pol%C3%ADtica&lr=&as_brr=3#PPA57,M1 ''Oxford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy''].</ref> The diversity in anarchism has led to widely different use of identical terms among different anarchist traditions, which has led to many [[definitional concerns in anarchist theory]]. {{clear}} == Topics of interest == Intersecting and overlapping between various schools of thought, certain topics of interest and internal disputes have proven perennial within anarchist theory. === Free love === {{main|Free love|Anarchism and issues related to love and sex|Anarcha-feminism|Queer anarchism}} [[File:Emilearmand01.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Individualist anarchism in France|French individualist anarchist]] [[Émile Armand]] propounded the virtues of [[free love]] in the [[Anarchism in France|Parisian anarchist milieu]] of the early 20th century]] An important current within anarchism is [[free love]].<ref name="ncc-1776">{{cite web |url=http://www.ncc-1776.org/tle1996/le961210.html |title=The Free Love Movement and Radical Individualism By Wendy McElroy |publisher=Ncc-1776.org |date=1 December 1996 |access-date=20 September 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20101231195631/http://ncc-1776.org/tle1996/le961210.html| archivedate= 31 December 2010<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> Free love advocates sometimes traced their roots back to [[Josiah Warren]] and to experimental communities, viewed sexual freedom as a clear, direct expression of an individual's sovereignty. Free love particularly stressed [[women's rights]] since most sexual laws discriminated against women, see for example marriage laws and anti-birth control measures.<ref name="freelove" /> The most important American free love journal was ''[[Lucifer the Lightbearer]]'' (1883–1907), edited by [[Moses Harman]] and [[Lois Waisbrooker]],<ref>Joanne E. Passet, "Power through Print: Lois Waisbrooker and Grassroots Feminism," in: ''Women in Print: Essays on the Print Culture of American Women from the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries'', James Philip Danky and Wayne A. Wiegand, eds., Madison, WI, University of Wisconsin Press, 2006; pp. 229–50.</ref> but also there existed [[Ezra Heywood]] and Angela Heywood's ''[[The Word (free love)|The Word]]'' (1872–1890, 1892–1893).<ref name="freelove"/> ''[[Free Society]]'' (1895–1897 as ''The Firebrand''; 1897–1904 as ''Free Society'') was a major anarchist newspaper in the United States at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries.<ref name="Goldman-MSF-551">"''Free Society'' was the principal English-language forum for anarchist ideas in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century." ''Emma Goldman: Making Speech Free, 1902–1909'', p. 551.</ref> The publication advocated free love and women's rights and critiqued "[[Comstockery]]"—i.e. censorship of sexual information. Also [[M. E. Lazarus]] was an important American individualist anarchist who promoted free love.<ref name="freelove"/> In New York City's [[Greenwich Village]], [[Bohemianism|bohemian]] feminists and socialists advocated self-realisation and pleasure for women (and also men) in the here and now. They encouraged playing with sexual roles and sexuality<ref>Sochen, June. 1972. ''The New Woman: Feminism in Greenwich Village 1910–1920.'' New York: Quadrangle.</ref> and the openly bisexual radical [[Edna St. Vincent Millay]] and the lesbian anarchist [[Margaret C. Anderson|Margaret Anderson]] were prominent among them. Discussion groups organised by the Villagers were frequented by Emma Goldman, among others. Magnus Hirschfeld noted in 1923 that Goldman "has campaigned boldly and steadfastly for individual rights, and especially for those deprived of their rights. Thus it came about that she was the first and only woman, indeed the first and only American, to take up the defence of homosexual love before the general public".<ref>[[Jonathan Ned Katz|Katz, Jonathan Ned]]. ''[[Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A.]]'' (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1976)</ref> Before Goldman, [[heterosexual]] anarchist Robert Reitzel (1849–1898) spoke positively of homosexuality from the beginning of the 1890s in his Detroit-based [[German language]] journal ''Der arme Teufel'' (English: The Poor Devil). In Argentina, anarcha-feminist [[Virginia Bolten]] published the newspaper called ''{{lang|es|[[La Voz de la Mujer]]}}'' (English: ''The Woman's Voice''), which was published nine times in Rosario between 8 January 1896 and 1 January 1897 and was revived briefly in 1901.<ref name="molyneux">{{cite book |last=Molyneux|first=Maxine|title=Women's movements in international perspective: Latin America and beyond|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|year=2001|page=24|isbn=978-0-333-78677-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yg9HFrOG89kC&pg=PA24|access-date=29 October 2015}}</ref> In Europe, the main propagandist of free love within individualist anarchism was Emile Armand.<ref name="armandfreelove">{{cite web|url=http://www.iisg.nl/womhist/manfreuk.pdf |title=E. Armand and "la camaraderie amoureuse" – Revolutionary sexualism and the struggle against jealousy |format=PDF |date= |access-date=20 September 2010 |deadurl=no |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514110104/http://www.iisg.nl/womhist/manfreuk.pdf |archive-date=14 May 2011 |df= }}</ref> He proposed the concept of ''la camaraderie amoureuse'' to speak of free love as the possibility of voluntary sexual encounter between consenting adults. He was also a consistent proponent of [[polyamory]].<ref name="armandfreelove" /> In Germany, the [[Stirnerism|Stirnerists]] Adolf Brand and John Henry Mackay were pioneering campaigners for the acceptance of male [[bisexuality]] and [[homosexuality]]. [[Mujeres Libres]] was an anarchist women's organisation in Spain that aimed to empower working class women. It was founded in 1936 by [[Lucía Sánchez Saornil]], Mercedes Comaposada and [[Amparo Poch y Gascón]] and had approximately 30,000 members. The organisation was based on the idea of a "double struggle" for [[Feminist movement|women's liberation]] and social revolution and argued that the two objectives were equally important and should be pursued in parallel. In order to gain mutual support, they created networks of women anarchists.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/ws98/ws54_mujeres_libres.html |title=Mujeres Libres – Women anarchists in the Spanish Revolution |publisher=Flag.blackened.net |date= |access-date=16 March 2015 |deadurl=yes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150926095452/http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/ws98/ws54_mujeres_libres.html |archive-date=26 September 2015 |df= }}</ref> Lucía Sánchez Saornil was a main founder of the Spanish anarcha-feminist federation Mujeres Libres who was open about her [[lesbian]]ism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wzar.unizar.es/siem/articulos/Premios/MujeresLibres.pdf|format=PDF|title= Basta pensar en el lesbianismo de Lucía Sánchez Saornil|publisher=Wzar.unizar.es|access-date=16 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402065947/http://wzar.unizar.es/siem/articulos/Premios/MujeresLibres.pdf|archive-date=2 April 2012}}</ref> She was published in a variety of literary journals while working under a male pen name, she was able to explore lesbian themes<ref>"R. Fue una época transgresora, emergió el feminismo y la libertad sexual estuvo en el candelero. Hay rastreos de muchas lesbianas escritoras: Carmen Conde[primera académica de número], Victorina Durán, Margarita Xirgu, Ana María Sagi, la periodista Irene Polo, Lucía Sánchez Saornil, fundadora de Mujeres Libres[sección feminista de CNT]... Incluso existía un círculo sáfico en Madrid como lugar de encuentro y tertulia. P. ¿Se declaraban lesbianas? R. Había quien no se escondía mucho, como Polo o Durán, pero lesbiana era un insulto, algo innombrable. Excepto los poemas homosexuales de Sánchez Saornil, sus textos no eran explícitos para poder publicarlos, así que hay que reinterpretarlos."[http://elpais.com/diario/2007/12/06/paisvasco/1196973608_850215.html "Tener referentes serios de lesbianas elimina estereotipos" by Juan Fernandez at ''El Pais'']</ref> at a time when homosexuality was criminalised and subject to [[censorship]] and punishment. More recently, the British anarcho-pacifist Alex Comfort gained notoriety during the [[sexual revolution]] for writing the bestseller sex manual ''[[The Joy of Sex]]''. The issue of free love has a dedicated treatment in the work of French anarcho-[[hedonist]] philosopher [[Michel Onfray]] in such works as ''Théorie du corps amoureux. Pour une érotique solaire'' (2000) and ''L'invention du plaisir. Fragments cyréaniques'' (2002). === Libertarian education and freethought === {{see also|Anarchism and education|Freethought}} [[File:Francisco Ferrer Guardia.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia]], [[Anarchism in Spain|Catalan anarchist]] pedagogue and [[Freethought|free thinker]]]] For English anarchist William Godwin, education was "the main means by which change would be achieved".<ref name="GroupedRef1">{{cite web|url=http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-good.htm|title=infed.org – William Godwin on education|work=infed.org|access-date=28 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514090500/http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-good.htm|archive-date=14 May 2011}}</ref> Godwin saw that the main goal of education should be the promotion of happiness.<ref name="GroupedRef1" /> For Godwin, education had to have a "respect for the child's autonomy which precluded any form of coercion", a "pedagogy that respected this and sought to build on the child's own motivation and initiatives" and a "concern about the child's capacity to resist an ideology transmitted through the school".<ref name="GroupedRef1" /> In his ''[[Political Justice]]'', he criticises state sponsored schooling "on account of its obvious alliance with national government".<ref name="Enquiry Concerning Political Justice">{{cite book|chapterurl=http://socserv.mcmaster.ca/econ/ugcm/3ll3/godwin/pj6.htm |at=Book 4: Of Opinion Considered as a Subject of Political Institution |chapter=1: General Effects of the Political Superintendence of Opinion |title=Enquiry Concerning Political Justice |first=William |last=Godwin |edition=1st |id={{OCLC|680251053|642217608|504755839}} |publisher=G.G.J. and J. Robinson |location=London, England |year=1793 |ref=harv }}</ref> Early American anarchist Josiah Warren advanced alternative education experiences in the libertarian communities he established.<ref>{{cite web |quote=Where utopian projectors starting with [[Plato]] entertained the idea of creating an ideal species through eugenics and education and a set of universally valid institutions inculcating shared identities, Warren wanted to dissolve such identities in a solution of individual self-sovereignty. His educational experiments, for example, possibly under the influence of the Swiss educational theorist [[Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi]] (via Owen), emphasized – as we would expect – the nurturing of the independence and the conscience of individual children, not the inculcation of pre-conceived values. |url=http://www.crispinsartwell.com/warrenintrocurrent.htm |title=Introduction of The Practical Anarchist: Writings of Josiah Warren |first=Crispin |last=Sartwell |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430010738/http://www.crispinsartwell.com/warrenintrocurrent.htm |archive-date=30 April 2011}}</ref> Max Stirner wrote in 1842 a long essay on education called ''[[The False Principle of our Education]]'' in which Stirner names his educational principle "personalist", explaining that self-understanding consists in hourly self-creation. Education for him is to create "free men, sovereign characters", by which he means "eternal characters&nbsp;[...] who are therefore eternal because they form themselves each moment".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/falseprinciple.html |title=The False Principle of our Education |last=Stirner |first=Max |publisher=Tmh.floonet.net |date= |access-date=20 September 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515103317/https://tmh.floonet.net/articles/falseprinciple.html |archivedate=15 May 2011 |df= }}</ref> In the United States, freethought was a basically [[Anti-Christianity|anti-Christian]], [[anti-clerical]] movement, whose purpose was to make the individual politically and spiritually free to decide for himself on religious matters. A number of contributors to ''Liberty'' (anarchist publication) were prominent figures in both freethought and anarchism. The individualist anarchist George MacDonald was a co-editor of ''Freethought'' and, for a time, ''The Truth Seeker''. E.C. Walker was co-editor of ''[[Lucifer, the Light-Bearer]]''<ref name="mises.org"/> and many anarchists were "ardent freethinkers; reprints from freethought papers such as ''Lucifer, the Light-Bearer'', ''Freethought'' and ''The Truth Seeker'' appeared in ''Liberty''...&nbsp;The church was viewed as a common ally of the state and as a repressive force in and of itself".<ref name="mises.org"/> In 1901, Catalan anarchist and free thinker Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia established "modern" or [[Progressive education|progressive schools]] in Barcelona in defiance of an educational system controlled by the Catholic Church.<ref name="Fidler">{{cite journal |author=Geoffrey C. Fidler |date=Spring–Summer 1985 |title=The Escuela Moderna Movement of Francisco Ferrer: "Por la Verdad y la Justicia" |journal=History of Education Quarterly |volume=25 |issue=1/2 |pages=103–132 |doi=10.2307/368893 |jstor=368893 |publisher=History of Education Society |ref=harv}}</ref> The schools' stated goal was to "educate the working class in a rational, secular and non-coercive setting". Fiercely anti-clerical, Ferrer believed in "freedom in education", education free from the authority of church and state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/spain/ferrer.html |title=Francisco Ferrer's Modern School |publisher=Flag.blackened.net |date= |access-date=20 September 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100807032003/http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/spain/ferrer.html| archivedate= 7 August 2010<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> Murray Bookchin wrote: "This period [1890s] was the heyday of libertarian schools and pedagogical projects in all areas of the country where Anarchists exercised some degree of influence. Perhaps the best-known effort in this field was Francisco Ferrer's Modern School (Escuela Moderna), a project which exercised a considerable influence on Catalan education and on experimental techniques of teaching generally".<ref>Chapter 7, ''Anarchosyndicalism, The New Ferment''. In Murray Bookchin, ''[[The Spanish Anarchists: The Heroic Years, 1868–1936]]''. AK Press, 1998, p. 115. {{ISBN|1-873176-04-X}}</ref> La Escuela Moderna and Ferrer's ideas generally formed the inspiration for a series of ''[[Modern School (United States)|Modern Schools]]'' in the United States,<ref name="Fidler"/> Cuba, South America and London. The first of these was started in New York City in 1911. It also inspired the Italian newspaper ''[[Università popolare (Italian newspaper)|Università popolare]]'', founded in 1901. Russian christian anarchist Leo Tolstoy established a school for peasant children on his estate.<ref name="GroupedRef2">{{cite web|url=http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Matt_Hern__The_Emergence_of_Compulsory_Schooling_and_Anarchist_Resistance.html |title=The Emergence of Compulsory Schooling and Anarchist Resistance |publisher=Theanarchistlibrary.org |date=21 September 2010 |access-date=16 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101221113805/http://theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Matt_Hern__The_Emergence_of_Compulsory_Schooling_and_Anarchist_Resistance.html |archive-date=21 December 2010 }}</ref> Tolstoy's educational experiments were short-lived due to harassment by the Tsarist secret police.<ref>{{cite book | last = Wilson | first = A.N. | title = Tolstoy | publisher = Norton, W. W. & Company, Inc. | year = 2001 | page = xxi | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=imYmH8myBUsC&pg=PR19 | isbn = 0-393-32122-3 | access-date = 29 October 2015 }}</ref> Tolstoy established a conceptual difference between education and culture.<ref name="GroupedRef2"/> He thought that "[e]ducation is the tendency of one man to make another just like himself&nbsp;[...] Education is culture under restraint, culture is free. [Education is] when the teaching is forced upon the pupil, and when then instruction is exclusive, that is when only those subjects are taught which the educator regards as necessary".<ref name="GroupedRef2" /> For him, "without compulsion, education was transformed into culture".<ref name="GroupedRef2"/> A more recent libertarian tradition on education is that of [[unschooling]] and the [[anarchist free school|free school]] in which child-led activity replaces pedagogic approaches. Experiments in Germany led to [[A. S. Neill]] founding what became [[Summerhill School]] in 1921.<ref>{{cite book | last = Purkis | first = Jon | title = Changing Anarchism | publisher = Manchester University Press | location = Manchester | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-7190-6694-8 }}</ref> Summerhill is often cited as an example of anarchism in practice.<ref>British anarchists [[Stuart Christie]] and Albert Meltzer manifested that "A.S. Neill is the modern pioneer of libertarian education and of "hearts not heads in the school". Though he has denied being an anarchist, it would be hard to know how else to describe his philosophy, though he is correct in recognising the difference between revolution in philosophy and pedagogy, and the revolutionary change of society. They are associated but not the same thing." Stuart Christie and Albert Meltzer. [http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/stuart-christie-albert-meltzer-the-floodgates-of-anarchy ''The Floodgates of Anarchy'']</ref><ref>Andrew Vincent (2010) ''Modern Political Ideologies'', 3rd edition, Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell p. 129</ref> However, although Summerhill and other free schools are radically libertarian, they differ in principle from those of Ferrer by not advocating an overtly political class struggle-approach.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Judith |last=Suissa |url=http://newhumanist.org.uk/1288/anarchy-in-the-classroom|title= Anarchy in the classroom |journal=[[The New Humanist]] |volume=120 |issue=5 |date=September–October 2005 |ref=harv|access-date=21 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100817005249/http://newhumanist.org.uk/1288/anarchy-in-the-classroom |archive-date=17 August 2010 }}</ref> In addition to organising schools according to libertarian principles, anarchists have also questioned the concept of schooling per se. The term [[deschooling]] was popularised by [[Ivan Illich]], who argued that the school as an institution is dysfunctional for self-determined learning and serves the creation of a consumer society instead.<ref>{{cite book |last=Illich| first=Ivan |title=Deschooling Society |place= New York|publisher= Harper and Row| year= 1971| isbn= 0-06-012139-4}}</ref> == List of anarchist societies == {{see also|List of anarchist communities}} * [[Kibbutz]] (1909–present)<ref>{{cite book|title=A Living Revolution: Anarchism in the Kibbutz Movement|last=Horrox|first=James|publisher=AK Press|year=2009|isbn=|location=Oakland|pages=}}</ref> * [[Fejuve|Federation of Neighborhood Councils-El Alto]] (Fejuve; 1979–present)<ref name="Gelderloos 2010"/> * [[Popular Indigenous Council of Oaxaca "Ricardo Flores Magón"]] (CIPO-RFM; 1980s–present)<ref name=":0">{{cite book|title=Teaching Rebellion: Stories from the Grassroots Mobilization in Oaxaca|last=Denham|first=Diana|publisher=PM Press|year=2008|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref> * [[Landless Workers' Movement]] (MST; 1982–present)<ref name="Gelderloos 2010"/> * [[Rebel Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities]] (MANEZ; 1994–present)<ref>{{cite book|title=Territories in Resistance: A Cartography of Latin American Social Movements|last=Zibechi|first=Raul|publisher=AK Press|year=2012|isbn=|location=Oakland|pages=132}}</ref> * [[Barbacha]] (2001–present)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://crimethinc.com/2017/11/02/other-rojavas-echoes-of-the-free-commune-of-barbacha-an-autonomous-uprising-in-north-africa-2012-2014|title=Other Rojavas: Echoes of the Free Commune of Barbacha|last=Collective|first=CrimethInc. Ex-Workers|work=CrimethInc.|accessdate=16 May 2018}}</ref> * [[Villa de Zaachila]] (2006–present)<ref name=":0"/> * [[Cherán|Cheran]] (2011–present)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-37612083|title=Cheran: the town that threw out police, politicians and gangsters|last=Pressly|first=Linda|date=13 October 2016|work=BBC|accessdate=}}</ref> * [[Democratic Federation of Northern Syria]] (Rojava; 2013–present)<ref>{{cite news|url=|title=Our Perspectives and Tasks on the Revolution in Rojava|last=|first=|date=4 August 2015|work=Black Rose Anarchist Federation|accessdate=}}</ref> == Criticisms == {{main|Criticisms of anarchism}} Criticisms of anarchism include moral criticisms and pragmatic criticisms. Anarchism is often evaluated as unfeasible or [[utopian]] by its critics. == See also == * [[:Category:Anarchism by country|Anarchism by country]] * [[Antinomianism]] * [[List of political ideologies#Anarchism|List of anarchist political ideologies]] == References == {{reflist}} == Sources == === Primary === * {{cite book|ref=harv|last=Armand|first=Émile |authorlink=Émile Armand|title= Realism and Idealism Mixed|url=http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/emile-armand-anarchist-individualism-and-amorous-comradeship#toc17|year=1926|publisher=International Library|location=Paris|note = translated by J, 2004. The texts in this anthology come from the book Anarchist Individualist Initiation, published by The Friends of Armand, Florence, Italy, 1956. To live one’s own life: from the book Realism and Idealism Mixed, by Emile Armand. Published by the International Library, Paris, 1926 (Spanish version). Lemon Drops: Fragments from the book Amorous Camaraderie. A Full Life: in Free love and subversive sexuality — voluntary procreation. Conscious Generation Editorial Library, Valencia, 193? Reflections on poetic language and its modes of expression and Poems: from the book, So sang an “outsider”, 1925. Commentary without pretensions: Article published in the magazine Zenith, #98, February 1959.}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|last=Bakunin|first=Mikhail Aleksandrovich |authorlink=Mikhail Bakunin|title=God and the State|url=http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/bakunin/godandstate/godandstate_ch1.html|year=1882}} * {{cite web|url=http://www.iaf-ifa.org/principles/english.html|title=IAF principles|publisher=[[International of Anarchist Federations]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120105095946/http://www.iaf-ifa.org/principles/english.html|archivedate=5 January 2012|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|last=Kropotkin|first=Pëtr |authorlink=Peter Kropotkin|title=Anarchism: Its Philosophy and Ideal|url=http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/petr-kropotkin-anarchism-its-philosophy-and-ideal|year=1898|publisher=Independently |isbn=978-1-5495-4530-6}} * {{cite book|authorlink=Peter Kropotkin|last=Kropotkin|first=Peter|title=Anarchism: A Collection of Revolutionary Writings|publisher=Courier Dover Publications|year=2002|page=5|isbn=0-486-41955-X| ref = harv}} * {{cite book|url = https://www.panarchy.org/proudhon/state.html| title =The State: Its Nature, Object, and Destiny |authorlink=Pierre-Joseph Proudhon| first = Pierre-Joseph |last = Proudhon| year = 1849 |ref = harv}} * {{cite web|ref = harv| author =The Anarchist FAQ Editorial Collective |url = http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/The_Anarchist_FAQ_Editorial_Collective__An_Anarchist_FAQ__03_17_.html#toc2| title = An Anarchist FAQ|year = 2017}} === Secondary === * {{cite book|last=Brooks|first=Frank H.|year=1994|title=The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (1881–1908)|publisher=Transaction Publishers|ref=harv |isbn=1-56000-132-1}} * {{cite book |last=Flint |date=23 April 2009 |first=Colin |section=Anarchism |editor=Derek Gregory |editor2=Ron Johnston |editor3=Geraldine Pratt |editor4=Michael Watts |editor5=Sarah Whatmore |title=The Dictionary of Human Geography |edition=5th |url=http://www.univpgri-palembang.ac.id/perpus-fkip/Perpustakaan/Geography/Kamus%20Geografi/Kamus%20Geografi%20Manusia.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150523054520/http://www.univpgri-palembang.ac.id/perpus-fkip/Perpustakaan/Geography/Kamus%20Geografi/Kamus%20Geografi%20Manusia.pdf |archivedate=23 May 2015 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-3287-9 |editorlink=Derek Gregory |editorlink2=Ron Johnston (geographer) |editorlink4=Michael Watts |editorlink5=Sarah Whatmore (geographer) |ref = harv }} * {{cite journal|first = R.B.|last = Fowler|title=The Anarchist Tradition of Political Thought|year=1972|journal=Western Political Quarterly|volume=25|issue=4|pages=738–752|doi=10.2307/446800|publisher=University of Utah|jstor=446800|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Graham|first=Robert|title=Anarchism: a Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas: from Anarchy to Anarchism|publisher=Black Rose Books|location=Montréal|year=2005|isbn=1-55164-250-6|authorlink=Robert Graham (historian)|url=http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/anarchism-a-documentary-history-of-libertarian-ideas-volume-one-from-anarchy-to-anarchism-300ce-1939/|access-date=5 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101130131904/http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/anarchism-a-documentary-history-of-libertarian-ideas-volume-one-from-anarchy-to-anarchism-300ce-1939/|archive-date=30 November 2010|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Guerin|first=Daniel |authorlink=Daniel Guérin|title=Anarchism: from theory to practice|url=http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/daniel-guerin-anarchism-from-theory-to-practice|year=1970|publisher=Monthly Review Press |ref = harv}} * {{cite book|title=The Anarchists|last=Joll|first=James|authorlink = James Joll|year=1964|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=0-674-03642-5|ref=harv}} * {{cite journal|first=Joseph|last= Kahn|title=Anarchism, the Creed That Won't Stay Dead; The Spread of World Capitalism Resurrects a Long-Dormant Movement|year=2000|journal=[[The New York Times]]|issue=5 August|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Marshall|first=Peter|authorlink = Peter Marshall (author)|title=Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism|year=2010|publisher=PM Press|place=Oakland, CA|isbn=978-1-60486-064-1|ref = harv}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|last=Morris|first=Christopher W. |title=An Essay on the Modern State|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uuyJ9Bw8w7QC|date=29 July 2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-52407-0}} * {{cite journal|first = Colin |last = Moynihan|title=Book Fair Unites Anarchists. In Spirit, Anyway|year=2007|journal=New York Times|issue=16 April|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|title=A Short History of Anarchism|last=Nettlau|first=Max|authorlink=Max Nettlau|year=1996|publisher=Freedom Press|isbn=0-900384-89-1|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=McLaughlin |date=2007-11-28 |first=Paul |title=Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism |url=https://we.riseup.net/assets/394498/paul-mclaughlin-anarchism-and-authority-a-philosophical-introduction-to-classical-anarchism-1.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804180522/https://we.riseup.net/assets/394498/paul-mclaughlin-anarchism-and-authority-a-philosophical-introduction-to-classical-anarchism-1.pdf |archivedate=4 August 2018 |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing|Ashgate]] |place=[[Aldershot]] |isbn=978-0-7546-6196-2 |ref = harv }} * {{cite book |last=Sheehan |date=1 June 2003 |first=Sean |title=Anarchism |url={{google books|dYTxAQAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=Reaktion Books |place=London |p=85 |isbn=978-1-86189-169-3 |ref = harv }} * {{cite book |last=Sylvan |year = 2007 |first=Richard |section=Anarchism |editor=Robert E. Goodin |editor2=Philip Pettit |editor3=Thomas Pogge |title=A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy |edition=2nd |url=http://eltalondeaquiles.pucp.edu.pe/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Robert-E--Goodin-Philip-Pettit-Thomas-W--Pogge-A-Companion-to-Contemporary-Political-Philosophy-2-Volume-Set-Blackwell-Companions-to-Philosophy-2007.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517032711/http://eltalondeaquiles.pucp.edu.pe/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Robert-E--Goodin-Philip-Pettit-Thomas-W--Pogge-A-Companion-to-Contemporary-Political-Philosophy-2-Volume-Set-Blackwell-Companions-to-Philosophy-2007.pdf |archivedate=17 May 2017 |series=Blackwell Companions to Philosophy |volume=5 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |isbn=978-1-405-13653-2 |authorlink=Richard Sylvan |editorlink=Robert E. Goodin |editorlink2=Philip Pettit |editorlink3=Thomas Pogge }} * {{cite book |first=Judith |last = Suissa |year=2006 |title=Anarchism and Education: A philosophical perspective |url=http://rebels-library.org/files/anarchismandeducation.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402095224/http://rebels-library.org/files/anarchismandeducation.pdf |archivedate=2 April 2015 |publisher=Routledge |place=New York |p=7 |isbn=978-0-415-37194-0 |quote=}} === Tertiary (Encyclopedias and Dictionaries) === * {{cite encyclopedia |first = Gerorge|last = Woodcock|author-link=George Woodcock |date= |title=Anarchism |editor= |encyclopedia=The [[Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |publisher= |isbn= |ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia|section=Anarchism |title=The Shorter [[Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |first =Edward |last = Craig |date=2005-03-31 |p=14 |quote=. |isbn=978-0-415-32495-3 |editorlink=Edward Craig (philosopher)|ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia|section=Anarchism| url = http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Petr_Kropotkin___Anarchism__from_the_Encyclopaedia_Britannica.html |first = Peter |last = Kropotkin| title ="Anarchism" |encyclopedia =[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|year = 1910|ref = harv }} * {{cite book|first1 = Iain|last1 = McLean| first2 = Alistair | last2 = McMillan|title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rNJjQgAACAAJ|year=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-280276-7| ref = harv}} * {{cite book|first = Geoffrey| last = Ostergaard| authorlink= Geoffrey Ostergaard| title = The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought| publisher =Blackwell Publishing|ref = harv}} * {{cite web | title=Anarchism | website=Origin and meaning of anarchism by Online Etymology Dictionary | url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/anarchism | ref={{sfnref | Origin and meaning of anarchism by Online Etymology Dictionary}} | access-date=2018-09-15}} * {{cite web | title=Definition of ANARCHY | website=Definition of Anarchy by Merriam-Webster | date=2018-09-10 | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anarchy | ref={{sfnref | Definition of Anarchy by Merriam-Webster | 2018}} | access-date=2018-09-15}} * {{cite web | title=Definition of ANARCHY | website=Definition of Anarchy by Merriam-Webster | date=2018-09-10 | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anarchy | ref={{sfnref | Definition of Anarchy by Merriam-Webster | 2018}} | access-date=2018-09-15}} * {{cite web | title=Dictionnaire des usages socio-politiques (1770–1815) | website=Google Books | url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Dictionnaire_des_usages_socio_politiques.html?id=GOkSKE57mdYC | language=fr | ref={{sfnref | Google Books}} | access-date=2018-09-15}} == Further reading == * [[Harold Barclay|Barclay, Harold]], ''People Without Government: An Anthropology of Anarchy'' (2nd ed.), Left Bank Books, 1990 {{ISBN|1-871082-16-1}}. * [[April Carter|Carter, April]], ''The Political Theory of Anarchism'', Harper & Row. 1971. {{ISBN|978-0-06-136050-3}}. * Federici, Silvia, ''[http://libcom.org/library/caliban-witch-silvia-federici Caliban and the Witch: Women, the Body, and Primitive Accumulation]'', Autonomedia, 2004. {{ISBN|9781570270598}}. * [[Daniel Guérin|Guérin, Daniel]], [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Daniel_Guerin__Anarchism__From_Theory_to_Practice.html ''Anarchism: From Theory to Practice''], Monthly Review Press. 1970. {{ISBN|0-85345-175-3}}. * [[Clifford Harper|Harper, Clifford]], ''Anarchy: A Graphic Guide'', (Camden Press, 1987): An overview, updating Woodcock's classic and illustrated throughout by Harper's woodcut-style artwork. * [[Ursula Le Guin|Le Guin, Ursula]], ''[[The Dispossessed]]'', New York : Harper & Row, 1974. {{ISBN|0-06-012563-2}} (first edition, hardcover). * [[Max Nettlau|Nettlau, Max]], ''Anarchy through the times'', Gordon Press. 1979. {{ISBN|0-8490-1397-6}}. * {{cite book|author=Sartwell, Crispin|title=Against the state: an introduction to anarchist political theory|publisher=SUNY Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-7914-7447-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bk-aaMVGKO0C|accessdate=29 October 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509034242/https://books.google.com/books?id=bk-aaMVGKO0C|archivedate=9 May 2016}} * [[James C. Scott|Scott, James C.]], ''[[Two Cheers for Anarchism: Six Easy Pieces on Autonomy, Dignity, and Meaningful Work and Play]]'', Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012. {{ISBN|978-0691155296}}. * {{cite book|author=[[The Invisible Committee]]|date=2007|title=[[The Coming Insurrection]]|publisher=[[Semiotext(e)]]|isbn=978-1584350804}} * Woodcock, George, ed., ''The Anarchist Reader'' (Fontana/Collins 1977; {{ISBN|0-00-634011-3}}): An anthology of writings from anarchist thinkers and activists including Proudhon, Kropotkin, Bakunin, Malatesta, Bookchin, Goldman and many others. == External links == {{Sister project links|voy=no|n=no|v=no|b=Subject:Anarchism|s=Portal:Anarchism|d=Q6199|c=Category:Anarchism}} * {{Curlie|Society/Politics/Anarchism/}}. * {{In Our Time|Anarchism|p0038x9t|Anarchism}} <!-- Attention! The external link portion of this article regularly grows far beyond manageable size. 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[[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Amoeba]] {{Redirect category shell|1= {{R from CamelCase}} }} ehl9qk3qz207n09xw0qj0wargvzjh4s 0 25 861927123 861853977 2018-10-01T01:11:49Z PohranicniStraze 13080272 removed link to deleted page wikitext text/x-wiki {{about|the classic autistic disorder|other conditions sometimes called "autism"|Autism spectrum|the journal|Autism (journal)}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{bots|deny=Monkbot}} <!-- keep Monkbot from visiting this page --> {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}} {{Use American English|date=August 2016}} {{Infobox medical condition (new) | name = Autism | image = Autism-stacking-cans 2nd edit.jpg | alt = Boy stacking cans | caption = Repetitively stacking or lining up objects is associated with autism. | field = [[Psychiatry]] | symptoms = Trouble with [[Interpersonal relationship|social interaction]], impaired [[communication]], restricted interests, repetitive behavior<ref name=Land2008/> | complications = | onset = By age two or three<ref name=NIH2016>{{cite web |title= NIMH " Autism Spectrum Disorder |url= https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/autism-spectrum-disorders-asd/index.shtml |website= nimh.nih.gov |accessdate= 20 April 2017 |language=en |date= October 2016}}</ref><ref name=DSM5/> | duration = Long-term<ref name=NIH2016/> | causes = [[Heritability of autism|Genetic]] and environmental factors<ref name=Ch2012/> | risks = | diagnosis = Based on behavior and developmental history<ref name=NIH2016/> | differential = [[Reactive attachment disorder]], [[intellectual disability]], [[schizophrenia]]<ref>{{cite book |first1= Jacqueline |last1= Corcoran |first2=Joseph |last2=Walsh |title= Clinical Assessment and Diagnosis in Social Work Practice |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=y28kokLoe78C&pg=PA72 |publisher= Oxford University Press, USA |date=9 February 2006 |isbn= 9780195168303 |via=Google Books |page=72 }}</ref> | prevention = | treatment = Early speech and [[Early intensive behavioral intervention|behavioral interventions]]<ref name=CCD2007/> | medication = | prognosis = Frequently poor<ref name=Ste106/> | frequency = 24.8 million (2015)<ref name=GBD2015Pre>{{cite journal|last1=GBD 2015 Disease and Injury Incidence and Prevalence|first1=Collaborators.|title=Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990–2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015|journal=Lancet|date=8 October 2016|volume=388|issue=10053|pages=1545–1602|pmid=27733282|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31678-6|pmc=5055577}}</ref> | deaths = }} <!-- Definition and symptoms --> '''Autism''' is a [[developmental disorder]] characterized by troubles with [[social interaction]] and [[communication]] and by restricted and repetitive [[behavior]].<ref name=DSM5 /> Parents usually notice signs in the first two or three years of their child's life.<ref name="Land2008">{{cite journal |vauthors= Landa RJ |title= Diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders in the first 3 years of life |journal= Nat Clin Pract Neurol | volume= 4 |issue=3 |pages=138–47 |year=2008 |pmid= 18253102 |doi= 10.1038/ncpneuro0731 | doi-access= free}}</ref><ref name=DSM5>{{vcite book | title = Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition | chapter = Autism Spectrum Disorder, 299.00 (F84.0) | editor = American Psychiatric Association | year = 2013 | publisher = American Psychiatric Publishing | pagex = 50–59}}</ref> These signs often develop gradually, though some children with autism reach their [[developmental milestones]] at a normal pace and then [[Regressive autism|worsen]].<ref name=Stef2008>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Stefanatos GA | title = Regression in autistic spectrum disorders | journal = Neuropsychol Rev | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 305–19 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18956241 | doi = 10.1007/s11065-008-9073-y}}</ref> <!-- Associations and diagnosis --> Autism is associated with a combination of [[Heritability of autism|genetic]] and [[environmental factors]].<ref name="Ch2012">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chaste P, Leboyer M |title=Autism risk factors: genes, environment, and gene-environment interactions |journal=Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=281–92 |year=2012 |pmid=23226953 |pmc=3513682}}</ref> Risk factors include certain [[infection]]s during [[pregnancy]], such as [[rubella]], as well as [[valproic acid]], [[Alcohol (drug)|alcohol]] or [[cocaine]] use during pregnancy.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Prenatal factors associated with autism spectrum disorder (ASD)|vauthors=Ornoy A, Weinstein-Fudim L, Ergaz Z|journal=Reproductive Toxicology|volume=56|year=2015|pages=155–169|doi=10.1016/j.reprotox.2015.05.007|pmid=26021712}}</ref> [[Controversies in autism|Controversies]] surround other proposed environmental [[Causes of autism|causes]], for example the [[MMR vaccine controversy|vaccine hypotheses]], which have been disproven.<ref name=Rut2005>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rutter M | title = Incidence of autism spectrum disorders: changes over time and their meaning | journal = Acta Paediatr | volume = 94 | issue = 1 | pages = 2–15 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15858952 | doi = 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2005.tb01779.x}}</ref> Autism affects information processing in the [[brain]] by altering how [[nerve cell]]s and their [[synapse]]s connect and organize; how this occurs is not well understood.<ref name="Lev2009">{{cite journal | vauthors = Levy SE, Mandell DS, Schultz RT | title = Autism | journal = Lancet | volume = 374 | issue = 9701 | pages = 1627–38 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19819542 | pmc = 2863325 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61376-3}}</ref> In the [[DSM-5]], autism is included within the [[autism spectrum]] (ASDs), along with [[Asperger syndrome]], which is less severe, and [[pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified]] (PDD-NOS).<ref name=DSM5 /><ref name="John2007">{{cite journal | vauthors = Johnson CP, Myers SM | title = Identification and evaluation of children with autism spectrum disorders | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 120 | issue = 5 | pages = 1183–215 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17967920 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2007-2361 | url = http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/120/5/1183 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090208013449/http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/120/5/1183 | archivedate = 8 February 2009 | doi-access = free}}</ref> <!-- Treatment --> Early speech or [[Early intensive behavioral intervention|behavioral interventions]] can help children with autism gain [[self-care]], social skills and communication skills.<ref name="CCD2007">{{cite journal | vauthors = Myers SM, Johnson CP | title = Management of children with autism spectrum disorders | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 120 | issue = 5 | pages = 1162–82 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17967921 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2007-2362 | doi-access = free}}</ref> Although there is no known [[cure]],<ref name=CCD2007 /> there have been cases of children who have recovered from the condition.<ref name=Helt2008>{{cite journal | vauthors = Helt M, Kelley E, Kinsbourne M, Pandey J, Boorstein H, Herbert M, Fein D | title = Can children with autism recover? if so, how? | journal = Neuropsychol Rev | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 339–66 | year = 2008 | pmid = 19009353 | doi = 10.1007/s11065-008-9075-9 | url = https://www.academia.edu/16961306| citeseerx = 10.1.1.695.2995 }}</ref> Not many children with autism live independently after reaching adulthood, though some are successful.<ref name=Ste106>{{cite journal|last1=Steinhausen|first1=HC|last2=Mohr Jensen |first2=C |last3=Lauritsen |first3=MB |title=A systematic review and meta-analysis of the long-term overall outcome of autism spectrum disorders in adolescence and adulthood|journal=Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica|date=June 2016|volume=133|issue=6|pages=445–52|doi=10.1111/acps.12559|pmid=26763353}}</ref> An [[Societal and cultural aspects of autism|autistic culture]] has developed, with some individuals seeking a cure and others believing autism should be [[Autism rights movement|accepted as a difference and not treated as a disorder]].<ref name=Sil2008>{{cite journal |journal=BioSocieties |year=2008 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=325–41 |title=Fieldwork on another planet: social science perspectives on the autism spectrum | vauthors = Silverman C |doi=10.1017/S1745855208006236}}</ref><ref name=Frith2014>{{cite news |last=Frith |first=Uta |title=Autism - are we any closer to explaining the enigma? |url=https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-27/edition-10/autism-are-we-any-closer-explaining-enigma |work=[[The Psychologist (magazine)|The Psychologist]] |publisher=[[British Psychological Society]] |date=October 2014 |volume=27 |pages=744–745}}</ref> <!-- Epidemiology --> Globally, autism is estimated to affect 24.8 million people as of 2015.<ref name=GBD2015Pre /> In the 2000s, the number of people affected was estimated at 1–2 per 1,000 people worldwide.<ref name=News2007 /> In the [[developed countries]], about 1.5% of children are diagnosed with ASD {{as of|2017|lc=y}},<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lyall|first1=K|last2=Croen|first2=L|last3=Daniels|first3=J|last4=Fallin|first4=MD|last5=Ladd-Acosta|first5=C|last6=Lee|first6=BK|last7=Park|first7=BY|last8=Snyder|first8=NW|last9=Schendel|first9=D|last10=Volk|first10=H|last11=Windham|first11=GC|last12=Newschaffer|first12=C|title=The Changing Epidemiology of Autism Spectrum Disorders|journal=Annual Review of Public Health|date=20 March 2017|volume=38|pages=81–102|doi=10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031816-044318|pmid=28068486}}</ref> a more than doubling from 0.7% in 2000 in the United States.<ref name=ASD2016>{{cite web |url = https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/data.html |title = ASD Data and Statistics |publisher = CDC.gov |access-date= 11 July 2016 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20140418153648/http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/data.html |archivedate = 18 April 2014}}</ref> It occurs four-to-five times more often in boys than girls.<ref name=ASD2016 /> The number of people diagnosed has increased dramatically since the 1960s, partly due to changes in diagnostic practice; the question of whether actual rates have increased is unresolved.<ref name=News2007>{{cite journal | vauthors = Newschaffer CJ, Croen LA, Daniels J, Giarelli E, Grether JK, Levy SE, Mandell DS, Miller LA, Pinto-Martin J, Reaven J, Reynolds AM, Rice CE, Schendel D, Windham GC | title = The epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders | journal = Annu Rev Public Health | volume = 28 | pages = 235–58 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17367287 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.28.021406.144007 | url = http://idea.library.drexel.edu/bitstream/1860/2632/1/2006175339.pdf | format = PDF | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20130903024137/http://idea.library.drexel.edu/bitstream/1860/2632/1/2006175339.pdf | archivedate = 3 September 2013}}</ref> ==Characteristics== Autism is a highly variable [[neurodevelopmental disorder]]<ref name=Geschwind /> that first appears during [[Infant|infancy]] or [[childhood]], and generally follows a steady course without [[Remission (medicine)|remission]].<ref name=ICD-10-F84.0 /> People with autism may be severely impaired in some respects but normal, or even superior, in others.<ref>{{vcite book|title = Biopsychology|author= Pinel JPG|publisher = Pearson|year = 2011|isbn = 978-0-205-03099-6|location = Boston, Massachusetts|page = 235}}</ref> Overt symptoms gradually begin after the age of six months, become established by age two or three years<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rogers SJ | title = What are infant siblings teaching us about autism in infancy? | journal = Autism Res | volume = 2 | issue = 3 | pages = 125–37 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19582867 | pmc = 2791538 | doi = 10.1002/aur.81}}</ref> and tend to continue through adulthood, although often in more muted form.<ref name=Rapin /> It is distinguished not by a single symptom but by a characteristic triad of symptoms: impairments in social interaction; impairments in communication; and restricted interests and repetitive behavior. Other aspects, such as atypical eating, are also common but are not essential for diagnosis.<ref name=Filipek /> Individual symptoms of autism occur in the general population and appear not to associate highly, without a sharp line separating pathologically severe from common traits.<ref name=London /> ===Social development=== Social deficits distinguish autism and the related [[autism spectrum disorder]]s (ASD; see [[#Classification|Classification]]) from other developmental disorders.<ref name=Rapin /> People with autism have social impairments and often lack the intuition about others that many people take for granted. Noted autistic [[Temple Grandin]] described her inability to understand the [[social communication]] of [[neurotypical]]s, or people with normal [[neural development]], as leaving her feeling "like an anthropologist on Mars".<ref>{{vcite book |title=[[An Anthropologist on Mars]]: Seven Paradoxical Tales |author=[[Oliver Sacks|Sacks O]] |publisher=Knopf |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-679-43785-7}}</ref> Unusual social development becomes apparent early in childhood.<!-- ref name=Volkmar/ --> Autistic infants show less attention to social stimuli, smile and look at others less often, and respond less to their own name. Autistic toddlers differ more strikingly from [[social norms]]; for example, they have less [[eye contact]] and [[turn-taking]], and do not have the ability to use simple movements to express themselves, such as pointing at things.<ref name=Volkmar /> Three- to five-year-old children with autism are less likely to exhibit social understanding, approach others spontaneously, imitate and respond to emotions, communicate [[nonverbal autism|nonverbal]]ly, and take turns with others. However, they do form [[Attachment (psychology)|attachments]] to their primary caregivers.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sigman M, Dijamco A, Gratier M, Rozga A | title = Early detection of core deficits in autism | journal = Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev | volume = 10 | issue = 4 | pages = 221–33 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15666338 | doi = 10.1002/mrdd.20046 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.492.9930}}</ref> Most children with autism display moderately less [[Attachment in children#Secure attachment|attachment security]] than neurotypical children, although this difference disappears in children with higher mental development or less severe ASD.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rutgers AH, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, van Ijzendoorn MH, van Berckelaer-Onnes IA | title = Autism and attachment: a meta-analytic review | journal = J Child Psychol Psychiatry | volume = 45 | issue = 6 | pages = 1123–34 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15257669 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.t01-1-00305.x}}</ref> Older children and adults with ASD [[Face perception#Face perception in individuals with autism|perform worse on tests of face and emotion recognition]]<ref name="Sigman">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sigman M, Spence SJ, Wang AT | title = Autism from developmental and neuropsychological perspectives | journal = Annu Rev Clin Psychol | volume = 2 | pages = 327–55 | year = 2006 | pmid = 17716073 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.2.022305.095210}}</ref> although this may be partly due to a lower ability to define a person's own emotions.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Mixed emotions: the contribution of alexithymia to the emotional symptoms of autism|url = http://www.nature.com/tp/journal/v3/n7/full/tp201361a.html|journal = Translational Psychiatry|date = 23 July 2013|pmc = 3731793|pmid = 23880881|pages = e285|volume = 3|issue = 7|doi = 10.1038/tp.2013.61|first = G.|last = Bird|first2 = R.|last2 = Cook}}</ref> Children with high-functioning autism suffer from more intense and frequent loneliness compared to non-autistic peers, despite the common belief that children with autism prefer to be alone. Making and maintaining friendships often proves to be difficult for those with autism. For them, the quality of friendships, not the number of friends, predicts how lonely they feel. Functional friendships, such as those resulting in invitations to parties, may affect the quality of life more deeply.<ref name=Burgess /> There are many anecdotal reports, but few systematic studies, of aggression and violence in individuals with ASD. The limited data suggest that, in children with intellectual disability, autism is associated with aggression, destruction of property, and [[tantrum]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors= Matson JL, Nebel-Schwalm M |title= Assessing challenging behaviors in children with autism spectrum disorders: A review |journal= Research in Developmental Disabilities |volume= 28 |issue=6 |pages= 567–79 |date= November 2007 |pmid= 16973329 |doi= 10.1016/j.ridd.2006.08.001 |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6818390}}</ref> ===Communication=== About a third to a half of individuals with autism do not develop enough natural speech to meet their daily communication needs.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors= Noens I, van Berckelaer-Onnes I, Verpoorten R, van Duijn G |title= The ComFor: an instrument for the indication of augmentative communication in people with autism and intellectual disability |journal= J Intellect Disabil Res |volume= 50 |issue=9 |pages= 621–32 |year = 2006 |pmid= 16901289 |doi= 10.1111/j.1365-2788.2006.00807.x |url= https://lirias.kuleuven.be/handle/123456789/216355}}</ref> Differences in communication may be present from the first year of life, and may include delayed onset of [[babbling]], unusual gestures, diminished responsiveness, and vocal patterns that are not synchronized with the caregiver. In the second and third years, children with autism have less frequent and less diverse babbling, consonants, words, and word combinations; their gestures are less often integrated with words. Children with autism are less likely to make requests or share experiences, and are more likely to simply repeat others' words ([[echolalia]])<ref name=Landa /><ref name=Tager-Flusberg /> or [[Pronoun reversal|reverse pronouns]].<ref name=Kanner1943 /> [[Joint attention]] seems to be necessary for functional speech, and deficits in joint attention seem to distinguish infants with ASD:<ref name=John2007 /> for example, they may look at a pointing hand instead of the pointed-at object,<ref name=Volkmar /><ref name=Tager-Flusberg /> and they consistently fail to point at objects in order to comment on or share an experience.<ref name=John2007 /> Children with autism may have difficulty with imaginative play and with developing symbols into language.<ref name="Landa">{{cite journal | vauthors = Landa R | title = Early communication development and intervention for children with autism | journal = Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 16–25 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17326115 | doi = 10.1002/mrdd.20134}}</ref><ref name="Tager-Flusberg">{{cite journal | vauthors = Tager-Flusberg H, Caronna E | title = Language disorders: autism and other pervasive developmental disorders | journal = Pediatr Clin North Am | volume = 54 | issue = 3 | pages = 469–81 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17543905 | doi = 10.1016/j.pcl.2007.02.011 | url = https://www.academia.edu/19351942}}</ref> In a pair of studies, high-functioning children with autism aged 8–15 performed equally well as, and as adults better than, individually matched controls at basic language tasks involving vocabulary and spelling. Both autistic groups performed worse than controls at complex language tasks such as figurative language, comprehension and inference. As people are often sized up initially from their basic language skills, these studies suggest that people speaking to autistic individuals are more likely to overestimate what their audience comprehends.<ref name=Williams /> ===Repetitive behavior=== [[File:Autistic-sweetiepie-boy-with-ducksinarow.jpg|thumb|alt=Sleeping boy beside a dozen or so toys arranged in a line|A young boy with autism who has arranged his toys in a row]] Autistic individuals can display many forms of repetitive or restricted behavior, which the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS-R) categorizes as follows.<ref name=Lam-Aman /> * [[Stereotypy|Stereotyped behaviors]]: Repetitive movements, such as hand flapping, head rolling, or body rocking. * [[Compulsive behavior]]s: Time-consuming behaviors intended to reduce anxiety that an individual feels compelled to perform repeatedly or according to rigid rules, such as placing objects in a specific order, checking things, or hand washing. * Sameness: Resistance to change; for example, insisting that the furniture not be moved or refusing to be interrupted. * [[Ritual#Psychology|Ritualistic behavior]]: Unvarying pattern of daily activities, such as an unchanging menu or a dressing ritual. This is closely associated with sameness and an independent validation has suggested combining the two factors.<ref name="Lam-Aman">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lam KS, Aman MG | title = The Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised: independent validation in individuals with autism spectrum disorders | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 37 | issue = 5 | pages = 855–66 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17048092 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-006-0213-z | url = https://www.academia.edu/14013119}}</ref> * Restricted interests: Interests or fixations that are abnormal in theme or intensity of focus, such as preoccupation with a single television program, toy, or game. * [[Self-injury]]: Behaviors such as eye-poking, [[Dermatillomania|skin-picking]], hand-biting and head-banging.<ref name=John2007 /> No single repetitive or self-injurious behavior seems to be specific to autism, but autism appears to have an elevated pattern of occurrence and severity of these behaviors.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bodfish JW, Symons FJ, Parker DE, Lewis MH | title = Varieties of repetitive behavior in autism: comparisons to mental retardation | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 30 | issue = 3 | pages = 237–43 | year = 2000 | pmid = 11055459 | doi = 10.1023/A:1005596502855}}</ref> ===Other symptoms=== [[File:Kahrizak Charity Sanitorium -Autists children (13961208000526636553316060841443 20123).jpg|thumb|A girl with autism.]] Autistic individuals may have symptoms that are independent of the diagnosis, but that can affect the individual or the family.<ref name="Filipek">{{cite journal | vauthors = Filipek PA, Accardo PJ, Baranek GT, Cook EH, Dawson G, Gordon B, Gravel JS, Johnson CP, Kallen RJ, Levy SE, Minshew NJ, Ozonoff S, Prizant BM, Rapin I, Rogers SJ, Stone WL, Teplin S, Tuchman RF, Volkmar FR | title = The screening and diagnosis of autistic spectrum disorders | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 29 | issue = 6 | pages = 439–84 | year = 1999 | pmid = 10638459 | doi = 10.1023/A:1021943802493 | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226316745}} This paper represents a consensus of representatives from nine professional and four parent organizations in the US.</ref> An estimated 0.5% to 10% of individuals with ASD show unusual abilities, ranging from [[splinter skill]]s such as the memorization of trivia to the extraordinarily rare talents of prodigious [[Savant syndrome|autistic savants]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Treffert DA | title = The savant syndrome: an extraordinary condition. A synopsis: past, present, future | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B | volume = 364 | issue = 1522 | pages = 1351–7 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19528017 | pmc = 2677584 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2008.0326 | url = http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1522/1351.full | laysummary = https://www.wisconsinmedicalsociety.org/professional/savant-syndrome/savant-syndrome-overview/ | laysource = Wisconsin Medical Society}}</ref> Many individuals with ASD show superior skills in perception and attention, relative to the general population.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Plaisted Grant K, Davis G | title = Perception and apperception in autism: rejecting the inverse assumption | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B | volume = 364 | issue = 1522 | pages = 1393–8 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19528022 | pmc = 2677593 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2009.0001 | url = http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1522/1393.full}}</ref> [[Sensory system|Sensory]] abnormalities are found in over 90% of those with autism, and are considered core features by some,<ref name="Geschwind-2009">{{cite journal | vauthors = Geschwind DH | title = Advances in autism | journal = Annu Rev Med | volume = 60 | pages = 367–80 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19630577 | pmc = 3645857 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.med.60.053107.121225}}</ref> although there is no good evidence that sensory symptoms differentiate autism from other developmental disorders.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rogers SJ, Ozonoff S | title = Annotation: what do we know about sensory dysfunction in autism? A critical review of the empirical evidence | journal = J Child Psychol Psychiatry | volume = 46 | issue = 12 | pages = 1255–68 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16313426 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01431.x}}</ref> Differences are greater for under-responsivity (for example, walking into things) than for over-responsivity (for example, distress from loud noises) or for sensation seeking (for example, rhythmic movements).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ben-Sasson A, Hen L, Fluss R, Cermak SA, Engel-Yeger B, Gal E | title = A meta-analysis of sensory modulation symptoms in individuals with autism spectrum disorders | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 39 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–11 | year = 2009 | pmid = 18512135 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-008-0593-3 | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5339089}}</ref> An estimated 60%–80% of autistic people have motor signs that include [[Hypotonia|poor muscle tone]], [[Apraxia|poor motor planning]], and [[toe walking]];<ref name=Geschwind-2009 /> deficits in motor coordination are pervasive across ASD and are greater in autism proper.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fournier KA, Hass CJ, Naik SK, Lodha N, Cauraugh JH | title = Motor coordination in autism spectrum disorders: a synthesis and meta-analysis | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 40| issue = 10 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20195737 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-010-0981-3 | pages=1227–40}}</ref> Unusual eating behavior occurs in about three-quarters of children with ASD, to the extent that it was formerly a diagnostic indicator. Selectivity is the most common problem, although eating rituals and food refusal also occur;<ref name="Dominick">{{cite journal | vauthors = Dominick KC, Davis NO, Lainhart J, Tager-Flusberg H, Folstein S | title = Atypical behaviors in children with autism and children with a history of language impairment | journal = Res Dev Disabil | volume = 28 | issue = 2 | pages = 145–62 | year = 2007 | pmid = 16581226 | doi = 10.1016/j.ridd.2006.02.003 | url = https://www.academia.edu/19351952}}</ref> this does not appear to result in [[malnutrition]]. Although some children with autism also have [[gastrointestinal symptom]]s, there is a lack of published rigorous data to support the theory that children with autism have more or different gastrointestinal symptoms than usual;<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Erickson CA, Stigler KA, Corkins MR, Posey DJ, Fitzgerald JF, McDougle CJ | title = Gastrointestinal factors in autistic disorder: a critical review | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 35 | issue = 6 | pages = 713–27 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16267642 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-005-0019-4 | url = https://www.academia.edu/6663271}}</ref> studies report conflicting results, and the relationship between gastrointestinal problems and ASD is unclear.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Buie T, Campbell DB, Fuchs GJ, Furuta GT, Levy J, Vandewater J, Whitaker AH, Atkins D, Bauman ML, Beaudet AL, Carr EG, Gershon MD, Hyman SL, Jirapinyo P, Jyonouchi H, Kooros K, Kushak R, Levitt P, Levy SE, Lewis JD, Murray KF, Natowicz MR, Sabra A, Wershil BK, Weston SC, Zeltzer L, Winter H |title= Evaluation, diagnosis, and treatment of gastrointestinal disorders in individuals with ASDs: a consensus report | journal= Pediatrics |volume= 125 |issue= Suppl 1 |pages= S1–18 |year= 2010 |pmid= 20048083 |doi= 10.1542/peds.2009-1878C |url= http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/125/Supplement_1/S1 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100706035348/http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/125/Supplement_1/S1 |archivedate= 6 July 2010 | doi-access = free}}</ref> Parents of children with ASD have higher levels of [[stress (psychological)|stress]].<ref name="Volkmar">{{vcite book|authors=Volkmar FR, Paul R, Rogers SJ, Pelphrey KA|title=Handbook of Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders, Assessment, Interventions, and Policy|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|isbn=1-118-28220-5|year=2014|page=301|access-date=24 December 2014|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4yzqAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT301}}</ref> Siblings of children with ASD report greater admiration of and less conflict with the affected sibling than siblings of unaffected children and were similar to siblings of children with [[Down syndrome]] in these aspects of the sibling relationship. However, they reported lower levels of closeness and intimacy than siblings of children with [[Down syndrome]]; siblings of individuals with ASD have greater risk of negative well-being and poorer sibling relationships as adults.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Orsmond GI, Seltzer MM | title = Siblings of individuals with autism spectrum disorders across the life course | journal = Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev | volume = 13 | issue = 4 | pages = 313–20 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17979200 | doi = 10.1002/mrdd.20171 | url = http://www.waisman.wisc.edu/family/pubs/Autism/2007%20siblings_autism_life-course.pdf | format = PDF | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20130530100939/http://www.waisman.wisc.edu/family/pubs/Autism/2007%20siblings_autism_life-course.pdf | archivedate = 30 May 2013| citeseerx = 10.1.1.359.7273 }}</ref> ==Causes== {{Main|Causes of autism}} It has long been presumed that there is a common cause at the genetic, cognitive, and neural levels for autism's characteristic triad of symptoms.<ref name="Fractionable" /> However, there is increasing suspicion that autism is instead a complex disorder whose core aspects have distinct causes that often co-occur.<ref name="Fractionable">{{cite journal |vauthors=Happé F, Ronald A |title=The 'fractionable autism triad': a review of evidence from behavioural, genetic, cognitive and neural research |journal=[[Neuropsychol Rev]] |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=287–304 |year=2008 |pmid=18956240 |doi=10.1007/s11065-008-9076-8|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23423996}}</ref><ref name="HappeTime" /> [[File:Single Chromosome Mutations.svg|thumb|alt=Three diagrams of chromosome pairs A, B that are nearly identical. 1: B is missing a segment of A. 2: B has two adjacent copies of a segment of A. 3: B's copy of A's segment is in reverse order.|Deletion (1), duplication (2) and inversion (3) are all [[chromosome abnormalities]] that have been implicated in autism.<ref name="Beaudet" />]] Autism has a strong genetic basis, although the [[Heritability of autism|genetics of autism]] are complex and it is unclear whether ASD is explained more by rare [[mutation]]s with major effects, or by rare multigene interactions of common genetic variants.<ref name="Abrahams">{{cite journal |vauthors=Abrahams BS, Geschwind DH |title=Advances in autism genetics: on the threshold of a new neurobiology |journal=[[Nature Reviews Genetics]] |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=341–55 |year=2008 |pmid=18414403 |pmc=2756414 |doi=10.1038/nrg2346}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Buxbaum JD |title=Multiple rare variants in the etiology of autism spectrum disorders |journal=Dialogues Clin Neurosci |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=35–43 |year=2009 |pmid=19432386 |pmc=3181906}}</ref> Complexity arises due to interactions among multiple genes, the environment, and [[epigenetic]] factors which do not change [[DNA]] sequencing but are heritable and influence [[gene expression]].<ref name="Rapin">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rapin I, Tuchman RF |title=Autism: definition, neurobiology, screening, diagnosis |journal=[[Pediatr Clin North Am]] |volume=55 |issue=5 |pages=1129–46 |year=2008 |pmid=18929056 |doi=10.1016/j.pcl.2008.07.005|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23392691}}</ref> Many genes have been associated with autism through sequencing the genomes of affected individuals and their parents.<ref name="SandersHe2015">{{cite journal |last1=Sanders |first1=Stephan J. |last2=He |first2=Xin |last3=Willsey |first3=A. Jeremy |last4=Ercan-Sencicek |first4=A. Gulhan |last5=Samocha |first5=Kaitlin E. |last6=Cicek |first6=A. Ercument |last7=Murtha |first7=Michael T. |last8=Bal |first8=Vanessa H. |last9=Bishop |first9=Somer L. |last10=Dong |first10=Shan |last11=Goldberg |first11=Arthur P. |last12=Jinlu |first12=Cai |last13=Keaney |first13=John F. |last14=Klei |first14=Lambertus |last15=Mandell |first15=Jeffrey D. |last16=Moreno-De-Luca |first16=Daniel |last17=Poultney |first17=Christopher S. |last18=Robinson |first18=Elise B. |last19=Smith |first19=Louw |last20=Solli-Nowlan |first20=Tor |last21=Su |first21=Mack Y. |last22=Teran |first22=Nicole A. |last23=Walker |first23=Michael F. |last24=Werling |first24=Donna M. |last25=Beaudet |first25=Arthur L. |last26=Cantor |first26=Rita M. |last27=Fombonne |first27=Eric |last28=Geschwind |first28=Daniel H. |last29=Grice |first29=Dorothy E. |last30=Lord |first30=Catherine |last31=Lowe |first31=Jennifer K. |last32=Mane |first32=Shrikant M. |last33=Martin |first33=Donna M. |last34=Morrow |first34=Eric M. |last35=Talkowski |first35=Michael E. |last36=Sutcliffe |first36=James S. |last37=Walsh |first37=Christopher A. |last38=Yu |first38=Timothy W. |last39=Ledbetter |first39=David H. |last40=Martin |first40=Christa Lese |last41=Cook |first41=Edwin H. |last42=Buxbaum |first42=Joseph D. |last43=Daly |first43=Mark J. |last44=Devlin |first44=Bernie |last45=Roeder |first45=Kathryn|author45-link= Kathryn Roeder |last46=State |first46=Matthew W. |title=Insights into Autism Spectrum Disorder Genomic Architecture and Biology from 71 Risk Loci |journal=Neuron |date=September 2015 |volume=87 |issue=6 |pages=1215–1233 |doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2015.09.016 |pmid=26402605 |pmc=4624267}}</ref> Studies of twins suggest that [[heritability]] is 0.7 for autism and as high as 0.9 for ASD, and siblings of those with autism are about 25 times more likely to be autistic than the general population.<ref name="Geschwind-2009" /> However, most of the mutations that increase autism risk have not been identified. Typically, autism cannot be traced to a [[Mendelian]] (single-gene) mutation or to a single [[chromosome abnormality]], and none of the genetic syndromes associated with ASDs have been shown to selectively cause ASD.<ref name="Abrahams" /> Numerous candidate genes have been located, with only small effects attributable to any particular gene.<ref name=Abrahams /> Most loci individually explain less than 1% of cases of autism.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Persico |first1=Antonio M. |last2=Napolioni |first2=Valerio |title=Autism genetics |journal=Behavioural Brain Research |date=August 2013 |volume=251 |pages=95–112 |doi=10.1016/j.bbr.2013.06.012|pmid=23769996 |url=https://www.academia.edu/27774685}}</ref> The large number of autistic individuals with unaffected family members may result from spontaneous [[structural variation]]&nbsp;— such as [[Deletion (genetics)|deletions]], [[Gene duplication|duplications]] or [[Chromosomal inversion|inversions]] in genetic material during [[meiosis]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Cook EH, Scherer SW |title=Copy-number variations associated with neuropsychiatric conditions |journal=Nature |volume=455 |issue=7215 |pages=919–23 |year=2008 |pmid=18923514 |doi=10.1038/nature07458|url=https://www.academia.edu/12729917}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brandler |first1=William M. |last2=Antaki |first2=Danny |last3=Gujral |first3=Madhusudan |last4=Noor |first4=Amina |last5=Rosanio |first5=Gabriel |last6=Chapman |first6=Timothy R. |last7=Barrera |first7=Daniel J. |last8=Lin |first8=Guan Ning |last9=Malhotra |first9=Dheeraj |last10=Watts |first10=Amanda C. |last11=Wong |first11=Lawrence C. |last12=Estabillo |first12=Jasper A. |last13=Gadomski |first13=Therese E. |last14=Hong |first14=Oanh |last15=Fajardo |first15=Karin V. Fuentes |last16=Bhandari |first16=Abhishek |last17=Owen |first17=Renius |last18=Baughn |first18=Michael |last19=Yuan |first19=Jeffrey |last20=Solomon |first20=Terry |last21=Moyzis |first21=Alexandra G. |last22=Maile |first22=Michelle S. |last23=Sanders |first23=Stephan J. |last24=Reiner |first24=Gail E. |last25=Vaux |first25=Keith K. |last26=Strom |first26=Charles M. |last27=Zhang |first27=Kang |last28=Muotri |first28=Alysson R. |last29=Akshoomoff |first29=Natacha |last30=Leal |first30=Suzanne M. |last31=Pierce |first31=Karen |last32=Courchesne |first32=Eric |last33=Iakoucheva |first33=Lilia M. |last34=Corsello |first34=Christina |last35=Sebat |first35=Jonathan |title=Frequency and Complexity of De Novo Structural Mutation in Autism |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |date=March 2016 |volume=98 |issue=4 |pages=1–13 |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2016.02.018|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299417430 |pmid=27018473 |pmc=4833290}}</ref> Hence, a substantial fraction of autism cases may be traceable to genetic causes that are highly heritable but not inherited: that is, the mutation that causes the autism is not present in the parental genome.<ref name="Beaudet">{{cite journal |vauthors=Beaudet AL |title=Autism: highly heritable but not inherited |journal=Nat Med |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=534–6 |year=2007 |pmid=17479094 |doi=10.1038/nm0507-534}}</ref> Autism may be underdiagnosed in women and girls due to an assumption that it is primarily a male condition.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/society/2018/sep/14/thousands-of-autistic-girls-and-women-going-undiagnosed-due-to-gender-bias Thousands of autistic girls and women 'going undiagnosed' due to gender bias] ''[[The Guardian]]''</ref> Several lines of evidence point to [[Synapse|synaptic]] dysfunction as a cause of autism.<ref name=Lev2009 /> Some rare mutations may lead to autism by disrupting some synaptic pathways, such as those involved with [[cell adhesion]].<ref name="Betancur">{{cite journal |vauthors=Betancur C, Sakurai T, Buxbaum JD |title=The emerging role of synaptic cell-adhesion pathways in the pathogenesis of autism spectrum disorders |journal=[[Trends Neurosci]] |volume=32 |issue=7 |pages=402–12 |year=2009 |pmid=19541375 |doi=10.1016/j.tins.2009.04.003|url=http://www.hal.inserm.fr/inserm-00401195/en/}}</ref> Gene replacement studies in mice suggest that autistic symptoms are closely related to later developmental steps that depend on activity in synapses and on activity-dependent changes.<ref name="Walsh">{{cite journal |vauthors=Walsh CA, Morrow EM, Rubenstein JL |title=Autism and brain development |journal=[[Cell (journal)|Cell]] |volume=135 |issue=3 |pages=396–400 |year=2008 |pmid=18984148 |pmc=2701104 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2008.10.015}}</ref> All known [[teratogen]]s (agents that cause [[birth defect]]s) related to the risk of autism appear to act during the first eight weeks from [[Human fertilization|conception]], and though this does not exclude the possibility that autism can be initiated or affected later, there is strong evidence that autism arises very early in development.<ref name="Arndt">{{cite journal |vauthors=Arndt TL, Stodgell CJ, Rodier PM |title=The teratology of autism |journal=[[Int J Dev Neurosci]] |volume=23 |issue=2–3 |pages=189–99 |year=2005 |pmid=15749245 |doi=10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2004.11.001}}</ref> Exposure to [[air pollution]] during pregnancy, especially [[heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy metals]] and particulates, may increase the risk of autism.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lyall K, Schmidt RJ, Hertz-Picciotto I |title=Maternal lifestyle and environmental risk factors for autism spectrum disorders |journal=Int J Epidemiol |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=443–64 |date=April 2014 |pmid=24518932 |doi=10.1093/ije/dyt282|doi-access=free |pmc=3997376}}</ref> [[Environmental factor]]s that have been claimed without evidence to contribute to or exacerbate autism include certain foods, [[infectious disease]]s, [[solvent]]s, [[PCBs]], [[phthalates]] and [[phenols]] used in plastic products, [[pesticide]]s, [[brominated flame retardant]]s, [[Ethanol|alcohol]], smoking, [[illicit drug]]s, [[vaccine]]s,<ref name=News2007 /> and [[prenatal stress]]. Some such as the MMR vaccine have been completely disproven.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kinney DK, Munir KM, Crowley DJ, Miller AM |title=Prenatal stress and risk for autism |journal=[[Neurosci Biobehav Rev]] |volume=32 |issue=8 |pages=1519–32 |year=2008 |pmid=18598714 |pmc=2632594 |doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.06.004}}</ref> Parents may first become aware of autistic symptoms in their child around the time of a routine vaccination. This has led to unsupported theories blaming [[Vaccine controversy#Vaccine overload|vaccine "overload"]], a [[Thiomersal controversy|vaccine preservative]], or the [[MMR vaccine controversy|MMR vaccine]] for causing autism.<ref name="GerberOffit2009">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gerber JS, Offit PA |title=Vaccines and autism: a tale of shifting hypotheses |journal=Clin Infect Dis |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=456–61 |year=2009 |pmid=19128068 |pmc=2908388 |doi=10.1086/596476 |url=http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/48/4/456.full |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031043545/http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/48/4/456.full |archivedate=31 October 2013}}</ref> The latter theory was supported by a litigation-funded study that has since been shown to have been "an elaborate fraud".<ref name="WakefieldarticleBMJ">{{cite journal |vauthors=Godlee F, Smith J, Marcovitch H |title=Wakefield's article linking MMR vaccine and autism was fraudulent |journal=[[BMJ]] |volume=342 |pages=c7452 |year=2011 |pmid=21209060 |doi=10.1136/bmj.c7452 |url=http://www.bmj.com/content/342/bmj.c7452.full |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111093448/http://www.bmj.com/content/342/bmj.c7452.full |archivedate=11 November 2013}}</ref> Although these theories lack convincing scientific evidence and are biologically implausible,<ref name="GerberOffit2009" /> parental concern about a potential vaccine link with autism has led to lower rates of [[childhood immunizations]], [[MMR vaccine controversy#Disease outbreaks|outbreaks of previously controlled childhood diseases]] in some countries, and the preventable deaths of several children.<ref name="vaccines">Vaccines and autism: *{{cite journal |vauthors=Doja A, Roberts W |title=Immunizations and autism: a review of the literature |journal=[[Can J Neurol Sci]] |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=341–6 |year=2006 |pmid=17168158 |doi=10.1017/s031716710000528x|doi-access=free}} *{{cite journal|vauthors=Gerber JS, Offit PA |title=Vaccines and autism: a tale of shifting hypotheses |journal=[[Clin Infect Dis]] |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=456–61 |year=2009 |pmid=19128068 |pmc=2908388 |doi=10.1086/596476 |url=http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/48/4/456.full |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031043545/http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/48/4/456.full |archivedate=31 October 2013 |deadurl=yes |df=}} *{{cite journal |vauthors=Gross L |title=A broken trust: lessons from the vaccine–autism wars |journal=PLoS Biol |volume=7 |issue=5 |pages=e1000114 |year=2009 |pmid=19478850 |pmc=2682483 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1000114}} *{{cite journal|vauthors=Paul R |title=Parents ask: am I risking autism if I vaccinate my children? |journal=[[J Autism Dev Disord]] |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=962–3 |year=2009 |pmid=19363650 |doi=10.1007/s10803-009-0739-y |url=http://works.bepress.com/rhea_paul/50}} *{{cite journal|vauthors=Poland GA, Jacobson RM |title=The Age-Old Struggle against the Antivaccinationists |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=364 |issue=2 |pages=97–9 |date=13 January 2011 |pmid=21226573 |doi=10.1056/NEJMp1010594 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="dublin">{{cite journal |vauthors=McBrien J, Murphy J, Gill D, Cronin M, O'Donovan C, Cafferkey MT |title=Measles outbreak in Dublin, 2000 |journal=Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. |volume=22 |issue=7 |pages=580–4 |year=2003 |pmid=12867830 |doi=10.1097/00006454-200307000-00002}}</ref> ==Mechanism== Autism's symptoms result from maturation-related changes in various systems of the brain.<!-- ref name=Penn/ --> How autism occurs is not well understood. Its mechanism can be divided into two areas: the [[pathophysiology]] of brain structures and processes associated with autism, and the [[neuropsychological]] linkages between brain structures and behaviors.<ref name="Penn">{{cite journal | vauthors = Penn HE | title = Neurobiological correlates of autism: a review of recent research | journal = Child Neuropsychol | volume = 12 | issue = 1 | pages = 57–79 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16484102 | doi = 10.1080/09297040500253546}}</ref> The behaviors appear to have multiple pathophysiologies.<ref name=London /> ===Pathophysiology=== [[File:Autismbrain.jpg|thumb|alt=Two diagrams of major brain structures implicated in autism. The upper diagram shows the cerebral cortex near the top and the basal ganglia in the center, just above the amygdala and hippocampus. The lower diagram shows the corpus callosum near the center, the cerebellum in the lower rear, and the brain stem in the lower center.|Autism affects the [[amygdala]], [[cerebellum]], and many other parts of the brain.<ref name=Amaral />]] Unlike many other brain disorders, such as [[Parkinson's]], autism does not have a clear unifying mechanism at either the molecular, cellular, or systems level; it is not known whether autism is a few disorders caused by mutations converging on a few common molecular pathways, or is (like intellectual disability) a large set of disorders with diverse mechanisms.<ref name="Geschwind">{{cite journal | vauthors = Geschwind DH | title = Autism: many genes, common pathways? | journal = Cell | volume = 135 | issue = 3 | pages = 391–5 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18984147 | pmc = 2756410 | doi = 10.1016/j.cell.2008.10.016 | title. =}}</ref> Autism appears to result from developmental factors that affect many or all functional brain systems,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Müller RA | title = The study of autism as a distributed disorder | journal = Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 85–95 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17326118 | pmc = 3315379 | doi = 10.1002/mrdd.20141}}</ref> and to disturb the timing of brain development more than the final product.<ref name="Amaral">{{cite journal | vauthors = Amaral DG, Schumann CM, Nordahl CW | title = Neuroanatomy of autism | journal = Trends Neurosci | volume = 31 | issue = 3 | pages = 137–45 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18258309 | doi = 10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.005 | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5594540}}</ref> [[Neuroanatomical]] studies and the associations with [[teratogens]] strongly suggest that autism's mechanism includes alteration of brain development soon after conception.<ref name=Arndt /> This anomaly appears to start a cascade of pathological events in the brain that are significantly influenced by environmental factors.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Casanova MF | title = The neuropathology of autism | journal = Brain Pathol | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = 422–33 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17919128 | doi = 10.1111/j.1750-3639.2007.00100.x | url = https://www.academia.edu/14210559}}</ref> Just after birth, the brains of children with autism tend to grow faster than usual, followed by normal or relatively slower growth in childhood. It is not known whether early overgrowth occurs in all children with autism. It seems to be most prominent in brain areas underlying the development of higher cognitive specialization.<ref name=Geschwind-2009 /> Hypotheses for the cellular and molecular bases of pathological early overgrowth include the following: * An excess of [[neuron]]s that causes local overconnectivity in key brain regions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Courchesne E, Pierce K, Schumann CM, Redcay E, Buckwalter JA, Kennedy DP, Morgan J | title = Mapping early brain development in autism | journal = Neuron | volume = 56 | issue = 2 | pages = 399–413 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17964254 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuron.2007.10.016}}</ref> * Disturbed [[neuronal migration]] during early [[gestation]].<ref name="Schmitz">{{cite journal | vauthors = Schmitz C, Rezaie P | title = The neuropathology of autism: where do we stand? | journal = Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol | volume = 34 | issue = 1 | pages = 4–11 | year = 2008 | pmid = 17971078 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2990.2007.00872.x | title. =}}</ref><ref name="Persico">{{cite journal | vauthors = Persico AM, Bourgeron T | title = Searching for ways out of the autism maze: genetic, epigenetic and environmental clues | journal = Trends Neurosci | volume = 29 | issue = 7 | pages = 349–58 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16808981 | doi = 10.1016/j.tins.2006.05.010}}</ref> * Unbalanced excitatory–inhibitory networks.<ref name=Persico /> * Abnormal formation of [[synapse]]s and [[dendritic spine]]s,<ref name=Persico /> for example, by modulation of the [[neurexin]]–[[neuroligin]] [[Cell adhesion|cell-adhesion]] system,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Südhof TC | title = Neuroligins and neurexins link synaptic function to cognitive disease | journal = Nature | volume = 455 | issue = 7215 | pages = 903–11 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18923512 | pmc = 2673233 | doi = 10.1038/nature07456}}</ref> or by poorly regulated [[Protein synthesis|synthesis]] of synaptic proteins.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kelleher RJ, Bear MF | title = The autistic neuron: troubled translation? | journal = Cell | volume = 135 | issue = 3 | pages = 401–6 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18984149 | doi = 10.1016/j.cell.2008.10.017 | title. =}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bear MF, Dölen G, Osterweil E, Nagarajan N | title = Fragile X: translation in action | journal = Neuropsychopharmacology | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | pages = 84–7 | year = 2008 | pmid = 17940551 | pmc = 4327813 | doi = 10.1038/sj.npp.1301610 | title. = | doi-access = free}}</ref> Disrupted synaptic development may also contribute to [[epilepsy]], which may explain why the two conditions are associated.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tuchman R, Moshé SL, Rapin I | title = Convulsing toward the pathophysiology of autism | journal = Brain Dev | volume = 31 | issue = 2 | pages = 95–103 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19006654 | pmc = 2734903 | doi = 10.1016/j.braindev.2008.09.009}}</ref> The [[immune system]] is thought to play an important role in autism. Children with autism have been found by researchers to have [[inflammation]] of both the peripheral and central immune systems as indicated by increased levels of pro-inflammatory [[cytokines]] and significant activation of [[microglia]].<ref name="pmid24290389">{{Cite book | vauthors = Hsiao EY | title = Immune dysregulation in autism spectrum disorder | volume = 113 | pages = 269–302 | year = 2013 | pmid = 24290389 | doi = 10.1016/B978-0-12-418700-9.00009-5 | series = International Review of Neurobiology | isbn = 9780124187009}}</ref><ref name="pmid21906670">{{cite journal | vauthors = Onore C, Careaga M, Ashwood P | title = The role of immune dysfunction in the pathophysiology of autism | journal = Brain, Behavior and Immunity | volume = 26 | issue = 3 | pages = 383–92 | date = August 2011 | pmid = 21906670 | doi = 10.1016/j.bbi.2011.08.007 | pmc=3418145}}</ref><ref name="pmid24795645">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rossignol DA, Frye RE | title = Evidence linking oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and inflammation in the brain of individuals with autism | journal = Frontiers in Physiology | volume = 5 | page = 150 | year = 2014 | pmid = 24795645 | doi = 10.3389/fphys.2014.00150 | pmc=4001006}}</ref> Biomarkers of abnormal immune function have also been associated with increased impairments in behaviors that are characteristic of the core features of autism such as deficits in social interactions and communication.<ref name="pmid21906670" /> Interactions between the [[immune system]] and the [[nervous system]] begin early during the [[Human embryogenesis|embryonic stage]] of life, and successful neurodevelopment depends on a balanced immune response. It is thought that activation of a pregnant mother's immune system such as from environmental toxicants or infection can contribute to causing autism through causing a disruption of brain development.<ref name="pmid21482187">{{cite journal | vauthors = Patterson PH | title = Maternal infection and immune involvement in autism | journal = Trends in Molecular Medicine | volume = 17 | issue = 7 | pages = 389–94 | date = July 2011 | pmid = 21482187 | doi = 10.1016/j.molmed.2011.03.001 | pmc=3135697}}</ref><ref name="Chaste">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chaste P, Leboyer M | title = Autism risk factors: genes, environment, and gene-environment interactions | journal = Dialogues Clin Neurosci | volume = 14 | issue = 3 | pages = 281–92 | year = 2012 | pmid = 23226953 | pmc = 3513682}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ashwood P, Wills S, Van de Water J | title = The immune response in autism: a new frontier for autism research | journal = J Leukoc Biol | volume = 80 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–15 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16698940 | doi = 10.1189/jlb.1205707 | url = http://www.jleukbio.org/cgi/content/full/80/1/1 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061005180253/http://www.jleukbio.org/cgi/content/full/80/1/1 | dead-url = yes | archive-date = 5 October 2006 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.329.777}}</ref> This is supported by recent studies that have found that infection during pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of autism.<ref name="pmid25218900">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lee BK, Magnusson C, Gardner RM, Blomström S, Newschaffer CJ, Burstyn I, Karlsson H, Dalman C | title = Maternal hospitalization with infection during pregnancy and risk of autism spectrum disorders | journal = Brain, Behavior and Immunity | date = September 2014 | pmid = 25218900 | doi = 10.1016/j.bbi.2014.09.001 | volume=44 | pages=100–105 | pmc=4418173}}</ref><ref name="pmid20414802">{{cite journal | vauthors = Atladóttir HO, Thorsen P, Østergaard L, Schendel DE, Lemcke S, Abdallah M, Parner ET | title = Maternal infection requiring hospitalization during pregnancy and autism spectrum disorders | journal = Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders | volume = 40 | issue = 12 | pages = 1423–30 | date = December 2010 | pmid = 20414802 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-010-1006-y | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/43300311}}</ref> The relationship of [[neurochemical]]s to autism is not well understood; several have been investigated, with the most evidence for the role of [[serotonin]] and of genetic differences in its transport.<ref name=Lev2009 /> The role of group I [[metabotropic glutamate receptors]] (mGluR) in the pathogenesis of [[fragile X syndrome]], the most common identified genetic cause of autism, has led to interest in the possible implications for future autism research into this pathway.<ref name="pmid18093519">{{cite journal | vauthors = Dölen G, Osterweil E, Rao BS, Smith GB, Auerbach BD, Chattarji S, Bear MF | title = Correction of fragile X syndrome in mice | journal = Neuron | volume = 56 | issue = 6 | pages = 955–62 | year = 2007 | pmid = 18093519 | pmc = 2199268 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuron.2007.12.001}}</ref> Some data suggests neuronal overgrowth potentially related to an increase in several [[growth hormone]]s<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hughes JR | title = Update on autism: A review of 1300 reports published in 2008 | journal = Epilepsy Behav | volume = 16 | issue = 4 | pages = 569–589 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19896907 | doi = 10.1016/j.yebeh.2009.09.023}}</ref> or to impaired regulation of [[growth factor receptor]]s. Also, some [[inborn errors of metabolism]] are associated with autism, but probably account for less than 5% of cases.<ref name=Manzi /> The [[mirror neuron system]] (MNS) theory of autism hypothesizes that distortion in the development of the MNS interferes with imitation and leads to autism's core features of social impairment and communication difficulties. The MNS operates when an animal performs an action or observes another animal perform the same action. The MNS may contribute to an individual's understanding of other people by enabling the modeling of their behavior via embodied simulation of their actions, intentions, and emotions.<ref>MNS and autism: *{{cite journal | vauthors = Williams JH | title = Self–other relations in social development and autism: multiple roles for mirror neurons and other brain bases | journal = Autism Res | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages = 73–90 | year = 2008 | pmid = 19360654 | doi = 10.1002/aur.15 | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/24272121}} *{{cite journal | vauthors = Dinstein I, Thomas C, Behrmann M, Heeger DJ | title = A mirror up to nature | journal = Curr Biol | volume = 18 | issue = 1 | pages = R13–8 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18177704 | pmc = 2517574 | doi = 10.1016/j.cub.2007.11.004}}</ref> Several studies have tested this hypothesis by demonstrating structural abnormalities in MNS regions of individuals with ASD, delay in the activation in the core circuit for imitation in individuals with Asperger syndrome, and a correlation between reduced MNS activity and severity of the syndrome in children with ASD.<ref name="Iacoboni">{{cite journal | vauthors = Iacoboni M, Dapretto M | title = The mirror neuron system and the consequences of its dysfunction | journal = Nature Reviews Neuroscience | volume = 7 | issue = 12 | pages = 942–51 | year = 2006 | pmid = 17115076 | doi = 10.1038/nrn2024 | url = https://www.academia.edu/13626914}}</ref> However, individuals with autism also have abnormal brain activation in many circuits outside the MNS<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Frith U, Frith CD | title = Development and neurophysiology of mentalizing | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B | volume = 358 | issue = 1431 | pages = 459–73 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12689373 | pmc = 1693139 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2002.1218 | url = http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/358/1431/459.full.pdf | format = PDF}}</ref> and the MNS theory does not explain the normal performance of children with autism on imitation tasks that involve a goal or object.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hamilton AF | title = Emulation and mimicry for social interaction: a theoretical approach to imitation in autism | journal = Q J Exp Psychol | volume = 61 | issue = 1 | pages = 101–15 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18038342 | doi = 10.1080/17470210701508798 | url = https://www.academia.edu/906774}}</ref> [[File:Powell2004Fig1A.jpeg|thumb|upright|alt=A human brain viewed from above. About 10% is highlighted in yellow and 10% in blue. There is only a tiny (perhaps 0.5%) green region where they overlap.|Autistic individuals tend to use different areas of the brain (yellow) for a movement task compared to a control group (blue).<ref name="Powell">{{cite journal|vauthors=Powell K |title=Opening a window to the autistic brain |journal=PLoS Biol |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=E267 |year=2004 |pmid=15314667 |pmc=509312 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0020267 |df=}}</ref>]] ASD-related patterns of low function and aberrant activation in the brain differ depending on whether the brain is doing social or nonsocial tasks.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Di Martino A, Ross K, Uddin LQ, Sklar AB, Castellanos FX, Milham MP | title = Functional brain correlates of social and nonsocial processes in autism spectrum disorders: an activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis | journal = Biol Psychiatry | volume = 65 | issue = 1 | pages = 63–74 | year = 2009 | pmid = 18996505 | doi = 10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.09.022 | pmc=2993772}}</ref> In autism there is evidence for reduced functional connectivity of the [[default network]] (a large-scale brain network involved in social and emotional processing), with intact connectivity of the [[task-positive network]] (used in sustained attention and goal-directed thinking). In people with autism the two networks are not negatively correlated in time, suggesting an imbalance in toggling between the two networks, possibly reflecting a disturbance of [[self-referential]] thought.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Broyd SJ, Demanuele C, Debener S, Helps SK, James CJ, Sonuga-Barke EJ | title = Default-mode brain dysfunction in mental disorders: a systematic review | journal = Neurosci Biobehav Rev | volume = 33 | issue = 3 | pages = 279–96 | year = 2009 | pmid = 18824195 | doi = 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.09.002 | url = https://www.academia.edu/7779107}}</ref> The underconnectivity theory of autism hypothesizes that autism is marked by underfunctioning high-level neural connections and synchronization, along with an excess of low-level processes.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Just MA, Cherkassky VL, Keller TA, Kana RK, Minshew NJ | title = Functional and anatomical cortical underconnectivity in autism: evidence from an FMRI study of an executive function task and corpus callosum morphometry | journal = Cereb Cortex | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = 951–61 | year = 2007 | pmid = 16772313 | doi = 10.1093/cercor/bhl006 | url = http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/17/4/951 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20100707140313/http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/17/4/951 | archivedate = 7 July 2010 | pmc=4500121}}</ref> Evidence for this theory has been found in [[functional neuroimaging]] studies on autistic individuals<ref name="Williams">{{cite journal | vauthors = Williams DL, Goldstein G, Minshew NJ | title = Neuropsychologic functioning in children with autism: further evidence for disordered complex information-processing | journal = Child Neuropsychol | volume = 12 | issue = 4–5 | pages = 279–98 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16911973 | pmc = 1803025 | doi = 10.1080/09297040600681190}}</ref> and by a [[Electroencephalography|brainwave]] study that suggested that adults with ASD have local overconnectivity in the [[Cerebral cortex|cortex]] and weak functional connections between the [[frontal lobe]] and the rest of the cortex.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Murias M, Webb SJ, Greenson J, Dawson G | title = Resting state cortical connectivity reflected in EEG coherence in individuals with autism | journal = Biol Psychiatry | volume = 62 | issue = 3 | pages = 270–3 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17336944 | pmc = 2001237 | doi = 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.11.012}}</ref> Other evidence suggests the underconnectivity is mainly within each [[Cerebral hemisphere|hemisphere]] of the cortex and that autism is a disorder of the [[Association areas|association cortex]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Minshew NJ, Williams DL | title = The new neurobiology of autism: cortex, connectivity, and neuronal organization | journal = Arch Neurol | volume = 64 | issue = 7 | pages = 945–50 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17620483 | pmc = 2597785 | doi = 10.1001/archneur.64.7.945}}</ref> From studies based on [[event-related potential]]s, transient changes to the brain's electrical activity in response to stimuli, there is considerable evidence for differences in autistic individuals with respect to attention, orientation to auditory and visual stimuli, novelty detection, language and face processing, and information storage; several studies have found a preference for nonsocial stimuli.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jeste SS, Nelson CA | title = Event related potentials in the understanding of autism spectrum disorders: an analytical review | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 39 | issue = 3 | pages = 495–510 | year = 2009 | pmid = 18850262 | pmc = 4422389 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-008-0652-9}}</ref> For example, [[magnetoencephalography]] studies have found evidence in children with autism of delayed responses in the brain's processing of auditory signals.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Roberts TP, Schmidt GL, Egeth M, Blaskey L, Rey MM, Edgar JC, Levy SE | title = Electrophysiological signatures: magnetoencephalographic studies of the neural correlates of language impairment in autism spectrum disorders | journal = Int J Psychophysiol | volume = 68 | issue = 2 | pages = 149–60 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18336941 | pmc = 2397446 | doi = 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2008.01.012}}</ref> In the genetic area, relations have been found between autism and [[schizophrenia]] based on duplications and deletions of chromosomes; research showed that schizophrenia and autism are significantly more common in combination with [[1q21.1 deletion syndrome]]. Research on autism/schizophrenia relations for chromosome 15 (15q13.3), chromosome 16 (16p13.1) and chromosome 17 (17p12) are inconclusive.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crespi B, Stead P, Elliot M | title = Evolution in health and medicine Sackler colloquium: Comparative genomics of autism and schizophrenia | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 107 | issue = Suppl 1 | pages = 1736–41 | year = 2010 | pmid = 19955444 | pmc = 2868282 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0906080106}}</ref> Functional connectivity studies have found both hypo- and hyper-connectivity in brains of people with autism. Hypo-connectivity seems to dominate, especially for interhemispheric and cortico-cortical functional connectivity.<ref name="HaSohn2015">{{cite journal|vauthors=Ha S, Sohn IJ, Kim N, Sim HJ, Cheon KA|title=Characteristics of Brains in Autism Spectrum Disorder: Structure, Function and Connectivity across the Lifespan|journal=Exp Neurobiol|volume=24|issue=4|pages=273–84|date=December 2015|pmid=26713076|pmc=4688328|doi=10.5607/en.2015.24.4.273|type=Review}}</ref> ===Neuropsychology=== Two major categories of [[cognitive]] theories have been proposed about the links between autistic brains and behavior. The first category focuses on deficits in [[social cognition]]. [[Simon Baron-Cohen]]'s [[empathizing–systemizing theory]] postulates that autistic individuals can systemize—that is, they can develop internal rules of operation to handle events inside the brain—but are less effective at empathizing by handling events generated by other agents. An extension, the extreme male brain theory, hypothesizes that autism is an extreme case of the male brain, defined psychometrically as individuals in whom systemizing is better than empathizing.<ref name=E-S-theory /> These theories are somewhat related to Baron-Cohen's earlier [[theory of mind]] approach, which hypothesizes that autistic behavior arises from an inability to ascribe mental states to oneself and others. The theory of mind hypothesis is supported by the atypical responses of children with autism to the [[Sally–Anne test]] for reasoning about others' motivations,<ref name="E-S-theory">{{cite journal | vauthors = Baron-Cohen S | title = Autism: the empathizing–systemizing (E-S) theory | journal = Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences | volume = 1156 | pages = 68–80 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19338503 | doi = 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04467.x | url = http://docs.autismresearchcentre.com/papers/2009_BC_nyas.pdf | format = PDF | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20131214134422/http://docs.autismresearchcentre.com/papers/2009_BC_nyas.pdf | archivedate = 14 December 2013}}</ref> and the mirror neuron system theory of autism described in ''[[#Pathophysiology|Pathophysiology]]'' maps well to the hypothesis.<ref name=Iacoboni /> However, most studies have found no evidence of impairment in autistic individuals' ability to understand other people's basic intentions or goals; instead, data suggests that impairments are found in understanding more complex social emotions or in considering others' viewpoints.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hamilton AF | title = Goals, intentions and mental states: challenges for theories of autism | journal = J Child Psychol Psychiatry | volume = 50 | issue = 8 | pages = 881–92 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19508497 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02098.x | citeseerx = 10.1.1.621.6275}}</ref> The second category focuses on nonsocial or general processing: the [[executive functions]] such as [[working memory]], planning, [[Inhibition Theory|inhibition]]. In his review, Kenworthy states that "the claim of [[executive dysfunction]] as a causal factor in autism is controversial", however, "it is clear that executive dysfunction plays a role in the social and cognitive deficits observed in individuals with autism".<ref name=Kenworthy /> Tests of core executive processes such as eye movement tasks indicate improvement from late childhood to adolescence, but performance never reaches typical adult levels.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = O'Hearn K, Asato M, Ordaz S, Luna B | title = Neurodevelopment and executive function in autism | journal = Dev Psychopathol | volume = 20 | issue = 4 | pages = 1103–32 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18838033 | doi = 10.1017/S0954579408000527}}</ref> A strength of the theory is predicting stereotyped behavior and narrow interests;<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hill EL | title = Executive dysfunction in autism | journal = Trends Cogn Sci | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 26–32 | year = 2004 | pmid = 14697400 | doi = 10.1016/j.dr.2004.01.001 | url = https://www.academia.edu/19291332}}</ref> two weaknesses are that executive function is hard to measure<ref name="Kenworthy">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kenworthy L, Yerys BE, Anthony LG, Wallace GL | title = Understanding executive control in autism spectrum disorders in the lab and in the real world | journal = Neuropsychol Rev | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 320–38 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18956239 | pmc = 2856078 | doi = 10.1007/s11065-008-9077-7}}</ref> and that executive function deficits have not been found in young children with autism.<ref name=Sigman /> [[Weak central coherence theory]] hypothesizes that a limited ability to see the big picture underlies the central disturbance in autism. One strength of this theory is predicting special talents and peaks in performance in autistic people.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Happé F, Frith U | title = The weak coherence account: detail-focused cognitive style in autism spectrum disorders | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 36 | issue = 1 | pages = 5–25 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16450045 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-005-0039-0 | url = https://www.academia.edu/1754416}}</ref> A related theory—enhanced perceptual functioning—focuses more on the superiority of locally oriented and [[perceptual]] operations in autistic individuals.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mottron L, Dawson M, Soulières I, Hubert B, Burack J | title = Enhanced perceptual functioning in autism: an update, and eight principles of autistic perception | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 36 | issue = 1 | pages = 27–43 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16453071 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-005-0040-7 | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7321285}}</ref> Yet another, [[monotropism]], posits that autism stems from a different cognitive style, tending to focus attention (or processing resources) intensely, to the exclusion of other stimuli.<ref name=Murray>{{cite journal|last=Murray|first=Dinah |author2=Lesser, M. |author3=Lawson, W|title=Attention, monotropism and the diagnostic criteria for autism|journal=Autism|date=1 May 2005|volume=9|issue=2|url=http://www.autismusundcomputer.de/english//139.pdf|doi=10.1177/1362361305051398|accessdate=23 September 2013|pmid=15857859|pages=139–56}}</ref> These theories map well from the underconnectivity theory of autism. Neither category is satisfactory on its own; social cognition theories poorly address autism's rigid and repetitive behaviors, while the nonsocial theories have difficulty explaining social impairment and communication difficulties.<ref name="HappeTime">{{cite journal | vauthors = Happé F, Ronald A, Plomin R | title = Time to give up on a single explanation for autism | journal = Nature Neuroscience | volume = 9 | issue = 10 | pages = 1218–20 | year = 2006 | pmid = 17001340 | doi = 10.1038/nn1770 | doi-access = free}}</ref> A combined theory based on multiple deficits may prove to be more useful.<ref>{{cite journal | journal = Dev Rev | year = 2007 | volume = 27 | issue = 2 | pages = 224–60 | title = Cognitive theories of autism | vauthors = Rajendran G, Mitchell P | doi = 10.1016/j.dr.2007.02.001 | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222545032}}</ref> ==Diagnosis== [[Medical diagnosis|Diagnosis]] is based on behavior, not cause or mechanism.<ref name="London">{{cite journal | vauthors = London E | title = The role of the neurobiologist in redefining the diagnosis of autism | journal = Brain Pathol | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = 408–11 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17919126 | doi = 10.1111/j.1750-3639.2007.00103.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Baird G, Cass H, Slonims V | title = Diagnosis of autism | journal = BMJ | volume = 327 | issue = 7413 | pages = 488–93 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12946972 | pmc = 188387 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.327.7413.488 | url = http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/327/7413/488 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090306153446/http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/327/7413/488 | archivedate = 6 March 2009}}</ref> Under the [[DSM-5]], autism is characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and interaction across multiple contexts, as well as restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities. These deficits are present in early childhood, typically before age three, and lead to clinically significant functional impairment.<ref name=DSM5 /> Sample symptoms include lack of social or emotional reciprocity, stereotyped and repetitive use of language or [[Idiosyncrasy#Psychiatry and psychology|idiosyncratic language]], and persistent preoccupation with unusual objects. The disturbance must not be better accounted for by [[Rett syndrome]], [[intellectual disability]] or global developmental delay.<ref name=DSM5 /> [[ICD-10]] uses essentially the same definition.<ref name="ICD-10-F84.0">{{cite web|url=http://apps.who.int/classifications/apps/icd/icd10online/?gf80.htm+f84 |year=2007 |access-date=10 October 2009 |website=ICD-10: International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems: Tenth Revision |publisher=World Health Organization |title=F84. Pervasive developmental disorders |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130421042448/http://apps.who.int/classifications/apps/icd/icd10online/?gf80.htm%20f84 |archivedate=21 April 2013 |deadurl=yes |df=}}</ref> Several diagnostic instruments are available. Two are commonly used in autism research: the [[Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised]] (ADI-R) is a semistructured parent interview, and the [[Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule]] (ADOS)<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gotham K, Risi S, Dawson G, Tager-Flusberg H, Joseph R, Carter A, Hepburn S, McMahon W, Rodier P, Hyman SL, Sigman M, Rogers S, Landa R, Spence MA, Osann K, Flodman P, Volkmar F, Hollander E, Buxbaum J, Pickles A, Lord C | title = A replication of the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) revised algorithms | journal = J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry | volume = 47 | issue = 6 | pages = 642–51 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18434924 | pmc = 3057666 | doi = 10.1097/CHI.0b013e31816bffb7}}</ref> uses observation and interaction with the child. The [[Childhood Autism Rating Scale]] (CARS) is used widely in clinical environments to assess severity of autism based on observation of children.<ref name=Volkmar /> The Diagnostic interview for social and communication disorders (DISCO) may also be used.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kan|first1=CC|last2=Buitelaar|first2=JK|last3=van der Gaag|first3=RJ|title=[Autism spectrum disorders in adults]|journal=Nederlands Tijdschrift Voor Geneeskunde|date=14 June 2008|volume=152|issue=24|pages=1365–9|pmid=18664213}}</ref> A [[pediatrician]] commonly performs a preliminary investigation by taking developmental history and physically examining the child. If warranted, diagnosis and evaluations are conducted with help from ASD specialists, observing and assessing cognitive, communication, family, and other factors using standardized tools, and taking into account any associated [[medical conditions]].<ref name=Dover /> A pediatric [[neuropsychologist]] is often asked to assess behavior and cognitive skills, both to aid diagnosis and to help recommend educational interventions.<ref name="Kanne">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kanne SM, Randolph JK, Farmer JE | title = Diagnostic and assessment findings: a bridge to academic planning for children with autism spectrum disorders | journal = Neuropsychol Rev | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 367–84 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18855144 | doi = 10.1007/s11065-008-9072-z | url = https://www.academia.edu/14769718}}</ref> A [[differential diagnosis]] for ASD at this stage might also consider [[intellectual disability]], [[hearing impairment]], and a [[specific language impairment]]<ref name=Dover /> such as [[Landau–Kleffner syndrome]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mantovani JF | title = Autistic regression and Landau–Kleffner syndrome: progress or confusion? | journal = Dev Med Child Neurol | volume = 42 | issue = 5 | pages = 349–53 | year = 2000 | pmid = 10855658 | doi = 10.1017/S0012162200210621 | title. =}}</ref> The presence of autism can make it harder to diagnose coexisting psychiatric disorders such as [[Major depressive disorder|depression]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Matson JL, Neal D | title = Cormorbidity: diagnosing comorbid psychiatric conditions | journal = Psychiatr Times | volume = 26 |issue=4 |year=2009|url=http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/display/article/10168/1403043 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20130403062215/http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/display/article/10168/1403043 | archivedate = 3 April 2013}}</ref> [[Clinical genetics]] evaluations are often done once ASD is diagnosed, particularly when other symptoms already suggest a genetic cause.<ref name=Caronna /> Although genetic technology allows clinical geneticists to link an estimated 40% of cases to genetic causes,<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Schaefer GB, Mendelsohn NJ |title=Archived copy |journal=Genet Med |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=4–12 |year=2008 |pmid=18197051 |doi=10.1097/GIM.0b013e31815efdd7 |laysummary=http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/96448.php |laydate=7 February 2008 |laysource=Medical News Today |url=http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/96448.php |access-date=7 February 2008 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100901151333/http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/96448.php |archivedate=1 September 2010 }}</ref> consensus guidelines in the US and UK are limited to high-resolution chromosome and [[fragile X]] testing.<ref name=Caronna /> A [[Genotype-first approach|genotype-first]] model of diagnosis has been proposed, which would routinely assess the genome's copy number variations.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ledbetter DH | title = Cytogenetic technology—genotype and phenotype | journal = N Engl J Med | volume = 359 | issue = 16 | pages = 1728–30 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18784093 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMe0806570}}</ref> As new genetic tests are developed several ethical, legal, and social issues will emerge. Commercial availability of tests may precede adequate understanding of how to use test results, given the complexity of autism's genetics.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = McMahon WM, Baty BJ, Botkin J | title = Genetic counseling and ethical issues for autism | journal = American Journal of Medical Genetics | volume = 142C | issue = 1 | pages = 52–7 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16419100 | doi = 10.1002/ajmg.c.30082 | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7353634| citeseerx = 10.1.1.590.4821 }}</ref> [[Metabolic]] and [[neuroimaging]] tests are sometimes helpful, but are not routine.<ref name=Caronna /> ASD can sometimes be diagnosed by age 14 months, although diagnosis becomes increasingly stable over the first three years of life: for example, a one-year-old who meets diagnostic criteria for ASD is less likely than a three-year-old to continue to do so a few years later.<ref name=Land2008 /> In the UK the National Autism Plan for Children recommends at most 30 weeks from first concern to completed diagnosis and assessment, though few cases are handled that quickly in practice.<ref name="Dover">{{cite journal | vauthors = Dover CJ, Le Couteur A | title = How to diagnose autism | journal = Arch Dis Child | volume = 92 | issue = 6 | pages = 540–5 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17515625 | doi = 10.1136/adc.2005.086280 | pmc=2066173}}</ref> Although the symptoms of autism and ASD begin early in childhood, they are sometimes missed; years later, adults may seek diagnoses to help them or their friends and family understand themselves, to help their employers make adjustments, or in some locations to claim disability living allowances or other benefits. Girls are often diagnosed later than boys.<ref>{{cite report|title=Why Many Autistic Girls are Overlooked|publisher=Child Mind Institute|url=https://childmind.org/article/autistic-girls-overlooked-undiagnosed-autism|access-date=13 February 2018}}</ref> Underdiagnosis and overdiagnosis are problems in marginal cases, and much of the recent increase in the number of reported ASD cases is likely due to changes in diagnostic practices. The increasing popularity of drug treatment options and the expansion of benefits has given providers incentives to diagnose ASD, resulting in some overdiagnosis of children with uncertain symptoms. Conversely, the cost of screening and diagnosis and the challenge of obtaining payment can inhibit or delay diagnosis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Shattuck PT, Grosse SD | title = Issues related to the diagnosis and treatment of autism spectrum disorders | journal = Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev | volume = 13 | issue = 2 | pages = 129–35 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17563895 | doi = 10.1002/mrdd.20143 | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6272921}}</ref> It is particularly hard to diagnose autism among the [[visually impaired]], partly because some of its diagnostic criteria depend on vision, and partly because autistic symptoms overlap with those of common blindness syndromes or [[blindism]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Visual impairment and autism: current questions and future research | vauthors = Cass H |journal=Autism |year=1998 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=117–38|doi=10.1177/1362361398022002}}</ref> ===Classification=== Autism is one of the five [[pervasive developmental disorder]]s (PDD), which are characterized by widespread abnormalities of social interactions and communication, and severely restricted interests and highly repetitive behavior.<ref name=ICD-10-F84.0 /> These symptoms do not imply sickness, fragility, or emotional disturbance.<ref name=Rapin /> Of the five PDD forms, [[Asperger syndrome]] is closest to autism in signs and likely causes; [[Rett syndrome]] and [[childhood disintegrative disorder]] share several signs with autism, but may have unrelated causes; [[PDD not otherwise specified]] (PDD-NOS; also called ''atypical autism'') is diagnosed when the criteria are not met for a more specific disorder.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Volkmar FR, State M, Klin A | title = Autism and autism spectrum disorders: diagnostic issues for the coming decade | journal = J Child Psychol Psychiatry | volume = 50 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 108–15 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19220594 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.02010.x}}</ref> Unlike with autism, people with Asperger syndrome have no substantial delay in [[language development]].<ref name="DSM-IV-TR-299.00">{{vcite book |author=American Psychiatric Association |title=Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV |chapter=Diagnostic criteria for 299.00 Autistic Disorder |publisher=American Psychiatric Association |edition=4 |location=Washington, DC|year=2000 |isbn=978-0-89042-025-6 |oclc=768475353 |url=http://cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/hcp-dsm.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029080544/http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/hcp-dsm.html |archivedate=29 October 2013}}</ref> The terminology of autism can be bewildering, with autism, Asperger syndrome and PDD-NOS often called the ''autism spectrum disorders'' (ASD)<ref name=CCD2007 /> or sometimes the ''autistic disorders'',<ref>{{cite journal |author= Freitag CM |title= The genetics of autistic disorders and its clinical relevance: a review of the literature |journal= Mol Psychiatry |volume= 12 |issue=1 |pages= 2–22 |year= 2007 |pmid= 17033636 |doi= 10.1038/sj.mp.4001896 | doi-access = free}}</ref> whereas autism itself is often called ''autistic disorder'', ''childhood autism'', or ''infantile autism''. In this article, ''autism'' refers to the classic autistic disorder; in clinical practice, though, ''autism'', ''ASD'', and ''PDD'' are often used interchangeably.<ref name="Caronna">{{cite journal |vauthors= Caronna EB, Milunsky JM, Tager-Flusberg H |title= Autism spectrum disorders: clinical and research frontiers | journal= Arch Dis Child | volume = 93 | issue = 6 | pages = 518–23 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18305076 | doi = 10.1136/adc.2006.115337}}</ref> ASD, in turn, is a subset of the broader autism [[phenotype]], which describes individuals who may not have ASD but do have autistic-like [[Trait (biology)|traits]], such as avoiding eye contact.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Piven J, Palmer P, Jacobi D, Childress D, Arndt S | title = Broader autism phenotype: evidence from a family history study of multiple-incidence autism families | journal = Am J Psychiatry | volume = 154 | issue = 2 | pages = 185–90 | year = 1997 | pmid = 9016266 | doi=10.1176/ajp.154.2.185| url = https://www.academia.edu/24979734}}</ref> The manifestations of autism cover a wide [[Spectrum disorder|spectrum]], ranging from individuals with severe impairments—who may be silent, [[developmentally disabled]], and locked into hand flapping and rocking—to high functioning individuals who may have active but distinctly odd social approaches, narrowly focused interests, and verbose, [[pedantic]] communication.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Happé F | title = Understanding assets and deficits in autism: why success is more interesting than failure | journal = Psychologist | volume = 12 | issue = 11 | pages = 540–7 | year = 1999 | url = http://www.thepsychologist.org.uk/archive/archive_home.cfm/volumeID_12-editionID_46-ArticleID_133-getfile_getPDF/thepsychologist/psy_11_99_p540-547_happe.pdf | format = PDF | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20120517162434/http://www.thepsychologist.org.uk/archive/archive_home.cfm/volumeID_12-editionID_46-ArticleID_133-getfile_getPDF/thepsychologist/psy_11_99_p540-547_happe.pdf |archivedate=17 May 2012}}</ref> Because the behavior spectrum is continuous, boundaries between diagnostic categories are necessarily somewhat arbitrary.<ref name=Geschwind-2009 /> Sometimes the syndrome is divided into low-, medium- or [[high-functioning autism]] (LFA, MFA, and HFA), based on [[IQ]] thresholds,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Baron-Cohen S | title = The hyper-systemizing, assortative mating theory of autism | journal = Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry | volume = 30 | issue = 5 | pages = 865–72 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16519981 | doi = 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2006.01.010 | url = http://autismresearchcentre.com/docs/papers/2006_BC_Neuropsychophamacology.pdf | format = PDF | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20120513020615/http://autismresearchcentre.com/docs/papers/2006_BC_Neuropsychophamacology.pdf | archivedate=13 May 2012}}</ref> or on how much support the individual requires in daily life; these subdivisions are not standardized and are controversial. Autism can also be divided into [[Syndrome|syndromal]] and non-syndromal autism; the syndromal autism is associated with severe or profound [[intellectual disability]] or a congenital syndrome with physical symptoms, such as [[tuberous sclerosis]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cohen D, Pichard N, Tordjman S, Baumann C, Burglen L, Excoffier E, Lazar G, Mazet P, Pinquier C, Verloes A, Héron D | title = Specific genetic disorders and autism: clinical contribution towards their identification | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 35 | issue = 1 | pages = 103–16 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15796126 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-004-1038-2 | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7940098}}</ref> Although individuals with Asperger syndrome tend to perform better cognitively than those with autism, the extent of the [[Diagnosis of Asperger syndrome#Differences from high-functioning autism|overlap between Asperger syndrome, HFA, and non-syndromal autism]] is unclear.<ref>Validity of ASD subtypes: *{{cite journal | vauthors = Klin A | title = Autism and Asperger syndrome: an overview | journal = Rev Bras Psiquiatr | volume = 28 | issue = suppl 1 | pages = S3–S11 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16791390 | doi = 10.1590/S1516-44462006000500002 | url = http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1516-44462006000500002&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070929142312/http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1516-44462006000500002&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en | dead-url = yes | archive-date = 29 September 2007 | doi-access = free}} *{{cite journal | vauthors = Witwer AN, Lecavalier L | title = Examining the validity of autism spectrum disorder subtypes | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 38 | issue = 9 | pages = 1611–24 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18327636 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-008-0541-2}}</ref> Some studies have reported diagnoses of autism in children due to a loss of language or social skills, as opposed to a failure to make progress, typically from 15 to 30 months of age. The validity of this distinction remains controversial; it is possible that [[regressive autism]] is a specific subtype,<ref name=Stef2008 /><ref name=Landa /><ref name=Land2008 /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Volkmar F, Chawarska K, Klin A | title = Autism in infancy and early childhood | journal = Annu Rev Psychol | volume = 56 | pages = 315–36 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15709938 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070159 | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/8023089}} A partial update is in: {{cite journal | vauthors = Volkmar FR, Chawarska K | title = Autism in infants: an update | journal = World Psychiatry | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 19–21 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18458791 | pmc = 2366821}}</ref> or that there is a continuum of behaviors between autism with and without regression.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ozonoff S, Heung K, Byrd R, Hansen R, Hertz-Picciotto I | title = The onset of autism: patterns of symptom emergence in the first years of life | journal = Autism Res | volume = 1 | issue = 6 | pages = 320–328 | year = 2008 | pmid = 19360687 | pmc = 2857525 | doi = 10.1002/aur.53}}</ref> Research into causes has been hampered by the inability to identify biologically meaningful subgroups within the autistic population<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Altevogt BM, Hanson SL, Leshner AI | title = Autism and the environment: challenges and opportunities for research | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 121 | issue = 6 | pages = 1225–9 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18519493 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2007-3000 | url = http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/121/6/1225 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20100115140620/http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/121/6/1225 | archivedate = 15 January 2010}}</ref> and by the traditional boundaries between the disciplines of [[psychiatry]], [[psychology]], [[neurology]] and [[pediatrics]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Reiss AL | title = Childhood developmental disorders: an academic and clinical convergence point for psychiatry, neurology, psychology and pediatrics | journal = J Child Psychol Psychiatry | volume = 50 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 87–98 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19220592 | pmc = 5756732 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.02046.x}}</ref> Newer technologies such as [[fMRI]] and [[diffusion tensor imaging]] can help identify biologically relevant [[phenotype]]s (observable traits) that can be viewed on [[brain scan]]s, to help further [[neurogenetic]] studies of autism;<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Piggot J, Shirinyan D, Shemmassian S, Vazirian S, Alarcón M | title = Neural systems approaches to the neurogenetics of autism spectrum disorders | journal = Neuroscience | volume = 164 | issue = 1 | pages = 247–56 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19482063 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.05.054}}</ref> one example is lowered activity in the [[fusiform face area]] of the brain, which is associated with impaired perception of people versus objects.<ref name=Lev2009 /> It has been proposed to classify autism using genetics as well as behavior.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Stephan DA | title = Unraveling autism | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 82 | issue = 1 | pages = 7–9 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18179879 | pmc = 2253980 | doi = 10.1016/j.ajhg.2007.12.003}}</ref> ==Screening== About half of parents of children with ASD notice their child's unusual behaviors by age 18 months, and about four-fifths notice by age 24 months.<ref name=Land2008 /> According to an article, failure to meet any of the following milestones "is an absolute indication to proceed with further evaluations. Delay in referral for such testing may delay early diagnosis and treatment and affect the long-term outcome".<ref name=Filipek /> * No [[babbling]] by 12 months. * No [[Gesture|gesturing]] (pointing, waving, etc.) by 12 months. * No single words by 16 months. * No two-word (spontaneous, not just [[echolalia|echolalic]]) phrases by 24 months. * Any loss of any language or social skills, at any age. The [[United States Preventive Services Task Force]] in 2016 found it was unclear if screening was beneficial or harmful among children in whom there is no concerns.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Siu|first1=AL|last2=US Preventive Services Task Force|first2=(USPSTF)|last3=Bibbins-Domingo|first3=K|last4=Grossman|first4=DC|last5=Baumann|first5=LC|last6=Davidson|first6=KW|last7=Ebell|first7=M|last8=García|first8=FA|last9=Gillman|first9=M|last10=Herzstein|first10=J|last11=Kemper|first11=AR|last12=Krist|first12=AH|last13=Kurth|first13=AE|last14=Owens|first14=DK|last15=Phillips|first15=WR|last16=Phipps|first16=MG|last17=Pignone|first17=MP|title=Screening for Autism Spectrum Disorder in Young Children: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement|journal=JAMA|date=16 February 2016|volume=315|issue=7|pages=691–6|pmid=26881372|doi=10.1001/jama.2016.0018}}</ref> The Japanese practice is to [[Screening (medicine)|screen]] all children for ASD at 18 and 24 months, using autism-specific formal screening tests. In contrast, in the UK, children whose families or doctors recognize possible signs of autism are screened. It is not known which approach is more effective.<ref name=Lev2009 /> Screening tools include the [[Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers]] (M-CHAT), the Early Screening of Autistic Traits Questionnaire, and the First Year Inventory; initial data on [[Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers|M-CHAT]] and its predecessor, the [[Checklist for Autism in Toddlers]] (CHAT), on children aged 18–30 months suggests that it is best used in a clinical setting and that it has low [[Sensitivity (tests)|sensitivity]] (many false-negatives) but good [[Specificity (tests)|specificity]] (few false-positives).<ref name=Land2008 /> It may be more accurate to precede these tests with a broadband screener that does not distinguish ASD from other developmental disorders.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wetherby AM, Brosnan-Maddox S, Peace V, Newton L | title = Validation of the Infant–Toddler Checklist as a broadband screener for autism spectrum disorders from 9 to 24 months of age | journal = Autism | volume = 12 | issue = 5 | pages = 487–511 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18805944 | pmc = 2663025 | doi = 10.1177/1362361308094501}}</ref> Screening tools designed for one culture's norms for behaviors like eye contact may be inappropriate for a different culture.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wallis KE, Pinto-Martin J | title = The challenge of screening for autism spectrum disorder in a culturally diverse society | journal = Acta Paediatr | volume = 97 | issue = 5 | pages = 539–40 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18373717 | doi = 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2008.00720.x}}</ref> Although [[genetic screening]] for autism is generally still impractical, it can be considered in some cases, such as children with neurological symptoms and [[dysmorphic feature]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lintas C, Persico AM | title = Autistic phenotypes and genetic testing: state-of-the-art for the clinical geneticist | journal = Journal of Medical Genetics | volume = 46 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–8 | year = 2009 | pmid = 18728070 | pmc = 2603481 | doi = 10.1136/jmg.2008.060871 | url = http://jmg.bmj.com/content/46/1/1.long | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20131030000423/http://jmg.bmj.com/content/46/1/1.long | archivedate = 30 October 2013}}</ref> ==Prevention== While infection with [[rubella]] during [[pregnancy]] causes fewer than 1% of cases of autism,<ref name=Duchan /> [[rubella vaccine|vaccination against rubella]] can prevent many of those cases.<ref name="Lancet2015">{{cite journal|vauthors=Lambert N, Strebel P, Orenstein W, Icenogle J, Poland GA |title=Rubella|journal=Lancet|date=7 January 2015|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60539-0|pmid=25576992|volume=385|issue=9984|pages=2297–307|pmc=4514442}}</ref> ==Management== {{Main|Autism therapies}} [[File:Opening a window to the autistic brain.jpg|thumb|alt=A young child points, in front of a woman who smiles and points in the same direction.|A three-year-old with autism points to fish in an aquarium, as part of an experiment on the effect of intensive shared-attention training on language development.<ref name=Powell />]] The main goals when treating children with autism are to lessen associated deficits and family distress, and to increase quality of life and functional independence. In general, higher IQs are correlated with greater responsiveness to treatment and improved treatment outcomes.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Meta-Analysis of Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention for Children With Autism|journal = Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology|date = 19 May 2009|issn = 1537-4416|pmid = 19437303|pages = 439–450|volume = 38|issue = 3|doi = 10.1080/15374410902851739|first = Sigmund|last = Eldevik|first2 = Richard P.|last2 = Hastings|first3 = J. Carl|last3 = Hughes|first4 = Erik|last4 = Jahr|first5 = Svein|last5 = Eikeseth|first6 = Scott|last6 = Cross|citeseerx = 10.1.1.607.9620}}</ref> No single treatment is best and treatment is typically tailored to the child's needs.<ref name=CCD2007 /> Families and the educational system are the main resources for treatment.<ref name=Lev2009 /> Studies of interventions have methodological problems that prevent definitive conclusions about [[efficacy]],<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Ospina MB, Krebs Seida J, Clark B, Karkhaneh M, Hartling L, Tjosvold L, Vandermeer B, Smith V |title=Behavioural and developmental interventions for autism spectrum disorder: a clinical systematic review |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=3 |issue=11 |pages=e3755 |year=2008 |pmid=19015734 |pmc=2582449 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0003755 |df=}}</ref> however the development of evidence-based interventions has advanced in recent years.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |title= Evidence Base Update for Autism Spectrum Disorder |journal= Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology |date= 2 November 2015 |issn= 1537-4416 |pmid= 26430947 |pages= 897–922 |volume= 44 |issue= 6 |doi= 10.1080/15374416.2015.1077448 |first = Tristram |last= Smith |first2= Suzannah |last2= Iadarola |doi-access= free}}</ref> Although many [[psychosocial]] interventions have some positive evidence, suggesting that some form of treatment is preferable to no treatment, the methodological quality of [[systematic review]]s of these studies has generally been poor, their clinical results are mostly tentative, and there is little evidence for the relative effectiveness of treatment options.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors = Seida JK, Ospina MB, Karkhaneh M, Hartling L, Smith V, Clark B |title = Systematic reviews of psychosocial interventions for autism: an umbrella review |journal= Dev Med Child Neurol |volume = 51 |issue= 2 |pages= 95–104 |year=2009 |pmid= 19191842 |doi= 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2008.03211.x |url= https://www.academia.edu/23058923}}</ref> Intensive, sustained [[special education]] programs and [[behavior therapy]] early in life can help children acquire self-care, social, and job skills,<ref name=CCD2007 /> and often improve functioning and decrease symptom severity and maladaptive behaviors;<ref name="Rogers">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rogers SJ, Vismara LA | title = Evidence-based comprehensive treatments for early autism | journal = J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol | volume = 37 | issue = 1 | pages = 8–38 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18444052 | pmc = 2943764 | doi = 10.1080/15374410701817808}}</ref> claims that intervention by around age three years is crucial are not substantiated.<ref name="HowlinCharman">{{cite journal | vauthors = Howlin P, Magiati I, Charman T | title = Systematic review of early intensive behavioral interventions for children with autism | journal = Am J Intellect Dev Disabil | volume = 114 | issue = 1 | pages = 23–41 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19143460 | doi = 10.1352/2009.114:23-41}}</ref> Available approaches include [[applied behavior analysis]] (ABA), developmental models, [[TEACCH|structured teaching]], [[speech and language therapy]], [[social skills]] therapy, and [[occupational therapy]].<ref name=CCD2007 /> Among these approaches, interventions either treat autistic features comprehensively, or focalize treatment on a specific area of deficit.<ref name=":0" /> The evidence for early intensive behavioral intervention is low.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reichow |first1=B |last2=Hume |first2=K |last3=Barton |first3=EE |last4=Boyd |first4=BA |title=Early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI) for young children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |date=9 May 2018 |volume=5 |pages=CD009260 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD009260.pub3 |pmid=29742275}}</ref> Two theoretical frameworks outlined for early childhood intervention include applied behavioral analysis (ABA) and developmental social pragmatic models (DSP).<ref name=":0" /> One interventional strategy utilizes a parent training model, which teaches parents how to implement various ABA and DSP techniques, allowing for parents to disseminate interventions themselves.<ref name=":0" /> Various DSP programs have been developed to explicitly deliver intervention systems through at-home parent implementation. Despite the recent development of parent training models, these interventions have demonstrated effectiveness in numerous studies, being evaluated as a probable efficacious mode of treatment.<ref name=":0" /> ===Education=== Educational interventions can be effective to varying degrees in most children: [[Early intensive behavioral intervention|intensive ABA treatment]] has demonstrated effectiveness in enhancing global functioning in preschool children<ref name="Eikeseth">{{cite journal | vauthors = Eikeseth S | title = Outcome of comprehensive psycho-educational interventions for young children with autism | journal = Res Dev Disabil | volume = 30 | issue = 1 | pages = 158–78 | year = 2009 | pmid = 18385012 | doi = 10.1016/j.ridd.2008.02.003 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.615.3336}}</ref> and is well-established for improving intellectual performance of young children.<ref name=Rogers /> Similarly, teacher-implemented intervention that utilizes an ABA combined with a developmental social pragmatic approach has been found to be a well-established treatment in improving social-communication skills in young children, although there is less evidence in its treatment of global symptoms.<ref name=":0" /> Neuropsychological reports are often poorly communicated to educators, resulting in a gap between what a report recommends and what education is provided.<ref name=Kanne /> It is not known whether treatment programs for children lead to significant improvements after the children grow up,<ref name=Rogers /> and the limited research on the effectiveness of adult residential programs shows mixed results.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Van Bourgondien ME, Reichle NC, Schopler E | title = Effects of a model treatment approach on adults with autism | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 33 | issue = 2 | pages = 131–40 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12757352 | doi = 10.1023/A:1022931224934}}</ref> The appropriateness of including children with varying severity of autism spectrum disorders in the general education population is a subject of current debate among educators and researchers.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Topics in Language Disorders |year=2003 |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=116–133 |title=Inclusion of Learners with Autism Spectrum Disorders in General Education Settings | vauthors = Simpson RL, de Boer-Ott SR, Smith-Myles B|url=http://www.nursingcenter.com/pdf.asp?AID=520301 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714215923/http://www.nursingcenter.com/pdf.asp?AID=520301 |archivedate=14 July 2011 |doi=10.1097/00011363-200304000-00005}}</ref> ===Medication=== Many medications are used to treat ASD symptoms that interfere with integrating a child into home or school when behavioral treatment fails.<ref name=Rapin /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Leskovec TJ, Rowles BM, Findling RL | title = Pharmacological treatment options for autism spectrum disorders in children and adolescents | journal = Harv Rev Psychiatry | volume = 16 | issue = 2 | pages = 97–112 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18415882 | doi = 10.1080/10673220802075852}}</ref> More than half of US children diagnosed with ASD are prescribed [[psychoactive drug]]s or [[anticonvulsant]]s, with the most common drug classes being [[antidepressant]]s, [[stimulant]]s, and [[antipsychotic]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Oswald DP, Sonenklar NA | title = Medication use among children with autism spectrum disorders | journal = J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol | volume = 17 | issue = 3 | pages = 348–55 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17630868 | doi = 10.1089/cap.2006.17303}}</ref> Antipsychotics, such as [[risperidone]] and [[aripiprazole]], have been found to be useful for treating irritability, repetitive behavior, and sleeplessness that often occurs with autism, however their side effects must be weighed against their potential benefits, and people with autism may respond atypically.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ji N, Findling RL | date = March 2015 | title = An update on pharmacotherapy for autism spectrum disorder in children and adolescents | journal = Curr Opin Psychiatry | volume = 28 | issue = 2| pages = 91–101 | doi = 10.1097/YCO.0000000000000132 | pmid = 25602248}}</ref> There is scant reliable research about the effectiveness or safety of drug treatments for adolescents and adults with ASD.<ref>Lack of research on drug treatments: * {{cite journal | vauthors = Angley M, Young R, Ellis D, Chan W, McKinnon R | title = Children and autism—part 1—recognition and pharmacological management | journal = Aust Fam Physician | volume = 36 | issue = 9 | pages = 741–4 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17915375 | url = http://www.racgp.org.au/afp/200709/200709angley.pdf | format = PDF | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20130407205054/http://www.racgp.org.au/afp/200709/200709angley.pdf | archivedate = 7 April 2013}} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Broadstock M, Doughty C, Eggleston M | title = Systematic review of the effectiveness of pharmacological treatments for adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorder | journal = Autism | volume = 11 | issue = 4 | pages = 335–48 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17656398 | doi = 10.1177/1362361307078132}}</ref> No known medication relieves autism's core symptoms of social and communication impairments.<ref>{{Cite book | vauthors = Buitelaar JK | title = Why have drug treatments been so disappointing? | journal = Novartis Found Symp | volume = 251 | pages = 235–44; discussion 245–9, 281–97 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14521196 | doi = 10.1002/0470869380.ch14 | title. = | series = Novartis Foundation Symposia | isbn = 9780470869383}}</ref> Experiments in mice have reversed or reduced some symptoms related to autism by replacing or modulating gene function,<ref name=Walsh /><ref name="pmid18093519" /> suggesting the possibility of targeting therapies to specific rare mutations known to cause autism.<ref name=Betancur /><ref name="pmid20303363">{{cite journal | vauthors = Dölen G, Carpenter RL, Ocain TD, Bear MF | title = Mechanism-based approaches to treating fragile X | journal = Pharmacol Ther | volume = 127 | issue = 1 | pages = 78–93 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20303363 | doi = 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2010.02.008 | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/42370324}}</ref> ===Alternative medicine=== Although many [[Alternative therapies for developmental and learning disabilities|alternative therapies and interventions]] are available, few are supported by scientific studies.<ref name=Sigman /><ref>Lack of support for interventions: *{{cite journal | vauthors = Francis K | title = Autism interventions: a critical update | journal = Dev Med Child Neurol | volume = 47 | issue = 7 | pages = 493–9 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15991872 | doi = 10.1017/S0012162205000952 | url = http://journals.cambridge.org/production/action/cjoGetFulltext?fulltextid=313204 | format = PDF}} *{{cite journal | vauthors = Levy SE, Hyman SL | title = Complementary and alternative medicine treatments for children with autism spectrum disorders | journal = Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = 803–20, ix | year = 2008 | pmid = 18775371 | pmc = 2597185 | doi = 10.1016/j.chc.2008.06.004}} *{{cite journal | vauthors = Rao PA, Beidel DC, Murray MJ | title = Social skills interventions for children with Asperger's syndrome or high-functioning autism: a review and recommendations | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 38 | issue = 2 | pages = 353–61 | year = 2008 | pmid = 17641962 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-007-0402-4 | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6196535}} </ref> Treatment approaches have little empirical support in [[Quality of life|quality-of-life]] contexts, and many programs focus on success measures that lack predictive validity and real-world relevance.<ref name=Burgess /> Some alternative treatments may place the child at risk. A 2008 study found that compared to their peers, autistic boys have significantly thinner bones if on [[casein-free diet]]s;<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Hediger ML, England LJ, Molloy CA, Yu KF, Manning-Courtney P, Mills JL |title=Archived copy |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=848–56 |year=2008 |pmid=17879151 |doi=10.1007/s10803-007-0453-6 |laysummary=http://www.nih.gov/news/health/jan2008/nichd-29.htm |laydate=29 January 2008 |laysource=NIH News |url=http://www.nih.gov/news/health/jan2008/nichd-29.htm |access-date=17 April 2008 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131001111904/http://www.nih.gov/news/health/jan2008/nichd-29.htm |archivedate=1 October 2013 }}</ref> in 2005, botched [[chelation therapy]] killed a five-year-old child with autism.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brown MJ, Willis T, Omalu B, Leiker R | title = Deaths resulting from hypocalcemia after administration of edetate disodium: 2003–2005 | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 118 | issue = 2 | pages = e534–6 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16882789 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2006-0858 | url = http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/118/2/e534 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090727080307/http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/118/2/e534 | archivedate = 27 July 2009}}</ref> Another alternative medicine practice with no evidence is [[CEASE therapy]], a mixture of [[homeopathy]], supplements, and 'vaccine detoxing'.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2018/apr/27/more-than-120-homeopaths-trying-to-cure-autism-in-uk|title=More than 120 homeopaths trying to 'cure' autism in UK|publisher=The Guardian|date=27 April 2018|accessdate=13 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/homeopathy-for-autism-certainly-not-based-on-science-b-c-health-official-says-1.4677128|title=Homeopathy for autism 'certainly not based on science,' B.C. health official says|publisher=CBC News|date=25 May 2018|accessdate=13 July 2018}}</ref> Although popularly used as an [[complementary and alternative medicine|alternative treatment]] for people with autism, there is no good evidence that a [[gluten-free diet]] is of benefit.<ref name=Buie>{{cite journal |vauthors=Buie T |title=The relationship of autism and gluten |journal=Clin Ther |volume=35 |issue=5 |pages=578–83 |year=2013 |pmid=23688532 |doi=10.1016/j.clinthera.2013.04.011 |type=Review |quote=At this time, the studies attempting to treat symptoms of autism with diet have not been sufficient to support the general institution of a gluten-free or other diet for all children with autism.}}</ref><ref name="MariBausetZazpe">{{cite journal | vauthors = Marí-Bauset S, Zazpe I, Mari-Sanchis A, Llopis-González A, Morales-Suárez-Varela M| title = Evidence of the gluten-free and casein-free diet in autism spectrum disorders: a systematic review | journal = J Child Neurol | volume = 29| issue = 12| pages = 1718–27| date = December 2014| pmid = 24789114|doi = 10.1177/0883073814531330| hdl = 10171/37087| hdl-access = free}}</ref><ref name="Millward2008">{{cite journal|vauthors=Millward C, Ferriter M, Calver S, Connell-Jones G | title=Gluten- and casein-free diets for autistic spectrum disorder | journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev | year= 2008 | issue= 2 | pages= CD003498 | pmid=18425890 | doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003498.pub3 | editor1-last=Ferriter| editor1-first=Michael | pmc=4164915}}</ref> In the subset of people who have [[non-celiac gluten sensitivity|gluten sensitivity]] there is limited evidence that suggests that a gluten free diet may improve some autistic behaviors.<ref name=Buie /><ref name=VoltaCaio>{{cite journal | vauthors = Volta U, Caio G, De Giorgio R, Henriksen C, Skodje G, Lundin KE| title = Non-celiac gluten sensitivity: a work-in-progress entity in the spectrum of wheat-related disorders | journal = Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol | volume = 29| issue = 3| pages = 477–91| date = June 2015| pmid = 26060112 | doi = 10.1016/j.bpg.2015.04.006 | quote= autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have been hypothesized to be associated with NCGS [47,48]. Notably, a gluten- and casein-free diet might have a positive effect in improving hyperactivity and mental confusion in some patients with ASD. This very exciting association between NCGS and ASD deserves further study before conclusions can be firmly drawn.| url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/276453313}}</ref><ref name=SanMauroGaricano>{{cite journal | vauthors =San Mauro I, Garicano E, Collado L, Ciudad MJ | title = ¿Es el gluten el gran agente etiopatogenico de enfermedad en el siglo XXI?|trans-title=Is gluten the great etiopathogenic agent of disease in the XXI century? |language=Spanish| journal = Nutr Hosp | volume = 30| issue = 6| pages = 1203–10| date = December 2014 | pmid =25433099 | doi = 10.3305/nh.2014.30.6.7866| url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268923851}}</ref><ref name="CatassiBai">{{cite journal | vauthors = Catassi C, Bai JC, Bonaz B, Bouma G, Calabrò A, Carroccio A, Castillejo G, Ciacci C, Cristofori F, Dolinsek J, Francavilla R, Elli L, Green P, Holtmeier W, Koehler P, Koletzko S, Meinhold C, Sanders D, Schumann M, Schuppan D, Ullrich R, Vécsei A, Volta U, Zevallos V, Sapone A, Fasano A| title = Non-Celiac Gluten sensitivity: the new frontier of gluten related disorders | journal = Nutrients | volume = 5| issue = 10| pages = 3839–53| date = September 2013 | pmid =24077239 |pmc= 3820047| doi = 10.3390/nu5103839 | quote= The above data suggest that removing gluten from the diet may positively affect the clinical outcome in some children diagnosed with ASD, indicating that autism may be part of the spectrum of NCGS, at least in some cases. However, a word of caution is necessary to stress the fact that only a small, selected sub-group of children affected by ASD may benefit from an elimination diet. Additional investigations are required in order to identify phenotypes based on best- and non-response to dietary modifications and assess any biological correlates including anthropometry before considering a dietary intervention.}}</ref> There is tentative evidence that [[music therapy]] may improve social interactions, verbal communication, and non-verbal communication skills.<ref name=Geretsegger2014>{{cite journal |vauthors=Geretsegger M, Elefant C, Mössler KA, Gold C |title=Music therapy for people with autism spectrum disorder |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume= |issue=6 |pages=CD004381 |date=June 2014 |pmid=24936966 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004381.pub3 |url=}}</ref> There has been early research looking at [[Hyperbaric medicine|hyperbaric treatment]]s in children with autism.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Therapies for Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders | page = 8 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 21834171 | quote = Hyperbaric therapy, in which oxygen is administered in special chambers that maintain a higher air pressure, has shown possible effects in other chronic neurologic conditions and has also undergone preliminary exploration in ASDs. | vauthors=Warren Z, Veenstra-VanderWeele J, Stone W, ''et al''.}}</ref> ==Society and culture== {{Main|Societal and cultural aspects of autism}} The emergence of the autism rights movement has served as an attempt to encourage people to be more tolerant of those with autism.<ref>{{cite web| last = Trivedi| first = Bijal| title = Autistic and proud of it| website = New Scientist| access-date = 10 November 2015 | url = https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg18625041-500-autistic-and-proud-of-it/}}</ref> Through this movement, people hope to cause others to think of autism as a difference instead of a disease. Proponents of this movement wish to seek "acceptance, not cures."<ref>{{cite web| last = Shapiro| first = Joseph| title = Autism Movement Seeks Acceptance, Not Cures| publisher = NPR| access-date = 10 November 2015 | date = 26 June 2006 | url = https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5488463}}</ref> There have also been many worldwide events promoting autism awareness such as [[World Autism Awareness Day]], [[Light It Up Blue]], [[Autism Sunday]], [[Autistic Pride Day]], [[Autreat]], and others.<ref>{{cite web| title = World Autism Awareness Day, 2 April| publisher = United Nations| access-date = 17 November 2015 | url = https://www.un.org/en/events/autismday/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title = What is LIUB| website = Autism Speaks| access-date = 17 November 2015| url = https://www.autismspeaks.org/liub/what-liub| deadurl = yes| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20151119205629/https://www.autismspeaks.org/liub/what-liub| archivedate = 19 November 2015| df = dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| last = Bascom| first = Julia| title = Autistic Pride Day 2015: A Message to the Autistic Community| access-date = 18 November 2015 | date = 18 June 2015 | url = http://autisticadvocacy.org/2015/06/autistic-pride-day-2015-a-message-to-the-autistic-community/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title = Autism Sunday – Home| website = Autism Sunday| access-date = 17 November 2015| year = 2010| url = http://www.autismsunday.co.uk/| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100303043146/http://www.autismsunday.co.uk/| dead-url = yes| archive-date = 3 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title = About Autreat| publisher = Autreat.com| access-date = 17 November 2015 |year = 2013| url = http://www.autreat.com/autreat.html}}</ref> There have also been many organizations dedicated to increasing the awareness of autism and the effects that autism has on someone's life. These organizations include [[Autism Speaks]], [[Autism National Committee]], [[Autism Society of America]], and many others.<ref>{{cite web| title = Other Autism Organizations| website = Autism Speaks| access-date = 17 November 2015 | date = 25 July 2012| url = https://www.autismspeaks.org/family-services/resource-library/other-autism-organizations}}</ref> Social-science scholars have had an increased focused on studying those with autism in hopes to learn more about "autism as a culture, transcultural comparisons... and research on social movements."<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Silverman|first1=Chloe|title=Fieldwork on Another Planet: Social Science Perspectives on the Autism Spectrum|journal=BioSocieties|volume=3|issue=3|year=2008|pages=325–341|issn=1745-8552|doi=10.1017/S1745855208006236}}</ref> Media has had an influence on how the public perceives those with autism. ''[[Rain Man]]'', a film that won 4 Oscars including Best Picture, depicts a character with autism who has incredible talents and abilities.<ref>{{cite web| title = Rain Man (1988) – IMDb| publisher = [[Internet Movie Database]]| access-date = 17 November 2015 | url = https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0095953/?ref_=nv_sr_1}}</ref> While many autistics don't have these special abilities, there are some autistic individuals who have been successful in their fields.<ref>{{cite web| title = American RadioWorks: Fast Food and Animal Rights – Kill Them With Kindness, Page 1| website = American Public Media| access-date = 17 November 2015 | url = http://americanradioworks.publicradio.org/features/mcdonalds/grandin1.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| last = Page| first = Tim| title = Parallel Play| website = The New Yorker| access-date = 17 November 2015 | date = 20 August 2007 | url = http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2007/08/20/parallel-play}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title = Famous People With Autism Spectrum Disorder: Autistic Celebrities (List)| website = Mental Health Daily| access-date = 18 November 2015 | url = http://mentalhealthdaily.com/2015/09/19/famous-people-with-autism-spectrum-disorder-autistic-celebrities-list/}}</ref> ===Cost=== Treatment is expensive; indirect costs are more so. For someone born in 2000, a US study estimated an average lifetime cost of ${{Format price|{{inflation|US|3160384|2003}}}} ([[net present value]] in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars, inflation-adjusted from 2003 estimate),{{inflation-fn|US}} with about 10% [[medical care]], 30% extra education and other care, and 60% lost economic productivity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ganz ML | title = The lifetime distribution of the incremental societal costs of autism | journal = Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med | volume = 161 | issue = 4 | pages = 343–9 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17404130 | doi = 10.1001/archpedi.161.4.343 | url = http://archpedi.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/161/4/343 | laysummary = http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/press-releases/2006-releases/press04252006.html | laydate = 25 April 2006 | laysource = Harvard School of Public Health | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20091212234601/http://archpedi.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/161/4/343 | archivedate = 12 December 2009}}</ref> Publicly supported programs are often inadequate or inappropriate for a given child, and unreimbursed out-of-pocket medical or therapy expenses are associated with likelihood of family financial problems;<ref>{{cite journal |journal=J Fam Econ Iss |year=2007 |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=247–64 |doi=10.1007/s10834-007-9059-6 |title=Financial issues associated with having a child with autism | vauthors = Sharpe DL, Baker DL |url=https://www.academia.edu/26042483}}</ref> one 2008 US study found a 14% average loss of annual income in families of children with ASD,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Montes G, Halterman JS | title = Association of childhood autism spectrum disorders and loss of family income | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 121 | issue = 4 | pages = e821–6 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18381511 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2007-1594 | url = http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/121/4/e821 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20100304071520/http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/121/4/e821 | archivedate = 4 March 2010}}</ref> and a related study found that ASD is associated with higher probability that [[child care]] problems will greatly affect parental employment.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Montes G, Halterman JS | title = Child care problems and employment among families with preschool-aged children with autism in the United States | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 122 | issue = 1 | pages = e202–8 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18595965 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2007-3037 | url = http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/122/1/e202 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20091206190622/http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/122/1/e202 | archivedate = 6 December 2009}}</ref> US states increasingly require private health insurance to cover autism services, shifting costs from publicly funded education programs to privately funded health insurance.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Reinke T | title = States increasingly mandate special autism services | journal = Manag Care | volume = 17 | issue = 8 | pages = 35–6, 39 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18777788 | url = http://managedcaremag.com/archives/0808/0808.autism.html | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20140324083435/http://managedcaremag.com/archives/0808/0808.autism.html | archivedate = 24 March 2014}}</ref> After childhood, key treatment issues include residential care, job training and placement, sexuality, social skills, and [[estate planning]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Aman MG | title = Treatment planning for patients with autism spectrum disorders | journal = J Clin Psychiatry | volume = 66 | issue = Suppl 10 | pages = 38–45 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16401149}}</ref> ==Prognosis== There is no known cure.<ref name=CCD2007 /><ref name=Lev2009 /> Children recover occasionally, so that they lose their diagnosis of ASD;<ref name=Helt2008 /> this occurs sometimes after intensive treatment and sometimes not. It is not known how often recovery happens;<ref name=Rogers /> reported rates in unselected samples of children with ASD have ranged from 3% to 25%.<ref name=Helt2008 /> Most children with autism acquire language by age five or younger, though a few have developed communication skills in later years.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pickett E, Pullara O, O'Grady J, Gordon B | title = Speech acquisition in older nonverbal individuals with autism: a review of features, methods, and prognosis | journal = Cogn Behav Neurol | volume = 22 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–21 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19372766 | doi = 10.1097/WNN.0b013e318190d185}}</ref> (See also: [[nonverbal autism]]) Most children with autism lack [[social support]], meaningful relationships, future employment opportunities or [[Self-determination theory|self-determination]].<ref name="Burgess">{{cite journal|vauthors=Burgess AF, Gutstein SE |year=2007 |title=Quality of life for people with autism: raising the standard for evaluating successful outcomes |journal=Child Adolesc Ment Health |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=80–6 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-3588.2006.00432.x |url=http://kingwoodpsychology.com/recent_publications/camh_432.pdf |format=PDF |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6M1hUAhUa?url=http://kingwoodpsychology.com/recent_publications/camh_432.pdf |archivedate=21 December 2013 |deadurl=no }}</ref> Although core difficulties tend to persist, symptoms often become less severe with age.<ref name=Rapin /> Few high-quality studies address long-term [[prognosis]]. Some adults show modest improvement in communication skills, but a few decline; no study has focused on autism after midlife.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Seltzer MM, Shattuck P, Abbeduto L, Greenberg JS | title = Trajectory of development in adolescents and adults with autism | journal = Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev | volume = 10 | issue = 4 | pages = 234–47 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15666341 | doi = 10.1002/mrdd.20038}}</ref> Acquiring language before age six, having an [[IQ]] above 50, and having a marketable skill all predict better outcomes; [[independent living]] is unlikely with severe autism.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tidmarsh L, Volkmar FR | title = Diagnosis and epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders | journal = Can J Psychiatry | volume = 48 | issue = 8 | pages = 517–25 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14574827 | url = http://ww1.cpa-apc.org/Publications/Archives/CJP/2003/september/tidmarsh.asp| doi = 10.1177/070674370304800803}}</ref> Most people with autism face significant obstacles in transitioning to adulthood.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hendricks DR, Wehman P | title = Transition From School to Adulthood for Youth With Autism Spectrum Disorders: Review and Recommendations | journal = Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities | date = 24 March 2009 | volume = 24 | issue = 2 | pages = 77–88 | doi = 10.1177/1088357608329827}}</ref> ==Epidemiology== {{Main|Epidemiology of autism}} [[File:US-autism-6-17-1996-2007.png|thumb|left|alt=Bar chart versus time. The graph rises steadily from 1996 to 2007, from about 0.7 to about 5.3. The trend curves slightly upward.|Reports of autism cases per 1,000 children grew dramatically in the US from 1996 to 2007. It is unknown how much, if any, growth came from changes in rates of autism.]] Most recent [[review]]s tend to estimate a prevalence of 1–2 per 1,000 for autism and close to 6 per 1,000 for ASD,<ref name=News2007 /> and 11 per 1,000 children in the United States for ASD as of 2008;<ref name="MMWR2012">{{cite journal | vauthors = | title = Prevalence of autism spectrum disorders&nbsp;— autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 14 sites, United States, 2008 | journal = MMWR Surveill Summ | volume = 61 | issue = 3 | pages = 1–19 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22456193 | url = https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss6103a1.htm | archivedate = 25 March 2014 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20140325235639/http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss6103a1.htm| author1 = Autism Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network Surveillance Year 2008 Principal Investigators | author2 = Centers for Disease Control Prevention }}</ref><ref name=Duchan >{{cite journal | vauthors = Duchan E, Patel DR | title = Epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders | journal = Pediatr. Clin. North Am. | volume = 59 | issue = 1 | pages = 27–43, ix–x | year = 2012 | pmid = 22284791 | doi = 10.1016/j.pcl.2011.10.003}}</ref> because of inadequate data, these numbers may underestimate ASD's true rate.<ref name=Caronna /> Globally, autism affects an estimated 24.8 million people as of 2015, while Asperger syndrome affects a further 37.2 million.<ref name=GBD2015Pre /> In 2012, the [[National Health Service|NHS]] estimated that the overall prevalence of autism among adults aged 18 years and over in the UK was 1.1%.<ref name=NHSEstimating>{{cite web |website= The Information Centre for Health and Social Care |publisher= National Health Service, UK |url= http://www.hscic.gov.uk/catalogue/PUB05061/esti-prev-auti-ext-07-psyc-morb-surv-rep.pdf |vauthors= Brugha T, Cooper SA, McManus S |title= Estimating the prevalence of autism spectrum conditions in adults: extending the 2007 Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey |date= 31 January 2012 |access-date= 29 December 2014 |display-authors= etal |deadurl= yes |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20141230033423/http://www.hscic.gov.uk/catalogue/PUB05061/esti-prev-auti-ext-07-psyc-morb-surv-rep.pdf |archivedate= 30 December 2014 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> Rates of [[PDD-NOS]]'s has been estimated at 3.7 per 1,000, Asperger syndrome at roughly 0.6 per 1,000, and [[childhood disintegrative disorder]] at 0.02 per 1,000.<ref name="Fombonne-2009">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fombonne E | title = Epidemiology of pervasive developmental disorders | journal = Pediatr Res | volume = 65 | issue = 6 | pages = 591–8 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19218885 | doi = 10.1203/PDR.0b013e31819e7203 | doi-access = free}}</ref> CDC's most recent estimate is that 1 out of every 68 children, or 14.7 per 1,000, has an ASD as of 2010.<ref>[https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/index.html CDC | Home | Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) | NCBDDD]</ref> The number of reported cases of autism increased dramatically in the 1990s and early 2000s. This increase is largely attributable to changes in diagnostic practices, referral patterns, availability of services, age at diagnosis, and public awareness,<ref name=Fombonne-2009 /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wing L, Potter D | title = The epidemiology of autistic spectrum disorders: is the prevalence rising? | journal = Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev | volume = 8 | issue = 3 | pages = 151–61 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12216059 | doi = 10.1002/mrdd.10029 | title. =}}</ref> though unidentified environmental risk factors cannot be ruled out.<ref name=Rut2005 /> The available evidence does not rule out the possibility that autism's true prevalence has increased;<ref name=Fombonne-2009 /> a real increase would suggest directing more attention and funding toward changing environmental factors instead of continuing to focus on genetics.<ref name="Szpir">{{cite journal | vauthors = Szpir M | title = Tracing the origins of autism: a spectrum of new studies | journal = [[Environ Health Perspect]] | volume = 114 | issue = 7 | pages = A412–8 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16835042 | pmc = 1513312 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.114-a412}}</ref> Boys are at higher risk for ASD than girls. The sex ratio averages 4.3:1 and is greatly modified by cognitive impairment: it may be close to 2:1 with intellectual disability and more than 5.5:1 without.<ref name="News2007" /> Several theories about the higher prevalence in males have been investigated, but the cause of the difference is unconfirmed;<ref name="Chaste" /> one theory is that females are underdiagnosed.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Schaafsma SM, Pfaf DW |title=Etiologies underlying sex differences in Autism Spectrum Disorders|journal=Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology|date=August 2014|volume=35|issue=3|pages=255–71|pmid=24705124|doi=10.1016/j.yfrne.2014.03.006|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261408227}}</ref> Although the evidence does not implicate any single pregnancy-related risk factor as a cause of autism, the risk of autism is associated with advanced age in either parent, and with diabetes, bleeding, and use of psychiatric drugs in the mother during pregnancy.<ref name=Chaste /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gardener H, Spiegelman D, Buka SL | title = Prenatal risk factors for autism: comprehensive meta-analysis | journal = Br J Psychiatry | volume = 195 | issue = 1 | pages = 7–14 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19567888 | pmc = 3712619 | doi = 10.1192/bjp.bp.108.051672}}</ref> The risk is greater with older fathers than with older mothers; two potential explanations are the known increase in mutation burden in older sperm, and the hypothesis that men marry later if they carry genetic liability and show some signs of autism.<ref name=Geschwind-2009 /> Most professionals believe that race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic background do not affect the occurrence of autism.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bertoglio K, Hendren RL | title = New developments in autism | journal = Psychiatr Clin North Am | volume = 32 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–14 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19248913 | doi = 10.1016/j.psc.2008.10.004 | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/24143582}}</ref> Several other conditions are common in children with autism.<ref name=Lev2009 /> They include: * '''[[Genetic disorder]]s'''. About 10–15% of autism cases have an identifiable [[Mendelian]] (single-gene) condition, [[chromosome abnormality]], or other genetic syndrome,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Folstein SE, Rosen-Sheidley B | title = Genetics of autism: complex aetiology for a heterogeneous disorder | journal = Nature Reviews Genetics | volume = 2 | issue = 12 | pages = 943–55 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11733747 | doi = 10.1038/35103559 | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11622082}}</ref> and ASD is associated with several genetic disorders.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zafeiriou DI, Ververi A, Vargiami E | title = Childhood autism and associated comorbidities | journal = Brain Dev | volume = 29 | issue = 5 | pages = 257–72 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17084999 | doi = 10.1016/j.braindev.2006.09.003}}</ref> * '''[[Intellectual disability]]'''. The percentage of autistic individuals who also meet criteria for intellectual disability has been reported as anywhere from 25% to 70%, a wide variation illustrating the difficulty of assessing intelligence of individuals on the autism spectrum.<ref>{{vcite book |chapter=Learning in autism |vauthors=Dawson M, Mottron L, Gernsbacher MA |title=Learning and Memory: A Comprehensive Reference |volume=2 |pages=759–72 |editor=Byrne JH (ed.-in-chief), Roediger HL III (vol. ed.) |publisher=Academic Press |year=2008 |doi=10.1016/B978-012370509-9.00152-2 |isbn=978-0-12-370504-4 |chapterurl=http://psych.wisc.edu/lang/pdf/Dawson_AutisticLearning.pdf |access-date=26 July 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303191513/http://psych.wisc.edu/lang/pdf/Dawson_AutisticLearning.pdf |archivedate=3 March 2012 |accessdate=26 July 2008 }}</ref> In comparison, for PDD-NOS the association with intellectual disability is much weaker,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chakrabarti S, Fombonne E | title = Pervasive developmental disorders in preschool children | journal = JAMA | volume = 285 | issue = 24 | pages = 3093–9 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11427137 | doi = 10.1001/jama.285.24.3093 | url = http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/285/24/3093 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20100828195243/http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/285/24/3093 | archivedate = 28 August 2010}}</ref> and by definition, the diagnosis of Asperger's excludes intellectual disability.<ref>{{vcite book | title=DSM-IV-TR Diagnostical and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Fourth edition text revision | publisher=American Psychiatric Association, Washington DC | year=2000 | page=80}}</ref> * '''[[Anxiety disorder]]s''' are common among children with ASD; there are no firm data, but studies have reported prevalences ranging from 11% to 84%. Many anxiety disorders have symptoms that are better explained by ASD itself, or are hard to distinguish from ASD's symptoms.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = White SW, Oswald D, Ollendick T, Scahill L | title = Anxiety in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders | journal = Clin Psychol Rev | volume = 29 | issue = 3 | pages = 216–29 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19223098 | pmc = 2692135 | doi = 10.1016/j.cpr.2009.01.003}}</ref> * '''[[Epilepsy]]''', with variations in risk of epilepsy due to age, cognitive level, and type of [[language disorder]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Spence SJ, Schneider MT | title = The role of epilepsy and epileptiform EEGs in autism spectrum disorders | journal = Pediatr Res | volume = 65 | issue = 6 | pages = 599–606 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19454962 | pmc = 2692092 | doi = 10.1203/PDR.0b013e31819e7168}}</ref> * Several '''[[metabolic defect]]s''', such as [[phenylketonuria]], are associated with autistic symptoms.<ref name="Manzi">{{cite journal | vauthors = Manzi B, Loizzo AL, Giana G, Curatolo P | title = Autism and metabolic diseases | journal = J Child Neurol | volume = 23 | issue = 3 | pages = 307–14 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18079313 | doi = 10.1177/0883073807308698}}</ref> * '''[[Minor physical anomalies]]''' are significantly increased in the autistic population.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ozgen HM, Hop JW, Hox JJ, Beemer FA, van Engeland H | title = Minor physical anomalies in autism: a meta-analysis | journal = Mol Psychiatry | volume = 15 | issue = 3 | pages = 300–7 | year = 2010 | pmid = 18626481 | doi = 10.1038/mp.2008.75 | doi-access = free}}</ref> * '''Preempted diagnoses'''. Although the DSM-IV rules out concurrent diagnosis of many other conditions along with autism, the full criteria for [[Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder|Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)]], [[Tourette syndrome]], and other of these conditions are often present and these [[Conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorders|comorbid diagnoses]] are increasingly accepted.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Steyaert JG, De la Marche W | title = What's new in autism? | journal = Eur J Pediatr | volume = 167 | issue = 10 | pages = 1091–101 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18597114 | doi = 10.1007/s00431-008-0764-4 | title. = | url = https://www.academia.edu/24262348}}</ref> * '''Sleep problems''' affect about two-thirds of individuals with ASD at some point in childhood. These most commonly include symptoms of [[insomnia]] such as difficulty in falling asleep, frequent [[middle-of-the-night insomnia|nocturnal awakenings]], and early morning awakenings. Sleep problems are associated with difficult behaviors and family stress, and are often a focus of clinical attention over and above the primary ASD diagnosis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Richdale AL, Schreck KA | title = Sleep problems in autism spectrum disorders: prevalence, nature, & possible biopsychosocial aetiologies | journal = Sleep Med Rev | volume = 13 | issue = 6 | pages = 403–11 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19398354 | doi = 10.1016/j.smrv.2009.02.003}}</ref> ==History== {{further|History of Asperger syndrome}} [[File:Victor of Aveyron, 1800.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Portrait of [[Victor of Aveyron]], a [[feral child]] caught in 1798 who displayed possible symptoms of autism<ref name="Wolff"/>]] A few examples of autistic symptoms and treatments were described long before autism was named. The ''[[Table Talk (Luther)|Table Talk]]'' of [[Martin Luther]], compiled by his notetaker, Mathesius, contains the story of a 12-year-old boy who may have been severely autistic.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Autism |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=13–23 |year=1997 |doi=10.1177/1362361397011004 |title=The history of ideas on autism: legends, myths and reality | vauthors = Wing L | author-link1 = Lorna Wing}}</ref> Luther reportedly thought the boy was a soulless mass of flesh possessed by the devil, and suggested that he be suffocated, although a later critic has cast doubt on the veracity of this report.<ref>{{cite web |author=Miles M |year=2005 |title=Martin Luther and childhood disability in 16th century Germany: what did he write? what did he say? |title.= |publisher=Independent Living Institute |url=http://www.independentliving.org/docs7/miles2005b.html |access-date=23 December 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103210840/http://www.independentliving.org/docs7/miles2005b.html |archivedate=3 November 2013}}</ref> The earliest well-documented case of autism is that of Hugh Blair of Borgue, as detailed in a 1747 court case in which his brother successfully petitioned to annul Blair's marriage to gain Blair's inheritance.<ref>{{vcite book |vauthors=Houston R, Frith U |title=Autism in History: The Case of Hugh Blair of Borgue |year=2000 |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=978-0-631-22089-3}}</ref> The [[Wild Boy of Aveyron]], a [[feral child]] caught in 1798, showed several signs of autism; the medical student [[Jean Marc Gaspard Itard|Jean Itard]] treated him with a behavioral program designed to help him form social attachments and to induce speech via imitation.<ref name="Wolff">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wolff S | title = The history of autism | journal = Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry | volume = 13 | issue = 4 | pages = 201–8 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15365889 | doi = 10.1007/s00787-004-0363-5}}</ref> The [[New Latin]] word ''autismus'' (English translation ''autism'') was coined by the [[Swiss people|Swiss]] psychiatrist [[Eugen Bleuler]] in 1910 as he was defining symptoms of [[schizophrenia]]. He derived it from the Greek word ''autós'' (αὐτός, meaning "self"), and used it to mean morbid self-admiration, referring to "autistic withdrawal of the patient to his fantasies, against which any influence from outside becomes an intolerable disturbance".<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kuhn R | title = Eugen Bleuler's concepts of psychopathology | journal = Hist Psychiatry | volume = 15 | issue = 3 | pages = 361–6 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15386868 | doi = 10.1177/0957154X04044603}} The quote is a translation of Bleuler's 1910 original.</ref> === Clinical development and diagnoses === [[File:Leo-Kanner.jpeg|thumb|upright|alt=Balding man in his early 60s in coat and tie, with a serious but slightly smiling expression|[[Leo Kanner]] introduced the label ''early infantile autism'' in 1943.]] The word ''autism'' first took its modern sense in 1938 when [[Hans Asperger]] of the [[Vienna General Hospital|Vienna University Hospital]] adopted Bleuler's terminology ''autistic psychopaths'' in a lecture in German about [[child psychology]].<ref>{{cite journal | journal=Wien Klin Wochenschr |year=1938 |volume=51 |pages=1314–7 | title = Das psychisch abnormale Kind |trans-title=The psychically abnormal child | vauthors = Asperger H | author-link1 = Hans Asperger | language=German}}</ref> Asperger was investigating an ASD now known as [[Asperger syndrome]], though for various reasons it was not widely recognized as a separate diagnosis until 1981.<ref name="Wolff" /> [[Leo Kanner]] of the [[Johns Hopkins Hospital]] first used ''autism'' in its modern sense in English when he introduced the label ''early infantile autism'' in a 1943 report of 11 children with striking behavioral similarities.<ref name="Kanner1943">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kanner L | author-link1 = Leo Kanner |title=Autistic disturbances of affective contact |journal=Nerv Child |volume=2 |pages=217–50 |year=1943}} Reprinted in {{cite journal | vauthors = Kanner L | title = Autistic disturbances of affective contact | journal = Acta Paedopsychiatr | volume = 35 | issue = 4 | pages = 100–36 | year = 1968 | pmid = 4880460}}</ref> Almost all the characteristics described in Kanner's first paper on the subject, notably "autistic aloneness" and "insistence on sameness", are still regarded as typical of the autistic spectrum of disorders.<ref name="HappeTime" /> It is not known whether Kanner derived the term independently of Asperger.<ref name="Lyons">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lyons V, Fitzgerald M | title = Asperger (1906–1980) and Kanner (1894–1981), the two pioneers of autism | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 37 | issue = 10 | pages = 2022–3 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17922179 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-007-0383-3 | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5923226}}</ref> [[Donald Triplett]] was the first person diagnosed with autism.<ref name="Britannica" /> He was diagnosed by Kanner after being first examined in 1938, and was labeled as "case 1".<ref name="Britannica">{{cite web|last1=Pallardy|first1=Richard|title=Donald Triplett|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Donald-Triplett|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=19 March 2017|language=en}}</ref> Triplett was noted for his savant abilities, particularly being able to name musical notes played on a piano and to mentally multiply numbers. His father, Oliver, described him as socially withdrawn but interested in number patterns, music notes, letters of the alphabet, and U.S. president pictures. By the age of 2, he had the ability to recite the 23rd Psalm and memorized 25 questions and answers from the Presbyterian catechism. He was also interested in creating musical chords.<ref name="Atlantic">{{cite news|last1=Donvan|first1=John|last2=Zucker|first2=Caren|title=Autism's First Child|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2010/10/autisms-first-child/308227/|access-date=19 March 2017|work=The Atlantic}}</ref> Kanner's reuse of ''autism'' led to decades of confused terminology like ''infantile schizophrenia'', and child psychiatry's focus on maternal deprivation led to misconceptions of autism as an infant's response to "[[refrigerator mother]]s". Starting in the late 1960s autism was established as a separate syndrome.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fombonne E | title = Modern views of autism | journal = Can J Psychiatry | volume = 48 | issue = 8 | pages = 503–5 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14574825 | url = http://ww1.cpa-apc.org/Publications/Archives/CJP/2003/september/guesteditorial.asp| doi = 10.1177/070674370304800801}}</ref> === Terminology and distinction from schizophrenia === As late as the mid-1970s there was little evidence of a genetic role in autism; while in 2007 it was believed to be one of the most heritable psychiatric conditions.<ref>{{vcite book |chapter=Genetic epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders |author=[[Peter Szatmari|Szatmari P]] |author2=Jones MB |pages=157–78 |title=Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders |edition=2nd |editor=Volkmar FR |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-54957-8}}</ref> Although the rise of parent organizations and the destigmatization of childhood ASD have affected how ASD is viewed,<ref name="Wolff" /> parents continue to feel [[social stigma]] in situations where their child's autistic behavior is perceived negatively,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chambres P, Auxiette C, Vansingle C, Gil S | title = Adult attitudes toward behaviors of a six-year-old boy with autism | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 38 | issue = 7 | pages = 1320–7 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18297387 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-007-0519-5 | url = https://www.academia.edu/20027016}}</ref> and many [[primary care physician]]s and [[medical specialist]]s express some beliefs consistent with outdated autism research.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Heidgerken AD, Geffken G, Modi A, Frakey L | title = A survey of autism knowledge in a health care setting | journal = J Autism Dev Disord | volume = 35 | issue = 3 | pages = 323–30 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16119473 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-005-3298-x | url = https://www.academia.edu/18595373}}</ref> It took until 1980 for the [[DSM-III]] to differentiate autism from childhood schizophrenia. In 1987, the [[DSM-III-R]] provided a checklist for diagnosing autism. In May 2013, the [[DSM-5]] was released, updating the classification for pervasive developmental disorders. The grouping of disorders, including [[PDD-NOS]], autism, [[Asperger syndrome]], [[Rett syndrome]], and [[Childhood disintegrative disorder|CDD]], has been removed and replaced with the general term of Autism Spectrum Disorders. The two categories that exist are impaired social communication and/or interaction, and restricted and/or repetitive behaviors.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Baker|first1=Jeffrey P.|title=Autism at 70 – Redrawing the Boundaries|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|date=19 September 2013|volume=369|issue=12|pages=1089–1091|doi=10.1056/NEJMp1306380|pmid=24047057}}</ref> The Internet has helped autistic individuals bypass nonverbal cues and emotional sharing that they find difficult to deal with, and has given them a way to form online communities and work remotely.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Biever C | title = Web removes social barriers for those with autism |journal=New Sci |issue=2610 |pages=26–7 |year=2007 |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19426106.100 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020165135/http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19426106.100 |archivedate=20 October 2012}}</ref> [[Societal and cultural aspects of autism]] have developed: some in the community seek a cure, while others believe that [[Neurodiversity|autism is simply another way of being]].<ref name=Sil2008 /><ref name=Frith2014 /><ref>{{cite news |author=Harmon A |title=How about not 'curing' us, some autistics are pleading |date=20 December 2004 |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/12/20/health/20autism.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511002649/http://www.nytimes.com/2004/12/20/health/20autism.html |archivedate=11 May 2013}}</ref> ==References== {{reflist}} ==External links== {{Medical resources | DiseasesDB = 1142 | ICD10 = {{ICD10|F|84|0|f|80}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|299.00}} | OMIM = 209850 | MedlinePlus = 001526 | eMedicineSubj = med | eMedicineTopic = 3202 | eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|ped|180}} | MeshID = D001321 | GeneReviewsNBK = NBK1442 | GeneReviewsName = Autism overview }} {{Sister project links|d=Q38404|s=no|n=Category:Autism|wikt=autism|species=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|q=no|v=no}} {{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=no |others=yes lcheading=Autism}} * {{Curlie|Health/Mental_Health/Disorders/Neurodevelopmental/Autism_Spectrum}} * {{Portal-inline|Pervasive developmental disorders}} {{Pervasive developmental disorders}} {{Mental and behavioral disorders|selected = childhood}} {{Autism resources}} {{Autism films}} {{featured article}} [[Category:Autism| ]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] [[Category:Communication disorders]] [[Category:Mental and behavioural disorders]] [[Category:Neurological disorders]] [[Category:Neurological disorders in children]] [[Category:Pervasive developmental disorders]] [[Category:Psychiatric diagnosis]] [[Category:RTT]] g99386q4s4lsz1me19ljig4menufq4q 0 27 783865328 74467016 2017-06-05T04:20:00Z Tom.Reding 9784415 +{{Redirect category shell}} using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[History of Albania]] {{Redirect category shell|1= {{R from CamelCase}} }} rbhoo26ul5z7m8uw9msx5gwdy4cmg08 0 29 783865341 74466817 2017-06-05T04:20:05Z Tom.Reding 9784415 +{{Redirect category shell}} using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Demographics of Albania]] {{Redirect category shell|1= {{R from CamelCase}} }} hc34qmkw4yiceqh6ysz0q7xyd3d9zx4 0 30 783821752 74467061 2017-06-04T21:43:17Z Tom.Reding 9784415 +{{R category shell}} using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[As_We_May_Think]] {{Redirect category shell|1= {{R from CamelCase}} }} l902evpyqkgd67h0j88wdx35zn9zris 0 35 783822027 74467128 2017-06-04T21:45:21Z Tom.Reding 9784415 +{{R category shell}} using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Politics of Albania]] {{Redirect category shell|1= {{R from CamelCase}} }} hnsv8s58ruj7rca9d1owpufay3r8gbr 0 36 783822029 74467158 2017-06-04T21:45:23Z Tom.Reding 9784415 +{{R category shell}} using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Economy of Albania]] {{Redirect category shell|1= {{R from CamelCase}} }} 6rq9n647vsyp1nsedebn2rpg9cpq9kv 0 39 860770279 860770174 2018-09-22T23:11:59Z Vsmith 84417 /* Terrestrial albedo */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Other uses}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} [[File:Albedo-e hg.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|The percentage of [[diffuse reflection|diffusely reflected]] [[sunlight]] relative to various surface conditions]] '''Albedo''' ({{IPAc-en|æ|l|ˈ|b|iː|d|oʊ}}) ({{lang-la|albedo}}, meaning "whiteness") is the measure of the [[diffuse reflection]] of [[sunlight|solar radiation]] out of the total [[solar radiation]] received by an [[astronomical body]] (e.g. a [[planet]] like [[Earth]]). It is [[dimensionless number|dimensionless]] and measured on a scale from 0 (corresponding to a [[black body]] that absorbs all incident radiation) to 1 (corresponding to a body that reflects all incident radiation). Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of irradiance reflected to the irradiance received by a surface. The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself, but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://curry.eas.gatech.edu/Courses/6140/ency/Chapter9/Ency_Atmos/Reflectance_Albedo_Surface.pdf |title=Reflectance and albedo, surface |work=Encyclopedia of the Atmosphere |editors=J. R. Holton and J. A. Curry |last=Coakley |first=J. A. |publisher=Academic Press |year=2003|isbn= |location= |pages=1914–23}}</ref> These factors vary with atmospheric composition, geographic location and time (see [[position of the Sun]]). While bi-hemispherical [[reflectance]] is calculated for a single angle of incidence (i.e., for a given position of the Sun), albedo is the directional integration of reflectance over all solar angles in a given period. The temporal resolution may range from seconds (as obtained from flux measurements) to daily, monthly, or annual averages. Unless given for a specific wavelength (spectral albedo), albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Henderson-Sellers |first=A. |last2=Wilson |first2=M. F.|year=1983 |quote=Albedo observations of the Earth's surface for climate research |jstor=37357 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A |volume=309 |issue=1508 |title=The Study of the Ocean and the Land Surface from Satellites |pages=285–94 |bibcode=1983RSPTA.309..285H |doi=10.1098/rsta.1983.0042}}</ref> Due to measurement constraints, it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface (between 0.3 and 3 μm). This spectrum includes [[visible spectrum|visible light]] (0.39–0.7 μm), which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark (e.g., trees absorb most radiation), whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright (e.g., snow reflects most radiation). Albedo is an important concept in [[climatology]], [[astronomy]], and environmental management (e.g., as part of the [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design]] (LEED) program for sustainable rating of buildings). The average albedo of the Earth from the upper atmosphere, its ''planetary albedo'', is 30–35% because of [[cloud cover]], but widely varies locally across the surface because of different geological and environmental features.<ref>{{cite book |title=Environmental Encyclopedia |edition=3rd |publisher=Thompson Gale |year=2003 |isbn=0-7876-5486-8}}</ref> The term albedo was introduced into optics by [[Johann Heinrich Lambert]] in his 1760 work ''[[Photometria]]''. ==Terrestrial albedo== {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin:10px" |+ Sample albedos |- ! Surface ! Typical<br>albedo |- | Fresh asphalt || 0.04<ref name="heat island">{{cite web | last=Pon | first=Brian | date=30 June 1999 | url=http://eetd.lbl.gov/HeatIsland/Pavements/Albedo/ | title=Pavement Albedo | publisher=Heat Island Group | accessdate=27 August 2007 | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070829153207/http://eetd.lbl.gov/HeatIsland/Pavements/Albedo/| archivedate= 29 August 2007<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> |- |Open ocean |0.06<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nsidc.org/cryosphere/seaice/processes/albedo.html|title=Thermodynamics {{!}} Thermodynamics: Albedo {{!}} National Snow and Ice Data Center|website=nsidc.org|access-date=2016-08-14}}</ref> |- | Worn asphalt || 0.12<ref name="heat island"/> |- | Conifer forest<br>(Summer) || 0.08,<ref name="Betts 1">{{Cite journal | author=Alan K. Betts | author2=John H. Ball | title=Albedo over the boreal forest | journal=Journal of Geophysical Research | date=1997 | volume=102 | issue=D24 | pages=28,901–28,910 | url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1997/96JD03876.shtml | accessdate=27 August 2007 | doi=10.1029/96JD03876 |bibcode = 1997JGR...10228901B | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070930184719/http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1997/96JD03876.shtml| archivedate= 30 September 2007<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> 0.09 to 0.15<ref name="mmutrees"/> |- | [[Deciduous trees]] || 0.15 to 0.18<ref name="mmutrees"/> |- | Bare soil || 0.17<ref name="markvart">{{Cite book | author=Tom Markvart | author2=Luis CastaŁżer | date=2003 | title=Practical Handbook of Photovoltaics: Fundamentals and Applications | publisher=Elsevier | isbn=1-85617-390-9 }}</ref> |- | Green grass || 0.25<ref name="markvart"/> |- | Desert sand || 0.40<ref name="Tetzlaff">{{Cite book | first=G. | last=Tetzlaff | date=1983 | title=Albedo of the Sahara | work=Cologne University Satellite Measurement of Radiation Budget Parameters | pages=60–63 }}</ref> |- | New concrete || 0.55<ref name="markvart"/> |- | Ocean ice|| 0.5–0.7<ref name="markvart"/> |- | Fresh snow || 0.80–0.90<ref name="markvart"/> |} Any albedo in visible light falls within a range of about 0.9 for fresh snow to about 0.04 for charcoal, one of the darkest substances. Deeply shadowed cavities can achieve an effective albedo approaching the zero of a [[black body]]. When seen from a distance, the ocean surface has a low albedo, as do most forests, whereas desert areas have some of the highest albedos among landforms. Most land areas are in an albedo range of 0.1 to 0.4.<ref name="PhysicsWorld">{{cite web|url=http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/Albedo.html |title=Albedo – from Eric Weisstein's World of Physics |publisher=Scienceworld.wolfram.com |accessdate=19 August 2011}}</ref> The average albedo of [[Earth]] is about 0.3.<ref name="Goode"/> This is far higher than for the ocean primarily because of the contribution of clouds. [[File:Ceres 2003 2004 clear sky total sky albedo.png|thumb|upight-1.2|left|2003–2004 mean annual clear-sky and total-sky albedo]] Earth's surface albedo is regularly estimated via [[Earth observation]] satellite sensors such as [[NASA]]'s [[MODIS]] instruments on board the [[Terra (satellite)|Terra]] and [[Aqua (satellite)|Aqua]] satellites, and the CERES instrument on the [[Suomi NPP]] and [[Joint Polar Satellite System|JPSS]]. As the amount of reflected radiation is only measured for a single direction by satellite, not all directions, a mathematical model is used to translate a sample set of satellite reflectance measurements into estimates of [[directional-hemispherical reflectance]] and bi-hemispherical reflectance (e.g.,<ref name="NASA"/>). These calculations are based on the [[Bidirectional reflectance distribution function|bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF)]], which describes how the reflectance of a given surface depends on the view angle of the observer and the solar angle. BDRF can facilitate translations of observations of reflectance into albedo. Earth's average surface temperature due to its albedo and the [[greenhouse effect]] is currently about 15&nbsp;°C. If Earth were frozen entirely (and hence be more reflective), the average temperature of the planet would drop below −40&nbsp;°C.<ref name="washington" /> If only the continental land masses became covered by glaciers, the mean temperature of the planet would drop to about 0&nbsp;°C.<ref name="clim-past"/> In contrast, if the entire Earth was covered by water — a so-called aquaplanet — the average temperature on the planet would rise to almost 27&nbsp;°C.<ref name="Smith Robin"/> ===White-sky and black-sky albedo=== For land surfaces, it has been shown that the albedo at a particular [[solar zenith angle]] ''θ''_''i'' can be approximated by the proportionate sum of two terms: the directional-hemispherical reflectance at that solar zenith angle, <math>{\bar \alpha(\theta_i)}</math>, and the bi-hemispherical reflectance, <math>\bar{ \bar \alpha}</math>, with <math>{D-1}</math> being the proportion of direct radiation from a given solar angle, and <math>{D}</math> being the proportion of diffuse illumination. Hence, the actual albedo <math>{\alpha}</math> (also called blue-sky albedo) can then be given as: :<math>{\alpha}= (1-D) \bar \alpha(\theta_i) + D \bar{ \bar \alpha}.</math> [[Directional-hemispherical reflectance]] is sometimes referred to as black-sky albedo and [[bi-hemispherical reflectance]] as white-sky albedo. These terms are important because they allow the albedo to be calculated for any given illumination conditions from a knowledge of the intrinsic properties of the surface.<ref name="BlueskyAlbedo"/> == Astronomical albedo == The albedos of [[planet]]s, [[Natural satellite|satellites]] and [[minor planet]]s such as [[asteroid]]s can be used to infer much about their properties. The study of albedos, their dependence on wavelength, lighting angle ("phase angle"), and variation in time comprises a major part of the astronomical field of [[photometry (astronomy)|photometry]]. For small and far objects that cannot be resolved by telescopes, much of what we know comes from the study of their albedos. For example, the absolute albedo can indicate the surface ice content of outer [[Solar System]] objects, the variation of albedo with phase angle gives information about [[regolith]] properties, whereas unusually high radar albedo is indicative of high metal content in [[asteroid]]s. [[Enceladus]], a moon of Saturn, has one of the highest known albedos of any body in the Solar System, with 99% of EM radiation reflected. Another notable high-albedo body is [[Eris (dwarf planet)|Eris]], with an albedo of 0.96.<ref name="sicardy"> {{cite journal | title = Size, density, albedo and atmosphere limit of dwarf planet Eris from a stellar occultation | journal = European Planetary Science Congress Abstracts | volume = 6 | date = 2011 | url = http://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EPSC-DPS2011/EPSC-DPS2011-137-8.pdf | accessdate = 14 September 2011 | bibcode = 2011epsc.conf..137S | author1 = Sicardy | first1 = B. | last2 = Ortiz | first2 = J. L. | last3 = Assafin | first3 = M. | last4 = Jehin | first4 = E. | last5 = Maury | first5 = A. | last6 = Lellouch | first6 = E. | last7 = Gil-Hutton | first7 = R. | last8 = Braga-Ribas | first8 = F. | last9 = Colas | first9 = F. | page = 137 | displayauthors=8 }} </ref> Many small objects in the outer Solar System<ref name="tnoalbedo">{{cite web |date=17 September 2008 |title=TNO/Centaur diameters and albedos |publisher=Johnston's Archive |author=Wm. Robert Johnston |url=http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/astro/tnodiam.html |accessdate=17 October 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081022223827/http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/astro/tnodiam.html| archivedate= 22 October 2008<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> and [[asteroid belt]] have low albedos down to about 0.05.<ref name="astalbedo">{{cite web |date=28 June 2003 |title=Asteroid albedos: graphs of data |publisher=Johnston's Archive |author=Wm. Robert Johnston |url=http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/astro/astalbedo.html |accessdate=16 June 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080517100307/http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/astro/astalbedo.html| archivedate= 17 May 2008<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> A typical [[comet nucleus]] has an albedo of 0.04.<ref name="dark">{{cite web |date=29 November 2001 |title=Comet Borrelly Puzzle: Darkest Object in the Solar System |publisher=Space.com |author=Robert Roy Britt |url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/borrelly_dark_011129.html |accessdate=1 September 2012| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090122074028/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/borrelly_dark_011129.html| archivedate= 22 January 2009}}</ref> Such a dark surface is thought to be indicative of a primitive and heavily [[space weathering|space weathered]] surface containing some [[organic compound]]s. The overall albedo of the [[Moon]] is measured to be around 0.136,<ref name="CERESmoon"> {{cite journal | title = Celestial body irradiance determination from an underfilled satellite radiometer: application to albedo and thermal emission measurements of the Moon using CERES | journal = Applied Optics | volume = 47 | issue = 27 | date = 2008 | bibcode = 2008ApOpt..47.4981M | author1 = Matthews | first1 = G. | pages = 4981–4993 |doi = 10.1364/AO.47.004981 | pmid=18806861}} </ref> but it is strongly directional and non-Lambertian, displaying also a strong [[opposition effect]].<ref name="medkeff" /> Although such reflectance properties are different from those of any terrestrial terrains, they are typical of the [[regolith]] surfaces of airless Solar System bodies. Two common albedos that are used in astronomy are the (V-band) [[geometric albedo]] (measuring brightness when illumination comes from directly behind the observer) and the [[Bond albedo]] (measuring total proportion of electromagnetic energy reflected). Their values can differ significantly, which is a common source of confusion. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Planet ! Geometric ! Bond |- | Mercury | 0.142 <ref name="Mallama_et_al"/> | 0.088 <ref name="Mallama"/> |- | Venus | 0.689 <ref name="Mallama_et_al"/> | 0.76 <ref name="Haus_et_al"/> |- | Earth | 0.434 <ref name="Mallama_et_al"/> | 0.306 <ref>[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/earthfact.html Earth Fact Sheet, NASA]</ref> |- | Mars | 0.170 <ref name="Mallama_et_al"/> | 0.25 <ref>[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/marsfact.html Mars Fact Sheet, NASA]</ref> |- | Jupiter | 0.538 <ref name="Mallama_et_al"/> | 0.503 <ref name="Li_et_al"/> |- | Saturn | 0.499 <ref name="Mallama_et_al"/> | 0.342 <ref name="Hanel_et_al"/> |- | Uranus | 0.488 <ref name="Mallama_et_al"/> | 0.300 <ref name="Pearl_et_al_Uranus"/> |- | Neptune | 0.442 <ref name="Mallama_et_al"/> | 0.290 <ref name="Pearl_et_al_Neptune"/> |} In detailed studies, the directional reflectance properties of astronomical bodies are often expressed in terms of the five [[Hapke parameters]] which semi-empirically describe the variation of albedo with [[phase angle (astronomy)|phase angle]], including a characterization of the opposition effect of [[regolith]] surfaces. The correlation between astronomical (geometric) albedo, [[Absolute magnitude#Absolute magnitude for planets (H)|absolute magnitude]] and diameter is:<ref name="bruton">{{cite web |title=Conversion of Absolute Magnitude to Diameter for Minor Planets |publisher=Department of Physics & Astronomy (Stephen F. Austin State University) |author=Dan Bruton |url=http://www.physics.sfasu.edu/astro/asteroids/sizemagnitude.html |accessdate=7 October 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210190134/http://www.physics.sfasu.edu/astro/asteroids/sizemagnitude.html |archivedate=10 December 2008 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy }}</ref> <math>A =\left ( \frac{1329\times10^{-H/5}}{D} \right ) ^2</math>, where <math>A</math> is the astronomical albedo, <math>D</math> is the diameter in kilometers, and <math>H</math> is the absolute magnitude. ==Examples of terrestrial albedo effects== ===Illumination=== Albedo is not directly dependent on illumination because changing the amount of incoming light proportionally changes the amount of reflected light, except in circumstances where a change in illumination induces a change in the Earth's surface at that location (e.g. through albedo-temperature feedback). That said, albedo and illumination both vary by latitude. Albedo is highest near the poles and lowest in the subtropics, with a local maximum in the tropics.<ref name=Winston>{{cite journal| first=Jay |last=Winston |title=The Annual Course of Zonal Mean Albedo as Derived From ESSA 3 and 5 Digitized Picture Data |journal=Monthly Weather Review |volume=99 |pages=818–827| bibcode=1971MWRv...99..818W| date=1971| doi=10.1175/1520-0493(1971)099<0818:TACOZM>2.3.CO;2| issue=11}}</ref> ===Insolation effects === The intensity of albedo temperature effects depend on the amount of albedo and the level of local [[insolation]] (solar irradiance); high albedo areas in the [[arctic]] and [[antarctic]] regions are cold due to low insolation, where areas such as the [[Sahara Desert]], which also have a relatively high albedo, will be hotter due to high insolation. [[Tropical]] and [[sub-tropical]] [[rainforest]] areas have low albedo, and are much hotter than their [[temperate forest]] counterparts, which have lower insolation. Because insolation plays such a big role in the heating and cooling effects of albedo, high insolation areas like the tropics will tend to show a more pronounced fluctuation in local temperature when local albedo changes.{{citation needed|date=November 2013}} Arctic regions notably release more heat back into space than what they absorb, effectively cooling the [[Earth]]. This has been a concern since arctic ice and [[snow]] has been melting at higher rates due to higher temperatures, creating regions in the arctic that are notably darker (being water or ground which is darker color) and reflects less heat back into space. This [[Ice-albedo feedback|feedback loop]] results in a reduced albedo effect.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21721364-commercial-opportunities-are-vastly-outweighed-damage-climate-thawing-arctic|title=The thawing Arctic threatens an environmental catastrophe|website=The Economist|access-date=2017-05-08}}</ref> ===Climate and weather=== Albedo affects [[climate]] by determining how much [[radiation]] a planet absorbs.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=av7q4N8Ib6sC&pg=PA53&dq=Albedo+affects+climate+by+determining+how+much+radiation+a+planet+absorbs&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiawueziOHUAhUN5WMKHVHHCjMQ6AEIJjAA#v=onepage&q=Albedo%20affects%20climate%20by%20determining%20how%20much%20radiation%20a%20planet%20absorbs&f=false|title=Encyclopedia of Climate and Weather: Abs-Ero|last=Schneider|first=Stephen Henry|last2=Mastrandrea|first2=Michael D.|last3=Root|first3=Terry L.|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199765324|language=en}}</ref> The uneven heating of Earth from albedo variations between land, ice, or ocean surfaces can drive [[weather]]. ===Albedo–temperature feedback=== When an area's albedo changes due to snowfall, a snow–temperature [[feedback]] results. A layer of snowfall increases local albedo, reflecting away sunlight, leading to local cooling. In principle, if no outside temperature change affects this area (e.g., a warm [[air mass]]), the raised albedo and lower temperature would maintain the current snow and invite further snowfall, deepening the snow–temperature feedback. However, because local [[weather]] is dynamic due to the change of [[season]]s, eventually warm air masses and a more direct angle of sunlight (higher [[insolation]]) cause melting. When the melted area reveals surfaces with lower albedo, such as grass or soil, the effect is reversed: the darkening surface lowers albedo, increasing local temperatures, which induces more melting and thus reducing the albedo further, resulting in still more heating. ===Snow=== Snow albedo is highly variable, ranging from as high as 0.9 for freshly fallen snow, to about 0.4 for melting snow, and as low as 0.2 for dirty snow.<ref>Hall, D.K. and Martinec, J. (1985), Remote sensing of ice and snow. Chapman and Hall, New York, 189 pp.</ref> Over [[Antarctica]] snow albedo averages a little more than 0.8. If a marginally snow-covered area warms, snow tends to melt, lowering the albedo, and hence leading to more snowmelt because more radiation is being absorbed by the snowpack (the ice–albedo [[positive feedback]]). Just as fresh snow has a higher albedo than does dirty snow, the albedo of snow-covered sea ice is far higher than that of sea water. Sea water absorbs more solar radiation than would the same surface covered with reflective snow. When sea ice melts, either due to a rise in sea temperature or in response to increased solar radiation from above, the snow-covered surface is reduced, and more surface of sea water is exposed, so the rate of energy absorption increases. The extra absorbed energy heats the sea water, which in turn increases the rate at which sea ice melts. As with the preceding example of snowmelt, the process of melting of sea ice is thus another example of a positive feedback.<ref>"All About Sea Ice." National Snow and Ice Data Center. Accessed 16 November 2017. /cryosphere/seaice/index.html.</ref> Both positive feedback loops have long been recognized as important to the modern theory of [[Global warming]].{{citation needed|date=January 2018}} [[Cryoconite]], powdery windblown [[dust]] containing soot, sometimes reduces albedo on glaciers and ice sheets.<ref name = "Nat. Geo">[http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2010/06/melt-zone/jenkins-text/3 "Changing Greenland – Melt Zone"] page 3, of 4, article by Mark Jenkins in ''[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]'' June 2010, accessed 8 July 2010</ref> The dynamical nature of albedo in response to positive feedback, together with the effects of small errors in the measurement of albedo, can lead to large errors in energy estimates. Because of this, in order to reduce the error of energy estimates, it is important to measure the albedo of snow-covered areas through remote sensing techniques rather than applying a single value for albedo over broad regions.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}} ===Small-scale effects=== Albedo works on a smaller scale, too. In sunlight, dark clothes absorb more heat and light-coloured clothes reflect it better, thus allowing some control over body temperature by exploiting the albedo effect of the colour of external clothing.<ref name="ranknfile-ue">{{cite web|url=http://www.ranknfile-ue.org/h&s0897.html |title=Health and Safety: Be Cool! (August 1997) |publisher=Ranknfile-ue.org |accessdate=19 August 2011}}</ref> === Solar photovoltaic effects === Albedo can affect the [[electrical energy]] output of solar [[photovoltaic system|photovoltaic device]]s. For example, the effects of a spectrally responsive albedo are illustrated by the differences between the spectrally weighted albedo of solar photovoltaic technology based on hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) and crystalline silicon (c-Si)-based compared to traditional spectral-integrated albedo predictions. Research showed impacts of over 10%.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Andrews | first1 = Rob W. | last2 = Pearce | first2 = Joshua M. | date = 2013 | title = The effect of spectral albedo on amorphous silicon and crystalline silicon solar photovoltaic device performance | journal = Solar Energy | volume = 91 | pages = 233–241 | doi = 10.1016/j.solener.2013.01.030 |bibcode = 2013SoEn...91..233A | url = https://www.academia.edu/3081684 }}</ref> More recently, the analysis was extended to the effects of spectral bias due to the specular reflectivity of 22 commonly occurring surface materials (both human-made and natural) and analyzes the albedo effects on the performance of seven photovoltaic materials covering three common photovoltaic system topologies: industrial (solar farms), commercial flat rooftops and residential pitched-roof applications.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Brennan | first1 = M.P. | authorlink4 = J. M. Pearce | last2 = Abramase | first2 = A.L. | last3 = Andrews | first3 = R.W. | last4 = Pearce | first4 = J. M. | date = 2014 | title = Effects of spectral albedo on solar photovoltaic devices | journal = Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells | volume = 124 | pages = 111–116 | doi = 10.1016/j.solmat.2014.01.046 | url = https://www.academia.edu/6222506 }}</ref> ===Trees=== Because forests generally have a low albedo, (the majority of the ultraviolet and [[visible spectrum]] is absorbed through [[photosynthesis]]), some scientists have suggested that greater heat absorption by trees could offset some of the carbon benefits of afforestation (or offset the negative climate impacts of [[deforestation]]). In the case of evergreen forests with seasonal snow cover albedo reduction may be great enough for deforestation to cause a net cooling effect.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Betts | first1 = RA | date = 2000 | title = Offset of the potential carbon sink from boreal forestation by decreases in surface albedo | journal = Nature | volume = 408 | issue = 6809| pages = 187–190 | doi = 10.1038/35041545 | pmid=11089969|bibcode = 2000Natur.408..187B }}</ref> Trees also impact climate in extremely complicated ways through [[evapotranspiration]]. The water vapor causes cooling on the land surface, causes heating where it condenses, acts a strong greenhouse gas, and can increase albedo when it condenses into clouds<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Boucher | date = 2004 | title = Direct human influence of irrigation on atmospheric water vapour and climate | journal = Climate Dynamics | volume = 22 | issue = 6–7| pages = 597–603 | doi=10.1007/s00382-004-0402-4|display-authors=etal|bibcode = 2004ClDy...22..597B | url = https://www.academia.edu/25329256}}</ref> Scientists generally treat evapotranspiration as a net cooling impact, and the net climate impact of albedo and evapotranspiration changes from deforestation depends greatly on local climate <ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bonan | first1 = GB | date = 2008 | title = Forests and Climate Change: Forcings, Feedbacks, and the Climate Benefits of Forests | journal = Science | volume = 320 | issue = 5882| pages = 1444–1449 | doi = 10.1126/science.1155121 | pmid=18556546|bibcode = 2008Sci...320.1444B }}</ref> In seasonally snow-covered zones, winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily. [[Deciduous trees]] have an albedo value of about 0.15 to 0.18 whereas [[coniferous trees]] have a value of about 0.09 to 0.15.<ref name="mmutrees" /> Studies by the [[Hadley Centre]] have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of [[carbon sequestration]] on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g., Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming.<ref name="Betts" /> ===Water=== [[File:water reflectivity.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Reflectivity of smooth water at 20&nbsp;°C (refractive index=1.333)]] Water reflects light very differently from typical terrestrial materials. The reflectivity of a water surface is calculated using the [[Fresnel equations]] (see graph). At the scale of the wavelength of light even wavy water is always smooth so the light is reflected in a locally [[specular reflection|specular manner]] (not [[Diffuse reflection|diffusely]]). The glint of light off water is a commonplace effect of this. At small [[angle of incidence (optics)|angles of incident]] light, [[waviness]] results in reduced reflectivity because of the steepness of the reflectivity-vs.-incident-angle curve and a locally increased average incident angle.<ref name="Fresnel" /> Although the reflectivity of water is very low at low and medium angles of incident light, it becomes very high at high angles of incident light such as those that occur on the illuminated side of Earth near the [[terminator (solar)|terminator]] (early morning, late afternoon, and near the poles). However, as mentioned above, waviness causes an appreciable reduction. Because light specularly reflected from water does not usually reach the viewer, water is usually considered to have a very low albedo in spite of its high reflectivity at high angles of incident light. Note that white caps on waves look white (and have high albedo) because the water is foamed up, so there are many superimposed bubble surfaces which reflect, adding up their reflectivities. Fresh 'black' ice exhibits Fresnel reflection. Snow on top of this sea ice increases the albedo to 0.9.{{Citation needed|date=December 2017}} ===Clouds=== [[Cloud albedo]] has substantial influence over atmospheric temperatures. Different types of clouds exhibit different reflectivity, theoretically ranging in albedo from a minimum of near 0 to a maximum approaching 0.8. "On any given day, about half of Earth is covered by clouds, which reflect more sunlight than land and water. Clouds keep Earth cool by reflecting sunlight, but they can also serve as blankets to trap warmth."<ref name="livescience">{{cite web|url=http://www.livescience.com/environment/060124_earth_albedo.html |title=Baffled Scientists Say Less Sunlight Reaching Earth |publisher=LiveScience |date=24 January 2006 |accessdate=19 August 2011}}</ref> Albedo and climate in some areas are affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by the [[contrail]]s of heavy commercial airliner traffic.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Contrails reduce daily temperature range|url=http://facstaff.uww.edu/travisd/pdf/jetcontrailsrecentresearch.pdf|journal=Nature |accessdate=7 July 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060503192714/http://facstaff.uww.edu/travisd/pdf/jetcontrailsrecentresearch.pdf|archivedate=3 May 2006|page=601|volume=418|format=PDF|date=8 August 2002|deadurl=yes|doi=10.1038/418601a|bibcode = 2002Natur.418..601T|pmid=12167846}}</ref> A study following the burning of the Kuwaiti oil fields during Iraqi occupation showed that temperatures under the burning oil fires were as much as 10&nbsp;°C colder than temperatures several miles away under clear skies.<ref name="harvard">{{cite journal |title=The Kuwait oil fires as seen by Landsat |publisher=Adsabs.harvard.edu |date=30 May 1991|bibcode=1992JGR....9714565C |author1=Cahalan |first1=Robert F. |volume=97 |page=14565 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres |doi=10.1029/92JD00799|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23842551 }}</ref> ===Aerosol effects=== [[Aerosols]] (very fine particles/droplets in the atmosphere) have both direct and indirect effects on Earth's radiative balance. The direct (albedo) effect is generally to cool the planet; the indirect effect (the particles act as [[cloud condensation nuclei]] and thereby change cloud properties) is less certain.<ref name="girda">{{cite web|url=http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/231.htm#671 |title=Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis |publisher=Grida.no |accessdate=19 August 2011| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110629175429/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/231.htm| archivedate= 29 June 2011<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> As per <ref name="DOMINICK" /> the effects are: <blockquote> <!-- Aerosol radiative forcing. --> * ''Aerosol direct effect.'' Aerosols directly scatter and absorb radiation. The scattering of radiation causes atmospheric cooling, whereas absorption can cause atmospheric warming. * ''Aerosol indirect effect.'' Aerosols modify the properties of clouds through a subset of the aerosol population called [[cloud condensation nuclei]]. Increased nuclei concentrations lead to increased cloud droplet number concentrations, which in turn leads to increased cloud albedo, increased light scattering and radiative cooling (''first indirect effect''), but also leads to reduced precipitation efficiency and increased lifetime of the cloud (''second indirect effect''). </blockquote> ===Black carbon=== Another albedo-related effect on the climate is from [[black carbon]] particles. The size of this effect is difficult to quantify: the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] estimates that the global mean radiative forcing for black carbon aerosols from fossil fuels is +0.2 W m⁻², with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W m⁻².<ref name="girda 1">{{cite web|url=http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/233.htm |title=Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis |publisher=Grida.no |accessdate=19 August 2011| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110629180154/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/233.htm| archivedate= 29 June 2011<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> Black carbon is a bigger cause of the melting of the polar ice cap in the Arctic than carbon dioxide due to its effect on the albedo.<ref>James Hansen & Larissa Nazarenko, ''Soot Climate Forcing Via Snow and Ice Albedos'', 101 Proc. of the Nat'l. Acad. of Sci. 423 (13 January 2004) ("The efficacy of this forcing is »2 (i.e., for a given forcing it is twice as effective as CO₂ in altering global surface air temperature)"); ''compare'' Zender Testimony, ''supra'' note 7, at 4 (figure 3); See J. Hansen & L. Nazarenko, ''supra'' note 18, at 426. ("The efficacy for changes of Arctic sea ice albedo is >3. In additional runs not shown here, we found that the efficacy of albedo changes in Antarctica is also >3."); ''See also'' Flanner, M.G., C.S. Zender, J.T. Randerson, and P.J. Rasch, ''Present-day climate forcing and response from black carbon in snow'', 112 J. GEOPHYS. RES. D11202 (2007) ("The forcing is maximum coincidentally with snowmelt onset, triggering strong snow-albedo feedback in local springtime. Consequently, the "efficacy" of black carbon/snow forcing is more than three times greater than forcing by CO₂.").</ref> ===Human activities=== Human activities (e.g., deforestation, farming, and urbanization) change the albedo of various areas around the globe. However, quantification of this effect on the global scale is difficult.{{citation needed|date=November 2013}} ==Other types of albedo== [[Single-scattering albedo]] is used to define scattering of electromagnetic waves on small particles. It depends on properties of the material ([[refractive index]]); the size of the particle or particles; and the wavelength of the incoming radiation. ==See also== <!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short description [[WP:SEEALSO]] --> {{Div col|colwidth=20em|small=yes}} * [[Cool roof]] * [[Daisyworld]] * [[Emissivity]] * [[Exitance]] * [[Global dimming]] * [[Irradiance]] * [[Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation]] * [[Opposition surge]] * [[Polar see-saw]] * [[Solar radiation management]] {{div col end}} <!-- please keep entries in alphabetical order --> ==References== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="Goode">{{Cite journal |last=Goode |first=P. R. |date=2001 |title=Earthshine Observations of the Earth's Reflectance |journal=[[Geophysical Research Letters]] |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=1671–1674 |url=http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/2001/2000GL012580.shtml |doi=10.1029/2000GL012580 |bibcode = 2001GeoRL..28.1671G |display-authors=etal}}</ref> <ref name="NASA">{{cite web|url=http://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov/data/atbd/atbd_mod09.pdf|title=MODIS BRDF/Albedo Product: Algorithm Theoretical Basis Document, Version 5.0|accessdate=2 June 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090601063932/http://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov/data/atbd/atbd_mod09.pdf| archivedate= 1 June 2009<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> <ref name="washington">{{cite web|url=http://www.atmos.washington.edu/~sgw/PAPERS/2002_Snowball.pdf|title=Snowball Earth: Ice thickness on the tropical ocean|accessdate=20 September 2009}}</ref> <ref name="clim-past">{{cite web|url=http://www.clim-past.net/2/31/2006/cp-2-31-2006.pdf|title=Effect of land albedo, CO2, orography, and oceanic heat transport on extreme climates|accessdate=20 September 2009}}</ref> <ref name="Smith Robin">{{cite web|url=http://www.mpimet.mpg.de/fileadmin/staff/smithrobin/IC_JClim-final.pdf|title=Global climate and ocean circulation on an aquaplanet ocean-atmosphere general circulation model|accessdate=20 September 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090920212836/http://www.mpimet.mpg.de/fileadmin/staff/smithrobin/IC_JClim-final.pdf| archivedate= 20 September 2009<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> <ref name="medkeff">{{cite web | url = http://jeff.medkeff.com/astro/lunar/obs_tech/albedo.htm | title = Lunar Albedo | first = Jeff | last = Medkeff | authorlink = Jeffrey S. Medkeff | date = 2002 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080523151225/http://jeff.medkeff.com/astro/lunar/obs_tech/albedo.htm | archivedate = 23 May 2008 | accessdate = 5 July 2010 }} </ref> <!-- <ref name="Dickinson">{{cite journal | last1 = Dickinson | first1 = R. E. | last2 = Kennedy | first2 = P. J. | date = 1992 | title = Impacts on regional climate of Amazon deforestation | url = | journal = Geophys. Res. Lett. | volume = 19 | issue = | pages = 1947–1950 | doi=10.1029/92gl01905 | bibcode=1992GeoRL..19.1947D}}</ref> --> <!-- <ref name="mit">[http://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/m2006/final/characterization/abiotic_water.html http://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/m2006/final/characterization/abiotic_water.html] Project Amazonia: Characterization – Abiotic – Water</ref> --> <ref name="mmutrees">{{cite web|url=http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/Resources/gcc/1-3-3.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030301133707/http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/Resources/gcc/1-3-3.html |dead-url=yes |archive-date=1 March 2003 |title=The Climate System |publisher=Manchester Metropolitan University |accessdate=11 November 2007 }}</ref> <ref name="Betts">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1038/35041545 | date = 2000 | last1 = Betts | first1 = Richard A. | journal = Nature | volume = 408 | issue = 6809 | pages = 187–190 | pmid = 11089969 | title = Offset of the potential carbon sink from boreal forestation by decreases in surface albedo |bibcode = 2000Natur.408..187B }}</ref> <ref name="Fresnel">{{cite web|url=http://vih.freeshell.org/pp/01-ONW-St.Petersburg/Fresnel.pdf |format=PDF |title=Spectral Approach To Calculate Specular reflection Of Light From Wavy Water Surface |publisher=Vih.freeshell.org |accessdate=2015-03-16}}</ref> <ref name="DOMINICK">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1098/rsta.2008.0201 | title = Boreal forests, aerosols and the impacts on clouds and climate | date = 2008 | last1 = Spracklen | first1 = D. V | last2 = Bonn | first2 = B. | last3 = Carslaw | first3 = K. S | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A | volume = 366 | issue = 1885 | pages = 4613–4626 |url=http://homepages.see.leeds.ac.uk/~eardvs/papers/spracklen08c.pdf | format = PDF|bibcode = 2008RSPTA.366.4613S | pmid=18826917}}</ref> <ref name="BlueskyAlbedo">{{Cite journal |last=Roman |first=M. O. |author2=C.B. Schaaf|author3=P. Lewis|author4=F. Gao|author5=G.P. Anderson|author6=J.L. Privette|author7=A.H. Strahler|author8=C.E. Woodcock|author9=M. Barnsley |date=2010 |title=Assessing the Coupling between Surface Albedo derived from MODIS and the Fraction of Diffuse Skylight over Spatially-Characterized Landscapes |journal=Remote Sensing of Environment |volume=114 |pages=738–760 |doi=10.1016/j.rse.2009.11.014 |issue=4 |url=https://www.academia.edu/406124|bibcode = 2010RSEnv.114..738R }}</ref> <ref name="Mallama_et_al">{{cite journal |title=Comprehensive wide-band magnitudes and albedos for the planets, with applications to exo-planets and Planet Nine |journal=Icarus |first1=Anthony |last1=Mallama |first2=Bruce |last2=Krobusek |first3=Hristo |last3=Pavlov |volume=282 |pages=19-33 |date=2017 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2016.09.023 |bibcode=2017Icar..282...19M }}</ref> <ref name="Mallama">{{cite journal |title=The spherical bolometric albedo for planet Mercury |first1=Anthony |last1=Mallama |date=2017 |arxiv=1703.02670 }}</ref> <ref name="Haus_et_al">{{cite journal |title=Radiative energy balance of Venus based on improved models of the middle and lower atmosphere |journal=Icarus |first1=R. |last1=Haus et al. |volume=272 |pages=178-205 |date=July 2016 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2016.02.048 |bibcode=2016Icar..272..178H }}</ref> <ref name="Li_et_al">{{cite journal |title=Less absorbed solar energy and more internal heat for Jupiter |first1=Liming |last1=Li et al. |journal=Nature Communications |date=2018 |doi=10.1038/s41467-018-06107-2 }}</ref> <ref name="Hanel_et_al">{{cite journal |title=Albedo, internal heat flux, and energy balance of Saturn |first1=R.A. |last1=Hanel et al. |journal=Icarus |volume=53 |pages=262 |date=1983 |doi=10.1016/0019-1035(83)90147-1 |bibcode=1983Icar...53..262H }}</ref> <ref name="Pearl_et_al_Uranus">{{cite journal |title=The albedo, effective temperature, and energy balance of Uranus, as determined from Voyager IRIS data |first1=J.C. |last1=Pearl et al. |journal=Icarus |volume=84 |pages=12-28 |date=1990 |doi=10.1016/0019-1035(90)90155-3 |bibcode=1990Icar...84...12P }}</ref> <ref name="Pearl_et_al_Neptune">{{cite journal |title=The albedo, effective temperature, and energy balance of Neptune, as determined from Voyager data |first1=J.C. |last1=Pearl et al. |journal=J. Geophys. Res. |volume=96 |pages=18,921-18,930 |date=1991 |doi=10.1029/91JA01087 |bibcode=1991JGR....9618921P }}</ref> }} ==External links== {{wiktionary}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110907193602/http://www.albedo-project.org/ Official Website of Albedo Project] * [http://www-c4.ucsd.edu/gap/ Global Albedo Project (Center for Clouds, Chemistry, and Climate)] * [http://www.eoearth.org/article/Albedo Albedo – Encyclopedia of Earth] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060505132944/http://www-modis.bu.edu/brdf/product.html NASA MODIS BRDF/albedo product site] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081125082044/http://www.eumetsat.int/Home/Main/Access_to_Data/Meteosat_Meteorological_Products/Product_List/SP_1125489019643?l=en Surface albedo derived from Meteosat observations] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080523151225/http://jeff.medkeff.com/astro/lunar/obs_tech/albedo.htm A discussion of Lunar albedos] * [http://www.tvu.com/metalreflectivityLR.jpg reflectivity of metals (chart)] {{Global warming}} 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|letter=A a |variations=([[A#Related characters|See below]]) |image=File:A cursiva.gif |imagesize=200px |imagealt=Writing cursive forms of A |script=[[Latin script]] |type=[[Alphabet]] |typedesc=ic and [[Logographic]] |language=[[Latin language]] |phonemes=[{{IPAlink|a}}]<br>[{{IPAlink|ɑ}}]<br>[{{IPAlink|ɒ}}]<br>[{{IPAlink|æ}}]<br>[{{IPAlink|ə}}]<br>[{{IPAlink|ɛ}}]<br>[{{IPAlink|oː}}]<br>[{{IPAlink|ɔ}}]<br>[{{IPAlink|e}}]<br>[{{IPAlink|ʕ}}]<br>[{{IPAlink|ʌ}}]<br>{{IPAc-en|eɪ}} |unicode=U+0041, U+0061 |alphanumber=1 |number=1 |fam1=<hiero>F1</hiero> |fam2=[[File:Proto-semiticA-01.svg|20px|Proto-Sinaitic 'alp]] |fam3=[[File:Cretan-1.jpg|20px|Early Crete version of the letter "A"]] |fam4=[[File:Protoalef.svg|20px|Proto-Caanite Aleph]] |fam5=[[File:Phoenician_aleph.svg|20px|Phoenician Aleph]] |fam6=[[Alpha|Α α]] |fam7=[[𐌀]][[File:Greek-uncial-1.jpg|20px|Greek Classical uncial]] |fam8=[[File:Semitic-2.jpg|20px|Early Latin A]][[File:Latin-uncial-1.jpg|20px|Latin 300 AD uncial, version 1]] |usageperiod=~-700 to present |children={{bull}}[[Æ]]<br>{{bull}}[[Ä]]<br>{{bull}}[[Â]]<br>{{bull}}[[Ɑ]]<br>{{bull}}[[Λ]]<br>{{bull}}[[Ɐ]]<br>{{bull}}[[ª]]<br>{{bull}}[[Å]]<br>{{bull}}[[₳]]<br>{{bull}}[[@]]<br>{{bull}}[[Ⓐ]]<br>{{bull}}[[ⓐ]]<br>{{bull}}[[⒜]]<br>{{bull}}[[🅰]] |sisters=[[𐌰]]<br>[[А]]<br>[[Я]]<br>[[Ә]]<br>[[Ӑ]]<br>[[Aleph|א<br>ا<br>ܐ]]<br>[[ࠀ]]<br>[[𐎀]]<br>[[ℵ]]<br>[[አ]]<br>[[ء]]<br>[[wikt:Ա|Ա]] [[wikt:ա|ա]]<br>[[અ]]<br>[[अ]]<br>[[অ]] |equivalents= |associates=[[List of Latin-script digraphs#A|a(x)]], [[Ae (digraph)|ae]], [[Eau (trigraph)|eau]] |direction=Left-to-Right }} {{Latin letter info|a}} '''A''' ([[English alphabet#Letter names|named]] {{IPAc-en|'|eɪ}}, plural ''As'', ''A's'', ''a''s, ''a's'' or ''aes''{{refn|group=nb|''Aes'' is the plural of the name of the letter. The plural of the letter itself is rendered ''A''s, A's, ''a''s, or a's.<ref name=oed>{{harvnb|Simpson|Weiner|1989|p=1}}</ref>}}) is the first [[Letter (alphabet)|letter]] and the first [[vowel]] of the [[ISO basic Latin alphabet]].<ref name=oed/> It is similar to the [[Greek_alphabet#History|Ancient Greek letter]] [[alpha]], from which it derives.<ref>{{harvnb|McCarter|1974|p=54}}</ref> The uppercase version consists of the two slanting sides of a triangle, crossed in the middle by a horizontal bar. The lowercase version can be written in two forms: the double-storey '''a''' and single-storey '''ɑ'''. The latter is commonly used in handwriting and fonts based on it, especially fonts intended to be read by children, and is also found in [[italic type]]. ==History== {| class="wikitable" |- style="background-color:#EEEEEE; text-align:center;" ! Egyptian{{ns|2}} ! Cretan ! Phoenician <br>''[[aleph]]'' ! Semitic <br> ! Greek <br>''[[Alpha]]'' ! Etruscan <br>A ! Roman/Cyrillic <br>A ! Boeotian<br> 800–700 BC ! Greek <br> Uncial ! Latin 300 AD <br> Uncial |- style="background-color:white; text-align:center;" | [[File:EgyptianA-01.svg|Egyptian hieroglyphic ox head]] | [[File:Cretan-1.jpg|35px|Early Crete version of the letter "A"]] | [[File:PhoenicianA-01.svg|40px|Phoenician aleph]] | [[File:Semitic-A2.jpg|35px|Semitic letter "A", version 1]] | [[File:Alpha uc lc.svg|45px|Greek alpha, version 1]] | [[File:EtruscanA.svg|30px|Etruscan A, version 1]] | [[File:RomanA-01.svg|30px|Roman A]] | [[File:Beoetian2.jpg|35px|Boeotian]] | [[File:Greek-uncial-1.jpg|35px|Greek Classical uncial, version 1]] | [[File:Latin-uncial-1.jpg|35px|Latin 300 AD uncial, version 1]] |- | | | | | | | | | | |- style="background-color:white; text-align:center;" |<hiero> F1 </hiero> | [[File:Cretan-2.jpg|35px|Crete "A"]] | [[File:Phoenician1a.jpg|35px|Phoenician version of the "A"]] | [[File:Semitic-2.jpg|35px|Semitic "A", version 2]] | [[File:Greek-2.jpg|30px|Greek alpha, version 2]] | [[File:Etr2.jpg|35px|Etruscan A, version 2]] | [[File:Latin 4th cent BC.jpg|35px|Latin 4th century BC]] | [[File:Beoetian.jpg|45px|Boeotioan 800 BC]] | [[File:Greek-uncial-2.jpg|35px|Greek Classical uncial, version 2]] | [[File:Latin-uncial-2.jpg|35px|Latin 300 AD uncial, version 2]] |} The earliest certain ancestor of "A" is [[aleph]] (also written 'aleph), the first letter of the [[Phoenician alphabet]],<ref name="Britannica">{{harvnb|Hoiberg|2010|p=1}}</ref> which consisted entirely of [[consonant]]s (for that reason, it is also called an [[abjad]] to distinguish it from a true [[alphabet]]). In turn, the ancestor of aleph may have been a [[pictogram]] of an ox head in [[proto-Sinaitic script]]<ref name=Coll>{{harvnb|Hall-Quest|1997|p=1}}</ref> influenced by [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]], styled as a triangular head with two horns extended. By 1600 BC, the Phoenician alphabet letter had a linear form that served as the base for some later forms. Its name is thought to have corresponded closely to the [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] or [[Arabic script|Arabic]] aleph. {| cellspacing="10" cellpadding="0" style="background-color: white; float: right;" |- align="center" |[[File:BlackletterA-01.png|Blackletter A]]<br />[[Blackletter]] A |[[File:UncialA-01.svg|Uncial A]]<br />[[Uncial script|Uncial]] A |[[File:Acap.svg|Another Capital A]]<br />Another Blackletter A&nbsp; |- align="center" |[[File:ModernRomanA-01.svg|64 px|Modern Roman A]]<br />Modern Roman A |[[File:Modern Italic A.svg|64 px|Modern Italic A]]<br />Modern Italic A |[[File:Modern Script A.svg|64 px|Modern Script A]]<br />Modern script A |} When the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] adopted the alphabet, they had no use for a letter to represent the [[glottal stop]]—the consonant sound that the letter denoted in [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]] and other [[Semitic languages]], and that was the first [[phoneme]] of the Phoenician pronunciation of the letter—so they used their version of the sign to represent the vowel {{IPA|/a/}}, and called it by the similar name of [[alpha]]. In the earliest Greek inscriptions after the [[Greek Dark Ages]], dating to the 8th century BC, the letter rests upon its side, but in the [[Greek alphabet]] of later times it generally resembles the modern capital letter, although many local varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by the angle at which the cross line is set. The [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscans]] brought the Greek alphabet to their civilization in the [[Italian Peninsula]] and left the letter unchanged. The Romans later adopted the [[Old Italic script|Etruscan alphabet]] to write the [[Latin|Latin language]], and the resulting letter was preserved in the [[Latin script|Latin alphabet]] that would come to be used to write many languages, including English. ===Typographic variants=== [[File:A-small glyphs.svg|thumb|140px|Different [[glyphs]] of the lowercase letter A.]] During Roman times, there were many variant forms of the letter "A". First was the monumental or lapidary style, which was used when inscribing on stone or other "permanent" media. There was also a [[cursive]] style used for everyday or utilitarian writing, which was done on more perishable surfaces. Due to the "perishable" nature of these surfaces, there are not as many examples of this style as there are of the monumental, but there are still many surviving examples of different types of cursive, such as [[letter case|majuscule]] cursive, [[letter case|minuscule]] cursive, and semicursive minuscule. Variants also existed that were intermediate between the monumental and cursive styles. The known variants include the early [[Uncial script#Half-uncial|semi-uncial]], the uncial, and the later semi-uncial.<ref name=Americana>{{harvnb|Diringer|2000|p=1}}</ref> [[File:LowercaseA.svg|left|thumb|200px|[[Allography|Typographic variants]] include a double-storey '''a''' and single-storey '''ɑ'''.]]At the end of the [[Roman Empire]] (5th century AD), several variants of the cursive minuscule developed through Western Europe. Among these were the semicursive minuscule of [[Italy]], the [[Merovingian script]] in France, the [[Visigothic script]] in Spain, and the [[Insular script|Insular]] or Anglo-Irish semi-uncial or Anglo-Saxon majuscule of Great Britain. By the 9th century, the [[Carolingian minuscule|Caroline script]], which was very similar to the present-day form, was the principal form used in book-making, before the advent of the printing press. This form was derived through a combining of prior forms.<ref name=Americana/> 15th-century Italy saw the formation of the two main variants that are known today. These variants, the ''Italic'' and ''Roman'' forms, were derived from the Caroline Script version. The Italic form, also called ''script a,'' is used in most current [[handwriting]] and consists of a circle and vertical stroke. This slowly developed from the fifth-century form resembling the Greek letter [[tau]] in the hands of medieval Irish and English writers.<ref name="Britannica"/> The Roman form is used in most printed material; it consists of a small loop with an arc over it ("a").<ref name=Americana/> Both derive from the majuscule (capital) form. In Greek handwriting, it was common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop, as demonstrated by the uncial version shown. Many fonts then made the right leg vertical. In some of these, the [[serif]] that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc, resulting in the printed form, while in others it was dropped, resulting in the modern handwritten form. [[Italic type]] is commonly used to mark emphasis or more generally to distinguish one part of a text from the rest (set in Roman type). There are some other cases aside from italic type where ''script a'' ("ɑ"), also called [[Latin alpha]], is used in contrast with Latin "a" (such as in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]]). ==Use in writing systems== [[File:Pronunciation_of_the_name_of_the_letter_⟨a⟩_in_European_languages.png|thumb|Pronunciation of the name of the letter {{angbr|a}} in European languages, note that /a/ and /aː/ can differ phonetically between {{IPAblink|a}}, {{IPAblink|ä}}, {{IPAblink|æ}} and {{IPAblink|ɑ}} depending on the language.|305x305px]] ===English=== {{further information|Pronunciation of English ⟨a⟩}} In modern [[English orthography]], the letter {{angbr|a}} represents at least seven different vowel sounds: *the [[near-open front unrounded vowel]] {{IPA|/æ/}} as in ''pad''; *the [[open back unrounded vowel]] {{IPA|/ɑː/}} as in ''father'', which is closer to its original Latin and Greek sound;<ref name=Coll/> *the [[diphthong]] {{IPA|/eɪ/}} as in ''ace'' and ''major'' (usually when {{vr|a}} is followed by one, or occasionally two, consonants and then another vowel letter) – this results from [[Middle English lengthening]] followed by the [[Great Vowel Shift]]; *the modified form of the above sound that occurs [[English-language vowel changes before historic /r/|before {{vr|r}}]], as in ''square'' and ''Mary''; *the rounded vowel of ''water''; *the shorter rounded vowel (not present in [[General American]]) in ''was'' and ''what'';<ref name="Britannica"/> *a [[schwa]], in many unstressed syllables, as in ''about'', ''comma'', ''solar''. The double {{angbr|aa}} sequence does not occur in native English words, but is found in some words derived from foreign languages such as ''Aaron'' and ''[[aardvark]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Gelb|Whiting|1998|p=45}}</ref> However, {{vr|a}} occurs in [[List of Latin-script digraphs|many common digraphs]], all with their own sound or sounds, particularly {{vr|ai}}, {{vr|au}}, {{vr|aw}}, {{vr|ay}}, {{vr|ea}} and {{vr|oa}}. {{angbr|a}} is the third-most-commonly used letter in English (after {{angbr|e}} and {{angbr|t}}),<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2004}}</ref> and the second most common in Spanish and French. In one study, on average, about 3.68% of letters used in English texts tend to be {{angbr|a}}, while the number is 6.22% in Spanish and 3.95% in French.<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2006}}</ref> ===Other languages=== In most languages that use the Latin alphabet, {{angbr|a}} denotes an open unrounded vowel, such as {{IPA|/[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]]/}}, {{IPA|/[[Open central unrounded vowel|ä]]/}}, or {{IPA|/[[Open back unrounded vowel|ɑ]]/}}. An exception is [[Saanich dialect|Saanich]], in which {{angbr|a}} (and the glyph [[Á]]) stands for a [[close-mid front unrounded vowel]] {{IPA|/e/}}. ===Other systems=== In phonetic and phonemic notation: *in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]], {{angbr|{{IPA|a}}}} is used for the [[open front unrounded vowel]], {{angbr|{{IPA|ä}}}} is used for the [[open central unrounded vowel]], and {{angbr|{{IPA|ɑ}}}} is used for the [[open back unrounded vowel]]. *in [[X-SAMPA]], {{angbr|a}} is used for the [[open front unrounded vowel]] and {{angbr|A}} is used for the [[open back unrounded vowel]]. ==Other uses== {{main article|A (disambiguation)}} In [[algebra]], the letter ''a'' along with other letters at the beginning of the alphabet is used to represent known quantities, whereas the letters at the end of the alphabet (''x'', ''y'', ''z'') are used to denote unknown quantities. In [[geometry]], capital A, B, C etc. are used to denote [[Line segment|segment]]s, [[line (geometry)|line]]s, [[Line (geometry)#Ray|rays]], etc.<ref name=Americana/> A capital A is also typically used as one of the letters to represent an angle in a [[triangle]], the lowercase a representing the side opposite angle A.<ref name=Coll/> "A" is often used to denote something or someone of a better or more prestigious quality or status: A-, A or A+, the best grade that can be assigned by teachers for students' schoolwork; "A grade" for clean restaurants; [[A-list]] celebrities, etc. Such associations can have a [[motivation|motivating]] effect, as exposure to the letter A has been found to improve performance, when compared with other letters.<ref>{{harvnb|Ciani & Sheldon|2010|pp=99–100}}</ref> "A" is used as a prefix on some words, such as [[asymmetry]], to mean "not" or "without" (from Greek). Finally, the letter A is used to denote size, as in a narrow size shoe,<ref name=Coll/> or a small cup size in a [[brassiere]].{{citation needed|date=October 2015}} ==Related characters== <!-- Please only list characters (symbols in a writing system, but not just convenience code points in Unicode) that are actually related in terms of origin to the letter that is the topic of this article. Characters that merely look subjectively similar need not apply. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources before adding more. --> ===Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet=== *Æ æ : [[Æ|Latin ''AE'']] ligature *A with [[diacritic]]s: [[Å|Å å]] [[Ǻ|Ǻ ǻ]] [[Ring (diacritic)|Ḁ ḁ]] [[ẚ]] [[Ă|Ă ă]] [[Ặ|Ặ ặ]] [[Ắ|Ắ ắ]] [[Ằ|Ằ ằ]] [[Ẳ|Ẳ ẳ]] [[Ẵ|Ẵ ẵ]] [[Ȃ|Ȃ ȃ]] [[Â|Â â]] [[Ậ|Ậ ậ]] [[Ấ|Ấ ấ]] [[Ầ|Ầ ầ]] [[Ẫ|Ẫ ẫ]] [[Ẩ|Ẩ ẩ]] [[Ả|Ả ả]] [[Caron|Ǎ ǎ]] [[Bar (diacritic)|Ⱥ ⱥ]] [[Dot (diacritic)|Ȧ ȧ]] [[Ǡ|Ǡ ǡ]] [[Dot (diacritic)|Ạ ạ]] [[Ä|Ä ä]] [[Ǟ|Ǟ ǟ]] [[À|À à]] [[Ȁ|Ȁ ȁ]] [[Á|Á á]] [[Ā|Ā ā]] Ā̀ ā̀ [[Ã|Ã ã]] [[Ą|Ą ą]] Ą́ ą́ Ą̃ ą̃ [[ᶏ]]<ref name="L204132">{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2004/04132-n2740-phonetic.pdf|title=L2/04-132 Proposal to add additional phonetic characters to the UCS|date=2004-04-19|first=Peter|last=Constable}}</ref> *[[Phonetic transcription#Alphabetic|Phonetic alphabet]] symbols related to A (the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] only uses lowercase, but uppercase forms are used in some other writing systems): **Ɑ ɑ : [[Latin alpha|Latin letter alpha / script A]], which represents an [[open back unrounded vowel]] in the IPA **ᶐ : Latin small letter alpha with retroflex hook<ref name="L204132"/> **Ɐ ɐ : [[Turned A]], which represents a [[near-open central vowel]] in the IPA **Λ ʌ : [[turned V]] (also called a wedge, a caret, or a hat), which represents an [[open-mid back unrounded vowel]] in the IPA **Ɒ ɒ : Turned alpha / script A, which represents an [[open back rounded vowel]] in the IPA **ᶛ : Modifier letter small turned alpha<ref name="L204132"/> **ᴀ : Small capital A, an [[Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet|obsolete or non-standard symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet]] used to represent various sounds (mainly open vowels) **ᴬ ᵃ ᵄ : Modifier letters are used in the [[Uralic Phonetic Alphabet]] (UPA).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2002/02141-n2419-uralic-phonetic.pdf|title=L2/02-141: Uralic Phonetic Alphabet characters for the UCS|date=2002-03-20|first1=Michael|last1=Everson|authorlink1=Michael Everson|display-authors=etal}}</ref> **ₐ : Subscript small a is used in [[Indo-European studies]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2004/04191-n2788-laryngeals.pdf|title=L2/04-191: Proposal to encode six Indo-Europeanist phonetic characters in the UCS|date=2004-06-07|first1=Deborah|last1=Anderson|first2=Michael|last2=Everson}}</ref> **ꬱ : Small letter a reversed-schwa is used in the [[Teuthonista]] phonetic transcription system<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2011/11202-n4081-teuthonista.pdf|title=L2/11-202: Revised proposal to encode “Teuthonista” phonetic characters in the UCS|date=2011-06-02|first1=Michael|last1=Everson|first2=Alois|last2=Dicklberger|first3=Karl|last3=Pentzlin|first4=Eveline|last4=Wandl-Vogt}}</ref> ===Derived signs, symbols and abbreviations=== *<big>ª</big> : an [[ordinal indicator]] *&#x212B; : [[Ångström]] sign *∀ : a turned capital letter A, used in [[predicate logic]] to specify [[universal quantification]] ("for all") *@ : [[At sign]] *₳ : [[Argentine austral]] ===Ancestors and siblings in other alphabets=== *𐤀 : [[Phoenician alphabet|Semitic]] letter [[Aleph]], from which the following symbols originally derive<ref>Jensen, Hans, ''Sign, Symbol, and Script'', G.P. Putman's Sons, New York, 1969.</ref> **Α α : [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] letter [[Alpha]], from which the following letters derive<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/spotlight/hebrew-lesson-of-the-week-letter-aleph/|title=Hebrew lesson of the week: The letter Aleph|last=|first=|date=|work=[[The Times of Israel]]|access-date=2018-05-25|language=en-US}}</ref> ***А а : [[Cyrillic]] letter [[A (Cyrillic)|A]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cyrillic-alphabet|title=Cyrillic alphabet|work=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-05-25|language=en}}</ref> ***{{Script|Copt|Ⲁ ⲁ}} : [[Coptic alphabet|Coptic]] letter Alpha<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n2QWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA123&dq=coptic+alphabet+greek+alphabet&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwir6J7t5aHbAhUhxVkKHczHBigQ6AEILDAB#v=onepage&q=coptic%20alphabet&f=false|title=Universal Palaeography|last=Silvestre|first=Joseph Balthaszar|last2=(Jacques-Joseph)|first2=M. Champollion-Figeac|last3=Champollion-Figeac|first3=Aimé Louis|date=1850|publisher=H.G. Bohn|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=|language=en}}</ref> ***𐌀 : [[Old Italic script|Old Italic]] A, which is the ancestor of modern Latin A<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fwAoAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA534&dq=old+italic+greek+alphabet&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiSifqg5qHbAhUByFkKHclnBl4Q6AEIMDAC#v=onepage&q=old%20italic%20greek%20alphabet&f=false|title=American journal of archaeology|date=1891|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lv4sDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA96&dq=old+italic+script+greek&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjAv72M56HbAhVIwFkKHWRRCOsQ6AEIUjAJ#v=onepage&q=old%20italic%20script%20greek&f=false|title=Understanding Relations Between Scripts: The Aegean Writing Systems|last=Steele|first=Philippa|date=2017-08-31|publisher=Oxbow Books|isbn=9781785706479|language=en}}</ref> ****{{Script|Runr|ᚨ}} : [[Runes|Runic]] letter [[Ansuz (rune)|ansuz]], which probably derives from old Italic A<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bSxHgej4tKMC&pg=PA349&dq=Runic+developed+from+old+italic&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwizsazK56HbAhVvx1kKHWJjB1UQ6AEIQjAF#v=onepage&q=Runic%20developed%20from%20old%20italic&f=false|title=Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction|last=IV|first=Benjamin W. Fortson|date=2011-09-07|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9781444359688|language=en}}</ref> ***{{Script|Goth|𐌰}} : [[Gothic alphabet|Gothic]] letter aza/asks{{Citation needed|date=May 2018}} ==Computing codes== {{charmap | 0041 | 0061 | name1 = Latin Capital Letter A | name2 = Latin Small Letter A | map1 = [[EBCDIC]] family | map1char1 = C1 | map1char2 = 81 | map2 = [[ASCII]] ¹ | map2char1 = 41 | map2char2 = 61 }} : ¹ {{midsize|Also for encodings based on ASCII, including the DOS, Windows, ISO-8859 and Macintosh families of encodings.}} ==Other representations== {{Letter other reps |NATO=Alpha<!--don't change to official "alfa" until Commons images are moved to this spelling, or redirects are set up, as otherwise the table does not display the semaphore and flag images--> |Morse=·– |Character=A1 |Braille=⠁ |fingerspelling=A }} ==Notes== {{reflist|group=nb}} ==Footnotes== {{reflist|2}} ==References== * {{cite web |author=Anon |year=2004 |url=http://www.math.cornell.edu/~mec/2003-2004/cryptography/subs/frequencies.html |title=English Letter Frequency |accessdate=28 May 2014 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6Put1etCm?url=http://www.math.cornell.edu/~mec/2003-2004/cryptography/subs/frequencies.html |archivedate=28 May 2014 |publisher=Cornell University |work=Math Explorer's Club |ref=harv |deadurl=no |df=dmy }} * {{cite web | author = Anon | year = 2006 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070125220315/http://starbase.trincoll.edu/~crypto/resources/LetFreq.html | url=http://starbase.trincoll.edu/~crypto/resources/LetFreq.html |archivedate=25 January 2007 | title = Percentages of Letter frequencies per Thousand words | website = Trinity College | accessdate = 11 May 2015 | ref = harv }} * {{cite journal|last1=Ciani|first1=Keith D.|last2=Sheldon|first2=Kennon M.|title=A versus F: The effects of implicit letter priming on cognitive performance|journal=British Journal of Educational Psychology|date=2010|volume=80|issue=1|pages=99–119|doi=10.1348/000709909X466479|ref={{harvid|Ciani & Sheldon|2010}}}} * {{cite encyclopedia | last = Diringer | first = David | editor-last = Bayer | editor-first = Patricia | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia Americana | title = A | edition = First | year = 2000 | publisher = Grolier Incorporated | volume = I: A-Anjou | location = Danbury, CT | isbn = 0-7172-0133-3 | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last1 = Gelb | first1 = I. J. | last2 = Whiting | first2 = R. M. | editor-last = Ranson | editor-first = K. Anne | encyclopedia = Academic American Encyclopedia | title = A | edition = First | year = 1998 | publisher = Grolier Incorporated | volume = I: A–Ang | location = Danbury, CT | isbn = 0-7172-2068-0 | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last = Hall-Quest | first = Olga Wilbourne | editor-last = Johnston | editor-first = Bernard | encyclopedia = [[Collier's Encyclopedia]] | title = A | edition = First | year = 1997 | publisher = P.F. Collier | volume = I: A to Ameland | location = New York, NY | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last = Hoiberg | editor-first = Dale H. | year = 2010 | title = A | encyclopedia = [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] | volume = 1: A-ak–Bayes | publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. | location = Chicago, IL | isbn = 978-1-59339-837-8 | ref = harv }} * {{cite journal | first = P. Kyle | last = McCarter | title = The Early Diffusion of the Alphabet | journal = The Biblical Archaeologist | date = September 1974 | volume = 37 | issue = 3 | pages = 54–68 | jstor = 3210965 | doi = 10.2307/3210965 | ref = harv}} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last1 = Simpson | editor-first1 = J. A. | editor-last2 = Weiner | editor-first2 = E.S.C. | year = 1989 | edition = 2nd | title = A | encyclopedia = The Oxford English Dictionary | isbn = 0-19-861213-3 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford, UK | volume = I: A–Bazouki | ref = harv }} ==External links== {{Commons|A}} {{Wiktionary|A|a}} * [http://members.peak.org/~jeremy/dictionaryclassic/chapters/pix/alphabet.gif History of the Alphabet] * {{Wikisource-inline|list= ** "[[s:A Dictionary of the English Language/A|A]]" in ''[[s:A Dictionary of the English Language|A Dictionary of the English Language]]'' by [[Samuel Johnson]] **{{cite AmCyc|wstitle=A |short=x |noicon=x}} **{{cite EB1911|wstitle=A |short=x |noicon=x}} **{{cite NSRW |wstitle=A |short=x |noicon=x}} **{{cite Collier's|wstitle=A |short=x |noicon=x}} }} {{Latin script|A|}} [[Category:ISO basic Latin letters]] 4dvx6fph7av2ymx371gpjql6nw63cea 0 291 783865104 160873567 2017-06-05T04:17:48Z Tom.Reding 9784415 +{{Redirect category shell}} using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Anarcho-capitalism]] {{Redirect category shell|1= {{R from CamelCase}} }} 33tgj5mk5qgwbt33798d4rvqo6ekl2z 0 293 783865113 160873586 2017-06-05T04:17:52Z Tom.Reding 9784415 +{{Redirect category shell}} using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[anarcho-capitalism]] {{Redirect category shell|1= {{R from CamelCase}} }} egvr2esauccoskgsy7lw9our7mcww0f 0 296 783865120 256409318 2017-06-05T04:17:57Z Tom.Reding 9784415 +{{Redirect category shell}} using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Lists of actors]] {{Redirect category shell|1= {{R from CamelCase}} }} a57sg3keg44fnx3j4vde0hd0xdl63mj 0 299 783865123 160873704 2017-06-05T04:18:03Z Tom.Reding 9784415 +{{Redirect category shell}} using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[An American in Paris]] {{Redirect category shell|1= {{R from CamelCase}} }} pvy8hkolmu18rov0290p2hjv9ddrym1 0 301 783865134 160873722 2017-06-05T04:18:08Z Tom.Reding 9784415 +{{Redirect category shell}} using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Automorphism]] {{Redirect category shell|1= {{R from CamelCase}} }} ftatasmj9zubhkhk1zl0u7qas510w95 0 302 783865142 160873735 2017-06-05T04:18:13Z Tom.Reding 9784415 +{{Redirect category shell}} using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Action film]] {{Redirect category shell|1= {{R from CamelCase}} }} 0aueyapidh5522sjstqfghy186whoyz 0 303 861956808 861935482 2018-10-01T06:52:30Z Mathglot 2544398 Undid revision 861935482 by [[Special:Contributions/2601:186:200:8351:254F:9CB0:66BC:AE4C|2601:186:200:8351:254F:9CB0:66BC:AE4C]] ([[User talk:2601:186:200:8351:254F:9CB0:66BC:AE4C|talk]]) If you're trying a test edit, please use the [[WP:SANDBOX|sandbox]] instead. wikitext text/x-wiki {{about|the U.S. state||Alabama (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2016}} {{Infobox U.S. state |Fullname= State of Alabama |Flag= Flag of Alabama.svg |Name= Alabama |Seal= Seal of Alabama.svg |Flaglink= [[Flag of Alabama|Flag]] |Seallink= [[Seal of Alabama|Seal]] |Nickname=The [[Northern flicker|Yellowhammer]] State, The Heart of [[Dixie]], and The Cotton State |Motto= {{lang-la|[[Audemus jura nostra defendere]]}} We dare defend our rights |StateAnthem= [[Alabama (state song)|Alabama]] |Map= Alabama_in_United_States.svg |OfficialLang= English |Languages= <small>As of 2010<ref>{{cite news|last1=Stephens|first1=Challen|title=A look at the languages spoken in Alabama and the drop in the Spanish speaking population|url=http://www.al.com/news/index.ssf/2015/10/a_look_at_the_drop_in_foreign.html|accessdate=21 September 2016|work=AL.com|date=19 October 2015}}</ref></small> * English 95.1% * Spanish 3.1% |Demonym= [[Adjectivals and demonyms for U.S. states|Alabamian]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gettysburg.stonesentinels.com/Confederate/AL.php|title=State of Alabama|website=The Battle of Gettysburg|accessdate=July 21, 2014}}</ref> |LargestCity = [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] |Capital= [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]] |LargestMetro= [[Birmingham metropolitan area, Alabama|Greater Birmingham]] |AreaRank = 30th |TotalAreaUS = 52,419 |TotalArea = 135,765 |WidthUS = 190 |Width = 305 |LengthUS = 330 |Length = 531 |PCWater = 3.20 |Latitude = 30° 11′ N to 35° N |Longitude = 84° 53′ W to 88° 28′ W |PopRank = 24th |2010Pop = 4,863,300 (2016 est.)<ref name=PopHousingEst>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/popest.html|title=Population and Housing Unit Estimates |date=June 22, 2017 |accessdate=June 22, 2017|publisher=[[U.S. Census Bureau]]}}</ref> |MedianHouseholdIncome=$44,509<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kff.org/other/state-indicator/median-annual-income/?currentTimeframe=0|website=The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation|title=Median Annual Household Income|accessdate=December 9, 2016}}</ref> |2010DensityUS = 94.7 (2011 est.) |2010Density = 36.5 (2011 est.) |DensityRank = 27th |IncomeRank=47th |HighestPoint = [[Mount Cheaha]]<ref>{{cite ngs|id=DG3595|designation= Cheehahaw|accessdate=October 20, 2011}}</ref><ref name=USGS>{{cite web|url=http://egsc.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/elvadist/elvadist.html |title=Elevations and Distances in the United States |publisher=United States Geological Survey |year=2001 |accessdate=October 21, 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111015012701/http://egsc.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/elvadist/elvadist.html |archivedate=October 15, 2011 }}</ref><ref name=NAVD88>Elevation adjusted to [[North American Vertical Datum of 1988]].</ref> |HighestElevUS = 2,413 |HighestElev = 735.5 |MeanElevUS = 500 |MeanElev = 150 |LowestPoint = [[Gulf of Mexico]]<ref name=USGS/> |LowestElev = 0 |LowestElevUS = 0 |Former = Alabama Territory |AdmittanceDate = December 14, 1819 |AdmittanceOrder = 22nd |Governor = [[Kay Ivey]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]]) |Lieutenant Governor = ''Vacant'' |Legislature = [[Alabama Legislature]] |Upperhouse = [[Alabama Senate|Senate]] |Lowerhouse = [[Alabama House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] |Senators = [[Richard Shelby]] (R)<br />[[Doug Jones (politician)|Doug Jones]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]]) |Representative = 6 Republicans <br/> 1 Democrat |TimeZone2 = [[Eastern Time Zone|Eastern]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] [[UTC−05:00|−5]]/[[UTC−04:00|−4]] |TZ1Where = [[Time in Alabama|most of state]] |TimeZone = [[Central Time Zone|Central]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] [[UTC−06:00|−6]]/[[UTC−05:00|−5]] |TZ2Where = [[Phenix City, Alabama|Phenix City]] area |ISOCode = US-AL |PostalAbbreviation = AL |TradAbbreviation = Ala. |Website = Alabama.gov |Coat of arms = Alabama-COA.png |Coatlink = [[Coat of arms of Alabama|Coat of arms]] |LandArea = 131,426 |LandAreaUS = 50,744 |WaterArea = 4,338 |WaterAreaUS = 1,675 |LargestCounty = [[Baldwin County, Alabama|Baldwin County]] }} {{Infobox U.S. state symbols |Name= Alabama |Flag= Flag of Alabama.svg |Seal= Seal of Alabama.svg |Amphibian= [[Red Hills salamander]] |Bird= [[Northern flicker|Yellowhammer]], [[wild turkey]]<!-- State game bird --> |Butterfly= [[Eastern tiger swallowtail]] |Fish= [[Largemouth bass]], [[Atlantic tarpon|fighting tarpon]] |Flower= [[Camellia]], [[Hydrangea quercifolia|oak-leaf hydrangea]] |Insect= [[Monarch butterfly]] |Mammal= [[American black bear]] |Horse= [[Racking horse]] |Reptile= [[Alabama red-bellied turtle]] |Tree= [[Longleaf pine]] |Beverage= [[Conecuh Ridge Whiskey]] |Colors= Red, white |Dance= [[Square dance]] |Food= [[Pecan]], [[blackberry]], [[peach]] |Fossil= ''[[Basilosaurus]]'' |Gemstone= [[Star blue quartz]] |Mineral= [[Hematite]] |Rock= [[Marble]]<!--Listed as "marble" on state web page: http://www.archives.alabama.gov/emblems/st_rock.html --> |Shell= [[Scaphella junonia|Johnstone's junonia]] |Slogan= ''Share The Wonder'', <br />''Alabama the beautiful'', <br />''Where America finds its voice'', <br />''[[Sweet Home Alabama]]'' |Soil= [[Bama (soil)|Bama]] |Route Marker= Alabama 3.svg |Quarter= 2003 AL Proof.png |QuarterReleaseDate= 2003 }} '''Alabama''' is a [[U.S. state|state]] in the [[Southern United States|southeastern region]] of the [[United States]]. It is bordered by [[Tennessee]] to the north, [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] to the east, [[Florida]] and the [[Gulf of Mexico]] to the south, and [[Mississippi]] to the west. Alabama is the [[List of U.S. states and territories by area|30th largest by area]] and the [[List of U.S. states and territories by population|24th-most populous]] of the [[List of U.S. states|U.S. states]]. With a total of {{convert|1500|mi|km}} of [[inland waterway]]s, Alabama has among the most of any state.<ref>{{cite web|title=Alabama Transportation Overview|url=https://www.edpa.org/wp-content/uploads/Alabama-Transportation-Overview-1.pdf|publisher=Economic Development Partnership of Alabama|accessdate=21 January 2017}}</ref> Alabama is nicknamed the ''[[Northern flicker|Yellowhammer]] State'', after the [[List of U.S. state birds|state bird]]. Alabama is also known as the "Heart of [[Dixie]]" and the "[[Cotton]] State". The [[List of U.S. state trees|state tree]] is the [[longleaf pine]], and the [[List of U.S. state flowers|state flower]] is the [[camellia]]. Alabama's capital is [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]]. The largest city by population is [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]],<ref name="quickcensus">{{cite web|url=http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/01000.html |title=Alabama |website=QuickFacts |publisher=United States Census Bureau |accessdate=September 22, 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910132303/http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/01000.html |archivedate=September 10, 2012 |df= }}</ref> which has long been the most industrialized city; the largest city by land area is [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]]. The oldest city is [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]], founded by French [[colonists]] in 1702 as the capital of [[Louisiana (New France)|French Louisiana]].<ref name="pelican">{{cite book|last=Thomason|first=Michael|title=Mobile: The New History of Alabama's First City|year=2001|publisher=University of Alabama Press|location=Tuscaloosa|isbn=978-0-8173-1065-3|pages=2–21}}</ref> From the [[American Civil War]] until [[World War II]], Alabama, like many states in the [[Southern United States|southern U.S.]], suffered economic hardship, in part because of its continued dependence on agriculture. Similar to other former slave states, Alabamian legislators employed [[Jim Crow laws]] to disenfranchise and otherwise discriminate against African Americans from the end of the [[Reconstruction Era]] up until at least the 1970s. Despite the growth of major industries and urban centers, [[White American|white]] rural interests dominated the state legislature from 1901 to the 1960s. During this time, urban interests and [[African Americans]] were markedly under-represented. Following World War II, Alabama grew as the state's economy changed from one primarily based on agriculture to one with diversified interests. The state's economy in the 21st century is based on management, automotive, finance, manufacturing, aerospace, mineral extraction, healthcare, education, retail, and technology.<ref name="alaindustrial">{{cite web|url=http://www2.dir.alabama.gov/projections/Occupational/Proj2018/Statewide/alabama2008_2018.pdf |title=Alabama Occupational Projections 2008-2018 |website=Alabama Department of Industrial Relations |publisher=State of Alabama |accessdate=September 22, 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117053325/http://www2.dir.alabama.gov/projections/Occupational/Proj2018/Statewide/alabama2008_2018.pdf |archivedate=January 17, 2013 }}</ref> ==Etymology== [[File:Russell Cave Entrance RUCA9323.jpg|thumb|left|One of the entrances to [[Russell Cave National Monument|Russell Cave]] in Jackson County. Charcoal from indigenous camp fires in the cave has been dated as early as 6550 to 6145 BC.]] The European-American naming of the [[Alabama River]] and state was derived from the [[Alabama people]], a [[Muskogean languages|Muskogean-speaking tribe]] whose members lived just below the confluence of the [[Coosa River|Coosa]] and [[Tallapoosa River|Tallapoosa]] rivers on the upper reaches of the river.<ref name="Read">{{Cite book|last=Read |first=William A. |title=Indian Place Names in Alabama |year=1984 |publisher=University of Alabama Press |isbn=978-0-8173-0231-3 |oclc=10724679 }}</ref> In the [[Alabama language]], the word for a person of Alabama lineage is ''Albaamo'' (or variously ''Albaama'' or ''Albàamo'' in different dialects; the plural form is ''Albaamaha'').<ref>{{Cite book |authors=Sylestine, Cora; Hardy; Heather; and [[Timothy Montler|Montler, Timothy]] |title=Dictionary of the Alabama Language |publisher=University of Texas Press |location=Austin |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-292-73077-9 |url=http://www.ling.unt.edu/~montler/Alabama/ |oclc=26590560 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081024054330/http://www.ling.unt.edu/~montler/Alabama/ |archivedate=October 24, 2008 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> The suggestion that "Alabama" was borrowed from the [[Choctaw language]] is unlikely.<ref>"Alabama, n. and adj.". [[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]] Online. March 2016. Oxford University Press. http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/248152?redirectedFrom=alabama& (accessed April 22, 2016)</ref><ref name="ADAH1">{{cite web |url=http://www.archives.alabama.gov/statenam.html |title=Alabama: The State Name |accessdate=August 2, 2007 |website=All About Alabama |publisher=Alabama Department of Archives and History |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070628215841/http://www.archives.alabama.gov/statenam.html |archivedate=June 28, 2007 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> The word's spelling varies significantly among historical sources.<ref name="ADAH1"/> The first usage appears in three accounts of the [[Hernando de Soto]] expedition of 1540: [[Garcilaso de la Vega (chronicler)|Garcilaso de la Vega]] used ''Alibamo'', while the Knight of Elvas and Rodrigo Ranjel wrote ''Alibamu'' and ''Limamu'', respectively, in [[transliteration]]s of the term.<ref name="ADAH1"/> As early as 1702, the French called the tribe the ''Alibamon'', with French maps identifying the river as ''Rivière des Alibamons''.<ref name="Read"/> Other spellings of the name have included ''Alibamu'', ''Alabamo'', ''Albama'', ''Alebamon'', ''Alibama'', ''Alibamou'', ''Alabamu'', ''Allibamou''.<ref name="ADAH1"/><ref name="Wills">{{Cite book|last=Wills |first=Charles A. |title=A Historical Album of Alabama |year=1995 |publisher=The Millbrook Press |isbn=978-1-56294-591-6 |oclc=32242468 }}</ref><ref name="Griffith">{{Cite book|last=Griffith |first=Lucille |title=Alabama: A Documentary History to 1900|year=1972 |publisher=University of Alabama Press|isbn=978-0-8173-0371-6 |oclc=17530914 }}</ref><ref name="Weiss">and possibly ''Alabahmu''.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}}<!-- source might be in print only--> The use of state names derived from [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Native American languages]] is common in the US; an estimated 27&nbsp;states have names of Native American origin. {{Cite book|last=Weiss |first=Sonia |title= The Complete Idiot's Guide to Baby Names |year=1999 |publisher=Mcmillan USA |isbn=978-0-02-863367-1 |oclc=222611214 }}</ref> Sources disagree on the word's meaning. Some scholars suggest the word comes from the Choctaw ''alba'' (meaning "plants" or "weeds") and ''amo'' (meaning "to cut", "to trim", or "to gather").<ref name="ADAH1"/><ref name="Rogers">{{Cite book|last=Rogers |first=William W.|author2=Robert D. Ward|author3=Leah R. Atkins|author4=Wayne Flynt |title=Alabama: the History of a Deep South State |year=1994 |publisher=University of Alabama Press |isbn=978-0-8173-0712-7 |oclc=28634588 }}</ref><ref name="Swanton1">{{Cite journal|last=Swanton |first=John R. |authorlink=John R. Swanton |year=1953 |title=The Indian Tribes of North America |journal=Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin |volume=145 |pages=153–174 |url=http://www.hiddenhistory.com/PAGE3/swsts/alabam-1.htm |accessdate=August 2, 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070804025900/http://www.hiddenhistory.com/PAGE3/swsts/alabam-1.htm |archivedate=August 4, 2007 |deadurl=no |df=mdy |hdl=2027/mdp.39015005395804 }}</ref> The meaning may have been "clearers of the thicket"<ref name="Rogers"/> or "herb gatherers",<ref name="Swanton1"/><ref name="Swanton2">{{Cite journal|last=Swanton |first=John R. |authorlink=John R. Swanton |year=1937 |title=Review of Read, Indian Place Names of Alabama|journal=American Speech|pages=212–215|issue=12 |doi=10.2307/452431 |volume=12 |jstor=452431}}</ref> referring to clearing land for cultivation<ref name="Wills"/> or collecting medicinal plants.<ref name="Swanton2"/> The state has numerous [[List of place names in Alabama of Native American origin|place names of Native American origin]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.archives.alabama.gov/tours/Previsit_Indian.pdf |title=Southeastern Indian Place Names in what is now Alabama |year=1994 |website=Indian Place Names in Alabama |author=William A. Read |publisher=Alabama Department of Archives and History |accessdate=October 3, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Native American placenames of the United States |last=Bright |first=William |year=2004 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |location= |isbn=978-0-8061-3576-2 |pages=29–559 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5XfxzCm1qa4C&pg}}</ref> However, there are no correspondingly similar words in the Alabama language. An 1842 article in the ''Jacksonville Republican'' proposed it meant "Here We Rest."<ref name="ADAH1"/> This notion was popularized in the 1850s through the writings of [[Alexander Beaufort Meek]].<ref name="ADAH1"/> Experts in the [[Muskogean languages]] have not found any evidence to support such a translation.<ref name="Read"/><ref name="ADAH1"/> ==History== {{main|History of Alabama}} <!---Please insert new material in main article before summarizing here. Also, look for opportunities to delete material here if you are inserting new material. This is long enough.---> ===Pre-European settlement=== [[File:Moundville Archaeological Site Alabama.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Moundville Archaeological Site]] in Hale County. It was occupied by Native Americans of the [[Mississippian culture]] from 1000 to 1450 AD.]] [[Indigenous peoples]] of varying cultures lived in the area for thousands of years before the advent of European colonization. Trade with the northeastern tribes by the [[Ohio River]] began during the Burial Mound Period (1000&nbsp;BC–AD&nbsp;700) and continued until [[European colonization of the Americas|European contact]].<ref name="NewYorkTimesAlmanac">{{cite news|url=http://travel2.nytimes.com/2004/07/15/travel/NYT_ALMANAC_US_ALABAMA.html |title=Alabama |date=August 11, 2006 |work=The New York Times Almanac 2004 |accessdate=September 23, 2006 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016195242/http://travel2.nytimes.com/2004/07/15/travel/NYT_ALMANAC_US_ALABAMA.html |archivedate=October 16, 2013 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> The agrarian [[Mississippian culture]] covered most of the state from 1000 to 1600 AD, with one of its major centers built at what is now the [[Moundville Archaeological Site]] in [[Moundville, Alabama]].<ref>{{Cite book|last= Welch |first= Paul D. |title= Moundville's Economy |publisher= University of Alabama Press |year= 1991 |isbn= 978-0-8173-0512-3 |oclc= 21330955 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last= Walthall |first= John A. |title= Prehistoric Indians of the Southeast-Archaeology of Alabama and the Middle South |publisher= University of Alabama Press |year= 1990 |isbn= 978-0-8173-0552-9 |oclc= 26656858 }}</ref> This is the second-largest complex of the classic Middle Mississippian era, after [[Cahokia]] in present-day [[Illinois]], which was the center of the culture. Analysis of [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]] from [[archaeological]] excavations at Moundville were the basis of scholars' formulating the characteristics of the [[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex]] (SECC).<ref>{{Cite book|last= Townsend |first= Richard F. |title= Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand |publisher= Yale University Press |year= 2004 |isbn= 978-0-300-10601-5 |oclc= 56633574 |title-link= Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand }}</ref> Contrary to popular belief, the SECC appears to have no direct links to [[Mesoamerica]]n culture, but developed independently. The Ceremonial Complex represents a major component of the religion of the Mississippian peoples; it is one of the primary means by which their religion is understood.<ref>{{Cite book|editors= F. Kent Reilly and James Garber |title= Ancient Objects and Sacred Realms |publisher= University of Texas Press |year= 2004 |isbn= 978-0-292-71347-5 |authors= edited by F. Kent Reilly III and James F. Garber ; foreword by Vincas P. Steponaitis. |oclc= 70335213 |title-link= Ancient Objects and Sacred Realms }}</ref> Among the historical tribes of Native American people living in present-day Alabama at the time of European contact were the [[Cherokee]], an [[Iroquoian language]] people; and the [[Muskogean]]-speaking [[Alabama (people)|Alabama]] (''Alibamu''), [[Chickasaw]], [[Choctaw]], [[Creek people|Creek]], and [[Koasati]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.accessgenealogy.com/native/alabama/ |title=Alabama Indian Tribes |accessdate=September 23, 2006 |year=2006 |website=Indian Tribal Records |publisher=AccessGenealogy.com |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20061012073735/http://www.accessgenealogy.com/native/alabama/ |archivedate=October 12, 2006 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref> While part of the same large language family, the Muskogee tribes developed distinct cultures and languages. ===European settlement=== With exploration in the 16th century, the Spanish were the first Europeans to reach Alabama. The expedition of [[Hernando de Soto]] passed through [[Mabila]] and other parts of the state in 1540. More than 160 years later, the French founded the region's first European settlement at [[Old Mobile Site|Old Mobile]] in 1702.<ref name="US50">{{cite web|url=http://www.theus50.com/alabama/ |title=Alabama State History |accessdate=September 23, 2006 |publisher=theUS50.com |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060825052401/http://www.theus50.com/alabama/ |archivedate=August 25, 2006 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref> The city was moved to the current site of [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] in 1711. This area was claimed by the French from 1702 to 1763 as part of [[La Louisiane]].<ref name=alahisttmln/> After the French lost to the British in the [[Seven Years' War]], it became part of British [[West Florida]] from 1763 to 1783. After the United States victory in the [[American Revolutionary War]], the territory was divided between the United States and Spain. The latter retained control of this western territory from 1783 until the surrender of the Spanish garrison at Mobile to U.S. forces on April 13, 1813.<ref name=alahisttmln>{{cite web|title=Alabama History Timeline|url=http://www.archives.alabama.gov/timeline/al1801.html|publisher=Alabama Department of Archives and History|accessdate=July 27, 2013}}</ref><ref name="annexed1">{{cite book|last=Thomason|first=Michael|title=Mobile: The New History of Alabama's First City|year=2001|publisher=University of Alabama Press|location=Tuscaloosa|isbn=978-0-8173-1065-3|page=61}}</ref> Thomas Bassett, a [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|loyalist]] to the British monarchy during the Revolutionary era, was one of the earliest white settlers in the state outside Mobile. He settled in the [[Tombigbee District]] during the early 1770s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.archives.state.al.us/aha/markers/washington.html |title=Alabama Historical Association Marker Program: Washington County |publisher=Archives.state.al.us |accessdate=June 1, 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110822222441/http://www.archives.state.al.us/aha/markers/washington.html |archivedate=August 22, 2011 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> The district's boundaries were roughly limited to the area within a few miles of the [[Tombigbee River]] and included portions of what is today southern [[Clarke County, Alabama|Clarke County]], northernmost [[Mobile County, Alabama|Mobile County]], and most of [[Washington County, Alabama|Washington County]].<ref name="oldsw">{{cite book |title=The Old Southwest 1795–1830: Frontiers in Conflict |last=Clark |first=Thomas D. |author2=John D. W. Guice |year=1989 |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |location=Albuquerque |isbn=978-0-8061-2836-8 |pages=44–65, 210–257}}</ref><ref name="colonial mobile">{{cite book |title=Colonial Mobile: An Historical Study of the Alabama-Tombigbee Basin and the Old South West from the Discovery of the Spiritu Sancto in 1519 until the Demolition of Fort Charlotte in 1821 |last=Hamilton |first=Peter Joseph |year=1910 |publisher=Hougthon Mifflin |location=Boston |oclc=49073155 |pages=241–244}}</ref> What is now the counties of [[Baldwin County, Alabama|Baldwin]] and [[Mobile County, Alabama|Mobile]] became part of [[Spanish West Florida]] in 1783, part of the independent [[Republic of West Florida]] in 1810, and was finally added to the [[Mississippi Territory]] in 1812. Most of what is now the northern two-thirds of Alabama was known as the [[Yazoo lands]] beginning during the British colonial period. It was claimed by the [[Province of Georgia]] from 1767 onwards. Following the [[American Revolution|Revolutionary War]], it remained a part of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], although heavily disputed.<ref>{{cite book|last=Cadle|first=Farris W|title=Georgia Land Surveying History and Law|year=1991|publisher=University of Georgia Press|location=Athens, Ga.|pages=}}</ref><ref name="pickett">{{cite book|last=Pickett|first=Albert James|title=History of Alabama and incidentally of Georgia and Mississippi, from the earliest period|year=1851|publisher=Walker and James|location=Charleston|pages=408–428}}</ref> [[File:Mississippiterritory.PNG|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Map showing the formation of the Mississippi and Alabama territories]] With the exception of the area around Mobile and the Yazoo lands, what is now the lower one-third Alabama was made part of the Mississippi Territory when it was organized in 1798. The Yazoo lands were added to the territory in 1804, following the [[Yazoo land scandal]].<ref name="pickett"/><ref>{{cite web|title=The Pine Barrens Speculation and Yazoo Land Fraud|url=http://www.aboutnorthgeorgia.com/ang/The_Pine_Barrens_Speculation_and_Yazoo_Land_Fraud|publisher=About North Georgia|accessdate=July 27, 2013}}</ref> Spain kept a claim on its former Spanish West Florida territory in what would become the coastal counties until the [[Adams–Onís Treaty]] officially ceded it to the United States in 1819.<ref name="annexed1"/> ===Early 19th century=== Before [[Mississippi|Mississippi's]] admission to statehood on December 10, 1817, the more sparsely settled eastern half of the territory was separated and named the [[Alabama Territory]]. The [[United States Congress]] created the Alabama Territory on March 3, 1817. [[St. Stephens, Alabama|St. Stephens]], now abandoned, served as the territorial capital from 1817 to 1819.<ref name="eoaststephens">{{cite web |url=http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-1674 |title=Old St. Stephens |website=Encyclopedia of Alabama |publisher=Auburn University |accessdate=June 21, 2011}}</ref> Alabama was admitted as the 22nd state on December 14, 1819, with Congress selecting Huntsville as the site for the first Constitutional Convention. From July 5 to August 2, 1819, delegates met to prepare the new state constitution. Huntsville served as temporary capital from 1819 to 1820, when the seat of government moved to [[Cahaba, Alabama|Cahaba]] in [[Dallas County, Alabama|Dallas County]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Huntsville |url=http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-2498 |website=The Encyclopedia of Alabama |publisher= Alabama Humanities Foundation |accessdate=January 22, 2013}}</ref> [[File:Thornhill 01.jpg|thumb|The main house, built in 1833, at [[Thornhill (Forkland, Alabama)|Thornhill]] in Greene County. It is a former [[Black Belt (region of Alabama)|Black Belt]] plantation.]] Cahaba, now a ghost town, was the first permanent state capital from 1820 to 1825.<ref name="Cahaw">{{cite web|title=Old Cahawba, Alabama's first state capital, 1820 to 1826|website=Old Cahawba: A Cahawba Advisory Committee Project|url=http://www.cahawba.com/|accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> [[Alabama Fever]] was underway when the state was admitted to the Union, with settlers and land speculators pouring into the state to take advantage of fertile land suitable for cotton cultivation.<ref name="fever">{{cite web |url=http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-3155 |title=Alabama Fever |author=LeeAnna Keith |date=October 13, 2011 |website=Encyclopedia of Alabama |publisher=Auburn University |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref><ref name="adahtalafvr">{{cite web|url=http://www.alabamaheritage.com/vault/kingcotton.htm |title=Alabama Fever |website=Alabama Department of Archives and History |publisher=State of Alabama |accessdate=September 22, 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117053326/http://www.alabamaheritage.com/vault/kingcotton.htm |archivedate=January 17, 2013 |df= }}</ref> Part of the frontier in the 1820s and 1830s, its constitution provided for universal suffrage for white men.<ref name="SSpaces"/> Southeastern planters and traders from the [[Upper South]] brought [[History of slavery in Alabama|slaves]] with them as the cotton [[List of plantations in Alabama|plantations in Alabama]] expanded. The economy of the central [[Black Belt (region of Alabama)|Black Belt]] (named for its dark, productive soil) was built around large cotton [[Plantation complexes in the Southeastern United States|plantations]] whose owners' wealth grew mainly from slave labor.<ref name="SSpaces"/> The area also drew many poor, disfranchised people who became [[subsistence farmers]]. Alabama had an estimated population of under 10,000 people in 1810, but it increased to more than 300,000 people by 1830.<ref name="fever"/> Most Native American tribes were [[Indian removal|completely removed]] from the state within a few years of the passage of the [[Indian Removal Act]] by Congress in 1830.<ref name="ala">{{cite web |url=http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-1598 |title=Alabama |author=Wayne Flynt |date=July 9, 2008 |website=Encyclopedia of Alabama |publisher=Auburn University |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> [[File:Oldalabamastatecapruinsintuscaloosa.png|thumb|left|Ruins of the former capitol building in Tuscaloosa. Designed by [[William Nichols (architect)|William Nichols]], it was built from 1827 to 1829 and was destroyed by fire in 1923.]] From 1826 to 1846, [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] served as Alabama's capital. On January 30, 1846, the Alabama legislature announced it had voted to move the capital city from Tuscaloosa to [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]]. The first legislative session in the new capital met in December 1847.<ref name="capitols">{{cite web|url=http://www.archives.state.al.us/capital/capitals.html |title=Capitals of Alabama |website=Alabama Department of Archives and History |accessdate=July 8, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716220255/http://www.archives.state.al.us/capital/capitals.html |archivedate=July 16, 2011 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref> A new capitol building was erected under the direction of [[Stephen Decatur Button]] of [[Philadelphia]]. The first structure burned down in 1849, but was rebuilt on the same site in 1851. This second capitol building in Montgomery remains to the present day. It was designed by Barachias Holt of [[Exeter, Maine]].<ref name="alcatalog">{{cite book |last= Gamble |first=Robert|year =1987|title =The Alabama Catalog: A Guide to the Early Architecture of the State|pages=144, 323–324|publisher =University of Alabama Press|location = University, AL|isbn =978-0-8173-0148-4 }}</ref><ref name="alarchitecture">{{cite book|last =Bowsher|first =Alice Meriwether|year =2001|title =Alabama Architecture|pages=90–91|publisher =University of Alabama Press|location = Tuscaloosa|isbn =978-0-8173-1081-3 }}</ref> ====Civil War and Reconstruction==== By 1860, the population had increased to 964,201 people, of which nearly half, 435,080, were enslaved African Americans, and 2,690 were [[free people of color]].<ref name="adahtmln">{{cite web |url=http://www.archives.alabama.gov/timeline/al1801.html |title=Alabama History Timeline |website=Alabama Department of Archives and History |publisher=State of Alabama |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> On January 11, 1861, Alabama declared its [[Secession in the United States|secession]] from the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]]. After remaining an independent republic for a few days, it joined the [[Confederate States of America]]. The Confederacy's capital was initially at [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]]. Alabama was heavily [[Alabama in the American Civil War|involved in the American Civil War]]. Although comparatively few battles were fought in the state, Alabama contributed about 120,000 soldiers to the war effort. [[File:Huntsville Courthouse Square 1864.jpg|thumb|[[Union Army]] troops occupying Courthouse Square in Huntsville, following its capture and occupation by federal forces in 1864.]] A company of cavalry soldiers from Huntsville, Alabama, joined [[Nathan Bedford Forrest]]'s battalion in [[Hopkinsville, Kentucky]]. The company wore new uniforms with yellow trim on the sleeves, collar and coat tails. This led to them being greeted with "Yellowhammer", and the name later was applied to all Alabama troops in the Confederate Army.<ref>[http://www.archives.state.al.us/emblems/st_bird.html Official Symbols and Emblems of Alabama, State Bird of Alabama, Yellowhammer]. Alabama State Archives</ref> Alabama's slaves were freed by the 13th Amendment in 1865.<ref name="HistDocs">{{cite web|url=http://www.historicaldocuments.com/13thAmendment.htm |title=13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: Abolition of Slavery (1865) |accessdate=September 23, 2006 |year=2005 |website=Historical Documents |publisher=HistoricalDocuments.com |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061031131251/http://www.historicaldocuments.com/13thAmendment.htm |archivedate=October 31, 2006 }}</ref> Alabama was under military rule from the end of the war in May 1865 until its official restoration to the Union in 1868. From 1867 to 1874, with most white citizens barred temporarily from voting and freedmen enfranchised, many African Americans emerged as political leaders in the state. Alabama was represented in Congress during this period by three African-American congressmen: [[Jeremiah Haralson]], [[Benjamin S. Turner]], and [[James T. Rapier]].<ref name="alrecnstrctn">{{cite web |url=http://www.alabamamoments.alabama.gov/sec24.html |title=Reconstruction in Alabama: A Quick Summary |website=Alabama Moments in American History |publisher=Alabama Department of Archives and History |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> Following the war, the state remained chiefly agricultural, with an economy tied to cotton. During [[Reconstruction Era|Reconstruction]], state legislators ratified a [[Constitution of Alabama|new state constitution]] in 1868 that created the state's first public school system and expanded women's rights. Legislators funded numerous public road and railroad projects, although these were plagued with allegations of fraud and misappropriation.<ref name="alrecnstrctn"/> Organized [[insurgent]], resistance groups tried to suppress the freedmen and Republicans. Besides the short-lived original [[Ku Klux Klan]], these included the Pale Faces, [[Knights of the White Camellia]], [[Red Shirts (Southern United States)|Red Shirts]], and the [[White League]].<ref name="alrecnstrctn"/> Reconstruction in Alabama ended in 1874, when the Democrats regained control of the legislature and governor's office through an election dominated by fraud and violence. They wrote another constitution in 1875,<ref name="alrecnstrctn"/> and the legislature passed the [[Blaine Amendment]], prohibiting public money from being used to finance religious-affiliated schools.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.schoolreport.com/schoolreport/articles/blaine_7_00.htm |title=A Blaine Amendment Update (July 00) |publisher=Schoolreport.com |accessdate=June 1, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716014339/http://www.schoolreport.com/schoolreport/articles/blaine_7_00.htm |archivedate=July 16, 2011 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> The same year, legislation was approved that called for [[racial segregation|racially segregated]] schools.<ref name="jimcrowala">{{cite web |url=http://www.classroomhelp.com/till/jimcrowlaws/jimcrowalabama.html |title=Jim Crow Laws in Alabama |website=Emmett Till, It All Began with a Whistle |publisher=Classroomhelp |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> Railroad passenger cars were segregated in 1891.<ref name="jimcrowala"/> After disfranchising most African Americans and many poor whites in the 1901 constitution, the Alabama legislature passed more [[Jim Crow laws]] at the beginning of the 20th century to impose segregation in everyday life. ===20th century=== [[File:Birmingham Alabama skyline 1915.jpg|thumb|left|The developing skyline of Birmingham in 1915]] The new 1901 [[Constitution of Alabama]] included provisions for voter registration that effectively [[Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era|disenfranchised]] large portions of the population, including nearly all African Americans and Native Americans, and tens of thousands of poor whites, through making voter registration difficult, requiring a [[Poll tax (United States)|poll tax]] and [[literacy test]].<ref>Morgan Kousser. ''The Shaping of Southern Politics: Suffrage Restriction and the Establishment of the One-Party South'', New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974</ref> The 1901 constitution required racial segregation of public schools. By 1903, only 2,980 African Americans were registered in Alabama, although at least 74,000 were [[literate]]. This compared to more than 181,000 African Americans eligible to vote in 1900. The numbers dropped even more in later decades.<ref name="epzzsd"/> The state legislature passed additional racial segregation laws related to public facilities into the 1950s: jails were segregated in 1911; hospitals in 1915; toilets, hotels, and restaurants in 1928; and bus stop waiting rooms in 1945.<ref name="jimcrowala"/> While the planter class had persuaded poor whites to vote for this legislative effort to suppress black voting, the new restrictions resulted in their disenfranchisement as well, due mostly to the imposition of a cumulative poll tax.<ref name="epzzsd"/> By 1941, whites constituted a slight majority of those disenfranchised by these laws: 600,000 whites vs. 520,000 African-Americans.<ref name="epzzsd">Glenn Feldman. ''The Disfranchisement Myth: Poor Whites and Suffrage Restriction in Alabama''. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2004, p. 136.</ref> Nearly all African Americans had lost the ability to vote. Despite numerous legal challenges that succeeded in overturning certain provisions, the state legislature would create new ones to maintain disenfranchisement. The exclusion of blacks from the political system persisted until after passage of federal civil rights legislation in 1965 to enforce their constitutional rights as citizens.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1248|title=Segregation (Jim Crow)|last=|first=|date=|website=Encyclopedia of Alabama|language=en|access-date=2018-05-26}}</ref> The rural-dominated Alabama legislature consistently underfunded schools and services for the disenfranchised African Americans, but it did not relieve them of paying taxes.<ref name="SSpaces">{{cite web|url= http://southernspaces.org/2004/black-belt |title= The Black Belt |accessdate =September 23, 2006 |date= April 19, 2004 |website= Southern Spaces Internet Journal |publisher= Emory University}}</ref> Partially as a response to chronic underfunding of education for African Americans in the South, the [[Rosenwald Fund]] began funding the construction of what came to be known as [[Rosenwald School]]s. In Alabama these schools were designed and the construction partially financed with Rosenwald funds, which paid one-third of the construction costs. The fund required the local community and state to raise matching funds to pay the rest. Black residents effectively taxed themselves twice, by raising additional monies to supply matching funds for such schools, which were built in many rural areas. They often donated land and labor as well.<ref name="rosenwaldal">{{cite web|title=The Rosenwald School Building Fund and Associated Buildings MPS|website="National Register Information System" |url={{NRHP url|id=64500011}} |accessdate=October 3, 2012}}</ref> [[File:Mount Sinai School Autauga County July 2011 1.jpg|thumb|The former [[Mount Sinai School]] in rural Autauga County, completed in 1919. It was one of the 387 [[Rosenwald Schools]] built in the state.]] Beginning in 1913, the first 80 Rosenwald Schools were built in Alabama for African-American children. A total of 387 schools, seven teachers' houses, and several vocational buildings were completed by 1937 in the state. Several of the [[The Rosenwald School Building Fund and Associated Buildings Multiple Property Submission|surviving school buildings]] in the state are now listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]].<ref name="rosenwaldal"/> Continued racial discrimination and [[lynching]]s, agricultural depression, and the failure of the cotton crops due to [[boll weevil]] infestation led tens of thousands of African Americans from rural Alabama and other states to seek opportunities in northern and midwestern cities during the early decades of the 20th century as part of the [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]] out of the South.<ref>Hine, Darlene; Hine, William; Harrold, Stanley (2012). ''African Americans: A Concise History'' (4th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. pp. 388–389. {{ISBN|9780205806270}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Great-Migration|title=Great Migration {{!}} African-American history|work=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-05-26|language=en}}</ref> Reflecting this emigration, the population growth rate in Alabama (see "historical populations" table below) dropped by nearly half from 1910 to 1920.<ref name="census data" /> At the same time, many rural people migrated to the city of [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] to work in new industrial jobs. Birmingham experienced such rapid growth that it was called the "Magic City".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1421|title=Birmingham {{!}} Encyclopedia of Alabama|website=Encyclopedia of Alabama|language=en|access-date=2018-05-26}}</ref> By 1920, Birmingham was the 36th-largest city in the United States.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027/tab15.txt|title=Population of the 100 Largest Urban Places: 1920|last=|first=|date=|website=United States Census Bureau|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080814041159/http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027/tab15.txt|archive-date=2008-08-14|dead-url=yes|access-date=}}</ref> Heavy industry and mining were the basis of its economy. Its residents were under-represented for decades in the state legislature, which refused to redistrict after each decennial census according to population changes, as it was required by the state constitution. This did not change until the late 1960s following a lawsuit and court order.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=_bq9L27c4fwC&pg=PA149&dq=birmingham+alabama+underrepresented+in+the+state+legislature#v=onepage&q=birmingham%20alabama%20underrepresented%20in%20the%20state%20legislature&f=false|title=Defending Constitutional Rights|last=Johnson|first=Frank Minis|date=2001|publisher=University of Georgia Press|isbn=9780820322858|language=en}}</ref> <blockquote>Beginning in the 1940s, when the courts started taking the first steps to recognize the voting rights of black voters, the Alabama legislature took several counter-steps designed to disfranchise black voters. The legislature passed, and the voters ratified [as these were mostly white voters], a state constitutional amendment that gave local registrars greater latitude to disqualify voter registration applicants. Black citizens in [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] successfully challenged this amendment as a violation of the [[Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fifteenth Amendment]]. The legislature also changed the boundaries of [[Tuskegee, Alabama|Tuskegee]] to a 28-sided figure designed to fence out blacks from the city limits. The Supreme Court unanimously held that this racial "[[gerrymandering]]" violated the Constitution. In 1961, ... the Alabama legislature also intentionally diluted the effect of the black vote by instituting numbered place requirements for local elections.<ref name="vra">James Blacksher, Edward Still, Nick Quinton, Cullen Brown and Royal Dumas. [http://www.protectcivilrights.org/pdf/voting/AlabamaVRA.pdf ''Voting Rights in Alabama (1982–2006)''], Renew the VRA.org, July 2006, from discussion in Peyton McCrary, Jerome A. Gray, Edward Still, and Huey L. Perry, "Alabama" in ''Quiet Revolution in the South'', pp. 38-52, Chandler Davidson and Bernard Grofman, eds. 1994.</ref></blockquote> Industrial development related to the demands of World War II brought a level of prosperity to the state not seen since before the civil war.<ref name="SSpaces"/> Rural workers poured into the largest cities in the state for better jobs and a higher standard of living. One example of this massive influx of workers occurred in Mobile. Between 1940 and 1943, more than 89,000 people moved into the city to work for war-related industries.<ref name="thomason2">Thomason, Michael. ''Mobile : The New History of Alabama's First City'', pages 213–217. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2001. {{ISBN|0-8173-1065-7}}.</ref> Cotton and other cash crops faded in importance as the state developed a manufacturing and service base. Despite massive population changes in the state from 1901 to 1961, the rural-dominated legislature refused to reapportion House and Senate seats based on population, as required by the state constitution to follow the results of decennial censuses. They held on to old representation to maintain political and economic power in agricultural areas. One result was that [[Jefferson County, Alabama|Jefferson County]], containing Birmingham's industrial and economic powerhouse, contributed more than one-third of all tax revenue to the state, but did not receive a proportional amount in services. Urban interests were consistently underrepresented in the legislature. A 1960 study noted that because of rural domination, "a minority of about 25 per cent of the total state population is in majority control of the Alabama legislature."<ref name="pjhwpa">{{cite web|url=http://elections.gmu.edu/Redistricting/AL.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071017192719/http://elections.gmu.edu/Redistricting/AL.htm |archivedate=October 17, 2007 |title=George Mason University, United States Election Project: Alabama Redistricting Summary. Retrieved March 10, 2008 |publisher=Web.archive.org |accessdate=October 24, 2010 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref><ref name=":0" /> In the United States Supreme Court cases of ''[[Baker v. Carr]]'' (1962) and ''[[Reynolds v. Sims]]'' (1964), the court ruled ruled that the principle of "[[one man, one vote]]" needed to be the basis of both houses of state legislatures as well, and that their districts had to be based on population, rather than geographic counties, as Alabama had used for its senate.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-2023|title=Reynolds v. Sims|last=|first=|date=|website=Encyclopedia of Alabama|language=en|access-date=2018-05-26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=1963|title=Baker V. Carr and Legislative Apportionments: A Problem of Standards|jstor=794657|journal=The Yale Law Journal|volume=72|issue=5|pages=968–1040|doi=10.2307/794657}}</ref> In 1972, for the first time since 1901, the legislature completed the congressional redistricting based on the decennial census. This benefited the urban areas that had developed, as well as all in the population who had been underrepresented for more than 60 years.<ref name="pjhwpa" /> Other changes were made to implement representative state house and senate districts. African Americans continued to press in the 1950s and 1960s to end disenfranchisement and segregation in the state through the [[civil rights movement]], including legal challenges. In 1954, the US Supreme Court ruled in ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'' that public schools had to be desegregated, but Alabama was slow to comply. During the 1960s, under Governor [[George Wallace]], Alabama resisted compliance with federal demands for [[desegregation]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=I5JJCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT94&dq=alabama+brown+v.+board#v=onepage&q=alabama%20brown%20v.%20board&f=false|title=Brown v. Board of Education and the Civil Rights Movement|last=Klarman|first=Michael J.|date=2007-07-31|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780190294588|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.abajournal.com/magazine/article/september_2_1963_gov._wallace_halts_integration/|title=September 2, 1963: Gov. Wallace halts integration|work=ABA Journal|access-date=2018-05-26|others=Mark Curriden|language=en}}</ref> The civil rights movement had notable events in Alabama, including the [[Montgomery Bus Boycott]] (1955–56), [[Freedom Rides]] in 1961, and 1965 [[Selma to Montgomery marches]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/s-121|title=Civil Rights Movement in Alabama Feature|last=|first=|date=|website=Encyclopedia of Alabama|language=en|access-date=2018-05-26}}</ref> These contributed to Congressional passage and enactment of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] and [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]] by the U.S. Congress.<ref name="cra64">{{cite web|url=http://finduslaw.com/civil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employment_opportunities_42_us_code_chapter_21 |title=Civil Rights Act of 1964 |publisher=Finduslaw.com |accessdate=October 24, 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101021141154/http://finduslaw.com/civil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employment_opportunities_42_us_code_chapter_21 |archivedate=October 21, 2010 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thenation.com/article/alabama-birthplace-of-voting-rights-act-once-again-gutting-voting-rights/|title=Alabama, Birthplace of the Voting Rights Act, Is Once Again Gutting Voting Rights|last=Berman|first=Ari|date=2015-10-01|work=The Nation|access-date=2018-05-26|language=en-US|issn=0027-8378}}</ref> Legal segregation ended in the states in 1964, but [[Jim Crow]] customs often continued until specifically challenged in court.<ref name="USDOJ">{{cite web|url=http://www.usdoj.gov/kidspage/crt/voting.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221054512/http://www.usdoj.gov/kidspage/crt/voting.htm |archivedate=February 21, 2007 |title=Voting Rights |accessdate=September 23, 2006 |date=January 9, 2002 |website=Civil Rights: Law and History |publisher=U.S. Department of Justice |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> According to ''[[The New York Times]]'', by 2017, many of Alabama's African-Americans were living in Alabama's "cities, particularly Birmingham and Montgomery. In addition, the rural Black Belt (called that for its soil) that stretches across the middle of the state is home to largely poor counties that are predominantly African-American. These counties include [[Dallas County, Alabama|Dallas]], [[Lowndes County, Alabama|Lowndes]], [[Marengo County, Alabama|Marengo]] and [[Perry County, Alabama|Perry]]."<ref name="NYT_2017">{{cite news |title=Alabama Senate Race Between Roy Moore and Doug Jones Ends With More Controversy |first1=Jonathan |last1=Martin |first2=Alan |last2=Blinder |date=December 12, 2017 }}</ref> Alabama has made some changes since the late 20th century and has used new types of voting to increase representation. In the 1980s, an omnibus redistricting case, ''[[Dillard v. Crenshaw County]]'', challenged the [[at-large]] voting for representative seats of 180 Alabama jurisdictions, including counties and school boards. At-large voting had diluted the votes of any minority in a county, as the majority tended to take all seats. Despite African Americans making up a significant minority in the state, they had been unable to elect any representatives in most of the at-large jurisdictions.<ref name="vra" /> As part of settlement of this case, five Alabama cities and counties, including [[Chilton County, Alabama|Chilton County]], adopted a system of [[proportional representation|cumulative voting]] for election of representatives in multi-seat jurisdictions. This has resulted in more proportional representation for voters. In another form of proportional representation, 23 jurisdictions use limited voting, as in [[Conecuh County, Alabama|Conecuh County]]. In 1982, limited voting was first tested in [[Conecuh County, Alabama|Conecuh County]]. Together use of these systems has increased the number of African Americans and women being elected to local offices, resulting in governments that are more representative of their citizens.<ref name="cum">[http://archive.fairvote.org/?page=516 "Cumulative Elections in Alabama (2004)"/"Proportional Voting in Alabama"], FairVote Archives, accessed January 11, 2015</ref> ==Geography== [[File:Map of Alabama terrain NA.jpg|thumb|A general map of Alabama]] {{main|Geography of Alabama}} {{See also|List of Alabama counties|Geology of Alabama}} Alabama is the thirtieth-largest state in the United States with {{convert|52419|sqmi|km2|abbr=out|sp=us}} of total area: 3.2% of the area is water, making Alabama 23rd in the amount of surface water, also giving it the second-largest inland waterway system in the United States.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/GCTTable?_bm=n&_lang=en&mt_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U_GCTPH1R_US9S&format=US-9S&_box_head_nbr=GCT-PH1-R&ds_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U&geo_id=01000US |title= GCT-PH1-R. Population, Housing Units, Area, and Density (areas ranked by population): 2000 |year=2000 |accessdate =September 23, 2006 |website=Geographic Comparison Table |publisher= U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref> About three-fifths of the land area is a gentle plain with a general descent towards the [[Mississippi River]] and the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. The [[North Alabama]] region is mostly mountainous, with the [[Tennessee River]] cutting a large valley and creating numerous creeks, streams, rivers, mountains, and lakes.<ref name="NetState">{{cite web|url=http://www.netstate.com/states/geography/al_geography.htm |title=The Geography of Alabama |website=Geography of the States |publisher=NetState.com |date=August 11, 2006 |accessdate=September 23, 2006 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060917172224/http://www.netstate.com/states/geography/al_geography.htm |archivedate=September 17, 2006 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref> Alabama is bordered by the states of [[Tennessee]] to the north, [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] to the east, [[Florida]] to the south, and [[Mississippi]] to the west. Alabama has coastline at the Gulf of Mexico, in the extreme southern edge of the state.<ref name="NetState"/> The state ranges in elevation from sea level<ref name="usgs">{{cite web|date=April 29, 2005 |url=http://erg.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/elvadist/elvadist.html#Highest |title=Elevations and Distances in the United States |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |accessdate=November 3, 2006 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116113632/http://erg.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/elvadist/elvadist.html |archivedate=January 16, 2008 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy-all }}</ref> at [[Mobile Bay]] to over 1,800&nbsp;feet (550&nbsp;m) in the [[Appalachian Mountains]] in the northeast. The highest point is [[Mount Cheaha]],<ref name="NetState"/> at a height of {{convert|2413|ft|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name=ngs>{{cite web |url=http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/cgi-bin/ds_mark.prl?PidBox=DG3595 |title=NGS Data Sheet for Cheaha Mountain |publisher=U.S. National Geodetic Survey |accessdate=June 8, 2011}}</ref> Alabama's land consists of {{convert|22|e6acre|km2}} of forest or 67% of total land area.<ref>[http://www.alabamaforests.org/Introduction/index.html Alabama Forest Owner's Guide to Information Resources, Introduction], Alabamaforests.org {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427181510/http://www.alabamaforests.org/Introduction/index.html |date=April 27, 2015 }}</ref> Suburban [[Baldwin County, Alabama|Baldwin County]], along the Gulf Coast, is the largest county in the state in both land area and water area.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/GCTTable?_bm=y&-context=gct&-ds_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U&-mt_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U_GCTPH1R_ST2S&-CONTEXT=gct&-tree_id=4001&-redoLog=true&-geo_id=04000US01&-format=ST-2 |title=Alabama County (geographies ranked by total population): 2000 |date=2000 |website=Geographic Comparison Table |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |accessdate=May 14, 2007|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011232646/http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/GCTTable?_bm=y&-context=gct&-ds_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U&-mt_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U_GCTPH1R_ST2S&-CONTEXT=gct&-tree_id=4001&-redoLog=true&-geo_id=04000US01&-format=ST-2|archivedate=October 11, 2008|deadurl=yes}}</ref> Areas in Alabama administered by the [[National Park Service]] include [[Horseshoe Bend National Military Park]] near [[Alexander City, Alabama|Alexander City]]; [[Little River Canyon National Preserve]] near [[Fort Payne, Alabama|Fort Payne]]; [[Russell Cave National Monument]] in [[Bridgeport, Alabama|Bridgeport]]; [[Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site]] in [[Tuskegee, Alabama|Tuskegee]]; and [[Tuskegee Institute National Historic Site]] near Tuskegee.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://home.nps.gov/applications/parksearch/state.cfm?st=al |title=National Park Guide |accessdate=September 23, 2006 |website=Geographic Search |publisher=National Park Service – U.S. Department of the Interior |location=Washington, D.C |archiveurl= http://home.nps.gov/state/al/index.htm?program=parks |archivedate= September 30, 2006 |deadurl= no}}</ref> Additionally, Alabama has four [[United States National Forest|National Forests]]: [[Conecuh National Forest|Conecuh]], [[Talladega National Forest|Talladega]], [[Tuskegee National Forest|Tuskegee]], and [[William B. Bankhead National Forest|William B. Bankhead]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fs.fed.us/r8/alabama/forests/ |title=National Forests in Alabama |accessdate=October 5, 2008 |website=USDA Forest Service |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007051917/http://www.fs.fed.us/r8/alabama/forests/ |archivedate=October 7, 2008 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref> Alabama also contains the [[Natchez Trace Parkway]], the [[Selma To Montgomery National Historic Trail]], and the [[Trail of Tears|Trail Of Tears National Historic Trail]]. A notable natural wonder in Alabama is [[Natural Bridge, Alabama|"Natural Bridge"]] rock, the longest [[natural bridge]] east of the [[Rocky Mountains|Rockies]], located just south of [[Haleyville, Alabama|Haleyville]]. A {{convert|5|mi|km|0|adj=on}}-wide meteorite impact crater is located in [[Elmore County, Alabama|Elmore County]], just north of Montgomery. This is the [[Wetumpka crater]], the site of "Alabama's greatest natural disaster." A {{convert|1000|ft|m|adj=on}}-wide meteorite hit the area about 80&nbsp;million years ago.<ref name="mlvguh">{{cite Earth Impact DB |name= Wetumpka |accessdate =August 20, 2009 |nocat=1}}</ref> The hills just east of downtown [[Wetumpka]] showcase the eroded remains of the impact crater that was blasted into the bedrock, with the area labeled the Wetumpka crater or astrobleme ("star-wound") because of the concentric rings of fractures and zones of shattered rock that can be found beneath the surface.<ref>"The Wetumpka Astrobleme" by John C. Hall, Alabama Heritage, Fall 1996, Number 42.</ref> In 2002, Christian Koeberl with the Institute of Geochemistry University of Vienna published evidence and established the site as the 157th recognized impact crater on Earth.<ref>{{cite web |last=King |first=David T., Jr. |title=Wetumpka Crater |url=http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-1035 |website=Encyclopedia of Alabama |accessdate=December 13, 2011 |date=April 23, 2010}}</ref> ===Climate=== {{main|Climate of Alabama}} [[File:Autumn tree in Birmingham Nov 2011.jpg|thumb|upright|Autumn tree in Birmingham]] The state is classified as [[humid subtropical climate|humid subtropical]] (''Cfa'') under the [[Humid temperate climate|Koppen Climate Classification]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-1283 |title=Encyclopedia of Alabama: Climate |date=August 17, 2007 |publisher=University of Alabama}}</ref> The average annual temperature is 64&nbsp;°F (18&nbsp;°C). Temperatures tend to be warmer in the southern part of the state with its proximity to the Gulf of Mexico, while the northern parts of the state, especially in the Appalachian Mountains in the northeast, tend to be slightly cooler.<ref name="cprgsw">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-78303/Alabama |title=Alabama Climate |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=October 24, 2010}}</ref> Generally, Alabama has very hot summers and mild winters with copious precipitation throughout the year. Alabama receives an average of {{convert|56|in|mm}} of rainfall annually and enjoys a lengthy growing season of up to 300&nbsp;days in the southern part of the state.<ref name="cprgsw"/> Summers in Alabama are among the hottest in the U.S., with high temperatures averaging over {{convert|90|°F}} throughout the summer in some parts of the state. Alabama is also prone to [[tropical storm]]s and even [[hurricane]]s. Areas of the state far away from the Gulf are not immune to the effects of the storms, which often dump tremendous amounts of rain as they move inland and weaken. South Alabama reports many [[thunderstorm]]s. The Gulf Coast, around Mobile Bay, averages between 70 and 80 days per year with thunder reported. This activity decreases somewhat further north in the state, but even the far north of the state reports thunder on about 60&nbsp;days per year. Occasionally, thunderstorms are severe with frequent [[lightning]] and large [[hail]]; the central and northern parts of the state are most vulnerable to this type of storm. Alabama ranks ninth in the number of deaths from lightning and tenth in the number of deaths from lightning strikes per capita.<ref>[http://www.lightningsafety.noaa.gov/stats/04-13state_fatality_rates.pdf Lightning Fatalities, Injuries and Damages in the United States, 2004–2013] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140427010029/http://www.lightningsafety.noaa.gov/stats/04-13state_fatality_rates.pdf |date=April 27, 2014 }}. NLSI. Retrieved April 26, 2014.</ref> [[File:Phil Campbell tornado damage.jpg|thumb|left|Tornado damage in [[Phil Campbell, Alabama|Phil Campbell]] following the statewide [[2011 Super Outbreak|April 27, 2011, tornado outbreak]].]] Alabama, along with [[Oklahoma]], has the most reported [[Enhanced Fujita scale|EF5 tornadoes]] of any state, according to statistics from the [[National Climatic Data Center]] for the period January 1, 1950, to June 2013.<ref>[http://www.newsnet5.com/weather/weather-news/kshb-list-states-with-the-most-ef5-tornadoes LIST: States with the most F5/EF5 tornadoes since 1950; Ohio high on list]. Retrieved April 26, 2014.</ref> Several long-tracked F5/EF5 tornadoes have contributed to Alabama reporting more tornado fatalities than any other state. The state was affected by the [[1974 Super Outbreak]] and was devastated tremendously by the [[2011 Super Outbreak]]. The 2011 Super Outbreak produced a record amount of tornadoes in the state. The tally reached 62.<ref>{{cite web |last=Oliver |first=Mike |title=April 27's record tally: 62 tornadoes in Alabama |url=http://blog.al.com/spotnews/2011/08/april_27s_record_tally_62_torn.html |website= |publisher=al.com |accessdate=November 4, 2012}}</ref> [[File:Birmingham city hall alabama 2010.jpg|thumb|Snowfall outside Birmingham City Hall in February 2010]] The peak season for tornadoes varies from the northern to southern parts of the state. Alabama is one of the few places in the world that has a secondary tornado season in November and December, along with the spring severe weather season. The northern part of the state—along the Tennessee Valley—is one of the areas in the U.S. most vulnerable to violent tornadoes. The area of Alabama and Mississippi most affected by tornadoes is sometimes referred to as [[Dixie Alley]], as distinct from the [[Tornado Alley]] of the Southern Plains. Winters are generally mild in Alabama, as they are throughout most of the [[Southeastern United States]], with average January low temperatures around {{convert|40|°F}} in Mobile and around {{convert|32|°F}} in Birmingham. Although snow is a rare event in much of Alabama, areas of the state north of Montgomery may receive a dusting of snow a few times every winter, with an occasional moderately heavy snowfall every few years. Historic snowfall events include [[New Year's Eve 1963 snowstorm]] and the [[1993 Storm of the Century]]. The annual average snowfall for the Birmingham area is {{convert|2|in|mm}} per year. In the southern Gulf coast, snowfall is less frequent, sometimes going several years without any snowfall. Alabama's highest temperature of {{convert|112|°F}} was recorded on September 5, 1925, in the unincorporated community of [[Centerville, Alabama|Centerville]]. The record low of {{convert|-27|°F}} occurred on January 30, 1966, in [[New Market, Alabama|New Market]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.accuracyproject.org/recordtemps.html |title=Record high and low temperatures for all 50 states |website=Internet Accuracy Project |publisher=accuracyproject.org |accessdate=November 3, 2012}}</ref> {{Alabama weatherbox}} ===Flora and fauna=== [[File:CahabaRiverNWR1.jpg|thumb|A stand of [[Hymenocallis coronaria|Cahaba lilies]] (''Hymenocallis coronaria'') in the [[Cahaba River]], within the [[Cahaba River National Wildlife Refuge]].]] {{main|List of amphibians of Alabama|List of mammals of Alabama|List of reptiles of Alabama|Alabama Champion Tree Program|l4=Trees of Alabama}} Alabama is home to a diverse array of [[flora]] and [[fauna]], due largely to a variety of habitats that range from the [[Tennessee Valley]], [[Appalachian Plateau]], and [[Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians]] of the north to the [[Piedmont (United States)|Piedmont]], [[Canebrake (region of Alabama)|Canebrake]] and [[Black Belt (region of Alabama)|Black Belt]] of the central region to the [[Gulf Coastal Plain]] and beaches along the [[Gulf of Mexico]] in the south. The state is usually ranked among the top in nation for its range of overall [[biodiversity]].<ref name="alawildlife">{{cite book |title=Alabama Wildlife: Volume One |last=Mirarchi |first=Ralph E. |year=2004 |publisher=University of Alabama Press |location=Tuscaloosa, Alabama |isbn=978-0-81735-1304 |pages=1–3, 60 }}</ref><ref name="outalawildlife">{{cite web|url=http://www.outdooralabama.com/watchable-wildlife/what/ |title=Alabama Wildlife and their Conservation Status |website=Outdoor Alabama |publisher=Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources |accessdate=October 16, 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015045607/http://www.outdooralabama.com/watchable-wildlife/what/ |archivedate=October 15, 2012 }}</ref> Alabama is in the subtropical coniferous forest biome and once boasted huge expanses of pine forest, which still form the largest proportion of forests in the state.<ref name="alawildlife"/> It currently ranks fifth in the nation for the diversity of its flora. It is home to nearly 4,000 [[pteridophyte]] and [[spermatophyte]] plant species.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.floraofalabama.org/ |title=About the Atlas |website=Alabama Plant Atlas |publisher=Alabama Herbarium Consortium and University of West Alabama |accessdate=October 16, 2012}}</ref> [[Indigenous (ecology)|Indigenous]] animal species in the state include 62 [[mammal]] [[species]],<ref name="outalamam">{{cite web |url=http://www.outdooralabama.com/mammals |title=Mammals |website=Outdoor Alabama |publisher=Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources |access-date=May 22, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525205745/http://www.outdooralabama.com/mammals |archive-date=May 25, 2017 |dead-url=yes |df=mdy-all }}</ref> 93 reptile species,<ref name="outalarep">{{cite web |url=http://www.outdooralabama.com/reptiles |title=Reptiles |website=Outdoor Alabama |publisher=Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources |access-date=May 22, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525205947/http://www.outdooralabama.com/reptiles |archive-date=May 25, 2017 |dead-url=yes |df=mdy-all }}</ref> 73 [[amphibian]] species,<ref name="outalaamphi">{{cite web |url=http://www.outdooralabama.com/Amphibians-0 |title=Amphibians |website=Outdoor Alabama |publisher=Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources |access-date=May 22, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525210052/http://www.outdooralabama.com/Amphibians-0 |archive-date=May 25, 2017 |dead-url=yes |df=mdy-all }}</ref> roughly 307 native [[freshwater fish]] species,<ref name="alawildlife"/> and 420 bird species that spend at least part of their year within the state.<ref name="outalabird">{{cite web |url=http://www.outdooralabama.com/Birds |title=Birds |website=Outdoor Alabama |publisher=Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources |access-date=May 22, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525210156/http://www.outdooralabama.com/Birds |archive-date=May 25, 2017 |dead-url=yes |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Invertebrates include 97 [[crayfish]] species and 383 [[mollusk]] species. 113 of these mollusk species have never been collected outside the state.<ref name="outalamollusk">{{cite web |url=http://www.outdooralabama.com/mollusks |title=Alabama Snails and Mussels |website=Outdoor Alabama |publisher=Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources |access-date=May 22, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525210608/http://www.outdooralabama.com/mollusks |archive-date=May 25, 2017 |dead-url=yes |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref name="outalacray">{{cite web |url=http://www.outdooralabama.com/crayfish |title=Crayfish |website=Outdoor Alabama |publisher=Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources |access-date=May 22, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525210652/http://www.outdooralabama.com/crayfish |archive-date=May 25, 2017 |dead-url=yes |df=mdy-all }}</ref> ==Demographics== [[File:Alabama population map.png|thumb|left|Alabama's population density]] {{Main|Demographics of Alabama}} {{US Census population |1800= 1250 |1810= 9046 |1820= 127901 |1830= 309527 |1840= 590756 |1850= 771623 |1860= 964201 |1870= 996992 |1880= 1262505 |1890= 1513401 |1900= 1828697 |1910= 2138093 |1920= 2348174 |1930= 2646248 |1940= 2832961 |1950= 3061743 |1960= 3266740 |1970= 3444165 |1980= 3893888 |1990= 4040587 |2000= 4447100 |2010= 4779745 |estimate= 4874747 |estyear= 2017 |align-fn=center |footnote=Sources: 1910–2010<ref name= "census data">{{cite web|author=Resident Population Data |url=http://2010.census.gov/2010census/data/apportionment-pop-text.php |title=Resident Population Data – 2010 Census |publisher=2010.census.gov |accessdate=January 31, 2017 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519131122/http://2010.census.gov/2010census/data/apportionment-pop-text.php |archivedate=May 19, 2011 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref><br />2015 estimate<ref name=PopEstUS/> }} The [[United States Census Bureau]] estimates that the population of Alabama was 4,858,979 on July 1, 2015,<ref name=PopEstUS>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/popest/data/state/totals/2015/tables/NST-EST2015-01.csv |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223235718/http://www.census.gov/popest/data/state/totals/2015/tables/NST-EST2015-01.csv |dead-url=yes |archive-date=December 23, 2015 |format=CSV |title=Table 1. Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for the United States, Regions, States, and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2015 |date=December 26, 2015 |publisher=[[United States Census Bureau|U.S. Census Bureau]] |accessdate=December 26, 2015 }}</ref> which represents an increase of 79,243, or 1.66%, since the [[2010 United States Census|2010 Census]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl=01 |title=2010 Census Interactive Population Search |publisher=2010.census.gov |accessdate=December 29, 2014}}</ref> This includes a natural increase since the last census of 121,054 people (that is 502,457 births minus 381,403 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 104,991 people into the state.<ref name=census_cum>{{cite web|title=Annual Estimates of the Population for the United States, Regions, States, and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2012 |url=https://www.census.gov/popest/data/national/totals/2012/index.html |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |format=[[comma-separated values|CSV]] |accessdate=December 24, 2012 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205023552/http://www.census.gov/popest/states/tables/NST-EST2008-04.csv |archivedate=February 5, 2009 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> [[Immigration to the United States|Immigration]] from outside the U.S. resulted in a net increase of 31,180 people, and migration within the country produced a net gain of 73,811 people.<ref name=census_cum/> The state had 108,000 foreign-born (2.4% of the state population), of which an estimated 22.2% were undocumented (24,000). The [[center of population]] of Alabama is located in [[Chilton County, Alabama|Chilton County]], outside the town of [[Jemison, Alabama|Jemison]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Population and Population Centers by State – 2000 |publisher=United States Census Bureau |accessdate=December 3, 2008 |url=https://www.census.gov/geo/www/cenpop/statecenters.txt |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218235101/http://www.census.gov/geo/www/cenpop/statecenters.txt |archivedate=December 18, 2008 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> ===Ancestry=== According to the [[2010 United States Census|2010 Census]], Alabama had a population of 4,779,736. The racial composition of the state was 68.5% [[White American|White]] (67.0% [[Non-Hispanic White]] and 1.5% [[Hispanic White]]), 26.2% [[African American|Black or African American]], 3.9% [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanic or Latino]] of any race, 1.1% Asian, 0.6% [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indian and Alaska Native]], 0.1% [[Native Hawaiians|Native Hawaiian]] and Other [[Pacific Islander]], 2.0% from Some Other Race, and 1.5% from Two or More Races.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_PL_QTPL&prodType=table |title=American FactFinder |publisher=Factfinder2.census.gov |date=October 5, 2010 |accessdate=June 1, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520164400/http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_PL_QTPL&prodType=table |archivedate=May 20, 2011 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> In 2011, 46.6% of Alabama's population younger than age 1 were minorities.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cleveland.com/datacentral/index.ssf/2012/06/americas_under_age_1_populatio.html |title=Americans under age 1 now mostly minorities, but not in Ohio: Statistical Snapshot |last=Exner |first=Rich |work=The Plain Dealer |date=June 3, 2012 |accessdate= }}</ref> The largest reported ancestry groups in Alabama are: [[African American|African]] (26.2%), [[English American|English]] (23.6%), [[Irish American|Irish]] (7.7%), [[German Americans|German]] (5.7%), and [[Scots-Irish American|Scots-Irish]] (2.0%).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:WJGw9z2RkkYJ:www.uen.org/Lessonplan/downloadFile.cgi%3Ffile%3D1041-6-15955-AF_Census_Data.pdf%26filename%3DAF_Census_Data.pdf+49,598,035&hl=en&gl=uk&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESgyigzsjZP7yBWdThzodFWP_t7GiFtOGi5W12qTf5nLj_yFzQ0YIKJn2pSyS1TIT-ZjvBx0s057h5mpwrf39HOZmlg3VzoOdaoPrNTdS6x-0SbHnwGXfzVLkDYTyIg7k4E_Zsn8&sig=AHIEtbTzro9GQY6LB1-9ZG9n2r46Epyyaw |title=Data on selected ancestry groups |accessdate=June 1, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/population/censusdata/pc80-s1-10/tab02.pdf |title=1980 United States Census |format=PDF |accessdate=June 1, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604160009/http://www.census.gov/population/censusdata/pc80-s1-10/tab02.pdf |archivedate=June 4, 2011 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref><ref name="factfinder.census.gov">{{cite web |publisher= Factfinder.census.gov |url= http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ADPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=04000US01&-qr_name=ACS_2008_3YR_G00_DP3YR2&-ds_name=&-_lang=en&-redoLog=false |title=Alabama – Selected Social Characteristics in the United States: 2006–2008 |accessdate=October 24, 2010}}</ref> Those citing "American" ancestry in Alabama are generally of English or British ancestry; many [[English American|Anglo-Americans]] identify as having American ancestry because their roots have been in North America for so long, in some cases since the 1600s. Demographers estimate that a minimum of 20–23% of people in Alabama are of predominantly English ancestry and that the figure is likely higher. In the 1980 census, 41% of the people in Alabama identified as being of English ancestry, making them the largest ethnic group at the time.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/censusdata/files/pc80-s1-10/tab03.pdf |title=Ancestry of the Population by State: 1980 – Table 3 |format=PDF |accessdate=February 10, 2012}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=SVoAXh-dNuYC&pg=PA57&dq=Sharing+the+dream:+white+males+in+multicultural+America++english+ancestry&cd=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false Dominic J. Pulera, ''Sharing the Dream: White Males in a Multicultural America''].</ref><ref>Reynolds Farley, "The New Census Question about Ancestry: What Did It Tell Us?", ''Demography'', Vol. 28, No. 3 (August 1991), pp. 414, 421.</ref><ref>Stanley Lieberson and Lawrence Santi, "The Use of Nativity Data to Estimate Ethnic Characteristics and Patterns", ''Social Science Research'', Vol. 14, No. 1 (1985), pp. 44–6.</ref><ref>Stanley Lieberson and Mary C. Waters, "Ethnic Groups in Flux: The Changing Ethnic Responses of American Whites", ''Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science'', Vol. 487, No. 79 (September 1986), pp. 82–86.</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable collapsible" style="font-size: 90%;" |+ Alabama racial population breakdown |- ! Racial composition !! 1990<ref>[https://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0056/twps0056.html Historical Census Statistics on Population Totals By Race, 1790 to 1990, and By Hispanic Origin, 1970 to 1990, For The United States, Regions, Divisions, and States] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224151538/http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0056/twps0056.html |date=December 24, 2014 }}</ref> !! 2000<ref>{{cite web|url=http://censusviewer.com/state/AL|title=Population of Alabama - Census 2010 and 2000 Interactive Map, Demographics, Statistics, Quick Facts - CensusViewer|website=censusviewer.com|accessdate=July 21, 2015}}</ref>!! 2010<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/2010census/data/|title=2010 Census Data|authors=Center for New Media and Promotions(C2PO)|website=census.gov|accessdate=July 21, 2015}}</ref> |- | [[White American|White]] || 73.6% || 71.1% || 68.5% |- | [[African American|Black]] || 25.3% || 26.0% || 26.2% |- | [[Asian American|Asian]] || 0.5% || 0.7% || 1.1% |- | [[Native Americans in the United States|Native]] || 0.4% || 0.5% || 0.6% |- | [[Native Hawaiian]] and<br />[[Pacific Islander|other Pacific Islander]] || – || – || 0.1% |- | [[Race and ethnicity in the United States Census|Other race]] || 0.1% || 0.6% || 2.0% |- | [[Multiracial American|Two or more races]] || – || 1.0% || 1.5% |} Based on historic migration and settlement patterns in the southern colonies and states, demographers estimated there are more people in Alabama of Scots-Irish origins than self-reported.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ADPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=04000US01&-qr_name=ACS_2008_3YR_G00_DP3YR2&-ds_name=&-_lang=en&-redoLog=false |title=American FactFinder |publisher=Factfinder.census.gov |accessdate=February 10, 2012}}</ref> Many people in Alabama claim Irish ancestry because of the term Scots-Irish but, based on historic immigration and settlement, their ancestors were more likely Protestant Scots-Irish coming from northern Ireland, where they had been for a few generations as part of the English colonization.<ref name="census-ancestries">[//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/:Census-2000-Data-Top-US-Ancestries-by-County.jpg "Census 2000 Map – Top U.S. Ancestries by County"]</ref> The Scots-Irish were the largest non-English immigrant group from the British Isles before the American Revolution, and many settled in the South, later moving into the Deep South as it was developed.<ref>David Hackett Fischer, Albion's Seed: Four British Folkways in America, New York: Oxford University Press, 1989, pp.361–368</ref> In 1984, under the Davis–Strong Act, the state legislature established the [[Alabama Indian Affairs Commission]].<ref name="aiac">[http://www.aiac.state.al.us/tribes.aspx "Alabama Indian Affairs Commission"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131003045646/http://www.aiac.state.al.us/tribes.aspx |date=October 3, 2013 }}, State of Alabama, accessed September 28, 2013</ref> Native American groups within the state had increasingly been demanding recognition as ethnic groups and seeking an end to discrimination. Given the long history of slavery and associated racial segregation, the Native American peoples, who have sometimes been of mixed race, have insisted on having their cultural identification respected. In the past, their self-identification was often overlooked as the state tried to impose a binary breakdown of society into white and black. The state has [[State recognized tribes in the United States|officially recognized]] nine American Indian tribes in the state, descended mostly from the [[Five Civilized Tribes]] of the American Southeast. These are:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aiac.alabama.gov/ByLaws.aspx |title=AIAC Bylaws |website=Alabama Indian Affairs Commission |publisher=State of Alabama |accessdate=September 22, 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120918101025/http://aiac.alabama.gov/ByLaws.aspx |archivedate=September 18, 2012 |df= }}</ref> * [[Poarch Band of Creek Indians]] (who also have federal recognition), * [[MOWA Band of Choctaw Indians]], * Star Clan of [[Muscogee Creek people|Muscogee Creeks]], * [[Echota Cherokee Tribe of Alabama]], * [[Cherokee Tribe of Northeast Alabama]], * Cher-O-Creek Intra Tribal Indians, * ''Ma-Chis'' Lower Creek Indian Tribe, * ''Piqua'' [[Shawnee]] Tribe, and * ''Ani-Yun-Wiya'' Nation. The state government has promoted recognition of Native American contributions to the state, including the designation in 2000 for Columbus Day to be jointly celebrated as American Indian Heritage Day.<ref>[http://www.aiac.state.al.us/ProcIndianHeritageDay.aspx "American Indian Heritage Day", Alabama Indian Affairs Commission, 2000, accessed 28 September 2013] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131003045701/http://www.aiac.state.al.us/ProcIndianHeritageDay.aspx |date=October 3, 2013 }}</ref> ===Census-designated and metropolitan areas=== {{Main|List of metropolitan areas of Alabama}} [[File:Birmingham, Alabama Skyline.jpg|thumb|[[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]], largest city and largest metropolitan area]] [[File:Montgomery Alabama panorama.jpg|thumb|[[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]], second-largest city and fourth-largest metropolitan area]] [[File:Downtown Huntsville, Alabama cropped.jpg|thumb|[[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]], third-largest city and second-largest metropolitan area]] [[File:Downtown Mobile 2008 01.jpg|thumb|[[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]], fourth-largest city and third-largest metropolitan area]] {|class="wikitable" |+ Combined statistical areas<ref>{{cite web|title=Annual Estimates of the Resident Population: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2016|url=https://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/PEP/2016/PEPANNRES/0100000US.33000|publisher=United States Census Bureau|accessdate=January 6, 2017}}</ref> |- ! Rank ! Combined statistical area !Population (2016 estimate) !Population (2010 Census) |- |1 |[[Birmingham-Hoover-Cullman Metropolitan Area|Birmingham–Hoover–Talladega]] |align=center |1,361,299 |align=center |1,302,283 |- |2 |[[Chattanooga-Cleveland-Dalton, TN-GA-AL Combined Statistical Area|Chattanooga–Cleveland–Dalton]]<ref group="CSA">In Alabama, only Jackson County (2016 population: 52,138; 2010 population: 53,227) is included in the Chattanooga CSA)</ref> |align=center |954,228 |align=center |923,460 |- |3 |[[Huntsville-Decatur-Albertville, AL Combined Statistical Area|Huntsville–Decatur–Albertville]] |align=center |768,033 |align=center |664,441 |- |4 |[[Mobile metropolitan area|Mobile–Daphne–Fairhope]] |align=center |623,399 |align=center |595,257 |- |5 |[[Columbus-Auburn-Opelika, GA-AL CSA|Columbus–Auburn–Opelika]]<ref group="CSA">In Alabama, only Lee, Russell, and Chambers Counties (total 2016 population: 251,006; total 2010 population: 227,409) are included in the Columbus CSA)</ref> |align=center |501,589 |align=center |469,327 |- |6 |[[Dothan-Enterprise-Ozark Combined Statistical Area|Dothan–Enterprise–Ozark]] |align=center |248,286 |align=center |245,838 |} {{reflist|group="CSA"}} {| class="wikitable" |+ Metropolitan areas<ref>{{cite web|title=Annual Estimates of the Resident Population: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2016|url=https://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/PEP/2016/PEPANNRES/0100000US.31000.001|publisher=United States Census Bureau|accessdate=December 30, 2017}}</ref> |- ! Rank ! Metropolitan area ! Population (2016 estimate) ! Population (2010 Census) |- |1 |[[Birmingham metropolitan area, Alabama|Birmingham–Hoover]] |align=center |1,147,417 |align=center |1,128,047 |- |2 |[[Huntsville Metropolitan Area|Huntsville]] |align=center |449,720 |align=center |417,593 |- |3 |[[Mobile metropolitan area|Mobile]] |align=center |414,836 |align=center |412,992 |- |4 |[[Montgomery metropolitan area|Montgomery]] |align=center |374,000 |align=center |374,536 |- |5 |[[Tuscaloosa, Alabama metropolitan area|Tuscaloosa]] |align=center |241,378 |align=center |230,162 |- |6 |[[Baldwin County, Alabama|Daphne–Fairhope–Foley]] |align=center |208,563 |align=center |182,265 |- |7 |[[Decatur metropolitan area, Alabama|Decatur]] |align=center |152,256 |align=center |153,829 |- |8 |[[Dothan metropolitan area, Alabama|Dothan]] |align=center |147,834 |align=center |145,639 |- |9 |[[Auburn metropolitan area, Alabama|Auburn–Opelika]] |align=center |158,991 |align=center |140,247 |- |10 |[[Florence–Muscle Shoals metropolitan area|Florence–Muscle Shoals]] |align=center |146,534 |align=center |147,137 |- |11 |[[Anniston–Oxford metropolitan area|Anniston–Oxford–Jacksonville]] |align=center |114,611 |align=center |118,572 |- |12 |[[Gadsden, AL Metropolitan Statistical Area|Gadsden]] |align=center |102,564 |align=center |104,430 |} ===Cities=== {{Main|List of cities and towns in Alabama}} {| class="wikitable" |+ Largest cities<ref>2016 US Census Bureau Estimate</ref> |- ! Rank !! City !! Population (2016 census estimates) !! County |- |style="text-align:center;" |1 | [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] |style="text-align:center;"|212,157 | [[Jefferson County, Alabama|Jefferson]]<br />[[Shelby County, Alabama|Shelby]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |2 | [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]] |style="text-align:center;" |200,022 | [[Montgomery County, Alabama|Montgomery]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |3 | [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]] |style="text-align:center;" |193,079 | [[Madison County, Alabama|Madison]]<br />[[Limestone County, Alabama|Limestone]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |4 | [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] |style="text-align:center;" |192,904 | [[Mobile County, Alabama|Mobile]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |5 | [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] |style="text-align:center;" |99,543 | [[Tuscaloosa County, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |6 | [[Hoover, Alabama|Hoover]] |style="text-align:center;" |84,978 |Jefferson<br />[[Shelby County, Alabama|Shelby]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |7 | [[Dothan, Alabama|Dothan]] |style="text-align:center;" |68,468 | [[Houston County, Alabama|Houston]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |8 | [[Auburn, Alabama|Auburn]] |style="text-align:center;" |63,118 | [[Lee County, Alabama|Lee]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |9 | [[Decatur, Alabama|Decatur]] |style="text-align:center;" |55,072 | [[Morgan County, Alabama|Morgan]]<br />Limestone |- |style="text-align:center;" |10 | [[Madison, Alabama|Madison]] |style="text-align:center;" |47,959 |Madison<br />Limestone |- |style="text-align:center;" |11 | [[Florence, Alabama|Florence]] |style="text-align:center;" |39,959 | [[Lauderdale County, Alabama|Lauderdale]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |12 | [[Phenix City, Alabama|Phenix City]] |style="text-align:center;" |37,132 | [[Russell County, Alabama|Russell]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |13 | [[Gadsden, Alabama|Gadsden]] |style="text-align:center;" |35,837 | [[Etowah County, Alabama|Etowah]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |14 | [[Prattville, Alabama|Prattville]] |style="text-align:center;" |35,606 | [[Autauga County, Alabama|Autauga]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |15 | [[Vestavia Hills, Alabama|Vestavia Hills]] |style="text-align:center;" |34,688 |Jefferson<br />Shelby |} ===Language=== 95.1% of all Alabama residents five years old or older spoke only English at home in 2010, a minor decrease from 96.1% in 2000. Alabama English is predominantly [[Southern American English|Southern]],<ref name="city-data.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.city-data.com/states/Alabama-Languages.html|title=Alabama – Languages|website=city-data.com|accessdate=July 21, 2015}}</ref> and is related to South Midland speech which was taken across the border from [[Tennessee]]. In the major Southern speech region, there is the decreasing loss of the final /r/, for example the /boyd/ pronunciation of 'bird'. In the northern third of the state, there is a South Midland 'arm' and 'barb' rhyming with 'form' and 'orb'. Unique words in Alabama English include: redworm (earthworm), peckerwood (woodpecker), snake doctor and snake feeder (dragonfly), tow sack (burlap bag), plum peach (clingstone), French harp (harmonica), and dog irons (andirons).<ref name="city-data.com"/> {|class="wikitable sortable" style="margin-left:1em; float:center" |+ Top non-English languages spoken in Alabama |- ! Language !! Percentage of population<br /><small>({{as of|2010|lc=y}})</small><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.city-data.com/states/Alabama-Languages.html |title=Alabama – Languages |website=city-data.com |accessdate=July 21, 2015}}</ref> |- | Spanish|| 2.2% |- | German || 0.4% |- | French (incl. Patois, Cajun) || 0.3% |- | Chinese, [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], [[Korean language|Korean]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[African languages]], Japanese, and Italian (tied)|| 0.1% |} ===Religion=== [[File:Highlands UMC Birmingham Dec 2012 2.jpg|thumb|Highlands United Methodist Church in Birmingham, part of the Five Points South Historic District]] [[File:Temple B'Nai Shalom Dec2009 01.jpg|thumb|[[Temple B'nai Sholom (Huntsville, Alabama)|Temple B'Nai Sholom]] in Huntsville, established in 1876. It is the oldest synagogue building in continuous use in the state.]] [[File:Islamic Center of Tuscaloosa.jpg|thumb|The Islamic Center of Tuscaloosa, one of the Islamic centers that contain a mosque and facilities for the cultural needs of Muslims in the state.]] In the 2008 [[American Religious Identification Survey]], 86% of Alabama respondents reported their religion as Christian, including 6% Catholic, with 11% as having no religion.<ref name=ARIS2008>{{cite web|url=http://b27.cc.trincoll.edu/weblogs/AmericanReligionSurvey-ARIS/reports/ARIS_Report_2008.pdf |format=PDF |title=AMERICAN RELIGIOUS IDENTIFICATION SURVEY (ARIS) 2008 |author1=Barry A. Kosmin |author2=Ariela Keysar |year=2009 |publisher=Trinity College |location=Hartford, Connecticut, USA |page=20 |accessdate=May 8, 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090407053149/http://b27.cc.trincoll.edu/weblogs/AmericanReligionSurvey-ARIS/reports/ARIS_Report_2008.pdf |archivedate=April 7, 2009 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> The composition of other traditions is 0.5% Mormon, 0.5% Jewish, 0.5% Muslim, 0.5% Buddhist, and 0.5% Hindu.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://religions.pewforum.org/maps|title=Religion in America: U.S. Religious Data, Demographics and Statistics – Pew Research Center|date=May 11, 2015|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|accessdate=July 21, 2015}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" font-size:80%;" |+ style="font-size:100%" | Religious affiliation in Alabama (2014)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/religious-landscape-study/state/alabama/|title=Religious Landscape Study|date=May 11, 2015|publisher=}}</ref> |- ! Affiliation ! colspan="2"|% of population |- | [[Christianity|Christian]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|86||2||background:darkblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Protestant]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|78||2||background:mediumblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:30px;"| [[Evangelical Protestant]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|49||2||background:lightblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:30px;"| [[Mainline Protestant]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|13||2||background:lightblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:30px;"| [[Black church]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|16||2||background:lightblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Catholic]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|7||2||background:mediumblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Mormon]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|1||2||background:mediumblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|0.1||2||background:mediumblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Eastern Orthodox]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|0.1||2||background:mediumblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| Other Christian |align=right| '''{{bartable|0.1||2||background:mediumblue}} |- | [[Irreligion|Unaffiliated]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|12||2||background:purple}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| Nothing in particular |align=right| '''{{bartable|9||2||background:#A020F0}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Agnosticism|Agnostic]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|1||2||background:#A020F0}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Atheism|Atheist]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|1||2||background:#A020F0}} |- | Non-Christian faiths |align=right| '''{{bartable|1||2||background:darkgreen}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Jewish]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|0.2||2||background:lightgreen}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Muslim]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|0.2||2||background:lightgreen}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Buddhist]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|0.2||2||background:lightgreen}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Hindu]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|0.2||2||background:lightblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| Other Non-Christian faiths |align=right| '''{{bartable|0.2||2||background:lightgreen}} |- | Don't know/refused answer |align=right| '''{{bartable|1||2||background:#A020F0}} |- | '''Total''' || '''{{bartable|100||2||background:grey}}''' |} {{Details|topic=Christianity in Alabama|History of Baptists in Alabama|List of Baptist churches in Alabama|Episcopal Diocese of Alabama|Episcopal Diocese of the Central Gulf Coast|Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Mobile|Roman Catholic Diocese of Birmingham in Alabama||The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Alabama}} Alabama is located in the middle of the [[Bible Belt]], a region of numerous Protestant Christians. Alabama has been identified as one of the most religious states in the United States, with about 58% of the population attending church regularly.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20060502/news_lz1n2thelist.html |title=Church or synagogue attendance by state |website=The San Diego Union-Tribune|accessdate=July 21, 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513103435/http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20060502/news_lz1n2thelist.html |archivedate=May 13, 2012 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> A majority of people in the state identify as Evangelical Protestant. {{as of|2010}}, the three largest denominational groups in Alabama are the [[Southern Baptist Convention]], [[The United Methodist Church]], and [[Nondenominational Christianity|non-denominational]] Evangelical Protestant.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thearda.com/rcms2010/r/s/01/rcms2010_01_state_name_2010.asp |publisher=The Association of Religion Data Archives |title=State membership Report |accessdate=November 7, 2013}}</ref> In Alabama, the [[Southern Baptist Convention]] has the highest number of adherents with 1,380,121; this is followed by the [[United Methodist Church]] with 327,734 adherents, non-denominational Evangelical Protestant with 220,938 adherents, and the Catholic Church with 150,647 adherents. Many Baptist and Methodist congregations became established in the [[Great Awakening]] of the early 19th century, when preachers proselytized across the South. The [[Assemblies of God]] had almost 60,000 members, the [[Churches of Christ]] had nearly 120,000 members. The [[Presbyterian church]]es, strongly associated with Scots-Irish immigrants of the 18th century and their descendants, had a combined membership around 75,000 ([[Presbyterian Church in America|PCA]] – 28,009 members in 108 congregations, [[PC(USA)]] – 26,247 members in 147 congregations,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thearda.com/rcms2010/r/s/01/rcms2010_01_state_name_2010.asp |publisher=The Association of Religion Data Archives |title=Maps & Reports |accessdate=July 21, 2015}}</ref> the [[Cumberland Presbyterian Church]] – 6,000 members in 59 congregations, the [[Cumberland Presbyterian Church in America]] – 5,000 members and 50 congregations plus the [[Edgewater Presbyterian Church|EPC]] and Associate Reformed Presbyterians with 230 members and 9 congregations).<ref name="thearda">{{cite web |url=http://www.thearda.com/mapsReports/reports/state/01_2000.asp |title=State Membership Reports |year=2000 |accessdate=June 15, 2010 |publisher=thearda.com}}</ref> In a 2007 survey, nearly 70% of respondents could name all four of the Christian [[Canonical Gospels|Gospels]]. Of those who indicated a religious preference, 59% said they possessed a "full understanding" of their faith and needed no further learning.<ref>{{cite news |first=Kirsten |last=Campbell |work=Mobile Register |title=Alabama rates well in biblical literacy |date=March 25, 2007 |page=A1 |publisher=Advance Publications, Inc}}</ref> In a 2007 poll, 92% of Alabamians reported having at least some confidence in churches in the state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.myaea.org/PDFfile/Confidence+in+State+Institutions07.pdf |title=Confidence in State and Local Institutions Survey |publisher=Capital Survey Research Center |accessdate=June 2, 2007 |format=PDF |df=mdy |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614184507/http://www.myaea.org/PDFfile/Confidence%20in%20State%20Institutions07.pdf |archivedate=June 14, 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |first=David |last=White |title=Poll says we feel good about state Trust in government, unlike some institutions, hasn't fallen |date=April 1, 2007 |work=Birmingham News |page=13A}}</ref> Although in much smaller numbers, many other religious faiths are represented in the state as well, including [[Judaism]], [[Islam]], [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Sikhism]], the [[Bahá'í Faith]], and [[Unitarian Universalism]].<ref name="thearda"/> Jews have been present in what is now Alabama since 1763, during the colonial era of Mobile, when [[Sephardic Jews]] immigrated from London.<ref name="shomayim">{{cite book |title=The Gates of Heaven : Congregation Sha'arai Shomayim, the first 150 years, Mobile, Alabama, 1844-1994 |last=Zietz |first=Robert |year=1994 |publisher=Congregation Sha'arai Shomayim|location=Mobile, Alabama |isbn= |pages=1–7 }}</ref> The oldest Jewish congregation in the state is [[Congregation Sha'arai Shomayim (Mobile, Alabama)|Congregation Sha'arai Shomayim]] in Mobile. It was formally recognized by the state legislature on January 25, 1844.<ref name="shomayim"/> Later immigrants in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries tended to be [[Ashkenazi Jews]] from eastern Europe. Jewish denominations in the state include two [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]], four [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]], ten [[Reform Judaism|Reform]], and one [[Humanistic Judaism|Humanistic]] synagogue.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kosherdelight.com/USA/Alabama/AlabamaSynagogues.shtml |title=Synagogues in Alabama |publisher=Kosher Delight |accessdate=September 8, 2012}}</ref> Muslims have been increasing in Alabama, with 31 mosques built by 2011, many by African-American converts.<ref name="2011muslim">{{cite news |title=Survey: U.S. Muslims grow by 30 percent since 2000 |author= Kay Campbell |url=http://www.al.com/living/index.ssf/2012/02/survey_us_muslims_grow_by_30_p.html |newspaper=The Huntsville Times |date=February 29, 2012 |accessdate=September 8, 2012}}</ref> Several Hindu temples and cultural centers in the state have been founded by [[Indian people|Indian]] immigrants and their descendants, the best-known being the Shri Swaminarayan Mandir in [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]], the Hindu Temple and Cultural Center of Birmingham in [[Pelham, Alabama|Pelham]], the Hindu Cultural Center of North Alabama in [[Capshaw, Alabama|Capshaw]], and the Hindu Mandir and Cultural Center in [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.garamchai.com/templesSE.htm |title=Hindu Temples in the South East: catering to the needs of NRI and Indians in US |website=GaramChai |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://hindumandir.cc/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=33&Itemid=42 |title=History of Hindu Mandir & Cultural Center |website=Hindu Mandir & Cultural Center |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> There are six [[Dharma centre|Dharma centers]] and organizations for [[Theravada]] [[Buddhists]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.manjushri.com/Centers/alabama.htm |title=Dharma Centers and Organizations in Alabama |website=Manjushri Buddhist Community |publisher=AcuMaestro |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> Most monastic Buddhist temples are concentrated in southern Mobile County, near [[Bayou La Batre, Alabama|Bayou La Batre]]. This area has attracted an [[Indochina refugee crisis|influx of refugees from Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam]] during the 1970s and thereafter.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.journalofamericanhistory.org/projects/katrina/Gaillard.html |title=After the Storms: Tradition and Change in Bayou La Batre |author=Frye Gaillard |date=December 2007 |website=Journal of American History |publisher=Organization of American Historians |accessdate=September 22, 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121201013011/http://www.journalofamericanhistory.org/projects/katrina/Gaillard.html |archivedate=December 1, 2012 }}</ref> The four temples within a ten-mile radius of Bayou La Batre, include Chua Chanh Giac, Wat Buddharaksa, and Wat Lao Phoutthavihan.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://blog.al.com/living-press-register/2011/10/for_vietnamese_buddhists_in_so.html |title=For Vietnamese Buddhists In South Alabama, A Goddess Of Mercy Is A Powerful Figure |author=Roy Hoffman |newspaper=Press-Register |date=October 22, 2011 |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://blog.al.com/living-press-register/2009/08/a_welcome_gateway_to_the_far_e.html |title=A Welcome Gateway to the Far East |author=Debbie M. Lord |newspaper=Press-Register |date=August 29, 2009 |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://blog.al.com/live/2012/05/buddhist_monk_killed_temple_le.html |title=Buddhist Monk Killed Temple Leader During Argument Over Food, Prosecutor Says |author= Katherine Sayre |newspaper=Press-Register |date=May 17, 2012 |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> The first community of adherents of the [[Baha'i Faith]] in Alabama was founded in 1896 by Paul K. Dealy, who moved from Chicago to [[Fairhope]]. Baha'i Centers in Alabama exist in [[Birmingham, Alabama]], [[Huntsville, Alabama]], and [[Florence, Alabama]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shoalsbahais.com/About-Us.html|title=Bahais of the Shoals|website=shoalsbahais.com|accessdate=July 21, 2015}}</ref> ===Health=== A [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] study in 2008 showed that obesity in Alabama was a problem, with most counties having over 29% of adults obese, except for ten which had a rate between 26% and 29%.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/pubs/factsheets/countylvlestimates.htm |title=County Level Estimates of Obesity – State Maps |year=2008 |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140331230945/http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/pubs/factsheets/countylvlestimates.htm |archivedate=March 31, 2014 }}</ref> Residents of the state, along with those in five other states, were least likely in the nation to be physically active during leisure time.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2011/p0216_physicalinactivity.html |title=Highest Rates of Leisure-Time Physical Inactivity in Appalachia and South |year=2008 |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention }}</ref> Alabama, and the southeastern U.S. in general, has one of the highest incidences of adult onset [[diabetes type II|diabetes]] in the country, exceeding 10% of adults.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/DDTSTRS/Index.aspx?stateId=1&state=Alabama&cat=prevalence&Data=data&view=TO&trend=prevalence&id=1 |title=Alabama - Percentage of Adults(aged 18 years or older) with Diagnosed Diabetes, 1994 - 2010 |year=2010 |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111018105633/http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/DDTSTRS/Index.aspx?stateId=1&state=Alabama&cat=prevalence&Data=data&view=TO&trend=prevalence&id=1 |archivedate=October 18, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/DDT_STRS2/NationalDiabetesPrevalenceEstimates.aspx?mode=DBT |title=CDC national chart on diabetes |publisher=Apps.nccd.cdc.gov |accessdate=June 1, 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111015110228/http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/DDT_STRS2/NationalDiabetesPrevalenceEstimates.aspx?mode=DBT |archivedate=October 15, 2011 }}</ref> ==Economy== {{See also|Alabama locations by per capita income}} The state has invested in aerospace, education, health care, banking, and various heavy industries, including automobile manufacturing, mineral extraction, steel production and [[fabrication (metal)|fabrication]]. By 2006, crop and animal production in Alabama was valued at $1.5 billion. In contrast to the primarily agricultural economy of the previous century, this was only about 1% of the state's gross domestic product. The number of private farms has declined at a steady rate since the 1960s, as land has been sold to developers, timber companies, and large farming conglomerates.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-2330 |title=Food Production in Alabama |last1=Ijaz |first1=Ahmad |last2=Addy |first2=Samuel N. |date=July 6, 2009 |website=The Encyclopedia of Alabama |publisher=Auburn University |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> Non-agricultural employment in 2008 was 121,800 in management occupations; 71,750 in business and financial operations; 36,790 in computer-related and mathematical occupation; 44,200 in architecture and engineering; 12,410 in life, physical, and social sciences; 32,260 in community and social services; 12,770 in legal occupations; 116,250 in education, training, and library services; 27,840 in art, design and media occupations; 121,110 in healthcare; 44,750 in fire fighting, law enforcement, and security; 154,040 in food preparation and serving; 76,650 in building and grounds cleaning and maintenance; 53,230 in personal care and services; 244,510 in sales; 338,760 in office and administration support; 20,510 in farming, fishing, and forestry; 120,155 in construction and mining, gas, and oil extraction; 106,280 in installation, maintenance, and repair; 224,110 in production; and 167,160 in transportation and material moving.<ref name="alaindustrial"/> According to the U.S. [[Bureau of Economic Analysis]], the 2008 total [[gross state product]] was $170&nbsp;billion, or $29,411 per capita. Alabama's 2012 GDP increased 1.2% from the previous year. The single largest increase came in the area of information.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bea.gov/newsreleases/regional/gdp_state/gsp_newsrelease.htm |title=GDP by State (2008) |date=June 2, 2009 |website=Bureau of Economic Analysis, Regional Economic Accounts |accessdate=October 9, 2009 }} [https://www.bea.gov/newsreleases/regional/gdp_state/2009/pdf/gsp0609.pdf full release with tables] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630210541/https://www.bea.gov/newsreleases/regional/gdp_state/2009/pdf/gsp0609.pdf |date=June 30, 2017 }}</ref> In 2010, per capita income for the state was $22,984.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/01000.html |title=United States Census Bureau |accessdate=February 25, 2012 |website=State and County Quick Facts |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120226182304/http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/01000.html |archivedate=February 26, 2012 |df= }}</ref> The state's seasonally adjusted unemployment rate was 5.8% in April 2015.<ref>{{cite web|title=Local Area Unemployment Statistics – Alabama|website=Bureau of Labor Statistics|url=http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/surveymost?la+01|accessdate=June 15, 2013}}</ref> This compared to a nationwide seasonally adjusted rate of 5.4%.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bureau of Labor Statistics Data|url=http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/surveymost?bls|publisher=United States Department of Labor|accessdate=July 6, 2015}}</ref> Alabama has no state minimum wage and uses the federal minimum wage of $7.25. In February 2016, the state passed legislation that prevents Alabama municipalities from raising the minimum wage in their locality. The legislation voids a Birmingham city ordinance that was to raise the city's minimum wage to $10.10.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/feb/26/alabama-passes-law-banning-minimum-wage-increase|title=Alabama passes law banning cities and towns from increasing minimum wage|first=Jana|last=Kasperkevic|date=February 26, 2016|publisher=|via=The Guardian}}</ref> As of 2018, Alabama has the sixth highest poverty rate among states in the U.S.<ref>http://alabamapossible.org/ap_povertyfactsheet_2018_web/</ref> In 2017, United Nations Special Rapporteur [[Philip Alston]] toured parts of rural Alabama and observed environmental conditions that he said were poorer than anywhere he had seen in the developed world.<ref>{{Cite news | last=Ballesteros | first=Carlos | title=Alabama Has the Worst Poverty in the Developed World, U.N. Official Says | URL=https://www.newsweek.com/alabama-un-poverty-environmental-racism-743601 | newspaper=Newsweek |date=December 10, 2017 |accessdate=September 13, 2018 }}</ref> ===Largest employers=== [[File:Enterprise lifted.jpg|thumb|The [[Space Shuttle Enterprise|Space Shuttle ''Enterprise'']] being tested at Marshall Space Flight Center in 1978.]] [[File:Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Alabama Highsmith 01.jpg|thumb|Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Alabama in Montgomery in 2010]] [[File:Shelbyhallcomputing.JPG|thumb|Shelby Hall, School of Computing, at the [[University of South Alabama]] in Mobile]] The five employers that employed the most employees in Alabama in April 2011 were:<ref name="bbjournal">Aneesa McMillan. "[http://www.bizjournals.com/birmingham/blog/2011/04/top-of-the-list-alabamas-largest.html Top of the List: Alabama's largest employers]" (April 22, 2011). ''Birmingham Business Journal''.</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Employer ! Employees |- | [[Redstone Arsenal]] | 25,373 |- | [[University of Alabama at Birmingham]] (includes [[UAB Hospital]]) | 18,750 |- | [[Maxwell Air Force Base]] | 12,280 |- | [[State of Alabama]] | 9,500 |- | [[Mobile County Public School System]] | 8,100 |} The next twenty largest employers, {{as of|2011|lc=y}}, included:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.americanregistry.com/recognition/alabamas-largest-employers/116523 |title=Alabama's Largest Employers |date=April 2011 |website=Birmingham Business Journal |publisher=American Registry |accessdate=September 19, 2012}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Employer ! Location |- | [[Anniston Army Depot]] | [[Anniston, Alabama|Anniston]] |- | [[AT&T Inc.|AT&T]] | Multiple |- | [[Auburn University]] | [[Auburn, Alabama|Auburn]] |- | [[Baptist Medical Center South]] | [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]] |- | [[Birmingham City Schools]] | [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] |- | [[Birmingham, Alabama|City of Birmingham]] | Birmingham |- | [[DCH Health System]] | Tuscaloosa |- | [[Huntsville City Schools]] | [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]] |- | [[Huntsville Hospital System]] | Huntsville |- | [[Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Alabama]] | Montgomery |- | [[Infirmary Health System]] | [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] |- | [[Jefferson County Schools (Alabama)|Jefferson County Board of Education]] | Birmingham |- | [[Marshall Space Flight Center]] | Huntsville |- | [[Mercedes-Benz U.S. International]] | [[Vance, Alabama|Vance]] |- | [[Montgomery Public Schools]] | Montgomery |- | [[Regions Financial Corporation]] | Multiple |- | [[Boeing]] | Multiple |- | [[University of Alabama]] | [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] |- | [[University of South Alabama]] | Mobile |- | [[Walmart]] | Multiple |} ===Agriculture=== Alabama's agricultural outputs include poultry and eggs, cattle, fish, plant nursery items, peanuts, cotton, grains such as [[Corn production in the United States|corn]] and [[sorghum]], vegetables, milk, [[soybean]]s, and peaches. Although known as "[[List of U.S. state nicknames|The Cotton State]]", Alabama ranks between eighth and tenth in [[Cotton production in the United States|national cotton production]], according to various reports,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cber.cba.ua.edu/pdf/ab2005q4.pdf |title=Alabama and CBER: 75 Years of Change |accessdate=September 23, 2006 |year=2005 |website=Alabama Business |publisher=Center for Business and Economic Research, Culverhouse College of Commerce, The University of Alabama |format=PDF |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927141609/http://cber.cba.ua.edu/pdf/ab2005q4.pdf |archivedate=September 27, 2006 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aces.edu/dept/nass/bulletin/2005/pg05.pdf |title=State Highlights for 2004–2005 |accessdate=September 23, 2006 |year=2005 |website=Alabama Cooperative Extension System |publisher=USDA, NASS, Alabama Statistical Office |format=PDF |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060921005808/http://www.aces.edu/dept/nass/bulletin/2005/pg05.pdf |archivedate=September 21, 2006 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref> with [[Texas]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and [[Mississippi]] comprising the top three. ===Industry=== Alabama's industrial outputs include iron and steel products (including cast-iron and steel pipe); paper, [[lumber]], and wood products; mining (mostly coal); plastic products; cars and trucks; and [[apparel]]. In addition, Alabama produces [[aerospace]] and [[electronics|electronic]] products, mostly in the [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]] area, the location of [[NASA]]'s [[George C. Marshall Space Flight Center]] and the [[United States Army Materiel Command|U.S. Army Materiel Command]], headquartered at [[Redstone Arsenal]]. [[File:Mercedes Benz US International 01.jpg|thumb|[[Mercedes-Benz U.S. International]] in Tuscaloosa County was the first automotive facility to locate within the state.]] A great deal of Alabama's economic growth since the 1990s has been due to the state's expanding automotive manufacturing industry. Located in the state are [[Honda Manufacturing of Alabama]], [[Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Alabama]], [[Mercedes-Benz U.S. International]], and [[Toyota Motor Manufacturing Alabama]], as well as their various suppliers. Since 1993, the automobile industry has generated more than 67,800 new jobs in the state. Alabama currently ranks 4th in the nation for vehicle exports.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/facts/2008_fotw539.html |title=Vehicle Technologies Program: Fact #539: October 6, 2008, Light Vehicle Production by State |publisher=.eere.energy.gov |date=October 6, 2008 |accessdate=October 24, 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006202740/http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/facts/2008_fotw539.html|archivedate=October 6, 2008 |deadurl=yes}}</ref> Automakers accounted for approximately a third of the industrial expansion in the state in 2012.<ref>{{cite news |last=McCreless |first=Patrick |title=Automakers account for about a third of the state's industrial expansion |url=http://www.annistonstar.com/view/full_story/20677539/article-Automakers-account-for-about-a-third-of-the-state-s-industrial-expansion?instance=home_news#ixzz2DioLu4sx |newspaper=The Anniston Star |date=October 31, 2012 |accessdate=June 15, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022035218/http://www.annistonstar.com/view/full_story/20677539/article-Automakers-account-for-about-a-third-of-the-state-s-industrial-expansion?instance=home_news#ixzz2DioLu4sx |archivedate=October 22, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> The eight models produced at the state's auto factories totaled combined sales of 74,335 vehicles for 2012. The strongest model sales during this period were the [[Hyundai Elantra]] compact car, the [[Mercedes-Benz GL-Class]] sport utility vehicle and the [[Honda Ridgeline]] sport utility truck.<ref>{{cite news |last=Kent|first=Dawn|title=U.S. auto sales see gains in March, as Alabama-made models rise 4 percent |url=http://www.al.com/business/index.ssf/2013/04/us_auto_sales_see_gains_in_mar.html#incart_river |accessdate=June 15, 2013 |work= |publisher=AL.com |date=April 2, 2013}}</ref> [[File:Airbus Mobile Engineering Center.jpg|thumb|left|Airbus Mobile Engineering Center at the Brookley Aeroplex in Mobile]] Steel producers [[Outokumpu]], [[Nucor]], [[SSAB]], [[ThyssenKrupp]], and [[U.S. Steel]] have facilities in Alabama and employ over 10,000 people. In May 2007, German steelmaker ThyssenKrupp selected [[Calvert, Alabama|Calvert]] in [[Mobile County, Alabama|Mobile County]] for a 4.65 billion combined [[stainless steel|stainless]] and [[carbon steel]] processing facility.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://blog.al.com/live/2007/05/mobile_county_wins_thyssenkrup.html |title=ThyssenKrupp's Alabama incentive package tops $811&nbsp;million |newspaper=Press-Register |date=May 11, 2007 |accessdate=July 22, 2011 |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20110726144848/http://blog.al.com/live/2007/05/mobile_county_wins_thyssenkrup.html |archivedate=July 26, 2011 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref> ThyssenKrupp's stainless steel division, Inoxum, including the stainless portion of the Calvert plant, was sold to Finnish stainless steel company Outokumpu in 2012.<ref>{{cite news|title=New owners of ThyssenKrupp stainless steel division plan visit in June |work=Press-Register |date=May 31, 2012 |url=http://blog.al.com/press-register-business/2012/05/new_owners_of_thyssenkrupp_sta.html |accessdate=June 15, 2013}}</ref> The remaining portion of the ThyssenKrupp plant had final bids submitted by [[ArcelorMittal]] and [[Nippon Steel]] for $1.6 billion in March 2013. [[Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional]] submitted a combined bid for the mill at Calvert, plus a majority stake in the ThyssenKrupp mill in Brazil, for $3.8 billion.<ref>{{cite news|title=Report: ThyssenKrupp gets final bids for Steel Americas plants |work= |publisher=AL.com |date=March 1, 2013 |url=http://www.al.com/business/index.ssf/2013/03/report_thyssenkrupp_gets_final.html |accessdate=June 15, 2013}}</ref> In July 2013, the plant was sold to ArcelorMittal and Nippon Steel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stahl-online.de/index.php/alabama-ende-2014-bei-voller-kapazitaet/|title=Alabama: Ende 2014 bei voller Kapazität - stahl-online.de|website=stahl-online.de|accessdate=July 21, 2015}}</ref> The [[Hunt Refining Company]], a subsidiary of Hunt Consolidated, Inc., is based in Tuscaloosa and operates a refinery there. The company also operates terminals in Mobile, Melvin, and [[Moundville, Alabama|Moundville]].<ref>"[http://www.linkedin.com/company/hunt-refining-company Hunt Refining Company]." Linkedin.</ref> [[JVC|JVC America, Inc.]] operates an [[optical disc]] replication and packaging plant in Tuscaloosa.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20130117053326/http://www.jvc-america.com/about/plant_locations.aspx Company Overview]." JVC America, Inc.</ref> The [[Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company]] operates a large plant in [[Gadsden, Alabama|Gadsden]] that employs about 1,400 people. It has been in operation since 1929. Construction of an [[Airbus A320 family]] aircraft assembly plant in Mobile was formally announced by [[Airbus]] CEO [[Fabrice Brégier]] from the Mobile Convention Center on July 2, 2012. The plans include a $600 million factory at the [[Brookley Aeroplex]] for the assembly of the A319, A320 and A321 aircraft. Construction began in 2013, with plans for it to become operable by 2015 and produce up to 50 aircraft per year by 2017.<ref name="apconfirm">{{cite news|title=Airbus to Build 1st US Assembly Plant in Alabama |agency=Associated Press |author=Melissa Nelson-Gabriel |date=July 2, 2012 |url=http://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/officials-ala-airbus-plant-employ-1000-16690789#.T_HRzJHhcqN |accessdate=July 2, 2012}}</ref><ref name="bbcconfirm">{{cite news|title=Airbus confirms its first US factory to build A320 jet |work=BBC News |date=July 2, 2012 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-18675711 |accessdate=July 2, 2012}}</ref> The assembly plant is the company's first factory to be built within the United States.<ref>{{cite news|title=EADS to Build United States Assembly Line for Airbus A320|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/03/business/global/eads-to-build-airbus-assembly-line-in-mobile-ala.html|work=The New York Times|accessdate=July 2, 2012|author=Nicola Clark}}</ref> It was announced on February 1, 2013, that Airbus had hired Alabama-based [[Hoar Construction]] to oversee construction of the facility.<ref name=airbusasby>{{cite web|title=Airbus Appoints Program Manager for its Mobile Assembly Line|url=http://www.airbus.com/newsevents/news-events-single/detail/airbus-appoints-program-manager-for-its-mobile-assembly-line/|publisher=Airbus|accessdate=February 7, 2013}}</ref> ===Tourism=== [[File:GulfShoresAlBeachJuly08B.jpg|thumb|right|Alabama's beaches are one of the state's major tourist destinations.]] An estimated 20 million tourists visit the state each year. Over 100,000 of these are from other countries, including from Canada, the United Kingdom, Germany and Japan.{{citation needed|date=September 2017}} In 2006, 22.3 million travellers spent $8.3 billion providing an estimated 162,000 jobs in the state.<ref>[http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-1268 Encyclopedia of Alabama]. Alabama Tourism Department (ATD)</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url= |first=David A. |last=Fahrenthold |title=Obama to survey environmental damage in gulf |publisher=Washington Pose |location=Washington, DC |page= A6 |date=May 2, 2010}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=September 2017}} Some of the most popular areas include the Rocket City of Huntsville, the beaches along the Gulf, and the state's capitol in Montgomery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Planning Your Alabama Visit|url=http://alabama.travel/visitor-tips/planning|website=alabama.travel.com|publisher=Sweet Home Alabama|accessdate=16 September 2016}}</ref> ===Healthcare=== [[UAB Hospital]] is the only [[trauma center|Level I trauma center]] in Alabama.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.facs.org/trauma/verified.html |title=Verified Trauma Centers |date=December 30, 2010 |website=American College of Surgeons, Verified Trauma Centers |accessdate=January 9, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://webspace.utexas.edu/jas5349/Research_Data.htm |title=College Research Data |website=University of Texas |accessdate=April 18, 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120404152129/https://webspace.utexas.edu/jas5349/Research_Data.htm |archivedate=April 4, 2012 }}</ref> UAB is the largest state government employer in Alabama, with a workforce of about 18,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uab.edu/humanresources/home/|title=UAB – Human Resources – Home|website=uab.edu|accessdate=July 21, 2015}}</ref> ===Banking=== [[File:Birmingham skyscrapers Nov 2011.jpg|thumb|[[Regions-Harbert Plaza]], [[Regions Center (Birmingham)|Regions Center]], and [[Wells Fargo Tower (Birmingham)|Wells Fargo Tower]] in Birmingham's financial district.]] Alabama has the headquarters of [[Regions Financial Corporation]], [[BBVA Compass]], [[Superior Bancorp]] and the former [[Colonial Bancgroup]]. Birmingham-based Compass Banchshares was acquired by Spanish-based [[BBVA]] in September 2007, although the headquarters of BBVA Compass remains in Birmingham. In November 2006, Regions Financial completed its merger with [[AmSouth Bancorporation]], which was also headquartered in Birmingham. [[SouthTrust Corporation]], another large bank headquartered in Birmingham, was acquired by [[Wachovia]] in 2004 for $14.3 billion. The city still has major operations for Wachovia and its now post-operating bank [[Wells Fargo]], which includes a regional headquarters, an operations center campus and a $400 million data center. Nearly a dozen smaller banks are also headquartered in the Birmingham, such as Superior Bancorp, [[ServisFirst]] and New South Federal Savings Bank. Birmingham also serves as the headquarters for several large investment management companies, including [[Harbert Management Corporation]]. ===Electronics=== Telecommunications provider [[AT&T Inc.|AT&T]], formerly [[BellSouth]], has a major presence in Alabama with several large offices in Birmingham. The company has over 6,000 employees and more than 1,200 contract employees. Many commercial technology companies are headquartered in Huntsville, such as network access company [[ADTRAN]], computer graphics company [[Intergraph]], and IT infrastructure company [[Avocent]]. [[Cinram]] manufactures and distributes 20th Century Fox DVDs and Blu-ray Discs out of its Huntsville plant. ===Construction=== Rust International has grown to include [[Brasfield & Gorrie]], [[BE&K]], [[Hoar Construction]] and [[B.L. Harbert International]], which all routinely are included in the Engineering News-Record lists of top design, international construction, and engineering firms. (Rust International was acquired in 2000 by [[Washington Group International]], which was in turn acquired by San-Francisco based [[URS Corporation]] in 2007.){{clear}} ==Law and government== ===State government=== [[File:Alabama Capitol Building.jpg|thumb|The [[Alabama State Capitol|State Capitol Building]] in Montgomery, completed in 1851]] {{main|Government of Alabama}} The foundational document for Alabama's government is the [[Alabama Constitution]], which was ratified in 1901. At almost 800 amendments and 310,000 words, it is by some accounts the world's longest constitution and is roughly forty times the length of the [[United States Constitution]].<ref>Tim Lockette, [http://www.annistonstar.com/article_c928bd51-fbf1-5056-a30c-1bf4b19eb012.html?mode=jqm Is the Alabama Constitution the longest constitution in the world?Truth Rating: 4 out of 5], ''Anniston Star''.</ref><ref>Campbell Robertson, [https://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/31/us/alabama-simmers-before-vote-on-its-constitutions-racist-language.html?pagewanted=all Alabama Simmers Before Vote on Its Constitution's Racist Language], ''New York Times'', October 10, 2012.</ref><ref name="Washington Post">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A16443-2004Nov27?language=printer |last=Roig-Franzia |first=Manuel |title=Alabama Vote Opens Old Racial Wounds |work=The Washington Post |date=November 28, 2004 |accessdate=September 22, 2006 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20121210050145/http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A16443-2004Nov27?language=printer |archivedate=December 10, 2012 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref name="Constitution">{{cite web|url=http://www.legislature.state.al.us/CodeOfAlabama/Constitution/1901/Constitution1901_toc.htm |title=Constitution of Alabama – 1901 |website=The Alabama Legislative Information System |accessdate=September 22, 2006 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060923081542/http://www.legislature.state.al.us/CodeOfAlabama/Constitution/1901/Constitution1901_toc.htm |archivedate=September 23, 2006 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> There has been a significant movement to rewrite and modernize Alabama's constitution.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.constitutionalreform.org/ |title=Alabama Citizens for Constitutional Reform |publisher=Constitutionalreform.org |accessdate=October 24, 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100915165938/http://www.constitutionalreform.org/ |archivedate=September 15, 2010 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> Critics argue that Alabama's constitution maintains highly centralized power with the state legislature, leaving practically no power in local hands. Most counties do not have home rule. Any policy changes proposed in different areas of the state must be approved by the entire Alabama legislature and, frequently, by state referendum. One criticism of the current constitution claims that its complexity and length intentionally codify segregation and racism. [[File:Ala Supreme Court Building Feb 2012 01.jpg|thumb|The [[Alabama Judicial Building|Heflin-Torbert Judicial Building]] in Montgomery. It houses the [[Supreme Court of Alabama]], [[Alabama Court of Civil Appeals]], and [[Alabama Court of Criminal Appeals]].]] Alabama's government is divided into three coequal branches. The [[legislative branch]] is the [[Alabama Legislature]], a [[bicameral]] assembly composed of the [[Alabama House of Representatives]], with 105 members, and the [[Alabama Senate]], with 35 members. The Legislature is responsible for writing, debating, passing, or defeating state legislation. The [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] currently holds a majority in both houses of the [[Alabama Legislature|Legislature]]. The Legislature has the power to override a gubernatorial veto by a simple majority (most state Legislatures require a two-thirds majority to override a veto). Until 1964, the state elected state senators on a geographic basis by county, with one per county. It had not redistricted congressional districts since passage of its constitution in 1901; as a result, urbanized areas were grossly underrepresented. It had not changed legislative districts to reflect the decennial censuses, either. In ''[[Reynolds v. Sims]]'' (1964), the US Supreme Court implemented the principle of "[[one man, one vote]]", ruling that congressional districts had to be reapportioned based on censuses (as the state already included in its constitution but had not implemented.) Further, the court ruled that both houses of bicameral state legislatures had to be apportioned by population, as there was no constitutional basis for states to have geographically based systems. At that time, Alabama and many other states had to change their legislative districting, as many across the country had systems that underrepresented urban areas and districts. This had caused decades of underinvestment in such areas. For instance, Birmingham and Jefferson County taxes had supplied one-third of the state budget, but Jefferson County received only 1/67th of state services in funding. Through the legislative delegations, the Alabama legislature kept control of county governments. [[File:Portrait-Governor-Kay-Ivey.jpg|thumb|Governor [[Kay Ivey]] is the current and second female [[Governor of Alabama]]. She is the only Republican female Governor in the state's history.]] The [[executive branch]] is responsible for the execution and oversight of laws. It is headed by the [[Governor of Alabama]]. Other members of executive branch include the cabinet, the [[Attorney General of Alabama]], the [[Alabama Secretary of State]], the [[Alabama State Treasurer]], and the [[State Auditor of Alabama]]. The current [[Governor of Alabama|governor]] of the state is [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] [[Kay Ivey]]. The office of [[List of Lieutenant Governors of Alabama|lieutenant governor]] is currently vacant. The members of the Legislature take office immediately after the November elections. Statewide officials, such as the governor, lieutenant governor, attorney general, and other constitutional officers, take office the following January.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legislature.state.al.us/misc/legislativeprocess/legislativeprocess_ml.html |title=Alabama's Legislative Process |first=McDowell |last=Lee |year=2009 |publisher=State of Alabama |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110102162559/http://www.legislature.state.al.us/misc/legislativeprocess/legislativeprocess_ml.html |archivedate=January 2, 2011 }}</ref> The [[Judiciary|judicial branch]] is responsible for interpreting the [[Alabama Constitution|Constitution]] and applying the law in state criminal and civil cases. The [[State supreme court|state's highest court]] is the [[Supreme Court of Alabama]]. Alabama uses partisan elections to select judges. Since the 1980s judicial campaigns have become increasingly politicized.<ref name="AJS">[http://www.judicialselection.us/judicial_selection/index.cfm?state=AL Judicial Selection in the States: Alabama] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006162358/http://www.judicialselection.us/judicial_selection/index.cfm?state=AL |date=October 6, 2014 }}, American Judicature Society.</ref> The current [[chief justice]] of the Alabama Supreme Court is Republican [[Lyn Stuart]]. All sitting justices on the Alabama Supreme Court are members of the Republican Party. There are two intermediate [[appellate court]]s, the Court of Civil Appeals and the Court of Criminal Appeals, and four [[trial court]]s: the circuit court (trial court of general jurisdiction), and the district, probate, and municipal courts.<ref name="AJS"/> Some critics believe that the election of judges has contributed to an exceedingly high rate of executions.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2000/03/01/us/questions-of-death-row-justice-for-poor-people-in-alabama.html SARA RIMER, "Questions of Death Row Justice For Poor People in Alabama"]. ''New York Times'', 1 March 2000. Accessed 11 March 2017.</ref> Alabama has the highest per capita [[Capital punishment in Alabama|death penalty rate]] in the country. In some years, it imposes more death sentences than does [[Texas]], a state which has a population five times larger.<ref name="npr.org"/> Some of its cases have been highly controversial; the Supreme Court has overturned<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.eji.org/us-supreme-court-reverses-alabama-death-penalty-case-christopher-floyd-racially-biased-jury-selection|title=Supreme Court Reverses Another Alabama Death Penalty Case|last=|first=|date=2016-06-21|website=EJI|publisher=|access-date=2016-08-03}}</ref> 24 convictions in death penalty cases.{{citation needed|date=March 2017}} It was the only state to allow judges to override jury decisions in whether or not to use a death sentence; in 10 cases judges overturned sentences of [[life imprisonment without parole]] (LWOP) that were voted unanimously by juries.<ref name="npr.org">{{cite web|author=Rebecca Buckwalter-Poza |url=https://www.npr.org/2014/07/25/335418230/with-judges-overriding-death-penalty-cases-alabama-is-an-outlier |title=With Judges Overriding Death Penalty Cases, Alabama Is An Outlier |website=NPR.org |date=2014-07-27 |accessdate=2016-07-21}}</ref> This judicial authority was removed in April 2017.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.al.com/news/birmingham/index.ssf/2017/04/post_317.html | title=Alabama Gov. Kay Ivey signs bill: Judges can no longer override juries in death penalty cases | publisher=AL.com | date=12 April 2017 | accessdate=13 December 2017}}</ref> ===Taxes=== Alabama levies a 2, 4, or 5 percent [[State income tax|personal income tax]], depending upon the amount earned and filing status. Taxpayers are allowed to deduct their [[Income tax in the United States|federal income tax]] from their Alabama state tax, and can do so even if taking the [[standard deduction]]. Taxpayers who file itemized deductions are also allowed to deduct the [[Federal Insurance Contributions Act tax]] (Social Security and Medicare tax). The state's general sales tax rate is 4%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.taxadmin.org/fta/rate/sl_sales.html |title=Comparison of State and Local Retail Sales Taxes |accessdate=2007-05-26 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070520231150/http://www.taxadmin.org/fta/rate/sl_sales.html |archivedate=May 20, 2007 |df=mdy }}. taxadmin.org, July 2004, Retrieved December 18, 2013.</ref> Sales tax rates for cities and counties are also added to purchases.<ref>[http://revenue.alabama.gov/publications/business-taxes/sales/Sales_Tax--Sales_Tax_Brochure.pdf Sales Tax Brochure] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219001926/http://revenue.alabama.gov/publications/business-taxes/sales/Sales_Tax--Sales_Tax_Brochure.pdf |date=December 19, 2013 }}. State of Alabama. Retrieved December 18, 2013.</ref> For example, the total sales tax rate in Mobile is 10% and there is an additional restaurant tax of 1%, which means that a diner in Mobile would pay an 11% tax on a meal. {{As of|1999}}, sales and excise taxes in Alabama account for 51% of all state and local revenue, compared with an average of about 36% nationwide.<ref name="cbpp.org"/> Alabama is one of seven states that levy a tax on food at the same rate as other goods, and one of two states (the other being neighboring Mississippi) which fully taxes groceries without any offsetting relief for low-income families. (Most states exempt groceries from sales tax or apply a lower tax rate.)<ref>[http://www.cbpp.org/files/3-16-06sfp3.pdf Which States Tax the Sale of Food for Home Consumption in 2009?], Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, November 4, 2009.</ref> Alabama's income tax on poor working families is among the highest in the United States.<ref name="cbpp.org"/> Alabama is the only state that levies income tax on a family of four with income as low as $4,600, which is barely one-quarter of the federal poverty line.<ref name="cbpp.org"/> Alabama's threshold is the lowest among the 41 states and the District of Columbia with income taxes.<ref name="cbpp.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.cbpp.org/cms/index.cfm?fa=view&id=1812 |title=Reducing Alabama's Income Tax on Working-Poor Families: Two Options |date= April 14, 1999 |publisher=Cbpp.org |accessdate=October 24, 2010}}</ref> The corporate income tax rate is currently 6.5%. The overall federal, state, and local tax burden in Alabama ranks the state as the second least tax-burdened state in the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.taxfoundation.org/files/sl_burden_alabama-2007-04-04.pdf |title=Alabama State Local Tax Burden Compared to U.S. Average (1970–2007) |accessdate=May 30, 2007 |format=PDF |website=Tax Foundation |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070605100516/http://www.taxfoundation.org/files/sl_burden_alabama-2007-04-04.pdf |archivedate=June 5, 2007 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> [[Property tax]]es are the lowest in the U.S. The current state constitution requires a voter referendum to raise property taxes. Since Alabama's tax structure largely depends on consumer spending, it is subject to high variable budget structure. For example, in 2003, Alabama had an annual budget deficit as high as $670&nbsp;million. ===County and local governments=== {{Alabama County Labelled Map|align=right|width=300}} {{see also|List of counties in Alabama}} [[File:United States presidential election in Alabama, 2016.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Treemap]] of the popular vote by county, 2016 presidential election.]] Alabama has 67 [[county (United States)|counties]]. Each county has its own elected legislative branch, usually called the county commission. It also has limited executive authority in the county. Because of the constraints of the [[Alabama Constitution]], which centralizes power in the state legislature, only seven counties (Jefferson, Lee, Mobile, Madison, Montgomery, Shelby, and Tuscaloosa) in the state have limited [[home rule]]. Instead, most counties in the state must lobby the Local Legislation Committee of the state legislature to get simple local policies approved, ranging from waste disposal to land use zoning. The state legislature has retained power over local governments by refusing to pass a constitutional amendment establishing [[home rule]] for counties, as recommended by the 1973 Alabama Constitutional Commission.<ref name="home"/> Legislative delegations retain certain powers over each county. United States Supreme Court decisions in ''[[Baker v. Carr]]'' (1964) required that both houses have districts established on the basis of population, and redistricted after each census, in order to implement the principle of "one man, one vote". Before that, each county was represented by one state senator, leading to under-representation in the state senate for more urbanized, populous counties. The rural bias of the state legislature, which had also failed to redistrict seats in the state house, affected politics well into the 20th century, failing to recognize the rise of industrial cities and urbanized areas. "The lack of home rule for counties in Alabama has resulted in the proliferation of local legislation permitting counties to do things not authorized by the state constitution. Alabama's constitution has been amended more than 700 times, and almost one-third of the amendments are local in nature, applying to only one county or city. A significant part of each legislative session is spent on local legislation, taking away time and attention of legislators from issues of statewide importance."<ref name="home">[http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1153#sthash.CMEMRNbK.dpuf Albert P. Brewer, "Home Rule"], ''Encyclopedia of Alabama'', 2007, accessed February 3, 2015</ref> Alabama is an [[alcoholic beverage control state]], meaning that the state government holds a monopoly on the sale of alcohol. The [[Alabama Alcoholic Beverage Control Board]] controls the sale and distribution of alcoholic beverages in the state. Twenty-five of the 67 counties are "[[Dry county|dry counties]]" which ban the sale of alcohol, and there are many dry municipalities even in counties which permit alcohol sales.<ref>[http://abcboard.alabama.gov/%28S%28s1j4zjl5nddpfshvrhppmpsb%29%29/wet_dry_map.aspx Wet-Dry Map] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009231316/http://abcboard.alabama.gov/(S(s1j4zjl5nddpfshvrhppmpsb))/wet_dry_map.aspx |date=October 9, 2016 }}, Alabama Alcoholic Beverage Control Board.</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Rank !! County !! Population<br />(2010 Census) !! Seat !! Largest city |- | style="text-align:center;"| 1 | [[Jefferson County, Alabama|Jefferson]] | style="text-align:center;"| 658,466 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] | style="text-align:center;"| Birmingham |- | style="text-align:center;"| 2 | [[Mobile County, Alabama|Mobile]] | style="text-align:center;"| 412,992 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] | style="text-align:center;"| Mobile |- | style="text-align:center;"| 3 | [[Madison County, Alabama|Madison]] | style="text-align:center;"| 334,811 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]] | style="text-align:center;"| Huntsville |- | style="text-align:center;"| 4 | [[Montgomery County, Alabama|Montgomery]] | style="text-align:center;"| 229,363 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]] | style="text-align:center;"| Montgomery |- | style="text-align:center;"| 5 | [[Shelby County, Alabama|Shelby]] | style="text-align:center;"| 195,085 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Columbiana, Alabama|Columbiana]] | style="text-align:center;"| [[Hoover, Alabama|Hoover]] (part)<br />[[Alabaster, Alabama|Alabaster]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| 6 | [[Tuscaloosa County, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] | style="text-align:center;"| 194,656 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] | style="text-align:center;"| Tuscaloosa |- | style="text-align:center;"| 7 | [[Baldwin County, Alabama|Baldwin]] | style="text-align:center;"| 182,265 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Bay Minette, Alabama|Bay Minette]] | style="text-align:center;"| [[Daphne, Alabama|Daphne]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| 8 | [[Lee County, Alabama|Lee]] | style="text-align:center;"| 140,247 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Opelika, Alabama|Opelika]] | style="text-align:center;"| [[Auburn, Alabama|Auburn]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| 9 | [[Morgan County, Alabama|Morgan]] | style="text-align:center;"| 119,490 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Decatur, Alabama|Decatur]] | style="text-align:center;"| Decatur |- | style="text-align:center;"| 10 | [[Calhoun County, Alabama|Calhoun]] | style="text-align:center;"| 118,572 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Anniston, Alabama|Anniston]] | style="text-align:center;"| Anniston |- | style="text-align:center;"| 11 | [[Etowah County, Alabama|Etowah]] | style="text-align:center;"| 104,303 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Gadsden, Alabama|Gadsden]] | style="text-align:center;"| Gadsden |- | style="text-align:center;"| 12 | [[Houston County, Alabama|Houston]] | style="text-align:center;"| 101,547 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Dothan, Alabama|Dothan]] | style="text-align:center;"| Dothan |- | style="text-align:center;"| 13 | [[Marshall County, Alabama|Marshall]] | style="text-align:center;"| 93,019 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Guntersville, Alabama|Guntersville]] | style="text-align:center;"| [[Albertville, Alabama|Albertville]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| 14 | [[Lauderdale County, Alabama|Lauderdale]] | style="text-align:center;"| 92,709 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Florence, Alabama|Florence]] | style="text-align:center;"| Florence |- | style="text-align:center;"| 15 | [[St. Clair County, Alabama|St. Clair]] | style="text-align:center;"| 83,593 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Ashville, Alabama|Ashville]] &<br />[[Pell City, Alabama|Pell City]] | style="text-align:center;"| Pell City |} ===Politics=== During [[Reconstruction Era|Reconstruction]] following the [[American Civil War]], Alabama was occupied by federal troops of the [[Third Military District]] under [[John Pope (military officer)|General John Pope]]. In 1874, the political coalition of white Democrats known as the [[Redeemers]] took control of the state government from the Republicans, in part by suppressing the black vote through violence, fraud and intimidation. After 1890, a coalition of White Democratic politicians passed laws to [[racial segregation|segregate]] and disenfranchise African American residents, a process completed in provisions of the 1901 constitution. Provisions which disenfranchised blacks resulted in excluding many poor Whites. By 1941 more Whites than Blacks had been disenfranchised: 600,000 to 520,000. The total effects were greater on the black community, as almost all of its citizens were disfranchised and relegated to separate and unequal treatment under the law. From 1901 through the 1960s, the state did not redraw election districts as population grew and shifted within the state during urbanization and industrialization of certain areas. As counties were the basis of election districts, the result was a rural minority that dominated state politics through nearly three-quarters of the century, until a series of federal court cases required redistricting in 1972 to meet equal representation. Alabama state politics gained nationwide and international attention in the 1950s and 1960s during the [[civil rights movement]], when whites bureaucratically, and at times violently, resisted protests for electoral and social reform. Governor [[George Wallace]], the state's only four-term governor, was a controversial figure who vowed to maintain segregation. Only after passage of the federal [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]]<ref name="cra64"/> and [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]] did African Americans regain the ability to exercise suffrage, among other civil rights. In many jurisdictions, they continued to be excluded from representation by [[at-large]] electoral systems, which allowed the majority of the population to dominate elections. Some changes at the county level have occurred following court challenges to establish [[single-member districts]] that enable a more diverse representation among county boards. In 2007, the [[Alabama Legislature]] passed, and Republican Governor [[Bob Riley]] signed a resolution expressing "profound regret" over slavery and its lingering impact. In a symbolic ceremony, the bill was signed in the [[Alabama State Capitol]], which housed Congress of the [[Confederate States of America]].<ref>{{Cite news |first=Phillip |last=Rawls |title=Alabama offers an apology for slavery |work=The Virginian Pilot |publisher=Landmark Communications |date=June 1, 2007}}</ref> In 2010, Republicans won control of both houses of the legislature for the first time in 136 years, after a nearly complete realignment of political parties, who represent different visions in the 21st century.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://blog.al.com/spotnews/2010/11/gop_takes_alabama_legislature.html|title=GOP takes control of Alabama Legislature after 136 years|last=White|first=David|date=November 2, 2010|work=[[The Birmingham News]]|accessdate=July 9, 2018}}</ref> As of December 2017, there are a total of 3,326,812 registered voters, with 2,979,576 active, and the others inactive in the state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sos.alabama.gov/alabama-votes/voter/election-data |title=Elections Data Downloads |publisher=Alabama Secretary of State |accessdate=December 12, 2017}}</ref> ===Elections=== {{main|Elections in Alabama}} ====State elections==== With the [[Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era|disfranchisement of Blacks]] in 1901, the state became part of the "[[Solid South]]", a system in which the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] operated as effectively the only viable political party in every Southern state. For nearly 100&nbsp;years, local and state elections in Alabama were decided in the Democratic Party [[primary election|primary]], with generally only token [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] challengers running in the General Election. Since the mid to late 20th century, however, there has been a realignment among the two major political parties, and white conservatives started shifting to the Republican Party. In Alabama, majority-white districts are now expected to regularly elect Republican candidates to federal, state and local office. Members of the nine seats on the [[Supreme Court of Alabama]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.al.com/spotnews/2009/05/sue_bell_cobb_considering_runn.html |title=Sue Bell Cobb considering running for governor |website=The Birmingham News |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=August 7, 2009}}</ref> and all ten seats on the state appellate courts are elected to office. Until 1994, no Republicans held any of the court seats. In that general election, the then-incumbent Chief Justice, [[Ernest C. Hornsby]], refused to leave office after losing the election by approximately 3,000 votes to Republican [[Perry O. Hooper, Sr.]]. Hornsby sued Alabama and defiantly remained in office for nearly a year before finally giving up the seat after losing in court. This ultimately led to a collapse of support for Democrats at the ballot box in the next three or four election cycles. The Democrats lost the last of the nineteen court seats in August 2011 with the resignation of the last Democrat on the bench. In the early 21st century, Republicans hold all seven of the [[Political party strength in Alabama|statewide elected executive]] branch offices. Republicans hold six of the eight elected seats on the [[Alabama State Board of Education]]. In 2010, Republicans took large majorities of both chambers of the state legislature, giving them control of that body for the first time in 136 years. The last remaining statewide Democrat, who served on the Alabama Public Service Commission was defeated in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.psc.state.al.us/commissioners.htm |title=Commissioners |publisher=Psc.state.al.us |accessdate=August 7, 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090718210525/http://www.psc.state.al.us/commissioners.htm |archivedate=July 18, 2009 |df=mdy }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Special |url=http://blog.al.com/spotnews/2008/11/lucy_baxley_wins_alabama_publi.html |title=Lucy Baxley wins Alabama Public Service Commission presidency, but recount possible |publisher=Birmingham News via al.com |date=November 5, 2008 |accessdate=August 7, 2009 |archiveurl=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090802212747/http://blog.al.com/spotnews/2008/11/lucy_baxley_wins_alabama_publi.html |archivedate=August 2, 2009 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Jeff Amy |url=http://blog.al.com/live/2010/11/public_service_commission.html |title=Public Service Commission: Twinkle Cavanaugh, Terry Dunn join GOP sweep |publisher=al.com |accessdate=June 1, 2011 |archiveurl=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20120306232802/http://blog.al.com/live/2010/11/public_service_commission.html |archivedate=March 6, 2012 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> Only two Republican Lieutenant Governors have been elected since the end of Reconstruction, when Republicans generally represented Reconstruction government, including the newly emancipated [[Freedman|freedmen]] who had gained the franchise. The two GOP Lt. Governors were Steve Windom (1999–2003) and [[Kay Ivey]] (2011-2017). ====Local elections==== Many local offices (County Commissioners, Boards of Education, Tax Assessors, Tax Collectors, etc.) in the state are still held by Democrats. Many rural counties have voters who are majority Democrats, resulting in local elections being decided in the Democratic primary. Similarly many metropolitan and suburban counties are majority-Republican and elections are effectively decided in the Republican Primary, although there are exceptions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/state.php?fips=1&year=2006&f=0&off=5&elect=1 |title=2006 Gubernatorial Democratic Primary Election Results – Alabama |publisher=Uselectionatlas.org |accessdate=August 7, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/state.php?fips=1&year=2006&f=0&off=5&elect=2 |title=2006 Gubernatorial Republican Primary Election Results – Alabama |publisher=Uselectionatlas.org |date=February 15, 2007 |accessdate=August 7, 2009}}</ref> Alabama's 67 County Sheriffs are elected in partisan, [[at-large]] races, and Democrats still retain the narrow majority of those posts. The current split is 35 [[Alabama Democratic Party|Democrats]], 31 [[Alabama Republican Party|Republicans]], and one Independent Fayette.<ref name="ASA">{{cite web|url=http://www.alabamasheriffs.com/pages?id=41|title=Alabama Sheriffs 2015-2019|website=www.alabamasheriffs.com}}</ref> However, most of the Democratic sheriffs preside over rural and less populated counties. The majority of Republican sheriffs have been elected in the more urban/suburban and heavily populated counties.{{citation needed|date=November 2015}} {{as of|2015}}, the state of Alabama has one female sheriff, in [[Morgan County, Alabama]], and ten African-American sheriffs.<ref name="ASA"/> ====Federal elections==== {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; border:1px #aaa solid; font-size:85%; margin:10px" |+ '''Presidential elections results''' |- style="background:Lightgrey;" ! Year ! [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] ! [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] |- style="text-align:center;" | style="background:#fff3f3;"|[[United States presidential election in Alabama, 2016|2016]] | style="background:#fff3f3;"|'''62.08%''' ''1,318,255'' | style="background:#f0f0ff;"|34.36% 729,547 |- style="text-align:center;" | style="background:#fff3f3;"|[[United States presidential election in Alabama, 2012|2012]] | style="background:#fff3f3;"|'''60.55%''' ''1,255,925'' | style="background:#f0f0ff;"|38.36% 795,696 |- style="text-align:center;" | style="background:#fff3f3;"|[[United States presidential election in Alabama, 2008|2008]] | style="background:#fff3f3;"|'''60.32%''' ''1,266,546'' | style="background:#f0f0ff;"|38.80% 813,479 |- style="text-align:center;" | style="background:#fff3f3;"|[[United States presidential election in Alabama, 2004|2004]] | style="background:#fff3f3;"|'''62.46%''' ''1,176,394'' | style="background:#f0f0ff;"|36.84% 693,933 |- style="text-align:center;" | style="background:#fff3f3;"|[[United States presidential election in Alabama, 2000|2000]] | style="background:#fff3f3;"|'''56.47%''' ''944,409'' | style="background:#f0f0ff;"|41.59% 695,602 |- style="text-align:center;" | style="background:#fff3f3;"|[[United States presidential election in Alabama, 1996|1996]] | style="background:#fff3f3;"|'''50.12%''' ''769,044'' | style="background:#f0f0ff;"|43.16% 662,165 |- style="text-align:center;" | style="background:#fff3f3;"|[[United States presidential election in Alabama, 1992|1992]] | style="background:#fff3f3;"|'''47.65%''' ''804,283'' | style="background:#f0f0ff;"|40.88% 690,080 |- style="text-align:center;" | style="background:#fff3f3;"|[[United States presidential election in Alabama, 1988|1988]] | style="background:#fff3f3;"|'''59.17%''' ''815,576'' | style="background:#f0f0ff;"|39.86% 549,506 |- style="text-align:center;" | style="background:#fff3f3;"|[[United States presidential election in Alabama, 1984|1984]] | style="background:#fff3f3;"|'''60.54%''' ''872,849'' | style="background:#f0f0ff;"|38.28% 551,899 |- style="text-align:center;" | style="background:#fff3f3;"|[[United States presidential election in Alabama, 1980|1980]] | style="background:#fff3f3;"|'''48.75%''' ''654,192'' | style="background:#f0f0ff;"|47.45% 636,730 |- style="text-align:center;" | style="background:#f0f0ff;"|[[United States presidential election in Alabama, 1976|1976]] | style="background:#fff3f3;"|42.61% 504,070 | style="background:#f0f0ff;"|'''55.73%''' ''659,170'' |- style="text-align:center;" | style="background:#fff3f3;"|[[United States presidential election in Alabama, 1972|1972]] | style="background:#fff3f3;"|'''72.43%''' ''728,701'' | style="background:#f0f0ff;"|25.54% 256,923 |- style="text-align:center;" | style="background:#f5f5f5;"|[[United States presidential election in Alabama, 1968|1968]]* | style="background:#fff3f3;"|13.99% 146,923 | style="background:#f0f0ff;"|18.72% 196,579 |- style="text-align:center;" | style="background:#fff3f3;"|[[United States presidential election in Alabama, 1964|1964]] | style="background:#fff3f3;"|'''69.45%''' ''479,085'' | style="background:#f0f0ff;"|30.55% 210,732 |- style="text-align:center;" | style="background:#f0f0ff;"|[[United States presidential election in Alabama, 1960|1960]] | style="background:#fff3f3;"|42.16% 237,981 | style="background:#f0f0ff;"|'''56.39%''' ''318,303'' |- | colspan="4" style="text-align:center; background:lightgrey;"|*State won by [[George Wallace]]<br />of the [[American Independent Party]],<br />at 65.86%, or 691,425 votes |} The state's two [[United States Senate|U.S. senators]] are Republican [[Richard Shelby|Richard C. Shelby]] and Democrat [[Doug Jones (politician)|Doug Jones]]. Shelby was originally elected to the Senate as a Democrat in 1986 and re-elected in 1992, but switched parties immediately following the November 1994 general election. In the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]], the state is represented by seven members, six of whom are Republicans: ([[Bradley Byrne]], [[Mike D. Rogers]], [[Robert Aderholt]], [[Morris J. Brooks]], [[Martha Roby]], and [[Gary Palmer (politician)|Gary Palmer]]) and one Democrat: [[Terri Sewell]] who represents the [[Black Belt (region of Alabama)|Black Belt]] as well as most of the predominantly black portions of [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]], [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] and [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]]. {{further|United States presidential election in Alabama, 2016}} ==Education== {{main|Education in Alabama}} ===Primary and secondary education=== [[File:Vestavia Hills High School.jpg|thumb|right|[[Vestavia Hills High School]] in the suburbs of Birmingham]] Public primary and secondary education in Alabama is under the purview of the [[Alabama State Board of Education]] as well as local oversight by 67 county school boards and 60 city boards of education. Together, 1,496 individual schools provide education for 744,637 elementary and secondary students.<ref name="qfacts">{{cite web|url= http://www.alsde.edu/sec/comm/Pages/quickfacts-item.aspx?FilterField1=ID&FilterValue1=7 |title= Alabama Education Quick Facts 2012-13 |accessdate =April 29, 2014 |format= PDF}}</ref> Public school funding is appropriated through the Alabama Legislature through the Education Trust Fund. In FY 2006–2007, Alabama appropriated $3,775,163,578 for primary and secondary education. That represented an increase of $444,736,387 over the previous fiscal year. In 2007, over 82&nbsp;percent of schools made adequate yearly progress (AYP) toward student proficiency under the National [[No Child Left Behind]] law, using measures determined by the state of Alabama. While Alabama's public education system has improved in recent decades, it lags behind in achievement compared to other states. According to U.S. Census data (2000), Alabama's high school graduation rate—75%—is the fourth lowest in the U.S. (after [[Kentucky]], [[Louisiana]] and [[Mississippi]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-24.pdf |format=PDF |title=Educational Attainment : 2000 : Census 2000 Brief |website=Census.gov |accessdate=2016-12-29}}</ref> The largest educational gains were among people with some college education but without degrees.<ref>[http://www.censusscope.org/us/s1/chart_education.html Education Statistics]. CensusScope.org</ref> Although unusual in the West, [[school corporal punishment]] is not uncommon in Alabama, with 27,260 public school students [[paddle (spanking)|paddled]] at least one time, according to government data for the 2011–2012 school year.<ref>This figure refers to only the number of students paddled, and does not refer to the number of instances of corporal punishment, which would be higher.</ref><ref name="CORPUN_US_SCHOOL" /> The rate of school corporal punishment in Alabama is surpassed only by Mississippi and Arkansas.<ref name="CORPUN_US_SCHOOL">{{cite web |url=http://corpun.com/counuss.htm |title= Corporal punishment in US schools |publisher=''[[World Corporal Punishment Research]]'' |last = Farrell |first = Colin | date=February 2016 |accessdate=April 4, 2016}}</ref> ===Colleges and universities=== {{main|List of colleges and universities in Alabama}} [[File:Harrison-plaza2.jpg|thumb|left|Harrison Plaza at the [[University of North Alabama]] in Florence. The school was chartered as LaGrange College by the [[Alabama Legislature]] in 1830.]] Alabama's programs of higher education include 14 four-year public universities, two-year community colleges, and 17 private, undergraduate and graduate universities. In the state are four medical schools (as of fall 2015) ([[University of Alabama School of Medicine]], [[University of South Alabama]] and [[Alabama College of Osteopathic Medicine]] and The Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine – Auburn Campus), two veterinary colleges ([[Auburn University]] and [[Tuskegee University]]), a dental school ([[University of Alabama School of Dentistry]]), an optometry college ([[University of Alabama at Birmingham]]), two pharmacy schools ([[Auburn University]] and [[Samford University]]), and five law schools ([[University of Alabama School of Law]], [[Birmingham School of Law]], [[Cumberland School of Law]], [[Miles Law School]], and the [[Thomas Goode Jones School of Law]]). Public, post-secondary education in Alabama is overseen by the [[Alabama Commission on Higher Education]] and the [[Alabama Department of Postsecondary Education]]. Colleges and universities in Alabama offer degree programs from two-year associate degrees to a multitude of doctoral level programs.<ref name="ache">{{cite web|publisher=Alabama Commission on Higher Education |title=Directory of Alabama Colleges and Universities |url=http://www.ache.alabama.gov/Colleges&Universities/Directory.htm |accessdate=July 28, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131011002457/http://www.ache.alabama.gov/Colleges%26Universities/Directory.htm |archivedate=October 11, 2013 }}</ref> [[File:William J. Samford Hall.jpg|thumb|right|William J. Samford Hall at [[Auburn University]] in Auburn]] The largest single campus is the [[University of Alabama]], located in [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]], with 37,665 enrolled for fall 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ua.edu/about/quickfacts|title=The University of Alabama|website=www.ua.edu}}</ref> [[Troy University]] was the largest institution in the state in 2010, with an enrollment of 29,689 students across four Alabama campuses ([[Troy, Alabama|Troy]], [[Dothan, Alabama|Dothan]], [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]], and [[Phenix City, Alabama|Phenix City]]), as well as sixty learning sites in seventeen other states and eleven other countries. The oldest institutions are the public [[University of North Alabama]] in [[Florence, Alabama|Florence]] and the Catholic Church-affiliated [[Spring Hill College]] in [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]], both founded in 1830.<ref name="una">{{cite web|url=http://www.una.edu/makinghistory/ |title=History in the making |publisher=University of North Alabama |accessdate=July 22, 2011 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/61742e5Ls?url=http://www.una.edu/makinghistory/ |archivedate=August 21, 2011 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref><ref name="shc">{{cite web|url=http://www.shc.edu/about-shc/employment/hiring/the-mission-statement-of-spring-hill-college/ |title=The Mission Statement of Spring Hill College: History |publisher=Spring Hill College |accessdate=July 22, 2011 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/61746iAFs?url=http://www.shc.edu/about-shc/employment/hiring/the-mission-statement-of-spring-hill-college/ |archivedate=August 21, 2011 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> Accreditation of academic programs is through the [[Southern Association of Colleges and Schools]] (SACS) as well as other subject-focused national and international accreditation agencies such as the [[Association for Biblical Higher Education]] (ABHE),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://directory.abhe.org/default.aspx?status=Member |title=Members |publisher=Association for Biblical Higher Education |accessdate=June 24, 2011 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6174AJ383?url=http://directory.abhe.org/default.aspx?status=Member |archivedate=August 21, 2011 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref> the [[Council on Occupational Education]] (COE),<ref>{{cite web|title=Membership Directory |url=http://www.council.org/forms/acc_membership.pdf |format=PDF |publisher=Council on Operational Education |accessdate=August 5, 2011 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/60iiYeIyB?url=http://www.council.org/forms/acc_membership.pdf |archivedate=August 5, 2011 |date=November 2010 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> and the [[Accrediting Council for Independent Colleges and Schools]] (ACICS).<ref>{{cite web|title=ACICS Website Directory |url=http://www.acics.org/uploadedFiles/Publications/7_20_09.pdf |format=PDF |publisher=Accrediting Council for Independent Colleges and Schools |accessdate=August 5, 2011 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/60iiMuVRG?url=http://www.acics.org/uploadedFiles/Publications/7_20_09.pdf |archivedate=August 5, 2011 |date=July 20, 2009 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> According to the 2011 ''[[U.S. News & World Report]]'', Alabama had three universities ranked in the top 100 Public Schools in America (University of Alabama at 31, [[Auburn University]] at 36, and [[University of Alabama at Birmingham]] at 73).<ref>{{cite web |title=Top Public Schools |url=http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/rankings/national-universities/top-public/spp%2B50 |website=U.S. News & World Report |accessdate=September 17, 2011 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/61mTinjiN?url=http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/rankings/national-universities/top-public/spp+50 |archivedate=September 18, 2011 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> According to the 2012 ''U.S. News & World Report'', Alabama had four tier 1 universities ([[University of Alabama]], [[Auburn University]], [[University of Alabama at Birmingham]] and [[University of Alabama in Huntsville]]).<ref>[http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/rankings/national-universities/page+29 National University Rankings | Top National Universities | US News Best Colleges]. ''U.S. News & World Report''. Retrieved on July 12, 2013.</ref> ==Media== {{Expand section|date=March 2017 }} {{See also|:Category:Alabama media|List of newspapers in Alabama}} Major newspapers include ''[[The Birmingham News|Birmingham News]]'', Mobile ''[[Press-Register]]'', and ''[[Montgomery Advertiser]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Alabama-state |title= Alabama |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate= March 24, 2017 }}</ref> Political websites include [[Alabama Political Reporter]], [[Left in Alabama]], and [[Yellowhammer News]].{{citation needed|date=December 2017}} Major television network affiliates in Alabama include: '''[[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]''' * [[WBMA-LD|WGWW]] 40.2 ABC, [[Anniston, Alabama|Anniston]] * [[WBMA-LD|WBMA 58]]/[[WABM|WABM 68.2]] ABC, [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] * [[WDHN]] 18 ABC, [[Dothan, Alabama|Dothan]] * [[WAAY-TV|WAAY]] 31 ABC, [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]] * [[WEAR-TV|WEAR]] 3 ABC [[Pensacola, Florida|Pensacola/Mobile]] * [[WNCF]] 32 ABC, [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]] * [[WBMA-LD|WDBB]] 17.2 ABC, [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] '''[[CBS]]''' * [[WIAT]] 42 CBS, Birmingham * [[WTVY (TV)|WTVY]] 4 CBS, Dothan * [[WHNT]] 19 CBS, Huntsville * [[WKRG]] 5 CBS, Mobile * [[WAKA]] 8 CBS, [[Selma, Alabama|Selma/Montgomery]] '''[[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]]''' * [[WBRC]] 6 FOX, Birmingham * [[WZDX]] 54 FOX, Huntsville * [[WALA]] 10 FOX, Mobile * [[WCOV-TV|WCOV]] 20 FOX, Montgomery * [[WDFX-TV|WDFX]] 34 FOX, [[Ozark, Alabama|Ozark/Dothan]] '''[[NBC]]''' * [[WVTM]] 13 NBC, Birmingham * [[WRGX-LD|WRGX]] 23 NBC, Dothan * [[WAFF (TV)|WAFF]] 48 NBC, Huntsville * [[WPMI]] 15 NBC, Mobile * [[WSFA]] 12 NBC, Montgomery '''[[PBS]]/[[Alabama Public Television]]''' * WBIQ 10 PBS, Birmingham * WIIQ 41 PBS, [[Demopolis, Alabama|Demopolis]] * WDIQ 2 PBS, [[Dozier, Alabama|Dozier]] * WFIQ 36 PBS, [[Florence, Alabama|Florence]] * WHIQ 25 PBS, Huntsville * WGIQ 43 PBS, [[Louisville, Alabama|Louisville]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.stationindex.com/tv/callsign/WGIQ|title=APT – WGIQ Channel 43 Television|website=www.stationindex.com|language=en|access-date=2017-05-12}}</ref> * WEIQ 42 PBS, Mobile * WAIQ 26 PBS, Montgomery * WCIQ 7 PBS, [[Mount Cheaha]] '''[[The CW]]''' * [[WTTO]] 21, [[Homewood, Alabama|Homewood/Birmingham]] * [[WTVY (TV)|WTVY]] 4.3, Dothan * [[WHDF]] 15, Florence/Huntsville * [[WFNA (TV)|WFNA]] 55, [[Gulf Shores, Alabama|Gulf Shores]]/Mobile/Pensacola, FL * [[WDBB]] 17, Tuscaloosa * [[WBMM]] 22, [[Tuskegee, Alabama|Tuskegee/Montgomery]] Viewers in eastern Alabama are served by stations in [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]] and [[Columbus, Georgia]]. ==Culture== {{Expand section|date=March 2017 }} ===Literature=== {{Main|Alabama literature}} ===Sports=== ====College sports==== [[File:Bryant-Denny Stadium by Highsmith 01.jpg|thumb|right|[[Bryant–Denny Stadium]] at the [[University of Alabama]] in Tuscaloosa]] College football is extremely popular in Alabama, particularly the [[University of Alabama]] [[Alabama Crimson Tide|Crimson Tide]] and [[Auburn University]] [[Auburn Tigers|Tigers]], rivals in the [[Southeastern Conference]]. In the 2013 season, Alabama averaged over 100,000 fans per game and Auburn averaged over 80,000 fans, both numbers among the top 20 in the nation in average attendance.<ref>[http://fs.ncaa.org/Docs/stats/football_records/Attendance/2013.pdf 2013 NATIONAL COLLEGE FOOTBALL ATTENDANCE], NCAA.org. Retrieved August 18, 2014.</ref> Bryant–Denny Stadium is the home of the Alabama football team, and has a [[seating capacity]] of 101,821,<ref>{{cite web|title=Bryant–Denny Stadium|url=http://www.rolltide.com/facilities/bryant-denny.html|website=RollTide.com|publisher=University of Alabama|accessdate=July 28, 2013}}</ref> and is the fifth largest stadium in America.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldstadiums.com/stadium_menu/stadium_list/100000.shtml |title=Stadium List: 100 000+ Stadiums |publisher=World Stadiums |accessdate=February 10, 2012}}</ref> Jordan-Hare Stadium is the home field of the Auburn football team and seats up to 87,451.<ref>{{cite web|title=Jordan-Hare Stadium|url=http://www.auburntigers.com/facilities/jordan_hare_stadium.html|website=Auburn Athletics|publisher=Auburn University|accessdate=July 28, 2013}}</ref> Legion Field is home for the [[UAB Blazers]] football program and the [[Birmingham Bowl]]. It seats 71,594.<ref>{{cite web|title=Legion Field|url=http://www.uabsports.com/tickets/albr-tickets-legion.html#Info|website=UABSports.com|publisher=University of Alabama at Birmingham|accessdate=July 28, 2013|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525100513/http://www.uabsports.com/tickets/albr-tickets-legion.html#Info|archivedate=May 25, 2013|df=mdy-all}}</ref> [[Ladd–Peebles Stadium]] in [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] is the home of the [[University of South Alabama]] football team, and serves as the home of the NCAA [[Senior Bowl]], [[Dollar General Bowl]] (formerly GoDaddy.com Bowl), and Alabama-Mississippi All Star Classic; the stadium seats 40,646.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.laddpeeblesstadium.com/ |title=Welcome to Ladd Peebles Stadium |publisher=Laddpeeblesstadium.com |date=January 23, 2012 |accessdate=February 10, 2012}}</ref> In 2009, Bryant–Denny Stadium and Jordan-Hare Stadium became the homes of the [[Alabama High School Athletic Association]] state football championship games, after previously being held at Legion Field in Birmingham.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.al.com/sentell/2009/04/super_6_byebye_birmingham.html |title=Super 6 leaving Birmingham for Bryant-Denny, Jordan-Hare stadiums &#124; al.com |publisher=Blog.al.com |accessdate=February 10, 2012}}</ref> ====Professional sports==== {{main|List of professional sports teams in Alabama}} [[File:Regions Field, Birmingham Alabama.jpeg|thumb|[[Regions Field]] in Birmingham]] [[File:Hank Aaron Stadium.jpg|thumb|[[Hank Aaron Stadium]] in Mobile]] Alabama has several professional and semi-professional sports teams, including three [[minor league baseball]] teams. {| class="sortable wikitable" |- ! Club ! City ! Sport ! League ! Venue |- | [[Birmingham Barons]] | Birmingham | Baseball | [[Southern League (baseball)|Southern League]] (AA) | [[Regions Field]] |- | [[Huntsville Havoc]] | Huntsville | [[Ice hockey]] | [[Southern Professional Hockey League]] | [[Von Braun Center]] |- | [[Mobile BayBears]] | Mobile | Baseball | [[Southern League (baseball)|Southern League]] (AA) | [[Hank Aaron Stadium]] |- | [[Montgomery Biscuits]] | Montgomery | Baseball | [[Southern League (baseball)|Southern League]] (AA) | [[Montgomery Riverwalk Stadium]] |- | [[Birmingham Hammers]] | Birmingham | Soccer | [[National Premier Soccer League]] | Sicard Hollow Athletic Complex |- | [[Tennessee Valley Tigers]] | Huntsville | [[American Football|Football]] | [[Independent Women's Football League]] | [[Milton Frank Stadium]] |} The [[Talladega Superspeedway]] motorsports complex hosts a series of [[NASCAR]] events. It has a [[seating capacity]] of 143,000 and is the thirteenth largest stadium in the world and sixth largest stadium in America. Also, the [[Barber Motorsports Park]] has hosted [[IndyCar Series]] and [[Rolex Sports Car Series]] races. The [[ATP Birmingham]] was a [[World Championship Tennis]] tournament held from 1973 to 1980. Alabama has hosted several professional golf tournaments, such as the 1984 and 1990 [[PGA Championship]] at [[Shoal Creek Golf and Country Club|Shoal Creek]], the [[Barbasol Championship]] ([[PGA Tour]]), the [[Mobile LPGA Tournament of Champions]], [[Airbus LPGA Classic]] and [[Yokohama Tire LPGA Classic]] ([[LPGA Tour]]), and [[The Tradition]] ([[Champions Tour]]). ==Transportation== [[File:Montgomery Regional Airport New Terminal.JPG|thumb|Terminal at the [[Montgomery Regional Airport]] in Montgomery.]] [[File:I20I59Birmingham.JPG|thumb|[[Interstate 59]] (co-signed with [[Interstate 20]]) approaching [[Interstate 65]] in downtown Birmingham.]] [[File:Mobile Alabama harbor aerial view.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of the port of Mobile.]] {{main|Transportation in Alabama}} ===Aviation=== {{main|Aviation in Alabama}} Major airports with sustained commercial operations in Alabama include [[Birmingham-Shuttlesworth International Airport]] (BHM), [[Huntsville International Airport]] (HSV), [[Dothan Regional Airport]] (DHN), [[Mobile Regional Airport]] (MOB), [[Montgomery Regional Airport]] (MGM), and [[Northwest Alabama Regional Airport|Muscle Shoals – Northwest Alabama Regional Airport]] (MSL). ===Rail=== For rail transport, [[Amtrak]] schedules the ''[[Crescent (train)|Crescent]]'', a daily passenger train, running from New York to New Orleans with station stops at [[Anniston station|Anniston]], [[Birmingham station (Alabama)|Birmingham]], and [[Tuscaloosa station|Tuscaloosa]]. ===Roads=== Alabama has six major interstate roads that cross the state: [[Interstate 65 in Alabama|Interstate&nbsp;65]] (I-65) travels north–south roughly through the middle of the state; [[Interstate 20 in Alabama|I-20]]/[[Interstate 59 in Alabama|I-59]] travel from the central west Mississippi state line to Birmingham, where I-59 continues to the north-east corner of the state and I-20 continues east towards [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]]; [[Interstate 85 in Alabama|I-85]] originates in Montgomery and travels east-northeast to the Georgia state line, providing a main thoroughfare to Atlanta; and [[Interstate 10 in Alabama|I-10]] traverses the southernmost portion of the state, traveling from west to east through Mobile. [[Interstate 22 in Alabama|I-22]] enters the state from [[Mississippi]] and connects Birmingham with [[Memphis, Tennessee]]. In addition, there are currently five auxiliary interstate routes in the state: [[Interstate 165 (Alabama)|I-165]] in Mobile, [[Interstate 359|I-359]] in Tuscaloosa, [[Interstate 459|I-459]] around Birmingham, [[Interstate 565|I-565]] in Decatur and Huntsville, and [[Interstate 759|I-759]] in Gadsden. A sixth route, [[Interstate 685|I-685]], will be formed when I-85 is rerouted along a new southern bypass of Montgomery. A proposed northern bypass of Birmingham will be designated as [[Interstate 422|I-422]]. Since a direct connection from I-22 to I-422 will not be possible, [[Interstate 222|I-222]] has been proposed, as well. Several U.S. Highways also pass through the state, such as [[U.S. Route 11 in Alabama|U.S. Route&nbsp;11]] (US-11), [[U.S. Route 29 in Alabama|US-29]], [[U.S. Route 31 in Alabama|US-31]], [[U.S. Route 43 in Alabama|US-43]], [[U.S. Route 45 in Alabama|US-45]], [[U.S. Route 72 in Alabama|US-72]], [[U.S. Route 78 in Alabama|US-78]], [[U.S. Route 80 in Alabama|US-80]], [[U.S. Route 82 in Alabama|US-82]], [[U.S. Route 84 in Alabama|US-84]], [[U.S. Route 90 in Alabama|US-90]], [[U.S. Route 98 in Alabama|US-98]], [[U.S. Route 231 in Alabama|US-231]], [[U.S. Route 278 in Alabama|US-278]], [[U.S. Route 280 in Alabama|US-280]], [[U.S. Route 331 in Alabama|US-331]], [[U.S. Route 411 in Alabama|US-411]], and [[U.S. Route 431 in Alabama|US-431]]. There are four toll roads in the state: Montgomery Expressway in [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]]; Tuscaloosa Bypass in [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]]; Emerald Mountain Expressway in [[Wetumpka, Alabama|Wetumpka]]; and Beach Express in [[Orange Beach, Alabama|Orange Beach]]. ===Ports=== The [[Port of Mobile]], Alabama's only saltwater port, is a large seaport on the [[Gulf of Mexico]] with inland waterway access to the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]] by way of the [[Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway]]. The Port of Mobile was ranked 12th by tons of traffic in the United States during 2009.<ref name="tonstraffic">{{cite web |title=Table 1086. Top U.S. Ports by Tons of Traffic: 2009 |website=U.S. Army Corps of Engineers |url=https://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s1087.pdf |accessdate=July 22, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019042444/http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s1087.pdf |archive-date=October 19, 2012 |dead-url=yes |df=mdy-all }}</ref> The newly expanded [[container terminal]] at the Port of Mobile was ranked as the 25th busiest for container traffic in the nation during 2011.<ref name="containers">{{cite web|title=U.S. Waterborne Container Traffic by Port/Waterway in 2011 (Loaded and Empty TEUS)|website=U.S. Army Corps of Engineers|url=http://www.navigationdatacenter.us/wcsc/by_porttons11.html|accessdate=July 22, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103145509/http://www.navigationdatacenter.us/wcsc/by_porttons11.html|archive-date=November 3, 2013|dead-url=yes|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The state's other ports are on rivers with access to the Gulf of Mexico. Water ports of Alabama, listed from north to south: {| class="wikitable" |+ ! Port name ! Location ! Connected to |- | Port of [[Florence, Alabama|Florence]] ||''[[Florence, Alabama|Florence]]/[[Muscle Shoals, Alabama|Muscle Shoals]]'', on ''[[Pickwick Lake]]''||[[Tennessee River]] |- | [[Port of Decatur]] || ''[[Decatur, Alabama|Decatur]]'', on ''[[Wheeler Lake]]''||Tennessee River |- | Port of [[Guntersville, Alabama|Guntersville]] ||''[[Guntersville, Alabama|Guntersville]]'', on ''[[Lake Guntersville]]''||Tennessee River |- | Port of [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] || ''[[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]]'', on ''[[Black Warrior River]]'' || [[Tennessee–Tombigbee Waterway|Tenn-Tom Waterway]] |- | Port of [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] ||''[[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]]'', on ''Black Warrior River''||Tenn-Tom Waterway |- | Port of [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]] || ''[[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]]'', on ''[[R.E."Bob" Woodruff Lake|Woodruff Lake]]'' || [[Alabama River]] |- | [[Port of Mobile]] || ''[[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]]'', on ''[[Mobile Bay]]'' || [[Gulf of Mexico]] |} {{clear}} ==See also== {{portal|Alabama|United States}} * [[Outline of Alabama]] – organized list of topics about Alabama * [[Index of Alabama-related articles]] ==References== {{Reflist}} * [http://www.iexplore.com/articles/travel-guides/north-america/united-states/alabama/history-and-culture "Alabama - History and Culture."] Adventure Tourism – Experiential Travel Guides. Accessed: March 31, 2017. ==Further reading== {{for|a detailed bibliography|History of Alabama}} * Atkins, Leah Rawls, Wayne Flynt, William Warren Rogers, and David Ward. ''Alabama: The History of a Deep South State'' (1994) * Flynt, Wayne. ''Alabama in the Twentieth Century'' (2004) * Owen Thomas M. ''History of Alabama and Dictionary of Alabama Biography'' 4 vols. 1921. * Jackson, Harvey H. ''Inside Alabama: A Personal History of My State'' (2004) * Mohl, Raymond A. "Latinization in the Heart of Dixie: Hispanics in Late-twentieth-century Alabama" ''[[Alabama Review]]'' 2002 55(4): 243–274. {{ISSN|0002-4341}} * Peirce, Neal R. ''The Deep South States of America: People, Politics, and Power in the Seven Deep South States'' (1974). Information on politics and economics 1960–72. * Williams, Benjamin Buford. ''A Literary History of Alabama: The Nineteenth Century'' 1979. * WPA. ''Guide to Alabama'' (1939) ==External links== <!------------------------ {{No more links}} ----------------------------- | PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. Wikipedia| | is not a collection of links nor should it be used for advertising.| | | | Excessive or inappropriate links WILL BE DELETED. | | See [[Wikipedia:External links]] & [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. | | | | If there are already plentiful links, please propose additions or | | replacements on this article's discussion page, or submit your link| | to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) | | and link back to that category using the {{dmoz}} template. | --------------------------- {{No more links}}-----------------------------> {{Sister project links|voy=Alabama|Alabama|s=Portal:Alabama}} * {{official website|http://www.alabama.gov}} * {{DMOZ|Regional/North_America/United_States/Alabama}} * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/states/alabama/index.html Alabama State Guide, from the Library of Congress] * [http://www.archives.state.al.us/aaa.html All About Alabama], at the [[Alabama Department of Archives and History]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090107053602/http://www.legislature.state.al.us/CodeofAlabama/1975/coatoc.htm Code of Alabama 1975] – at the Alabama Legislature site * [http://www.usgs.gov/state/state.asp?State=AL USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Alabama] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070823032917/http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/01000.html Alabama QuickFacts] from the U.S. Census Bureau * [http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/state-fact-sheets/state-data.aspx?StateFIPS=01&StateName=Alabama#.U1_e6Ffvg9s Alabama State Fact Sheet] from the U.S. Department of Agriculture * {{OSM relation|161950}}<!--<br />this break is to put visual space between the last information and the following template if needed--> {{s-start}} {{s-bef|before=[[Illinois]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union]]|years=Admitted on December 14, 1819 (22nd)}} {{s-aft|after=[[Maine]]}} {{s-end}} {{Navboxes |title = <span style="font-size:11pt;">Topics related to Alabama</span><br />''The [[Northern flicker|Yellowhammer]] State'', ''The Heart of [[Dixie]]'', ''The Cotton State'' |list = {{Alabama|expanded}} {{Alabama cities and mayors of 100,000 population}} {{Protected areas of Alabama}} {{Southern United States}} {{New Spain}} {{New France}} {{Confederate States political divisions}} {{United States political divisions}} |state=expanded}} {{Coord|32.7|-86.7|type:adm1st_region:US_dim:1000000_source:USGS|display=title}}<!-- geographic center of state --> {{Authority control}} [[Category:Alabama| ]]<!--please leave the empty space as standard--> [[Category:1819 establishments in the United States]] [[Category:Southern United States]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1819]] [[Category:States of the Confederate States]] [[Category:States of the Gulf Coast of the United States]] [[Category:States of the United States]] [[Category:U.S. states with multiple time zones]] d7dfp5b8mx7t9yjy4ukjbnsj6j0ubtl 0 304 783823553 234930323 2017-06-04T21:57:58Z Tom.Reding 9784415 +{{R category shell}} using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Africa]] {{Redirect category shell|1= {{R from CamelCase}} }} oi2suxci3yzj3skf0i525xfiym1ew10 0 305 861903994 861903955 2018-09-30T21:35:34Z Qzd 26906394 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/109.67.99.10|109.67.99.10]] ([[User talk:109.67.99.10|talk]]) ([[WP:HG|HG]]) (3.4.4) wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Greek mythological hero}} {{Redirect|Achilleus|the Roman emperor with this name|Achilleus (emperor)|other uses|Achilles (disambiguation)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} [[File:Gottlieb Schick Achille and Agamemnon 1801.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Achilles and Agamemnon by Gottlieb Schick (1801)]] {{Greek myth}} In [[Greek mythology]], '''Achilles''' or '''Achilleus''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|k|ɪ|l|iː|z}} {{respell|ə|KIL|eez}}; {{lang-grc-gre|Ἀχιλλεύς}}, ''Achilleus'' {{IPA-el|a.kʰil.le͜ús|}}) was a [[Greeks|Greek]] hero of the [[Trojan War]] and the central character and greatest warrior of [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]''. His mother was the immortal [[Nereid]] [[Thetis]], and his father, the mortal [[Peleus]], was the king of the [[Myrmidons]]. Achilles' most notable feat during the Trojan War was the slaying of the Trojan hero [[Hector]] outside the gates of [[Troy]]. Although the death of Achilles is not presented in the ''Iliad'', other sources concur that he was killed near the end of the Trojan War by [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]], who shot him in the heel with an arrow. Later legends (beginning with a poem by [[Statius]] in the 1st century AD) state that Achilles was invulnerable in all of his body except for his heel because, when his mother [[Thetis]] dipped him in the river [[Styx]] as an infant, she held him by one of his heels. Alluding to these legends, the term "[[Achilles' heel]]" has come to mean a point of weakness, especially in someone or something with an otherwise strong constitution. == Etymology == [[Linear B]] tablets attest to the personal name ''Achilleus'' in the forms ''a-ki-re-u'' and ''a-ki-re-we'',<ref name="New Pauly">{{cite encyclopedia|author1=Dorothea Sigel|author2=Anne Ley|author3=Bruno Bleckmann|entry=Achilles|encyclopedia=Brill’s New Pauly|editor=Hubert Cancik et al.|publisher=Brill Reference Online|doi=10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e102220}} Accessed 5 May 2017.</ref> the latter being the [[dative case|dative]] of the former.<ref name=Beekes/> The name grew more popular, even becoming common soon after the seventh century BC<ref>[http://epigraphy.packhum.org/inscriptions/search?patt=*AXIL&first=250 Epigraphical database]{{dead link|date=June 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} gives 476 matches for Ἀχιλ-.The earliest ones: [http://epigraphy.packhum.org/inscriptions/oi?ikey=27810&bookid=6&region=2&subregion=1 Corinth 7th c. BC], [http://epigraphy.packhum.org/inscriptions/oi?ikey=238250&bookid=118&region=3&subregion=7 Delphi 530 BC], Attica and Elis 5th c. BC.</ref> and was also turned into the female form Ἀχιλλεία (''Achilleía''), attested in [[Attica]] in the fourth century BC ([[Inscriptiones Graecae|IG]] II² 1617) and, in the form ''Achillia'', on a [[Female gladiator#Halicarnassus|stele in Halicarnassus]] as the name of a female gladiator fighting an "Amazon". Achilles' name can be analyzed as a combination of {{lang|grc|ἄχος}} (''{{transl|grc|áchos}}'') "distress, pain, sorrow, grief"<ref>Scholia to the ''Iliad'', 1.1.</ref> and {{lang|grc|λαός}} (''{{transl|grc|laós}}'') "people, soldiers, nation", resulting in a proto-form ''*Akhí-lāu̯os'' "he who has the people distressed" or "he whose people have distress".<ref>{{cite book|author=Leonard Palmer|title=The Interpretation of Mycenaean Greek Texts|place=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1963|page=79}}</ref><ref name=Nagy>{{cite web|author=Gregory Nagy|title=The best of the Achaeans|url=http://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/5442|website=CHS|publisher=The Center for Hellenic Studies, Harvard University|accessdate=19 March 2015}}</ref> The grief or distress of the people is a theme raised numerous times in the ''Iliad'' (and frequently by Achilles himself). Achilles' role as the hero of grief or distress forms an ironic juxtaposition with the conventional view of him as the hero of {{lang|grc|κλέος}} ''{{transl|grc|kléos}}'' ("glory", usually in war). Furthermore, ''laós'' has been construed by [[Gregory Nagy]], following [[Leonard Palmer]], to mean "a corps of soldiers", a [[muster (military)|muster]].<ref name=Nagy/> With this derivation, the name obtains a double meaning in the poem: when the hero is functioning rightly, his men bring distress to the enemy, but when wrongly, his men get the grief of war. The poem is in part about the misdirection of anger on the part of leadership. [[File:The Education of Achilles 1862 Delacroix.jpg|thumb|right|''The Education of Achilles'', by [[Eugène Delacroix]], pastel on paper, c.&nbsp;1862 ([[Getty Center]], Los Angeles)]] Another etymology relates the name to a [[Proto-Indo-European]] [[Compound (linguistics)|compound]] ''*h₂eḱ-pṓds'' "sharp foot" which first gave an [[Illyrian languages|Illyrian]] ''*āk̂pediós'', evolving through time into ''*ākhpdeós'' and then ''*akhiddeús''. The shift from ''-dd-'' to ''-ll-'' is then ascribed to the passing of the name into Greek via a [[Pre-Greek]] source. The first root part ''*h₂eḱ-'' "sharp, pointed" also gave Greek ἀκή (''akḗ'' "point, silence, healing"), ἀκμή (''akmḗ'' "point, edge, zenith") and ὀξύς (''oxús'' "sharp, pointed, keen, quick, clever"), whereas ἄχος stems from the root ''*h₂egʰ-'' "to be upset, afraid". The whole expression would be comparable to the [[Latin]] ''acupedius'' "swift of foot". Compare also the Latin word family of ''aciēs'' "sharp edge or point, battle line, battle, engagement", ''acus'' "needle, pin, bodkin", and ''acuō'' "to make pointed, sharpen, whet; to exercise; to arouse" (whence ''acute'').<ref>Cf. the Wiktionary entries [[wikt:Ἀχιλλεύς|"Ἀχιλλεύς"]] and [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₂eḱ-|''*h₂eḱ-'']].</ref> Some [[Literary topos|topical]] [[epitheta]] of Achilles in the ''Iliad'' point to this "swift-footedness", namely ποδάρκης δῖος Ἀχιλλεὺς (''podárkēs dĩos Achilleús'' "swift-footed divine Achilles")<ref>''Iliad'' 1.121, 2.688.</ref> or, even more frequently, πόδας ὠκὺς Ἀχιλλεύς (''pódas ōkús Achilleús'' "quick-footed Achilles").<ref>E. g. ''Iliad'' 1.58, 1.84, 1.148, 1.215, 1.364, 1.489.</ref> Some researchers deem the name a [[loan word]], possibly from a [[Pre-Greek]] language.<ref name="New Pauly"/> Achilles' descent from the [[Nereid]] [[Thetis]] and a similarity of his name with those of [[Potamoi|river deities]] such as [[Acheron]] and [[Achelous]] have led to speculations about him being an old [[Greek sea gods|water divinity]] (see below [[Achilles#Worship|Worship]]).<ref>Cf. the supportive position of {{cite journal|author=Hildebrecht Hommel|title=Der Gott Achilleus|journal=Sitzungsberichte der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften|issue=1|year=1980|pages=38–44}}&nbsp;– A critical point of view is taken by {{cite journal|author=J. T. Hooker|title=The cults of Achilleus|journal=Rheinisches Museum für Philologie|volume=131|issue=3|date=1988|pages=1–7}}</ref> [[Robert S. P. Beekes]] has suggested a [[Pre-Greek]] origin of the name, based among other things on the coexistence of ''-λλ-'' and ''-λ-'' in epic language, which may account for a palatalized phoneme /l^y/ in the original language.<ref name=Beekes>Robert S. P. Beekes, ''Etymological Dictionary of Greek'', Brill, 2009, pp. 183ff.</ref> == Birth and early years == Achilles was the son of the [[Nereid]] [[Thetis]] and of [[Peleus]], the king of the [[Myrmidons]]. [[Zeus]] and [[Poseidon]] had been rivals for the hand of Thetis until [[Prometheus]], the fore-thinker, warned Zeus of a prophecy (originally uttered by [[Themis]], goddess of divine law) that Thetis would bear a son greater than his father. For this reason, the two gods withdrew their pursuit, and had her wed Peleus.<ref>[[Aeschylus]], ''Prometheus Bound'' 755–768; [[Pindar]], ''Nemean'' 5.34–37, ''Isthmian'' 8.26–47; Pseudo-Apollodorus, ''[[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Bibliotheca]]'' 3.13.5; ''[[Poeticon astronomicon]]'' 2.15.</ref> [[File:Peter Paul Rubens 181.jpg|thumb|left|''Thetis Dipping the Infant Achilles into the River Styx'' by [[Peter Paul Rubens]] (c.&nbsp;1625; [[Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen]], Rotterdam)]] There is a tale which offers an alternative version of these events: In the ''[[Argonautica]]'' (4.760) Zeus' sister and wife [[Hera]] alludes to Thetis' chaste resistance to the advances of Zeus, pointing out that Thetis was so loyal to Hera's marriage bond that she coolly rejected the father of gods. Thetis, although a daughter of the sea-god [[Nereus]], was also brought up by Hera, further explaining her resistance to the advances of Zeus. Zeus was furious and decreed that she would never marry an immortal.<ref>Pseudo-Apollodorus, ''[[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Bibliotheca]]'' 3.13.5.</ref> [[File:Achilleus Lyra.jpg|thumb|right|[[Chiron]] teaching Achilles how to play the [[lyre]], Roman [[fresco]] from [[Herculaneum]], 1st century AD]] [[File:The Education of Achilles, by James Barry.jpg|thumb|''The Education of Achilles'' (c. 1772), by [[James Barry (painter)|James Barry]] ([[Yale Center for British Art]])]] According to the ''[[Achilleid]]'', written by [[Statius]] in the 1st century AD, and to [[Lost works| non-surviving previous sources]], when Achilles was born Thetis tried to make him immortal by dipping him in the river [[Styx]].<ref>Statius, ''Achilleid'' 1.269; Hyginus, ''Fabulae'' 107.</ref> However, he was left vulnerable at the part of the body by which she held him: his left heel<ref>{{cite book| author= Jonathan S. Burgess| title = The Death and Afterlife of Achilles| url = https://books.google.com/?id=Ko_YAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA9| accessdate = 5 February 2010| year = 2009| publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press| location = Baltimore| isbn = 0-8018-9029-2| page = 9 }}</ref> (see [[Achilles' heel]], [[Achilles' tendon]]). It is not clear if this version of events was known earlier. In another version of this story, Thetis anointed the boy in [[ambrosia]] and put him on top of a fire in order to burn away the mortal parts of his body. She was interrupted by Peleus and abandoned both father and son in a rage.<ref>[[Apollonius of Rhodes]], ''[[Argonautica]]'' 4.869–879.</ref> However, none of the sources before Statius make any reference to this general invulnerability. To the contrary, in the ''Iliad'' Homer mentions Achilles being wounded: in Book 21 the [[Paeonian]] hero [[Asteropaeus]], son of [[Pelagon]], challenged Achilles by the river [[Scamander]]. He cast two spears at once, one grazed Achilles' elbow, "drawing a spurt of blood". Also, in the fragmentary poems of the [[Epic Cycle]] in which one can find description of the hero’s death (i.e. the ''[[Cypria]]'', the ''[[Little Iliad]]'' by [[Lesches]] of Pyrrha, the ''[[Aithiopis]]'' and ''[[Iliou persis]]'' by [[Arctinus of Miletus]]), there is no trace of any reference to his general invulnerability or his famous weakness at the heel; in the later vase paintings presenting the death of Achilles, the arrow (or in many cases, arrows) hit his body. Peleus entrusted Achilles to [[Chiron]] the [[Centaur]], on [[Mount Pelion]], to be reared.<ref>[[Hesiod]], ''Catalogue of Women'', fr. 204.87–89 MW; ''Iliad'' 11.830–832.</ref> Thetis foretold that her son's fate was either to gain glory and die young, or to live a long but uneventful life in obscurity. Achilles chose the former, and decided to take part in the Trojan war.<ref>''Iliad'' 9.410ff.</ref> According to Homer, Achilles grew up in Phthia together with his companion [[Patroclus]].<ref name="New Pauly"/> According to [[Photius]], the sixth book of the ''New History'' by [[Ptolemy Hephaestion]] reported that Thetis burned in a secret place the children she had by Peleus; but when she had Achilles, Peleus noticed, tore him from the flames with only a burnt foot, and confided him to the centaur Chiron. Later Chiron exhumed the body of the [[Damysus (Giant)|Damysus]], who was the fastest of all the giants, removed the ankle, and incorporated it into Achilles' burnt foot.<ref>[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/photius_copyright/photius_05bibliotheca.htm Photius, ''Bibliotheca'', cod. 190]: "Thetis burned in a secret place the children she had by Peleus; six were born; when she had Achilles, Peleus noticed and tore him from the flames with only a burnt foot and confided him to Chiron. The latter exhumed the body of the giant Damysos who was buried at Pallene—Damysos was the fastest of all the giants—removed the 'astragale' and incorporated it into Achilles' foot using 'ingredients'. This 'astragale' fell when Achilles was pursued by Apollo and it was thus that Achilles, fallen, was killed. It is said, on the other hand, that he was called Podarkes by the Poet, because, it is said, Thetis gave the newborn child the wings of Arce and Podarkes means that his feet had the wings of Arce."</ref> === Hidden on Skyros === {{main article|Achilles on Skyros}} Some post-Homeric sources<ref>[[Euripides]], ''Skyrioi'', surviving only in fragmentary form; [[Philostratus III|Philostratus Junior]], ''Imagines'' i; Scholiast on Homer's ''Iliad'', 9.326; [[Ovid]], ''Metamorphoses'' 13.162–180; Ovid, ''[[Tristia]]'' 2.409–412 (mentioning a Roman tragedy on this subject); Pseudo-Apollodorus, ''[[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Bibliotheca]]'' 3.13.8; [[Statius]], ''[[Achilleid]]'' 1.689–880, 2.167ff.</ref> claim that in order to keep Achilles safe from the war, Thetis (or, in some versions, Peleus) hid the young man at the court of [[Lycomedes]], king of [[Skyros]]. There, Achilles is disguised as a girl and lives among Lycomedes' daughters, perhaps under the name "Pyrrha" (the red-haired girl). With Lycomedes' daughter [[Deidamia (mythology)|Deidamia]], whom in the account of Statius he rapes, Achilles there fathers a son, [[Neoptolemus]] (also called Pyrrhus, after his father's possible alias). According to this story, Odysseus learns from the prophet [[Calchas]] that the Achaeans would be unable to capture Troy without Achilles' aid. Odysseus goes to Skyros in the guise of a peddler selling women's clothes and jewelry and places a shield and spear among his goods. When Achilles instantly takes up the spear, Odysseus sees through his disguise and convinces him to join the Greek campaign. In another version of the story, Odysseus arranges for a trumpet alarm to be sounded while he was with Lycomedes' women; while the women flee in panic, Achilles prepares to defend the court, thus giving his identity away. == Achilles in the Trojan War == [[File:Achilles Agamemnon Pompei mosaic NAMNaples 10006.jpg|thumb|Achilles and [[Agamemnon]], from a [[fresco]] of [[Pompeii]], 1st century AD]] According to the ''Iliad'', Achilles arrived at Troy with 50 ships, each carrying 50 [[Myrmidons]]. He appointed five leaders (each leader commanding 500 Myrmidons): Menesthius, [[Eudorus]], Peisander, [[Phoenix (son of Amyntor)|Phoenix]] and Alcimedon.<ref>''Iliad'' 16.168–197.</ref> === Telephus === When the Greeks left for the Trojan War, they accidentally stopped in [[Mysia]], ruled by King [[Telephus]]. In the resulting battle, Achilles gave Telephus a wound that would not heal; Telephus consulted an oracle, who stated that "he that wounded shall heal". Guided by the oracle, he arrived at [[Argos]], where Achilles healed him in order that he might become their guide for the voyage to Troy.<ref name="Epitome 3.20">{{cite web|last1=Pseudo-Apollodorus|title=Bibliotheca, Epitome 3.20|url=http://www.theoi.com/Text/ApollodorusE.html#69|website=theoi.com|ref=69}}</ref> According to other reports in [[Euripides]]' [[lost works| lost play]] about Telephus, he went to [[Aulis (ancient Greece)|Aulis]] pretending to be a beggar and asked Achilles to heal his wound. Achilles refused, claiming to have no medical knowledge. Alternatively, Telephus held [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]] for ransom, the ransom being Achilles' aid in healing the wound. [[Odysseus]] reasoned that the spear had inflicted the wound; therefore, the spear must be able to heal it. Pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound and Telephus was healed.<ref name="Epitome 3.20"/> === Troilus === [[File:Achilles slaying Troilus.PNG|thumb|left|Achilles slaying Troilus, red-figure kylix signed by [[Euphronios]]]] According to the ''[[Cypria]]'' (the part of the [[Epic Cycle]] that tells the events of the Trojan War before Achilles' wrath), when the [[Achaeans (Homer)|Achaeans]] desired to return home, they were restrained by Achilles, who afterwards attacked the cattle of [[Aeneas]], sacked neighbouring cities (like [[Pedasus]] and [[Lyrnessus]], where the Greeks capture the queen [[Briseis]]) and killed [[Tenes]], a son of [[Apollo]], as well as Priam's son [[Troilus]] in the sanctuary of [[Apollo]] [[Thymbra]]ios.<ref name="stoa.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.stoa.org/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Stoa:text:2003.01.0004 |title=Proclus' Summary of the Cypria |publisher=Stoa.org |date= |accessdate=9 March 2010}}</ref> However, the romance between Troilus and [[Chryseis]] described in [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]'s ''Troilus and Criseyde'' and in [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''Troilus and Cressida'' is a medieval invention.<ref name="New Pauly"/> In [[Dares Phrygius]]' ''Account of the Destruction of Troy'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/DaresTW.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011130034104/http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/DaresTW.html |dead-url=yes |archive-date=30 November 2001 |title=Dares' account of the destruction of Troy, Greek Mythology Link |publisher=Homepage.mac.com |date= |accessdate=9 March 2010<!--Added by DASHBot--> }}</ref> the Latin summary through which the story of Achilles was transmitted to medieval Europe, as well as in older accounts, [[Troilus]] was a young Trojan prince, the youngest of King [[Priam]]'s and [[Hecuba]]'s five legitimate sons (or according other sources, another son of Apollo).<ref>Pseudo-Apollodorus, ''Bibliotheca'' 3.151.</ref> Despite his youth, he was one of the main Trojan war leaders, a "horse fighter" or "chariot fighter" according to Homer.<ref>''Iliad'' 24.257. Cf. [[Vergil]], ''[[Aeneid]]'' 1.474–478.</ref> Prophecies linked Troilus' fate to that of Troy and so he was ambushed in an attempt to capture him. Yet Achilles, struck by the beauty of both Troilus and his sister [[Polyxena]], and overcome with lust, directed his sexual attentions on the youth&nbsp;– who, refusing to yield, instead found himself decapitated upon an altar-omphalos of Apollo [[Thymbra]]ios.<ref>Pseudo-Apollodorus, ''Bibliotheca Epitome'' 3.32.</ref> Later versions of the story suggested Troilus was accidentally killed by Achilles in an over-ardent lovers' embrace.<ref>Scholia to [[Lycophron]] 307; [[Maurus Servius Honoratus|Servius]], Scholia to the ''Aeneid'' 1.474.</ref> In this version of the myth, Achilles' death therefore came in retribution for this sacrilege.<ref>James Davidson, [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v29/n14/davi02_.html "Zeus Be Nice Now"] in ''London Review of Books'', 19 July 2007. Accessed 23 October 2007.</ref> Ancient writers treated Troilus as the epitome of a dead child mourned by his parents. Had Troilus lived to adulthood, the [[First Vatican Mythographer]] claimed, Troy would have been invincible.<ref>The motif, however, is older and found already in [[Plautus]], [[Bacchides (Plautus)|''Bacchides'']] 953ff.</ref> === Achilles in the ''Iliad'' === {{main article|Iliad}} [[File:Achilles Briseis MAN Napoli Inv9105 n01.jpg|thumb|Achilles cedes [[Briseis]] to [[Agamemnon]], from the [[House of the Tragic Poet]] in [[Pompeii]], fresco, 1st century AD ([[Naples National Archaeological Museum]])]] Homer's ''Iliad'' is the most famous narrative of Achilles' deeds in the Trojan War. Achilles' wrath (μῆνις Ἀχιλλέως, ''mênis Achilléōs'') is the central theme of the poem. The first two lines of the ''Iliad'' read: {| class="wikitable" |Μῆνιν ἄειδε θεὰ Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος <nowiki>:</nowiki>οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκεν, […] | :Sing, Goddess, of the rage of Peleus' son Achilles, :the accursed rage that brought great suffering to the Achaeans. |} The Homeric epic only covers a few weeks of the decade-long war, and does not narrate Achilles' death. It begins with Achilles' withdrawal from battle after being dishonoured by [[Agamemnon]], the commander of the [[Achaeans (Homer)|Achaean]] forces. Agamemnon has taken a woman named [[Chryseis]] as his slave. Her father [[Chryses]], a priest of [[Apollo]], begs Agamemnon to return her to him. Agamemnon refuses, and Apollo sends a plague amongst the Greeks. The prophet [[Calchas]] correctly determines the source of the troubles but will not speak unless Achilles vows to protect him. Achilles does so, and Calchas declares that Chryseis must be returned to her father. Agamemnon consents, but then commands that Achilles' battle prize [[Briseis]], the daughter of [[Briseus]], be brought to him to replace Chryseis. Angry at the dishonour of having his plunder and glory taken away (and, as he says later, because he loves Briseis),<ref>''Iliad'' 9.334–343.</ref> with the urging of his mother Thetis, Achilles refuses to fight or lead his troops alongside the other Greek forces. At the same time, burning with rage over Agamemnon's theft, Achilles prays to Thetis to convince Zeus to help the Trojans gain ground in the war, so that he may regain his honour. As the battle turns against the Greeks, thanks to the influence of Zeus, [[Nestor (mythology)|Nestor]] declares that the Trojans are winning because Agamemnon has angered Achilles, and urges the king to appease the warrior. Agamemnon agrees and sends [[Odysseus]] and two other chieftains, [[Ajax (mythology)|Ajax]] and [[Phoenix (son of Amyntor)|Phoenix]], to Achilles with the offer of the return of Briseis and other gifts. Achilles rejects all Agamemnon offers him and simply urges the Greeks to sail home as he was planning to do. [[File:The Rage of Achilles by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo.jpeg|thumb|left|''The Rage of Achilles'', fresco by [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]] (1757, Villa Valmarana ai Nani, Vicenza)]] The Trojans, led by [[Hector]], subsequently push the Greek army back toward the beaches and assault the Greek ships. With the Greek forces on the verge of absolute destruction, [[Patroclus]] leads the [[Myrmidons]] into battle, wearing Achilles' armour, though Achilles remains at his camp. Patroclus succeeds in pushing the Trojans back from the beaches, but is killed by Hector before he can lead a proper assault on the city of Troy. After receiving the news of the death of Patroclus from [[Antilochus]], the son of Nestor, Achilles grieves over his beloved companion's death. His mother Thetis comes to comfort the distraught Achilles. She persuades [[Hephaestus]] to make new armour for him, in place of the armour that Patroclus had been wearing, which was taken by Hector. The new armour includes the [[Shield of Achilles]], described in great detail in the poem. Enraged over the death of Patroclus, Achilles ends his refusal to fight and takes the field, killing many men in his rage but always seeking out Hector. Achilles even engages in battle with the river god [[Scamander]], who has become angry that Achilles is choking his waters with all the men he has killed. The god tries to drown Achilles but is stopped by [[Hera]] and Hephaestus. Zeus himself takes note of Achilles' rage and sends the gods to restrain him so that he will not go on to sack Troy itself before the time allotted for its destruction, seeming to show that the unhindered rage of Achilles can defy fate itself. Finally, Achilles finds his prey. Achilles chases Hector around the wall of Troy three times before [[Athena]], in the form of Hector's favorite and dearest brother, [[Deiphobus]], persuades Hector to stop running and fight Achilles face to face. After Hector realizes the trick, he knows the battle is inevitable. Wanting to go down fighting, he charges at Achilles with his only weapon, his sword, but misses. Accepting his fate, Hector begs Achilles, not to spare his life, but to treat his body with respect after killing him. Achilles tells Hector it is hopeless to expect that of him, declaring that "my rage, my fury would drive me now to hack your flesh away and eat you raw – such agonies you have caused me".<ref>"The Iliad", Fagles translation. Penguin Books, 1991: 22.346.</ref> Achilles then kills Hector and drags his corpse by its heels behind his chariot. After having a dream where Patroclus begs Achilles to hold his funeral, Achilles hosts a series of funeral games in his honour.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lattimore |first1=Richmond |title=The Illiad of Homer |date=2011 |publisher=The University of Chicago |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-226-46937-9}}</ref> With the assistance of the god [[Hermes]], Hector's father, [[Priam]], goes to Achilles' tent to plead with Achilles for the return of Hector's body so that he can be buried. Achilles relents and promises a truce for the duration of the funeral. The poem ends with a description of Hector's funeral, with the doom of Troy and Achilles himself still to come. === Later epic accounts: fighting Penthesilea and Memnon === [[File:Akhilleus Memnon Staatliche Antikensammlungen 1410.jpg|thumb|Achilles and Memnon fighting, between Thetis and Eos, Attic black-figure amphora, c. 510 BC, from Vulci]] The ''[[Aethiopis]]'' (7th century BC) and a work named ''[[Posthomerica]]'', composed by [[Quintus of Smyrna]] in the fourth century AD, relate further events from the [[Trojan War]]. When [[Penthesilea]], queen of the [[Amazons]] and daughter of [[Ares]], arrives in Troy, Priam hopes that she will defeat Achilles. After his temporary truce with Priam, Achilles fights and kills the warrior queen, only to grieve over her death later.<ref>[[Propertius]], 3.11.15; [[Quintus Smyrnaeus]] 1.</ref> At first, he was so distracted by her beauty, he did not fight as intensely as usual. Once he realized that his distraction was endangering his life, he refocused and killed her.<!--- Sources for this? "Achilles fought and killed the [[Amazons|Amazon]] [[Helene (Amazon)|Helene]]." --> Following the death of Patroclus, Nestor's son [[Antilochus]] becomes Achilles' closest companion. When [[Memnon (mythology)|Memnon]], son of the Dawn Goddess [[Eos]] and king of [[Ethiopia (mythology)|Ethiopia]], slays Antilochus, Achilles once more obtains revenge on the battlefield, killing Memnon. Consequently, Eos will not let the sun rise, until Zeus persuades her. The fight between Achilles and Memnon over Antilochus echoes that of Achilles and Hector over Patroclus, except that Memnon (unlike Hector) was also the son of a goddess. Many Homeric scholars argued that episode inspired many details in the ''Iliad'''s description of the death of Patroclus and Achilles' reaction to it. The episode then formed the basis of the [[Epic Cycle|cyclic epic]] ''[[Aethiopis]]'', which was composed after the ''Iliad'', possibly in the 7th century BC. The ''Aethiopis'' is now lost, except for scattered fragments quoted by later authors. === Achilles and Patroclus === {{main article|Achilles and Patroclus}} [[File:Akhilleus Patroklos Antikensammlung Berlin F2278.jpg|thumb|Achilles tending Patroclus wounded by an arrow, Attic red-figure [[kylix]], c. 500 BC ([[Altes Museum]], Berlin)]] The exact nature of Achilles' relationship with Patroclus has been a subject of dispute in both the classical period and modern times. In the ''Iliad'', it appears to be the model of a deep and loyal friendship. [[Homer]] does not suggest that Achilles and his close friend Patroclus were lovers.<ref name= "Fox 2011">{{cite book |title= The Tribal Imagination: Civilization and the Savage Mind |author= Robin Fox |year= 2011 |publisher= Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674060944 |quote= There is certainly no evidence in the text of the Iliad that Achilles and Patroclus were lovers.|page= [https://books.google.com/books?id=YCxy_4Bt1F0C&pg=PA223 223]}}</ref><ref name="Martin 2012">{{cite book |title= Alexander the Great: The Story of an Ancient Life|last= Martin |first= Thomas R |year= 2012 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |isbn= 0521148448 |quote= The ancient sources do not report, however, what modern scholars have asserted: that Alexander and his very close friend Hephaestion were lovers. Achilles and his equally close friend Patroclus provided the legendary model for this friendship, but Homer in the ''Iliad'' never suggested that they had sex with each other. (That came from later authors.) If Alexander and Hephaestion did have a sexual relationship, it would have been transgressive by majority Greek standards ... |page=100}}</ref> Despite there being no direct evidence in the text of the ''Iliad'' that Achilles and Patroclus were lovers, this theory was expressed by some later authors.<ref name="Martin 2012" /> Commentators from [[classical antiquity]] to the present have often interpreted the relationship through the lens of their own cultures. In 5th-century BC Athens, the intense bond was often viewed in light of the [[Pederasty in ancient Greece|Greek custom of ''paiderasteia'']]. In Plato's ''Symposium'', the participants in a dialogue about love assume that Achilles and Patroclus were a couple; Phaedrus argues that Achilles was the younger and more beautiful one so he was the beloved and Patroclus was the lover.<ref>[[Plato]], ''[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]]'', [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Plat.+Sym.+180a 180a]; the beauty of Achilles was a topic already broached at ''Iliad'' 2.673–674.</ref> But ancient Greek had no words to distinguish [[heterosexual]] and [[homosexual]],<ref>[[Kenneth Dover]], ''Greek Homosexuality'' (Harvard University Press, 1978, 1989), p. 1 ''et passim''.</ref> and it was assumed that a man could both desire handsome young men and have sex with women. === Achilles' death === {{anchor|Fatalwound}} The death of Achilles, as predicted by [[Hector]] with his dying breath, was brought about by [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] with an arrow (to the heel according to Statius). In some versions, the god [[Apollo]] guided Paris' arrow. Some retellings also state that Achilles was scaling the gates of Troy and was hit with a poisoned arrow. All of these versions deny Paris any sort of valour, owing to the common conception that Paris was a coward and not the man his brother Hector was, and Achilles remained undefeated on the battlefield. His bones were mingled with those of [[Patroclus]], and funeral games were held. He was represented in the ''Aethiopis'' as living after his death in the island of [[Leuke]] at the mouth of the river [[Danube]]. [[File:Closeup of Achilles thniskon in Corfu Achilleion autocorrected.JPG|thumb|left|''Dying Achilles'' (Achilleas thniskon) in the gardens of the Achilleion]] Another version of Achilles' death is that he fell deeply in love with one of the Trojan princesses, [[Polyxena]]. Achilles asks Priam for Polyxena's hand in marriage. Priam is willing because it would mean the end of the war and an alliance with the world's greatest warrior. But while Priam is overseeing the private marriage of Polyxena and Achilles, Paris, who would have to give up Helen if Achilles married his sister, hides in the bushes and shoots Achilles with a divine arrow, killing him. In the ''Odyssey'', Agamemnon informs Achilles of his pompous burial and the erection of his [[mound]] at the [[Hellespont]] while they are receiving the dead [[Suitors of Penelope|suitors]] in Hades.<ref>''Odyssey'' 24.36–94.</ref> He claims they built a massive burial mound on the beach of Ilion that could be seen by anyone approaching from the Ocean.<ref>{{Cite book | title = The Odyssey of Homer | author= Richmond Lattimore | publisher = Harper Perennial | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-0-06-124418-6 | location = New York | page = 347 }}</ref> Achilles was cremated and his ashes buried in the same urn as those of Patroclus.<ref>E. Hamilton (1969), ''Mythology''. New York: Penguin Books.</ref> Paris was later killed by [[Philoctetes]] using the enormous bow of [[Heracles]]. In Book 11 of Homer's ''[[Odyssey]]'', Odysseus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades. One of these is Achilles, who when greeted as "blessed in life, blessed in death", responds that he would rather be a slave to the worst of masters than be king of all the dead. But Achilles then asks Odysseus of his son's exploits in the Trojan war, and when Odysseus tells of Neoptolemus' heroic actions, Achilles is filled with satisfaction.<ref>''Odyssey'' 11.467–564.</ref> This leaves the reader with an ambiguous understanding of how Achilles felt about the heroic life. According to some accounts, he had married [[Medea]] in life, so that after both their deaths they were united in the [[Elysium|Elysian Fields]] of [[Hades]]&nbsp;– as Hera promised Thetis in [[Apollonius of Rhodes|Apollonius]]' ''[[Argonautica]]'' (3rd century BC). === The fate of Achilles' armour === [[File:Aias body Akhilleus Staatliche Antikensammlungen 1884.jpg|thumb|right|Ajax carries off the body of Achilles, [[Attica|Attic]] black-figure [[lekythos]] from Sicily (c. 510 BC - [[Staatliche Antikensammlungen]], Munich)]] Achilles' armour was the object of a feud between [[Odysseus]] and [[Ajax (mythology)|Telamonian Ajax]] (Ajax the greater). They competed for it by giving speeches on why they were the bravest after Achilles to their Trojan prisoners, who after considering both men, decided Odysseus was more deserving of the armour. Furious, Ajax cursed Odysseus, which earned him the ire of Athena. Athena temporarily made Ajax so mad with grief and anguish that he began killing sheep, thinking them his comrades. After a while, when Athena lifted his madness and Ajax realized that he had actually been killing sheep, Ajax was left so ashamed that he committed suicide. Odysseus eventually gave the armour to [[Neoptolemus]], the son of Achilles. A relic claimed to be Achilles' bronze-headed spear was for centuries preserved in the temple of Athena on the acropolis of [[Phaselis]], Lycia, a port on the Pamphylian Gulf. The city was visited in 333 BC by [[Alexander the Great]], who envisioned himself as the new Achilles and carried the ''Iliad'' with him, but his court biographers do not mention the spear.<ref>"Alexander came to rest at Phaselis, a coastal city which was later renowned for the possession of Achilles' original spear." Robin Lane Fox, ''Alexander the Great'', 1973, p. 144.</ref> However, it was shown in the time of [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] in the 2nd century AD.<ref>Pausanias, iii.3.6; see Christian Jacob and Anne Mullen-Hohl, "The Greek Traveler's Areas of Knowledge: Myths and Other Discourses in Pausanias' Description of Greece", ''Yale French Studies'' '''59''': ''Rethinking History: Time, Myth, and Writing'' (1980:65–85, especially 81).</ref> === Achilles, Ajax and a game of ''petteia'' === Numerous paintings on pottery have suggested a tale not mentioned in the literary traditions. At some point in the war, Achilles and [[Ajax (mythology)|Ajax]] were playing a [[board game]] (''petteia'').<ref>[http://www.personal.psu.edu/wxk116/roma/petteia.html "Petteia".] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061209122834/http://www.personal.psu.edu/wxk116/roma/petteia.html |date=9 December 2006 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/Archives/Austin/index.html "Greek Board Games".] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090408090534/http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/Archives/Austin/index.html |date=8 April 2009 }}</ref> They were absorbed in the game and oblivious to the surrounding battle.<ref>[http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/w/x/wxk116/roma/latruncu.html "Latrunculi".] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060915044905/http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/w/x/wxk116/roma/latruncu.html |date=15 September 2006 }}</ref> The Trojans attacked and reached the heroes, who were saved only by an intervention of Athena.<ref>[[Ioannis Kakridis]] (1988). ''Ελληνική Μυθολογία'' [Greek mythology]. Athens: Ekdotiki Athinon. Vol. 5, p. 92.</ref> == Worship and heroic cult == [[File:Achilles Troilus MAN Napoli Inv5999.jpg|thumb|Roman statue of a man with the dead body of a boy, identified as Achilles and Troilus, 2nd century AD ([[Naples National Archaeological Museum]])]] {{multiple image| align = right | direction = vertical | header = | header_align = left/right/center | footer = | width1 = 220 | caption1 = [[Achilles on Skyros]], where&nbsp;– according to the ''[[Achilleid]]''&nbsp;– [[Odysseus]] discovers him dressed as a woman and hiding among the princesses of the royal court, late Roman [[mosaic]] from [[La Olmeda]], Spain, 4th-5th centuries AD | footer_align = left | image1 = 05-Mosaico del Oecus. Aquiles en Skyros alta.jpg | image2 = Achilles at Skyros, Mosaic, Villa La Olmeda, 4th century AD.jpg | width2 = 220| caption2 = Detail of Achilles}} The tomb of Achilles,<ref>Cf. Homer, ''Iliad'' 24.80–84.</ref> extant throughout antiquity in [[Troad]],<ref name=Troad>Herodotus, ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' 5.94; Pliny, ''[[Naturalis Historia]]'' 5.125; Strabo, ''[[Geographica]]'' 13.1.32 (C596); [[Diogenes Laertius]] 1.74.</ref> was venerated by [[Thessalians]], but also by [[Persians|Persian]] expeditionary forces, as well as by [[Alexander the Great]] and the Roman emperor [[Caracalla]].<ref name=Hedreen>{{cite journal|author=Guy Hedreen|title=The Cult of Achilles in the Euxine|journal=Hesperia|volume=60|issue=3|date=July 1991|pages=313–330}}</ref> Achilles' cult was also to be found at other places, e. g. on the island of [[Astypalaea]] in the [[Sporades]],<ref>Cicero, ''De Natura Deorum'' 3.45.</ref> in [[Sparta]] which had a sanctuary,<ref>Pausanias, ''Description of Greece'' 3.20.8.</ref> in [[Elis]] and in Achilles' homeland [[Thessaly]], as well as in the [[Magna Graecia]] cities of [[Taranto|Tarentum]], [[Locri]] and [[Crotone|Croton]],<ref>Lycophron 856.</ref> accounting for an almost Panhellenic cult to the hero. The spread and intensity of the hero's veneration among the [[Greeks in pre-Roman Crimea|Greeks]] that had [[Second Greek colonisation|settled]] on the northern coast of the [[Pontus Euxinus]], today's Black Sea, appears to have been remarkable. An archaic cult is attested for the [[Miletus|Milesian]] colony of [[Olbia (archaeological site)|Olbia]] as well as for an island in the middle of the Black Sea, today identified with [[Snake Island (Black Sea)|Snake Island]] ([[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] Зміїний, ''Zmiinyi'', near [[Kiliya]], [[Ukraine]]). Early dedicatory inscriptions from the [[Greek colonies]] on the [[Black Sea]] ([[graffiti]] and inscribed clay disks, these possibly being [[votive offering]]s, from Olbia, the area of [[Berezan Island]] and the [[Tauric Chersonese]]<ref>{{cite journal|author=Hildebrecht Hommel|title=Der Gott Achilleus|journal=Sitzungsberichte der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften|issue=1|year=1980|pages=38–44}}</ref>) attest the existence of a [[heroic cult]] of Achilles<ref>{{cite journal|author=J. T. Hooker|title=The cults of Achilleus|journal=Rheinisches Museum für Philologie|volume=131|issue=3|date=1988|pages=1–7}}</ref> from the sixth century BC onwards. The cult was still thriving in the third century AD, when dedicatory [[stelae]] from Olbia refer to an ''Achilles Pontárchēs'' (Ποντάρχης, roughly "lord of the Sea," or "of the [[Pontus Euxinus]]"), who was invoked as a protector of the city of Olbia, venerated on par with [[Olympian gods]] such as the local [[Apollo]] Prostates, [[Hermes]] Agoraeus,<ref name=Hedreen/> or [[Poseidon]].<ref>Quintus Smyrnaeus, 3.770–779.</ref> [[Pliny the Elder]] (23–79 AD) in his ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'' mentions a "port of the Achæi" and an "island of Achilles", famous for the tomb of that "man" (portus Achaeorum, insula Achillis, tumulo eius viri clara), situated somewhat nearby Olbia and the [[Dnieper-Bug Estuary]]; furthermore, at 125&nbsp;[[Roman mile]]s from this island, he places a peninsula "which stretches forth in the shape of a sword" obliquely, called ''Dromos Achilleos'' (Ἀχιλλέως δρόμος, ''Achilléōs drómos'' "[[Racecourse of Achilles|the Race-course of Achilles]]")<ref>Pliny, ''Naturalis Historia'' 4.12.83 ([http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D4%3Achapter%3D26#note-link10 chapter 4.26]).</ref> and considered the place of the hero's exercise or of games instituted by him.<ref name=Hedreen/> This last feature of Pliny's account is considered to be the iconic [[Spit (landform)|spit]], called today ''Tendra'' (or ''Kosa Tendra'' and ''Kosa Djarilgatch''), situated between the mouth of the [[Dnieper]] and [[Karkinit Bay]], but which is hardly 125&nbsp;[[Roman mile]]s (c. 185&nbsp;km) away from the [[Dnieper-Bug estuary]], as Pliny states. (To the "Race-course" he gives a length of 80&nbsp;miles, c.&nbsp;120&nbsp;km, whereas the spit measures c.&nbsp;70&nbsp;km today.) In the following chapter of his book, Pliny refers to the same island as ''Achillea'' and introduces two further names for it: ''Leuce'' or ''Macaron'' (from Greek [νῆσος] μακαρῶν "island of the blest"). The "present day" measures, he gives at this point, seem to account for an identification of ''Achillea'' or ''Leuce'' with today's Snake Island.<ref>Pliny, ''Naturalis Historia'' 4.13.93 ([http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D4%3Achapter%3D27 chapter 4.27]): "Researches which have been made at the present day place this island at a distance of 140 miles from the Borysthenes, of 120 from [[Tyras]], and of fifty from the island of [[Peuce]]. It is about ten miles in circumference." Though afterwards he speaks again of "the remaining islands in the Gulf of [[Kerkinitis|Carcinites]]" which are "Cephalonesos, Rhosphodusa [or Spodusa], and Macra".</ref> Pliny's contemporary [[Pomponius Mela]] (c. 43 AD) tells that Achilles was buried on an island named ''Achillea'', situated between the [[Borysthenes]] and the [[Danube|Ister]], adding to the geographical confusion.<ref>Pomponius Mela, ''De situ orbis'' 2.7.</ref> Ruins of a square temple, measuring 30 meters to a side, possibly that dedicated to Achilles, were discovered by Captain Kritzikly in 1823 on Snake Island. A second exploration in 1840 showed that the construction of a lighthouse had destroyed all traces of this temple. A fifth century BC [[Black-glazed Ware|black-glazed]] [[lekythos]] inscription, found on the island in 1840, reads: "Glaukos, son of Poseidon, dedicated me to Achilles, lord of Leuke." In another inscription from the fifth or fourth century BC, a statue is dedicated to Achilles, lord of Leuke, by a citizen of Olbia, while in a further dedication, the city of Olbia confirms its continuous maintenance of the island's cult, again suggesting its quality as a place of a supra-regional hero veneration.<ref name=Hedreen/> The heroic cult dedicated to Achilles on ''Leuce'' seems to go back to an account from the lost epic ''[[Aethiopis]]'' according to which, after his untimely death, Thetis had snatched her son from the funeral pyre and removed him to a mythical Λεύκη Νῆσος (''Leúkē Nêsos'' "White Island").<ref>[[Proclus]], ''Chrestomathia'' 2.</ref> Already in the fifth century BC, [[Pindar]] had mentioned a cult of Achilles on a "bright island" (φαεννά νᾶσος, ''phaenná nâsos'') of the Black Sea,<ref>Pindar, ''Nemea'' 4.49ff.; Arrian, ''[[Periplus of the Euxine Sea]]'' 21.</ref> while in another of his works, Pindar would retell the story of the immortalized Achilles living on a geographically indefinite [[Island of the Blest]] together with other heroes such as his father [[Peleus]] and [[Cadmus]].<ref>Pindar, ''Olympia'' 2.78ff.</ref> Well known is the connection of these mythological [[Fortunate Isles]] (μακαρῶν νῆσοι, ''makárôn nêsoi'') or the Homeric [[Elysium]] with the stream [[Oceanus]] which according to Greek mythology surrounds the inhabited world, which should have accounted for the identification of the northern strands of the Euxine with it.<ref name=Hedreen/> Guy Hedreen has found further evidence for this connection of Achilles with the northern margin of the inhabited world in a poem by [[Alcaeus of Mytilene|Alcaeus]], speaking of "Achilles lord of Scythia"<ref>D. Page, ''Lyrica Graeca Selecta'', Oxford 1968, p. 89, no. 166.</ref> and the opposition of North and South, as evoked by Achilles' fight against the [[Aethiopia]]n prince [[Memnon (mythology)|Memnon]], who in his turn would be removed to his homeland by his mother [[Eos]] after his death. The ''[[Periplus Ponti Euxini|Periplus of the Euxine Sea]]'' (c. 130 AD) gives the following details: {{quote|It is said that the goddess Thetis raised this island from the sea, for her son Achilles, who dwells there. Here is his temple and his statue, an archaic work. This island is not inhabited, and goats graze on it, not many, which the people who happen to arrive here with their ships, sacrifice to Achilles. In this temple are also deposited a great many holy gifts, craters, rings and precious stones, offered to Achilles in gratitude. One can still read inscriptions in Greek and Latin, in which Achilles is praised and celebrated. Some of these are worded in Patroclus’ honour, because those who wish to be favored by Achilles, honour Patroclus at the same time. There are also in this island countless numbers of sea birds, which look after Achilles’ temple. Every morning they fly out to sea, wet their wings with water, and return quickly to the temple and sprinkle it. And after they finish the sprinkling, they clean the hearth of the temple with their wings. Other people say still more, that some of the men who reach this island, come here intentionally. They bring animals in their ships, destined to be sacrificed. Some of these animals they slaughter, others they set free on the island, in Achilles’ honour. But there are others, who are forced to come to this island by sea storms. As they have no sacrificial animals, but wish to get them from the god of the island himself, they consult Achilles' oracle. They ask permission to slaughter the victims chosen from among the animals that graze freely on the island, and to deposit in exchange the price which they consider fair. But in case the oracle denies them permission, because there is an oracle here, they add something to the price offered, and if the oracle refuses again, they add something more, until at last, the oracle agrees that the price is sufficient. And then the victim doesn’t run away any more, but waits willingly to be caught. So, there is a great quantity of silver there, consecrated to the hero, as price for the sacrificial victims. To some of the people who come to this island, Achilles appears in dreams, to others he would appear even during their navigation, if they were not too far away, and would instruct them as to which part of the island they would better anchor their ships.<ref name=Densuşianu/>}} The Greek geographer [[Dionysius Periegetes]], who lived probably during the first century AD, wrote that the island was called ''Leuce'' "because the wild animals which live there are white. It is said that there, in Leuce island, reside the souls of Achilles and other heroes, and that they wander through the uninhabited valleys of this island; this is how Jove rewarded the men who had distinguished themselves through their virtues, because through virtue they had acquired everlasting honour".<ref>Dionysius Periegetes, ''Orbis descriptio'' 5.541, quoted in Densuşianu 1913.</ref> Similarly, others relate the island's name to its white cliffs, snakes or birds dwelling there.<ref>Arrian, ''[[Periplus of the Euxine Sea]]'' 21; Scholion to Pindar, ''Nemea'' 4.79.</ref><ref name=Hedreen/> [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] has been told that the island is "covered with forests and full of animals, some wild, some tame. In this island there is also Achilles' temple and his statue".<ref>Pausanias, ''Description of Greece'' 3.19.11.</ref> Leuce had also a reputation as a place of healing. Pausanias reports that the [[Delphi]]c [[Pythia]] sent a lord of [[Crotone|Croton]] to be cured of a chest wound.<ref>Pausanias, ''Description of Greece'' 3.19.13.</ref> [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] attributes the healing to waters (''aquae'') on the island.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' 22.8.</ref> A number of important commercial port cities of the Greek waters were dedicated to Achilles. [[Herodotus]], [[Pliny the Elder]] and [[Strabo]] reported on the existence of a town ''Achílleion'' (Ἀχίλλειον), built by settlers from [[Mytilene]] in the sixth century BC, close to the hero's presumed burial mound in the [[Troad]].<ref name=Troad/> Later attestations point to an ''Achílleion'' in [[Messenia]] (according to [[Stephanus Byzantinus]]) and an ''Achílleios'' (Ἀχίλλειος) in [[Laconia]].<ref>Pausanias, ''Description of Greece'' 3.25.4.</ref> [[Nicolae Densuşianu]] recognized a connection to Achilles in the names of [[Aquileia]] and of the northern arm of the Danube delta, called [[Chilia Veche|Chilia]] (presumably from an older ''Achileii''), though his conclusion, that Leuce had sovereign rights over the Black Sea, evokes modern rather than archaic sea-law.<ref name=Densuşianu>Nicolae Densuşianu: ''Dacia preistorică''. Bucharest: Carol Göbl, 1913.</ref> The kings of [[Epirus (ancient state)|Epirus]] claimed to be descended from Achilles through his son, [[Neoptolemus]]. [[Alexander the Great]], son of the Epirote princess [[Olympias]], could therefore also claim this descent, and in many ways strove to be like his great ancestor. He is said to have visited the tomb of Achilles at [[Achilleion (Troad)#Tomb of Achilles|Achilleion]] while passing Troy.<ref>[[Arrian]], ''[[Anabasis Alexandri]]'' 1.12.1, [[Cicero]], ''Pro Archia Poeta'' 24.</ref> In AD 216 the Roman Emperor [[Caracalla]], while on his way to war against [[Parthia]], emulated Alexander by holding games around Achilles' tumulus.<ref>[[Dio Cassius]] 78.16.7.</ref> == Reception during antiquity == === Achilles in Greek tragedy === {{main article|Achilleis (trilogy)}} The [[tragedy|Greek tragedian]] [[Aeschylus]] wrote a trilogy of plays about Achilles, given the title ''Achilleis'' by modern scholars. The tragedies relate the deeds of Achilles during the Trojan War, including his defeat of [[Hector]] and eventual death when an arrow shot by [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] and guided by [[Apollo]] punctures his heel. Extant fragments of the ''Achilleis'' and other Aeschylean fragments have been assembled to produce a workable modern play. The first part of the ''Achilleis'' trilogy, ''The Myrmidons'', focused on the relationship between Achilles and chorus, who represent the Achaean army and try to convince Achilles to give up his quarrel with Agamemnon; only a few lines survive today.<ref>Pantelis Michelakis, ''Achilles in Greek Tragedy'', 2002, p. 22</ref> In Plato's ''Symposium'', Phaedrus points out that Aeschylus portrayed Achilles as the lover and Patroclus as the beloved; Phaedrus argues that this is incorrect because Achilles, being the younger and more beautiful of the two, was the beloved, who loved his lover so much that he chose to die to revenge him.<ref>Plato, ''Symposium'', translated Benjamin Jowett, Dover Thrift Editions, page 8</ref> The tragedian [[Sophocles]] also wrote ''The Lovers of Achilles'', a play with Achilles as the main character. Only a few fragments survive.<ref>S. Radt. ''Tragicorum Graecorum fragmenta'', vol. 4, (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977) frr. 149–157a.</ref> Towards the end of the 5th century BC, a more negative view of Achilles emerges in Greek drama; [[Euripides]] refers to Achilles in a bitter or ironic tone in ''[[Hecuba (play)|Hecuba]]'', ''[[Electra (Euripides)|Electra]]'', and ''[[Iphigenia in Aulis]]''.<ref name="Latacz 2010">Latacz 2010</ref> === Achilles in Greek philosophy === The philosopher [[Zeno of Elea]] centered one of [[Zeno's paradoxes|his paradoxes]] on an imaginary footrace between "[[Epithets in Homer#Individuals|swift-footed]]" [[Zeno's paradoxes#Achilles and the tortoise|Achilles and a tortoise]], by which he attempted to show that Achilles could not catch up to a tortoise with a head start, and therefore that motion and change were impossible. As a student of the monist Parmenides and a member of the Eleatic school, Zeno believed time and motion to be illusions. === Achilles in Roman and medieval literature === The Romans, who traditionally traced their lineage to Troy, took a highly negative view of Achilles.<ref name="Latacz 2010"/> [[Virgil]] refers to Achilles as a savage and a merciless butcher of men,<ref>''Aeneid'' 2.28, 1.30, 3.87.</ref> while [[Horace]] portrays Achilles ruthlessly slaying women and children.<ref>''Odes'' 4.6.17–20.</ref> Other writers, such as [[Catullus]], [[Propertius]], and [[Ovid]], represent a second strand of disparagement, with an emphasis on Achilles' erotic career. This strand continues in Latin accounts of the Trojan War by writers such as [[Dictys Cretensis]] and [[Dares Phrygius]] and in [[Benoît de Sainte-Maure]]'s ''[[Roman de Troie]]'' and [[Guido delle Colonne]]'s ''[[Historia destructionis Troiae]]'', which remained the most widely read and retold versions of the [[Matter of Troy]] until the 17th century. Achilles was described by the Byzantine chronicler [[Leo the Deacon]], not as [[Hellenes|Hellene]], but as [[Scythians|Scythian]], while according to the Byzantine author [[John Malalas]], his army was made up of a tribe previously known as Myrmidons and later as [[Bulgars]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ekonomou|first1=Andrew|title=Byzantine Rome and the Greek Popes|date=2007|publisher=Lexington Books|location=UK|page=123|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zomZk6DbFTIC&pg=PA123&dq=john+malalas+myrmidons+achilles&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAGoVChMI6Kfx5bH2xwIVgawsCh291wLv#v=onepage&q=john%20malalas%20myrmidons%20achilles&f=false|accessdate=14 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jeffreys|first1=Elizabeth|last2=Croke|first2=Brian|title=Studies in John Malalas|location=Australian Association for Byzantine Studies, Department of Modern Greek, University of Sydney,|page=206|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p55mAAAAMAAJ&q=john+malalas+myrmidons+achilles&dq=john+malalas+myrmidons+achilles&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CCIQ6AEwAWoVChMI6Kfx5bH2xwIVgawsCh291wLv|accessdate=14 September 2015}}</ref> ==Achilles in modern literature and arts == <!-- Please add NEW works with the YEAR of first publication in the correct subcategory. --> [[File:Wenceslas Hollar - Briseis and Achilles.jpg|thumb|right|''Briseis and Achilles'', engraving by [[Wenceslaus Hollar]] (1607–1677)]] [[File:Peter Paul Rubens - The Wrath of Achilles - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|''The Wrath of Achilles'' (c. 1630–1635), painting by [[Peter Paul Rubens]]]] [[File:Peter Paul Rubens 003.jpg|thumb|''The death of Hector'', unfinished oil painting by [[Peter Paul Rubens]]]] [[File:Leon Benouville The Wrath of Achilles.jpg|thumb|''The Wrath of Achilles'', by [[François-Léon Benouville]] (1847; [[Musée Fabre]])]] ===Literature=== * Achilles appears in Dante's ''[[Inferno (Dante)|Inferno]]'' (composed 1308–1320). He is seen in [[Hell]]'s second Circle of Lust. * Achilles is portrayed as a former hero who has become lazy and devoted to the love of Patroclus, in [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Troilus and Cressida]]'' (1602). * The French dramatist [[Thomas Corneille]] wrote a tragedy ''La Mort d'Achille'' (1673). * Achilles is the subject of the poem ''Achilleis'' (1799), a fragment by [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]. * Achilles is mentioned in Tennyson's poem "[[Ulysses (poem)|Ulysses]]" (published in 1842): "[…] we shall touch the happy isles and meet there the great Achilles whom we knew." * In 1899, the Polish playwright, painter and poet [[Stanisław Wyspiański]] published a national drama, based on Polish history, named ''Achilles''. * In 1921, [[Edward Shanks]] published ''The Island of Youth and Other Poems'', concerned among others with Achilles. * The 1983 novel ''[[Cassandra (novel)|Kassandra]]'' by [[Christa Wolf]] also treats the death of Achilles. * Akhilles is killed by a poisoned Kentaur arrow shot by Kassandra in [[Marion Zimmer Bradley]]'s novel ''[[The Firebrand]]'' (1987). * Achilles is one of various 'narrators' in [[Colleen McCullough]]'s novel ''[[The Song of Troy]]'' (1998). * ''[[The Death of Achilles]]'' (''Смерть Ахиллеса'', 1998) is an historical detective novel by Russian writer [[Boris Akunin]] that alludes to various figures and motifs from the ''Iliad''. * The character Achilles in ''[[Ender's Shadow]]'' (1999), by Orson Scott Card, shares his namesake's cunning mind and ruthless attitude. * Achilles is one of the main characters in [[Dan Simmons]]'s novels ''[[Ilium (novel)|Ilium]]'' (2003) and ''[[Olympos (novel)|Olympos]]'' (2005). * Achilles is a major supporting character in [[David Gemmell]]'s ''[[David Gemmell#Troy series|Troy]]'' series of books (2005-2007). * Achilles is the main character in [[David Malouf]]'s novel ''[[Ransom (Malouf novel)|Ransom]]'' (2009). * The [[ghost]] of Achilles appears in [[Rick Riordan]]'s ''[[The Last Olympian]]'' (2009). He warns Percy Jackson about the Curse of Achilles and its side effects. * Achilles is a main character in [[Terence Hawkins]]' 2009 novel ''[[The Rage of Achilles]]''. * Achilles is a major character in [[Madeline Miller]]'s debut novel, ''[[The Song of Achilles]]'' (2011), which won the 2012 [[Orange Prize for Fiction]]. The novel explores the relationship between Patroclus and Achilles from boyhood to the fateful events of the ''[[Iliad]]''. * Achilles appears in the light novel series ''[[Fate/Apocrypha]]'' (2012–2014) as the Rider of Red. === Visual arts === * ''Achilles with the Daughters of Lycomedes'' is a subject treated in paintings by [[Anthony van Dyck]] (before 1618; [[Museo del Prado]], Madrid) and [[Nicolas Poussin]] (c. 1652; [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston]]) among others. * [[Peter Paul Rubens]] has authored a series of works on the life of Achilles, comprising the titles: ''Thetis dipping the infant Achilles into the river Styx'', ''Achilles educated by the centaur Chiron'', ''Achilles recognized among the daughters of Lycomedes'', ''The wrath of Achilles'', ''The death of Hector'', ''Thetis receiving the arms of Achilles from Vulcanus'', ''The death of Achilles'' ([[Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen]], Rotterdam), and ''Briseis restored to Achilles'' ([[Detroit Institute of Arts]]; all c. 1630–1635) * Pieter van Lint, "Achilles Discovered among the Daughters of Lycomedes", 1645, at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem * ''Dying Achilles'' is a sculpture created by [[Christophe Veyrier]] (c. 1683; [[Victoria and Albert Museum]], London). * ''The Rage of Achilles'' is a fresco by [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]] (1757, Villa Valmarana ai Nani, Vicenza). * [[Eugène Delacroix]] painted a version of ''The Education of Achilles'' for the ceiling of the Paris [[Palais Bourbon]] (1833–1847), one of the seats of the [[French Parliament]]. * [[:de:Arthur Kaan|Arthur Kaan]] created a statue group ''Achilles and Penthesilea'' (1895; Vienna). * ''Achilleus'' (1908) is a [[lithography]] by [[Max Slevogt]]. === Music === Achilles has been frequently the subject of operas, ballets and related genres. * Operas titled ''Deidamia'' were composed by [[Francesco Cavalli]] (1644) and [[George Frideric Handel]] (1739). * ''Achille et Polyxène'' (Paris 1687) is an opera begun by [[Jean-Baptiste Lully]] and finished by [[Pascal Collasse]]. * ''Achille e Deidamia'' (Naples 1698) is an opera, composed by [[Alessandro Scarlatti]]. * ''Achilles'' (London 1733) is a [[ballad opera]], written by [[John Gay]], parodied by [[Thomas Arne]] as ''Achilles in petticoats'' in 1773. * ''[[Achille in Sciro]]'' is a [[libretto]] by [[Metastasio]], composed by [[Domenico Sarro]] for the inauguration of the [[Teatro di San Carlo]] (Naples, 4 November 1737). An even earlier composition is from [[Antonio Caldara]] (Vienna 1736). Later operas on the same libretto were composed by [[Leonardo Leo]] (Turin 1739), [[Niccolò Jommelli]] (Vienna 1749 and Rome 1772), [[Giuseppe Sarti]] (Copenhagen 1759 and Florence 1779), [[Johann Adolph Hasse]] (Naples 1759), [[Giovanni Paisiello]] (St. Petersburg 1772), [[Giuseppe Gazzaniga]] (Palermo 1781) and many others. It has also been set to music as ''Il Trionfo della gloria''. * ''Achille'' (Vienna 1801) is an opera by [[Ferdinando Paër]] on a libretto by [[Giovanni de Gamerra]]. * ''Achille à Scyros'' (Paris 1804) is a [[ballet]] by [[Pierre Gardel]], composed by [[Luigi Cherubini]]. * ''Achilles, oder Das zerstörte Troja'' ("Achilles, or Troy Destroyed", Bonn 1885) is an [[oratorio]] by the German composer [[Max Bruch]]. * ''Achilles auf Skyros'' (Stuttgart 1926) is a ballet by the Austrian-British composer and musicologist [[Egon Wellesz]]. * ''Achilles' Wrath'' is a concert piece by Sean O'Loughlin.<ref>[http://musicalworld.com/artists/sean-oloughlin/ Entry] at ''Musical World''.</ref> * ''[[Achilles Last Stand]]'' a track on the 1976 [[Led Zeppelin]] album ''[[Presence (album)|Presence]]''. * ''Achilles Come Down'' is a song on the 2017 [[Gang of Youths]] album ''[[Go Farther in Lightness]]''. ===Film and Television=== In films Achilles has been portrayed in the following films and television series: * Th 1924 film ''[[Helena (1924 film)|Helena]]'' by [[Carlo Aldini]] * The 1954 film ''[[Ulysses (1954 film)|Ulysses]]'' by [[Piero Lulli]] * The 1956 film ''[[Helen of Troy (film)|Helen of Troy]]'' by [[Stanley Baker]] * The 1961 film ''[[The Trojan Horse (film)|The Trojan Horse]]'' by [[Arturo Dominici]] * The 1962 film ''[[The Fury of Achilles]]'' by [[Gordon Mitchell]] * The 1997 television miniseries ''[[The Odyssey (miniseries)|The Odyssey]]'' by Richard Trewett * The 2003 television miniseries ''[[Helen of Troy (miniseries)|Helen of Troy]]'' by Joe Montana * The 2004 film ''[[Troy (film)|Troy]]'' by [[Brad Pitt]] * The 2018 TV series ''[[Troy: Fall of a City]]'' by [[David Gyasi]] ===Architecture=== In 1890, [[Elisabeth of Bavaria]], Empress of Austria, had a summer palace built in [[Corfu]]. The building is named the ''[[Achilleion (Corfu)|Achilleion]]'', after Achilles. Its paintings and statuary depict scenes from the [[Trojan War]], with particular focus on Achilles. == Namesakes == * The name of Achilles has been used for at least nine Royal Navy warships since 1744 - both as [[HMS Achilles|HMS ''Achilles'']] and with the French spelling [[HMS Achille|HMS ''Achille'']]. A 60-gun ship of that name served at the Battle of Belleisle in 1761 while a 74-gun ship served at the [[Battle of Trafalgar]]. Other battle honours include Walcheren 1809. An armored cruiser of that name served in the Royal Navy during the First World War. * [[HMNZS Achilles (70)|HMNZS ''Achilles'']] was a [[Leander class cruiser (1931)|''Leander''-class cruiser]] which served with the [[Royal New Zealand Navy]] in World War II. It became famous for its part in the [[Battle of the River Plate]], alongside {{HMS|Ajax|22|6}} and {{HMS|Exeter|68|6}}. In addition to earning the battle honour 'River Plate', HMNZS Achilles also served at Guadalcanal 1942–43 and Okinawa in 1945. After returning to the [[Royal Navy]], the ship was sold to the [[Indian Navy]] in 1948 but when she was scrapped parts of the ship were saved and preserved in New Zealand. * A species of lizard, ''[[List of Anolis lizards|Anolis achilles]]'', which has widened heel plates, is named for Achilles.<ref>Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). ''The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. {{ISBN|978-1-4214-0135-5}}. ("Achilles", p. 1).</ref> == Gallery == <gallery> File:Achilles departure Eretria Painter CdM Paris 851.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|left|Achilles and the [[Nereid]] Cymothoe, Attic [[red-figure]] [[kantharos]] from [[Volci]] ([[Cabinet des Médailles]], Bibliothèque nationale, Paris) File:Akhilleus embassy Staatliche Antikensammlungen 8770.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|The embassy to Achilles, Attic red-figure [[hydria]], c. 480 BC ([[Staatliche Antikensammlungen]], Berlin) File:AmbrosianIliadPict47Achilles.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|Achilles sacrificing to [[Zeus]] for Patroclus' safe return,<ref>''Iliad'' 16.220–252.</ref> from the ''[[Ambrosian Iliad]]'', a 5th-century illuminated manuscript File:Bell-krater Akhilleus Penthesileia MAN.jpg|thumb|left|Achilles and Penthesilea fighting, Lucanian red-figure bell-krater, late 5th century BC File:Akhilleus Penthesileia Staatliche Antikensammlungen 2688.jpg|thumb|Achilles killing Penthesilea, [[Tondo (art)|tondo]] of an Attic red-figure [[kylix]], c. 465 BC, from [[Vulci]]. File:Mourning of Akhilleus Louvre E643.jpg|thumb|right|Thetis and the Nereids mourning Achilles, Corinthian black-figure [[hydria]], c. 555 BC ([[Louvre]], Paris) File:Aias Achilles game Musei Capitolini MC6.jpg|thumb|Achilles and Ajax playing the board game ''petteia'', black-figure [[oinochoe]], c. 530 BC ([[Capitoline Museums]], Rome) File:Achilles-01.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Head of Achilles depicted on a 4th-century BC coin from [[Pelasgia, Phthiotis|Kremaste]], [[Phthia]]. Reverse: [[Thetis]], wearing and holding the shield of Achilles with his AX monogram. </gallery> == References == {{Reflist}} == Further reading == * Ileana Chirassi Colombo (1977), "Heroes Achilleus&nbsp;– Theos Apollon." In ''Il Mito Greco'', edd. Bruno Gentili and Giuseppe Paione. Rome: Edizione dell'Ateneo e Bizzarri. * Anthony Edwards (1985a), "Achilles in the Underworld: Iliad, Odyssey, and Æthiopis". ''Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies''. '''26''': pp.&nbsp;215–227. * Anthony Edwards (1985b), "Achilles in the Odyssey: Ideologies of Heroism in the Homeric Epic". ''Beiträge zur klassischen Philologie''. '''171'''. * Anthony Edwards (1988), "Kleos Aphthiton and Oral Theory," ''Classical Quarterly''. '''38''': pp.&nbsp;25–30. * {{PWRE|I,1|221|245|Achilleus 1|Jakob Escher-Bürkli|RE:Achilleus 1}} * {{cite journal | author=Guy Hedreen| title= The Cult of Achilles in the Euxine | journal=Hesperia | year=1991 | volume=60 | issue=3 | pages= 313–330 | doi= 10.2307/148068 | jstor=148068 | publisher=American School of Classical Studies at Athens}} * {{cite book | author=Karl Kerényi| authorlink=Károly Kerényi | title=The Heroes of the Greeks | publisher=Thames and Hudson | location=New York/London | year=1959}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Joachim Latacz |authorlink=Joachim Latacz |editor1=Anthony Grafton |editor1-link=Anthony Grafton |editor2=Glenn Most |editor2-link=Glenn W. Most |editor3=Salvatore Settis |editor3-link= |encyclopedia=The Classical Tradition |title=Achilles |url= |accessdate= |edition= |date= |year=2010 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |location=Cambridge, MA |id= |isbn=978-0-674-03572-0 |oclc= |doi= |pages=3–5 |quote=|ref=}} * Hélène Monsacré (1984), ''Les larmes d'Achille. Le héros, la femme et la souffrance dans la poésie d'Homère'', Paris: Albin Michel. * Gregory Nagy (1984), ''The Name of Achilles: Questions of Etymology and 'Folk Etymology''', ''Illinois Classical Studies''. '''19'''. * [[Gregory Nagy]] (1999), ''The Best of The Acheans: Concepts of the Hero in Archaic Greek Poetry''. Johns Hopkins University Press (revised edition, [http://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/5576 online]). * {{cite encyclopedia|author1=Dorothea Sigel|author2=Anne Ley|author3=Bruno Bleckmann|entry=Achilles|encyclopedia=Brill’s New Pauly|editor=Hubert Cancik et al.|publisher=Brill Reference Online|doi=10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e102220}} * Dale S. Sinos (1991), ''The Entry of Achilles into Greek Epic'', Ph. D. thesis, Johns Hopkins University. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International. * Jonathan S. Burgess (2009), ''The Death and Afterlife of Achilles''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. == External links == {{EB1911 poster|Achilles}} {{Commons category|Achilles}} * [http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/troy.html Trojan War Resources] * [http://ancientrome.ru/art/artworken/result.htm?alt=Achilles&pnumber=20 Gallery of the Ancient Art: Achilles] * {{cite Wikisource | title=Achilles | wslink=Achilles (Coates)}} Poem by Florence Earle Coates {{Characters in the Iliad}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Achilles}} [[Category:Characters in the Iliad]] [[Category:Demigods of Classical mythology]] [[Category:Kings in Greek mythology]] [[Category:Kings of the Myrmidons]] [[Category:Greek mythological heroes]] [[Category:People of the Trojan War]] [[Category:Thessalians in the Trojan War]] [[Category:LGBT themes in Greek mythology]] hwxfyvh11bhut6mi1p77s1gs8rnsf3m 0 306 783823564 160873796 2017-06-04T21:58:03Z Tom.Reding 9784415 +{{R category shell}} using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Statistics]] {{Redirect category shell|1= {{R from CamelCase}} }} h0x5nigw4gps4a21df0kxoeimp9nhgs 0 307 861505018 860719177 2018-09-27T22:31:59Z Orser67 490397 /* External links */ added template {{Anti-slavery parties (US)}}; describes pre-Thirteenth Amendment anti-slavery parties wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|the American President}} {{pp|small=yes}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use mdy dates|date=October 2017}} {{short description|16th President of the United States}} {{Infobox officeholder | image = Abraham Lincoln O-77 matte collodion print.jpg | alt = An iconic photograph of a bearded Abraham Lincoln showing his head and shoulders. | caption = President Lincoln in November 1863 | order = 16th | office = President of the United States | term_start = March 4, 1861 | term_end = April 15, 1865 | vicepresident = [[Hannibal Hamlin]]<br>{{small|(1861–65)}}<br>Andrew Johnson<br>{{small|(1865)}} | predecessor = [[James Buchanan]] | successor = [[Andrew Johnson]] | state2 = [[Illinois]] | district2 = [[Illinois' 7th congressional district|7th]] | term_start2 = March 4, 1847 | term_end2 = March 3, 1849 | predecessor2 = [[John Henry (representative)|John Henry]] | successor2 = [[Thomas L. Harris]] | state_house3 = Illinois | office3 = Member of the<br>[[Illinois House of Representatives]] | term_start3 = 1834 | term_end3 = 1842 | birth_date = {{birth date|1809|2|12}} | birth_place = [[Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historical Park|Sinking Spring Farm]],<br />near [[Hodgenville, Kentucky]], U.S. | death_date = {{death date and age|1865|4|15|1809|2|12}} | death_place = [[Petersen House]],<br />[[Washington, D.C.]], U.S. | otherparty = [[National Union Party (United States)|National Union]] {{small|(1864–65)}} | height = 6 ft 4 in<ref name="LincolnHeight">{{cite book|last=Carpenter|first=Francis B.|title=Six Months in the White House: The Story of a Picture|year=1866|publisher=Hurd and Houghton.|page=217}}</ref> | spouse = {{marriage|[[Mary Todd Lincoln|Mary Todd]]|November 4, 1842|<!--Omitted per instructions on Template:Marriage-->}} | children = [[Robert Todd Lincoln|Robert Lincoln]]<br />[[Edward Baker Lincoln|Edward Lincoln]]<br />[[William Wallace Lincoln|Willie Lincoln]]<br />[[Tad Lincoln]] | parents = [[Thomas Lincoln]]<br>[[Nancy Hanks Lincoln|Nancy Hanks]] | profession = Lawyer, politician | nickname = Honest Abe | party = [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] {{small|(1834–54)}}<br />[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] {{small|(1854–64)}} | allegiance = {{flagu|United States|name=United States|1822}}<br> * {{flag|Illinois|name=Illinois|1915}} | branch = Illinois Militia | serviceyears = 3 months<br>{{small|(April 21, 1832 – July 10, 1832)}} | rank = {{Plainlist}} * [[Captain (US Army)|Captain]]{{Efn|name="Ranks"|Discharged from command-rank of Captain and re-enlisted at rank of Private.}}<br />{{small|(April 21, 1832 – May 27, 1832)}} * [[Private (United States)|Private]]{{Efn|name="Ranks"}}<br>{{small|(May 28, 1832 – July 10, 1832)}} | battles = [[Black Hawk War]] | death_cause = [[Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|Assassination]] | restingplace = [[Lincoln Tomb]], [[Oak Ridge Cemetery]],<br />[[Springfield, Illinois]], U.S. | signature = Abraham Lincoln 1862 signature.svg | signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink }} {{Lincoln series}} '''Abraham Lincoln''' (February 12, 1809&nbsp;– April 15, 1865) was an American statesman and [[lawyer]] who served as the 16th [[President of the United States]] from March 1861 until [[assassination of Abraham Lincoln|his assassination]] in April 1865. Lincoln led the [[United States]] through the [[American Civil War]]—its bloodiest war and perhaps its greatest moral, constitutional, and political crisis.<ref>{{cite book|author=William A. Pencak|title=Encyclopedia of the Veteran in America|url=https://books.google.com/?id=yyvmcMsNnB4C&pg=PA222|year=2009|publisher=ABC-CLIO|page=222|isbn=978-0-313-08759-2|access-date=June 27, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Paul Finkelman|author2=Stephen E. Gottlieb|title=Toward a Usable Past: Liberty Under State Constitutions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xJuXT1sVhFcC&pg=PA388|year=2009|publisher=U of Georgia Press|page=388|isbn=978-0-8203-3496-7|access-date=June 27, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905115453/https://books.google.com/books?id=xJuXT1sVhFcC&pg=PA388|archive-date=September 5, 2015}}</ref> In doing so, he preserved the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]], [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|abolished slavery]], strengthened the [[Federal government of the United States|federal government]], and modernized the [[Economy of the United States|economy]]. Born in [[Hodgenville, Kentucky]], Lincoln grew up on the [[American frontier|western frontier]] in [[Kentucky]] and [[Indiana]]. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in [[Illinois]], a [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party]] leader, and was elected to the [[Illinois House of Representatives]], in which he served for eight years. Elected to the [[United States House of Representatives]] in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy and opposed the [[Mexican–American War]]. After a single term, he returned to Illinois and resumed his successful law practice. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new [[history of the United States Republican Party|Republican Party]], which had a statewide majority in Illinois. As part of the 1858 campaign for US Senator from Illinois, Lincoln took part in a [[Lincoln–Douglas debates|series of highly publicized debates]] with his opponent and rival, [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] [[Stephen A. Douglas]]; Lincoln spoke out against the expansion of [[slavery]], but lost the race to Douglas. In 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a [[swing state]], though most delegates originally favored other candidates. Though he gained very little support in the slaveholding states of the [[Southern United States|South]], he swept the [[Northern United States|North]] and was [[United States presidential election, 1860|elected president in 1860]]. Though there were attempts to bridge the differences between North and South, ultimately Lincoln's victory prompted seven southern slave states to secede from the United States and form the [[Confederate States of America]] before he moved into the [[White House]]. U.S. troops refused to leave [[Fort Sumter]], a fort located in [[Charleston, South Carolina]], after the secession of the Southern States. The resulting Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to rally behind the Union. As the leader of the moderate faction of the Republican Party, Lincoln confronted [[Radical Republican]]s, who demanded harsher treatment of the South; [[War Democrats]], who rallied a large faction of former opponents into his camp; anti-war Democrats (called [[Copperhead (politics)|Copperheads]]), who despised him; and irreconcilable secessionists, who plotted his assassination. Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political [[patronage]] and by appealing to the American people with his powers of oratory.<ref>Randall (1947), pp. 65–87.</ref> His [[Gettysburg Address]] became an iconic endorsement of [[nationalism]], [[republicanism]], [[Civil and political rights|equal rights]], [[liberty]], and [[democracy]]. He suspended ''[[habeas corpus]]'', leading to the controversial ''[[Ex parte Merryman]]'' decision, and he averted potential [[United Kingdom|British]] intervention by defusing the [[Trent Affair|''Trent'' Affair]]. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of generals, including his most successful general, [[Ulysses S. Grant]]. He made major decisions on Union war strategy, including a [[Union blockade|naval blockade]] that shut down the South's trade. As the war progressed, his complex moves toward ending slavery included the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] of 1863; Lincoln used the U.S. Army to protect escaped slaves, encouraged the [[Border States (American Civil War)|border states]] to outlaw slavery, and pushed through Congress the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]], which permanently outlawed slavery. An astute politician deeply involved with power issues in each state, Lincoln reached out to the War Democrats and managed his own re-election campaign in the [[United States presidential election, 1864|1864 presidential election]]. Anticipating the war's conclusion, Lincoln pushed a moderate view of [[Reconstruction Era of the United States|Reconstruction]], seeking to reunite the nation speedily through a policy of generous reconciliation in the face of lingering and bitter divisiveness. On April 14, 1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate general [[Robert E. Lee]], Lincoln was shot by Confederate sympathizer [[John Wilkes Booth]] and died the next day. Lincoln has been consistently [[Historical rankings of Presidents of the United States#Scholar survey results|ranked]] both by scholars<ref name="Ranking Our Presidents">[http://history-world.org/pres.pdf "Ranking Our Presidents"] for dealing with the American Civil War, and slavery. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120131101450/http://history-world.org/pres.pdf |date=January 31, 2012}}. James Lindgren. November 16, 2000. International World History Project.</ref> and the public<ref name=gallup>[http://www.gallup.com/poll/146183/Americans-Say-Reagan-Greatest-President.aspx "Americans Say Reagan Is the Greatest President"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314210856/http://www.gallup.com/poll/146183/Americans-Say-Reagan-Greatest-President.aspx |date=March 14, 2012}}. Gallup Inc. February 28, 2011.</ref> as among the greatest U.S. presidents. ==Family and childhood== ===Early life and ancestry=== {{Main|Early life and career of Abraham Lincoln}} Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, as the second child of [[Thomas Lincoln|Thomas]] and [[Nancy Lincoln|Nancy Hanks Lincoln]], in a one-room log cabin on the [[Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historical Park|Sinking Spring Farm]] near [[Hodgenville, Kentucky]].<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 20–22.</ref> He was a descendant of [[Samuel Lincoln]], an Englishman who migrated from [[Hingham, Norfolk]], to its namesake of [[Hingham, Massachusetts]], in 1638. Samuel's grandson and great-grandson began the family's western migration, which passed through [[New Jersey]], [[Pennsylvania]], and [[Virginia]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Louis A. Warren|title=Lincoln's Youth: Indiana Years, Seven to Twenty-One, 1816–1830|publisher=Indiana Historical Society|location=Indianapolis |year=1991|pages=3–4 |isbn=978-0-87195-063-5}}</ref><ref>[[#Donald|Donald (1996)]], p. 20.</ref> Lincoln's paternal grandfather and namesake, [[Abraham Lincoln (captain)|Captain Abraham Lincoln]], moved the family from Virginia to [[Jefferson County, Kentucky]], in the 1780s.<ref>Warren, p. 4.</ref> Captain Lincoln was killed in an [[Northwest Indian War|Indian raid]] in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas,{{#tag:ref|Thomas, born January 1778, would have been 8 at the attack, May 1786. Older sources (e.g. ''Herndon's Informants''<ref name="WilsonDavis1998">{{cite book|last1=Wilson|first1=Douglas Lawson|last2=Davis|first2=Rodney O.|last3=Wilson|first3=Terry|first4=William Henry|last4=Herndon|first5=Jesse William|last5=Weik|title=Herndon's Informants: Letters, Interviews, and Statements about Abraham Lincoln|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s2gilcp4yYQC&pg=PA35|year=1998|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0-252-02328-6|pages=35–36|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180113192331/https://books.google.com/books?id=s2gilcp4yYQC&pg=PA35|archivedate=January 13, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref>) use six.}} the future president's father, witnessed the attack.<ref>[[#Donald|Donald (1996)]], p. 21.</ref><ref>{{cite book |author= Michael Burlingame |title= Abraham Lincoln: A Life |publisher= Johns Hopkins University Press |series= |volume= I |edition= |year= 2008 |location= Baltimore, MD |pages=1–2 |url= |isbn= 978-0-8018-8993-6}}</ref><ref name="white-12_13">White, pp. 12–13.</ref> After his father's murder, Thomas was left to make his own way on the frontier, working at odd jobs in Kentucky and in [[Tennessee]], before settling with members of his family in [[Hardin County, Kentucky]], in the early 1800s.<ref>Warren, p. 5.</ref><ref>Donald (1996), p. 21.</ref> [[File:Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site.jpg|thumb|left|upright=.90|Replica of Lincoln's birthplace near [[Hodgenville, Kentucky]]]] Lincoln's mother, Nancy, is widely assumed to have been the daughter of Lucy Hanks, although no record of Nancy Hanks' birth has ever been found.<ref name=Bartelt79>{{cite book|author=William E. Bartelt|title=There I Grew Up: Remembering Abraham Lincoln's Indiana Youth|publisher=Indiana Historical Society Press |location=Indianapolis |year=2008 |page=79 |isbn=978-0-87195-263-9}}</ref> According to William Ensign Lincoln's book ''The Ancestry of Abraham Lincoln'', Nancy was the daughter of Joseph Hanks;<ref>{{cite book|last=Lincoln|first=Eilliam Ensign|title=The Ancestry of Abraham Lincoln|date=1909|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Co.|location=Boston|page=85}}</ref> however, the debate continues over whether she was born out of wedlock. Still another researcher, Adin Baber, claims that Nancy Hanks was the daughter of Abraham Hanks and Sarah Harper of Virginia.<ref name=Baber>{{cite book|author=Adin Baber|title=The Hanks Family of Virginia and Westward: a genealogical record from the early 1600s, including charts of families in Arkansas, the Carolina, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Missouri, Oklahoma, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Texas, and west to the Pacific Ocean and beyond|publisher=Nancy Baber McNeil |location=Carpenterina, CA |year=2004 |page=154 |isbn=978-0-87062-334-9}}</ref> Thomas Lincoln and Nancy Hanks were married on June 12, 1806, in Washington County, and moved to [[Elizabethtown, Kentucky]], following their marriage.<ref>Warren, p. 9.</ref> They became the parents of three children: Sarah, born on February 10, 1807; Abraham, on February 12, 1809; and another son, Thomas, who died in infancy.<ref>Warren, p. 9–10.</ref> Thomas Lincoln bought or leased several farms in Kentucky, including the Sinking Spring farm, where Abraham was born; however, a land title dispute soon forced the Lincolns to move.<ref>Bartelt, p. 14.</ref><ref name=Warren12>Warren, p. 12.</ref> In 1811, the family moved {{convert|8|mi|km|spell=in}} north, to [[Knob Creek Farm]], where Thomas acquired title to {{convert|230|acre|ha}} of land. In 1815 a claimant in another land dispute sought to eject the family from the farm.<ref name=Warren12/> Of the {{convert|816.5|acre|ha}} that Thomas held in Kentucky, he lost all but {{convert|200|acre|ha}} of his land in court disputes over property titles.<ref name="sandberg-20"/> Frustrated over the lack of security provided by the Kentucky title survey system in the courts, Thomas sold the remaining land he held in Kentucky in 1814, and began planning a move to [[Indiana]], where the land survey process was more reliable and the ability for an individual to retain land titles was more secure.<ref name=Warren13>Warren, p. 13.</ref> In 1816, the family moved north across the [[Ohio River]] to [[Indiana]], a free, non-slaveholding territory, where they settled in an "unbroken forest"<ref>Warren, p. 26.</ref> in Hurricane Township, [[Perry County, Indiana#History|Perry County]]. (Their land in southern Indiana became part of [[Spencer County, Indiana]], when the county was established in 1818.)<ref>Warren, p. 16 and 43.</ref><ref>Bartelt, p. 3, 5, and 16.</ref> The farm is preserved as part of the [[Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial]]. In 1860, Lincoln noted that the family's move to Indiana was "partly on account of slavery"; but mainly due to land title difficulties in Kentucky.<ref name="sandberg-20">Sandburg (1926), p. 20.</ref><ref>Donald (1996), p. 23–24.</ref> During the family's years in Kentucky and Indiana, Thomas Lincoln worked as a farmer, cabinetmaker, and carpenter.<ref>Bartelt, p. 34 and 156.</ref> He owned farms, several town lots and livestock, paid taxes, sat on juries, appraised estates, served on country slave patrols, and guarded prisoners. Thomas and Nancy Lincoln were also members of a [[Separate Baptists]] church, which had restrictive moral standards and opposed alcohol, dancing, and slavery.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 22–24.</ref> Within a year of the family's arrival in Indiana, Thomas claimed title to {{convert|160|acre|ha}} of Indiana land. Despite some financial challenges he eventually obtained clear title to {{convert|80|acre|ha}} of land in what became known as the [[Little Pigeon Creek Community]] in Spencer County.<ref>Bartelt, p. 24 and 104.</ref> Prior to the family's move to Illinois in 1830, Thomas had acquired an additional twenty acres of land adjacent to his property.<ref>Bartelt, p. 25 and 71.</ref> [[File:Young Lincoln By Charles Keck.JPG|thumb|upright=1.15|left|''Young Lincoln'' by [[Charles Keck]] at Senn Park, Chicago|alt=A statue of young Lincoln sitting on a stump, holding a book open on his lap]] Several significant family events took place during Lincoln's youth in Indiana. On October 5, 1818, Nancy Lincoln died of [[milk sickness]], leaving eleven-year-old [[Sarah Lincoln Grigsby|Sarah]] in charge of a household that included her father, nine-year-old Abraham, and Dennis Hanks, Nancy's nineteen-year-old orphaned cousin.<ref>Bartelt, p. 22–23, and 77.</ref> On December 2, 1819, Lincoln's father married [[Sarah Bush Lincoln|Sarah "Sally" Bush Johnston]], a widow from Elizabethtown, Kentucky, with three children of her own.<ref>Bartelt, p. 23 and 83.</ref> Abraham became very close to his stepmother, whom he referred to as "Mother".<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 26–27.</ref><ref>Bartelt, p. 10.</ref> Those who knew Lincoln as a teenager later recalled him being very distraught over his sister Sarah's death on January 20, 1828, while giving birth to a [[stillborn]] son.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 20, 30–33.</ref><ref>Bartelt, p. 37.</ref> As a youth, Lincoln disliked the hard labor associated with frontier life. Some of his neighbors and family members thought for a time that he was lazy for all his "reading, scribbling, writing, ciphering, writing Poetry, etc.",<ref>{{cite book |author=William Lee Miller |title= Lincoln's Virtues: An Ethical Biography |publisher= Random House/Vintage Books |series= |volume= |edition= Vintage Books |year= 2002 |location= New York |page= 31 |url= |isbn= 978-0-375-40158-9}}</ref><ref>White, pp. 25, 31, and 47.</ref><ref>Donald (1996), p. 33.</ref> and must have done it to avoid manual labor. His stepmother also acknowledged he did not enjoy "physical labor", but loved to read.<ref>Bartelt, p. 66.</ref> Lincoln was largely self-educated. His formal schooling from several itinerant teachers was intermittent, the aggregate of which may have amounted to less than a year; however, he was an avid reader and retained a lifelong interest in learning.<ref>Bartelt, p. 10 and 33.</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=James H. Madison |title= Hoosiers: A New History of Indiana |publisher= Indiana University Press and Indiana Historical Society Press |series= |volume= |edition= |year= 2014 |location= Bloomington and Indianapolis |page= 110 |url= |isbn= 978-0-253-01308-8}}</ref> Family, neighbors, and schoolmates of Lincoln's youth recalled that he read and reread the [[King James Version|King James Bible]], [[Aesop's Fables]], [[John Bunyan]]'s ''[[The Pilgrim's Progress]]'', [[Daniel Defoe]]'s ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'', [[Mason Locke Weems]]'s ''The Life of Washington'', and ''[[The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin]]'', among others.<ref>Donald (1996), pp.&nbsp;29–31, 38–43</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Merrill D. Peterson|title=Lincoln in American Memory|url=https://books.google.com/?id=EADk9ZIMJXEC&pg=PA110|year=1995|publisher=Oxford U.P.|page=110|isbn=978-0-19-988002-7|access-date=June 27, 2015}}</ref><ref>Bartelt, p. 118, 143, and 148.</ref><ref>Warren, p. xix, 30, 46, and 48.</ref> As he grew into his teens, Lincoln took responsibility for the chores expected of him as one of the boys in the household. He also complied with the customary obligation of a son giving his father all earnings from work done outside the home until the age of twenty-one.<ref name="donald-1996-p30-33">Donald (1996), pp. 30–33.</ref> Abraham became adept at using an axe. Tall for his age, Lincoln was also strong and athletic.<ref>Warren, p. 134–35.</ref> He attained a reputation for brawn and audacity after a very competitive wrestling match with the renowned leader of a group of ruffians known as "the Clary's Grove boys".<ref>Donald (1996), p. 41.</ref> In early March 1830, partly out of fear of a milk sickness outbreak along the Ohio River, several members of the extended Lincoln family moved west to Illinois, a non-slaveholding state, and settled in [[Macon County, Illinois|Macon County]], {{convert|10|mi|km}} west of [[Decatur, Illinois|Decatur]].<ref>Donald (1996), p. 36.</ref><ref>Bartelt, p. 41 and 63.</ref> Historians disagree on who initiated the move; Thomas Lincoln had no obvious reason to leave Indiana, and one possibility is that other members of the family, including Dennis Hanks, might not have attained the stability and steady income that Thomas Lincoln had.<ref>Bartelt, p. 38–40.</ref> After the family relocated to Illinois, Abraham became increasingly distant from his father,<ref name=Bartelt71>Bartelt, p. 71.</ref> in part because of his father's lack of education, but occasionally lent him money.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 28 and 152.</ref> In 1831, as Thomas and other members of the family prepared to move to a [[Lincoln Log Cabin State Historic Site|new homestead]] in [[Coles County, Illinois]], Abraham was old enough to make his own decisions and struck out on his own.<ref name=Oates15-17>{{cite book |author=Stephen B. Oates |title=With Malice Toward None: The Life of Abraham Lincoln |publisher= HarperPerennial |series= |volume= |edition= |year=1994 |location= New York |pages=15–17 |url= |isbn= 978-0-06-092471-3}}</ref> Traveling down the [[Sangamon River]], he ended up in the village of [[Lincoln's New Salem|New Salem]] in [[Sangamon County, Illinois|Sangamon County]].<ref>Thomas (2008), pp. 23–53</ref> Later that spring, [[Denton Offutt]], a New Salem merchant, hired Lincoln and some friends to take goods by [[flatboat]] from New Salem to New Orleans via the Sangamon, Illinois, and Mississippi rivers. After arriving in New Orleans—and witnessing slavery firsthand—Lincoln returned to New Salem, where he remained for the next six years.<ref>Sandburg (1926), pp. 22–23.</ref><ref>Donald (1996), p. 38.</ref> ===Marriage and children=== {{Further information|Lincoln family|Health of Abraham Lincoln}} {{Multiple image | direction=horizontal | width= | footer= | width1=180 | image1=A&TLincoln.jpg | alt1=A seated Lincoln holding a book as his young son looks at it | caption1=1864 photo of President Lincoln with youngest son, [[Tad Lincoln|Tad]] | width2=164 | image2=Mary Todd Lincoln 1846-1847 restored cropped.png | alt2=Black and white photo of Mary Todd Lincoln's shoulders and head | caption2=[[Mary Todd Lincoln]], wife of Abraham Lincoln, age 28 }} According to some sources, Lincoln's first romantic interest was [[Ann Rutledge]], whom he met when he first moved to New Salem; these sources indicate that by 1835, they were in a relationship but not formally engaged.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Gannett |first=Lewis |date=Winter 2005 |title="Overwhelming Evidence" of a Lincoln-Ann Rutledge Romance?: Reexamining Rutledge Family Reminiscences |url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/j/jala/2629860.0026.104/--overwhelming-evidence-of-a-lincoln-ann-rutledge-romance?rgn=main;view=fulltext |magazine=Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association |location=Springfield, IL |publisher=The Abraham Lincoln Association |pages=28–41 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403014805/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/j/jala/2629860.0026.104/--overwhelming-evidence-of-a-lincoln-ann-rutledge-romance?rgn=main;view=fulltext |archivedate=April 3, 2017 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> She died at the age of 22 on August 25, 1835, most likely of [[typhoid fever]].<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 55–58.</ref> In the early 1830s, he met Mary Owens from Kentucky when she was visiting her sister.<ref name="Donald 1996 pp. 67">Donald (1996), pp. 67–69; Thomas (2008), pp. 56–57, 69–70.</ref> Late in 1836, Lincoln agreed to a match with Mary if she returned to New Salem. Mary did return in November 1836, and Lincoln courted her for a time; however, they both had second thoughts about their relationship. On August 16, 1837, Lincoln wrote Mary a letter suggesting he would not blame her if she ended the relationship. She never replied and the courtship ended.<ref name="Donald 1996 pp. 67"/> In 1840, Lincoln became engaged to [[Mary Todd Lincoln|Mary Todd]], who was from a wealthy slave-holding family in [[Lexington, Kentucky]].<ref>Lamb, p. 43.</ref> They met in [[Springfield, Illinois]] in December 1839<ref name="Sandburg4648">Sandburg (1926), pp. 46–48.</ref> and were engaged the following December.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 86.</ref> A wedding set for January 1, 1841, was canceled when the two broke off their engagement at Lincoln's initiative.<ref name="Sandburg4648"/><ref>Donald (1996), p. 87.</ref> They later met again at a party and married on November 4, 1842, in the Springfield mansion of Mary's married sister.<ref>Sandburg (1926), pp. 50–51.</ref> While preparing for the nuptials and feeling anxiety again, Lincoln, when asked where he was going, replied, "To hell, I suppose."<ref>Donald (1996), p. 93.</ref> In 1844, the couple bought [[Lincoln Home National Historic Site|a house]] in Springfield near Lincoln's law office. Mary Todd Lincoln kept house, often with the help of a relative or hired servant girl.<ref>Baker, p. 142.</ref> He was an affectionate, though often absent, husband and father of four children. [[Robert Todd Lincoln]] was born in 1843 and [[Edward Baker Lincoln]] (Eddie) in 1846. Edward died on February 1, 1850, in Springfield, probably of tuberculosis. [[William Wallace Lincoln|"Willie" Lincoln]] was born on December 21, 1850, and died of a fever on February 20, 1862. The Lincolns' fourth son, [[Tad Lincoln|Thomas "Tad" Lincoln]], was born on April 4, 1853, and died of heart failure at the age of 18 on July 16, 1871.<ref>White, pp. 179–181, 476.</ref> Robert was the only child to live to adulthood and have children. The Lincolns' last descendant, great-grandson [[Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith]], died in 1985.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jason Emerson|title=Giant in the Shadows: The Life of Robert T. Lincoln|url=https://books.google.com/?id=tPqgC3RS-7sC&pg=PA420|year=2012|publisher=SIU Press|page=420|isbn=978-0-8093-3055-3|access-date=June 27, 2015}}</ref> Lincoln "was remarkably fond of children",<ref>White, p. 126.</ref> and the Lincolns were not considered to be strict with their own.<ref>Baker, p. 120.</ref> The deaths of their sons had profound effects on both parents. Lincoln later asked a Union officer, “Do you ever find yourself talking with the dead? Since Willie's death I catch myself every day involuntarily talking with him, as if he were with me."<ref>{{cite web|title=Lincoln in Mourning|url= https://www.theattic.space/home-page-blogs/2018/2/16/lincoln-in-mourning |website=The Attic|accessdate=27 July 2018}}</ref> To Mary, he remarked when the war was won, "We must both be more cheerful in the future -- between the war and the loss of our darling Willie, we have both been very miserable."<ref>Ibid.</ref> Hours later, the Lincolns went to Ford's Theater. Later in life, Mary struggled with the stresses of losing her husband and sons, and Robert Lincoln committed her temporarily to a mental health asylum in 1875.<ref>Steers, p. 341.</ref> Abraham Lincoln suffered from "[[history of depression|melancholy]]", a condition which now is referred to as [[major depressive disorder|clinical depression]].<ref name="Atlanticoct2005">{{cite web |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200510/lincolns-clinical-depression |title=Lincoln's Great Depression |first=Joshua Wolf |last=Shenk |date=October 2005 |work=The Atlantic |publisher=The Atlantic Monthly Group |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/62a4fProj?url=http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2005/10/lincoln-apos-s-great-depression/4247/ |archivedate=October 20, 2011 |deadurl=no |df=mdy |access-date=October 8, 2009}}</ref> Lincoln's father-in-law and others of the Todd family were either slave owners or slave traders. Lincoln was close to the Todds, and he and his family occasionally visited the Todd estate in Lexington.<ref>Foner (1995), pp. 440–447.</ref> During his term as President of the United States, Mary was known to cook for Lincoln often. Since she was raised by a wealthy family, her cooking abilities were simple, but satisfied Lincoln's tastes, which included, particularly, imported oysters.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Food Timeline—Presidents food favorites |url=http://www.foodtimeline.org/presidents.html#lincoln |publisher=foodtimeline.org |access-date=February 12, 2016 |first=Lynne |last=Olver |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204202442/http://www.foodtimeline.org/presidents.html |archive-date=February 4, 2016 |deadurl=no |df=mdy}}</ref> ==Early career and militia service== {{Further information|Early life and career of Abraham Lincoln|Abraham Lincoln in the Black Hawk War}} [[File:Lincoln protecting Potawatomi.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|Lincoln depicted protecting a Native American from his own men in a scene often related about Lincoln's service during the [[Black Hawk War]].]] In 1832, at age 23, Lincoln and a partner ([[Denton Offutt]]) bought a small general store on credit in [[Lincoln's New Salem|New Salem]], Illinois.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kenneth J. Winkle|title=The Young Eagle: The Rise of Abraham Lincoln|url=https://books.google.com/?id=JcEVAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA77|year=2001|publisher=Taylor |pages=72–79|isbn=978-1-4617-3436-9|access-date=June 27, 2015}}</ref> Although the economy was booming in the region, the business struggled and Lincoln eventually sold his share. That March he began his political career with his first campaign for the [[Illinois General Assembly]]. He had attained local popularity and could draw crowds as a natural [[raconteur]] in New Salem, though he lacked an education, powerful friends, and money, which may be why he lost. He advocated navigational improvements on the Sangamon River.<ref>[[#Donald|Donald (1996)]], [https://books.google.com/?id=fuTY3mxs9awC&pg=PA41&dq=%22New%20Salem%20debating%20club%22 pp. 40–42].</ref><ref>[[s:Life and Works of Abraham Lincoln/Volume 3/The Improvement of Sangamon River]]</ref> Before the election, Lincoln served as a captain in the Illinois Militia during the [[Black Hawk War]].<ref>Winkle, pp. 86–95.</ref> Following his return, Lincoln continued his campaign for the August 6 election for the Illinois General Assembly. At {{convert|6|ft|4|in|cm|0}},<ref>Sandburg (2002), p. 14</ref> he was tall and "strong enough to intimidate any rival". At his first speech, when he saw a supporter in the crowd being attacked, Lincoln grabbed the assailant by his "neck and the seat of his trousers" and threw him.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 46.</ref> Lincoln finished eighth out of 13 candidates (the top four were elected), though he received 277 of the 300 votes cast in the New Salem precinct.<ref>Winkle, pp. 114–116.</ref> Lincoln served as New Salem's postmaster and later as county surveyor, all the while reading voraciously. He then decided to become a lawyer and began teaching himself law by reading [[William Blackstone|Blackstone]]'s ''[[Commentaries on the Laws of England]]'' and other law books. Of his learning method, Lincoln stated: "I studied with nobody".<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 53–55.</ref> His second campaign in 1834 was successful. He won election to the state legislature; though he ran as a [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]], many Democrats favored him over a more powerful Whig opponent.<ref>White, p. 59.</ref> [[File:Abes House.JPG|thumb|left|upright=.95|Lincoln's home in [[Springfield, Illinois]]]] [[Admission to the bar in the United States|Admitted]] to the Illinois bar in 1836,<ref>Donald (1996), p. 64.</ref> he moved to Springfield, Illinois, and began to practice law under [[John T. Stuart]], Mary Todd's cousin.<ref>White, pp. 71, 79, 108.</ref> Lincoln became an able and successful lawyer with a reputation as a formidable adversary during cross-examinations and closing arguments. He partnered with [[Stephen T. Logan]] from 1841 until 1844. Then Lincoln began [[Lincoln-Herndon Law Offices State Historic Site|his practice]] with [[William Herndon (lawyer)|William Herndon]], whom Lincoln thought "a studious young man".<ref>Donald (1948), p. 17.</ref> Successful on his second run for office, Lincoln served four successive terms in the [[Illinois House of Representatives]] as a Whig representative from Sangamon County.<ref>Simon, p. 283.</ref> He supported the construction of the [[Illinois and Michigan Canal]], which he remained involved with later as a Canal Commissioner.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://abrahamlincolnsclassroom.org/abraham-lincoln-in-depth/abraham-lincoln-and-internal-improvements/#imc|title=Abraham Lincoln and Internal Improvements|first=Jesse William|last=Weik|work=Abraham Lincoln's Classroom|access-date=February 12, 2015|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212045823/http://abrahamlincolnsclassroom.org/abraham-lincoln-in-depth/abraham-lincoln-and-internal-improvements/#imc|archivedate=February 12, 2015|df=mdy-all}}</ref> In the 1835–36 legislative session, he voted to expand suffrage to white males, whether landowners or not.<ref>Simon, p. 130.</ref> He was known for his "free soil" stance of opposing both slavery and [[abolitionism in the United States|abolitionism]]. He first articulated this in 1837, saying, "[The] Institution of slavery is founded on both injustice and bad policy, but the promulgation of abolition doctrines tends rather to increase than abate its evils."<ref>Donald (1996), p. 134.</ref> His stance closely followed [[Henry Clay]] in supporting the [[American Colonization Society]] program of making the abolition of slavery practical by its advocation and helping the freed slaves to settle in [[Liberia]] in Africa.<ref>Foner (2010), pp. 17–19, 67.</ref> ==U.S. House of Representatives, 1847–49== [[File:Abraham Lincoln by Nicholas Shepherd, 1846-crop.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|alt=Middle aged clean shaven Lincoln from the hips up.|Lincoln in his late 30s as a member of the [[U.S. House of Representatives]]. Photo taken by one of Lincoln's law students around 1846.]] From the early 1830s, Lincoln was a steadfast Whig and professed to friends in 1861 to be "an old line Whig, a disciple of Henry Clay".<ref>Donald (1996), p. 222.</ref> The party, including Lincoln, favored economic modernization in banking, protective tariffs to fund [[internal improvements]] including railroads, and espoused urbanization as well.<ref>Boritt (1994), pp. 137–153.</ref> Lincoln ran for the Whig nomination for Illinois's 7th district of the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]] in 1843, but was defeated by [[John J. Hardin]]. However, Lincoln won support for the principle of rotation, whereby Hardin would retire after only one term to allow for the nomination of another candidate. Lincoln hoped that this arrangement would lead to his nomination in 1846.<ref name="white-123_124">White, pp. 123–124.</ref> Lincoln was indeed elected to the House of Representatives in 1846, where he served one two-year term. He was the only Whig in the Illinois delegation, but he showed his party loyalty by participating in almost all votes and making speeches that echoed the party line.<ref>Oates, p. 79.</ref> Lincoln, in collaboration with abolitionist Congressman [[Joshua R. Giddings]], wrote a bill to abolish slavery in the [[Washington, District of Columbia|District of Columbia]] with compensation for the owners, enforcement to capture fugitive slaves, and a popular vote on the matter. He abandoned the bill when it failed to garner sufficient Whig supporters.<ref>Harris, p. 54; Foner (2010), p. 57.</ref> On foreign and military policy, Lincoln spoke out against the [[Mexican–American War]], which he attributed to [[James K. Polk|President Polk]]'s desire for "military glory—that attractive rainbow, that rises in showers of blood".<ref>Heidler (2006), pp. 181–183.</ref> Lincoln also supported the [[Wilmot Proviso]], which, if it had been adopted, would have banned slavery in any U.S. territory won from Mexico.<ref>Holzer, p. 63.</ref> <ref>Abraham Lincoln, Spot Resolutions in the United States House of Representatives, December 22, 1847, National Archives Building, RG 233, Entry 362: Thirtieth Congress, 1847–1849, Records of Legislative Proceedings, Bills and Resolutions Originating in the House, 1847–1849</ref> Lincoln emphasized his opposition to Polk by drafting and introducing his [[Spot Resolutions]]. The war had begun with a Mexican slaughter of American soldiers in territory disputed by Mexico and the U.S. Polk insisted that Mexican soldiers had "invaded ''our territory'' and shed the blood of our fellow-citizens on our ''own soil''".<ref>Oates, pp. 79–80.</ref><ref name="Basler1pp199—202">Basler (1946), pp. 199–202.</ref> Lincoln demanded that Polk show Congress the exact spot on which blood had been shed and prove that the spot was on American soil.<ref name="Basler1pp199—202"/><ref>Gerleman, (2017) "Representative Lincoln at Work," 40.</ref> Congress never enacted the resolution or even debated it, the national papers ignored it, and it resulted in a loss of political support for Lincoln in his district. One Illinois newspaper derisively nicknamed him "spotty Lincoln".<ref name="McGovern, p. 33">McGovern, p. 33.</ref><ref>Basler (1946), p. 202.</ref><ref name="MuellerSchamel">{{cite web |url=https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/lincoln-resolutions/ |title=Lincoln's Spot Resolutions |publisher=National Archives |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/62a5gtE9P?url=http://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/lincoln-resolutions/ |archivedate=October 20, 2011 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy |access-date=March 12, 2009}}</ref> Lincoln later regretted some of his statements, especially his attack on the presidential war-making powers.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 128.</ref> Realizing Clay was unlikely to win the presidency, Lincoln, who had pledged in 1846 to serve only one term in the House, supported General [[Zachary Taylor]] for the Whig nomination in the [[United States presidential election, 1848|1848 presidential election]].<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 124–126.</ref> Taylor won and Lincoln hoped to be appointed Commissioner of the [[General Land Office]], but that lucrative patronage job went to an Illinois rival, [[Justin Butterfield]], considered by the administration to be a highly skilled lawyer, but in Lincoln's view, an "old fossil".<ref>Donald (1996), p. 140.</ref> The administration offered him the consolation prize of secretary or governor of the [[Oregon Territory]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Arnold |first=Isaac Newton |date=1885 |title=The Life of Abraham Lincoln |volume=2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3zgDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA81 |location=Chicago, IL |publisher=Janses, McClurg, & Company |page=81 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403025741/https://books.google.com/books?id=3zgDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA81 |archivedate=April 3, 2017 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> This distant territory was a Democratic stronghold, and acceptance of the post would have effectively ended his legal and political career in Illinois, so he declined and resumed his law practice.<ref>Harris, pp. 55–57.</ref> ==Prairie lawyer== {{seealso|List of cases involving Abraham Lincoln}} [[File:Abraham Lincoln by Hesler, 1857.jpg|thumb|left|Lincoln in 1857]] Lincoln returned to practicing law in Springfield, handling "every kind of business that could come before a prairie lawyer".<ref>Donald (1996), p. 96.</ref> Twice a year for 16 years, 10 weeks at a time, he appeared in county seats in the midstate region when the county courts were in session.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 105–106, 158.</ref> Lincoln handled many transportation cases in the midst of the nation's western expansion, particularly the conflicts arising from the operation of river barges under the many new railroad bridges. As a riverboat man, Lincoln initially favored those interests, but ultimately represented whoever hired him.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 142–143.</ref> In fact, he later represented a bridge company against a riverboat company in a [[Hurd v. Rock Island Bridge Company|landmark case]] involving a canal boat that sank after hitting a bridge.<ref>[https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2004/summer/bridge.html Bridging the Mississippi] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080923204642/http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2004/summer/bridge.html |date=September 23, 2008}}. Archives.gov (October 19, 2011). Retrieved August 17, 2013.</ref><ref>* Brian McGinty, ''Lincoln's Greatest Case: The River, the Bridge, and the Making of America'' (2015)</ref> In 1849, he received [[Abraham Lincoln's patent|a patent for a flotation device]] for the movement of boats in shallow water. The idea was never commercialized, but Lincoln is the only president to hold a patent.<ref>White, p. 163.</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= Abraham Lincoln's Patent Model: Improvement for Buoying Vessels Over Shoals |publisher= Smithsonian Institution |url= http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah_213141 |access-date= April 28, 2017 |deadurl= no |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20170825232337/http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah_213141 |archivedate= August 25, 2017 |df= mdy-all}}</ref> In 1851, he represented the [[Alton Railroad|Alton & Sangamon Railroad]] in a dispute with one of its shareholders, James A. Barret, who had refused to pay the balance on his pledge to buy shares in the railroad on the grounds that the company had changed its original train route.<ref name="Donald p. 155">Donald (1996), p. 155.</ref><ref>Dirck (2007), p. 92.</ref> Lincoln successfully argued that the railroad company was not bound by its original charter extant at the time of Barret's pledge; the charter was amended in the public interest to provide a newer, superior, and less expensive route, and the corporation retained the right to demand Barret's payment. The decision by the [[Supreme Court of Illinois|Illinois Supreme Court]] has been cited by numerous other courts in the nation.<ref name="Donald p. 155"/> Lincoln appeared before the Illinois Supreme Court in 175 cases, in 51 as sole counsel, of which 31 were decided in his favor.<ref>Handy, p. 440.</ref> From 1853 to 1860, another of Lincoln's largest clients was the [[Illinois Central Railroad]].<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 155–156, 196–197.</ref> Lincoln's reputation with clients gave rise to his nickname "Honest Abe."<ref>{{cite book |author=Philosophical Library |title= The Wisdom of Abraham Lincoln |publisher= Open Road Media |year= 2010 |page= 1828 |isbn= 978-1-4532-0281-4}}</ref> Lincoln's most notable criminal trial occurred in 1858 when he defended [[William "Duff" Armstrong]], who was on trial for the murder of James Preston Metzker.<ref name="Donald150151">Donald (1996), pp. 150–151.</ref> The case is famous for Lincoln's use of a fact established by [[judicial notice]] in order to challenge the credibility of an eyewitness. After an opposing witness testified seeing the crime in the moonlight, Lincoln produced a ''[[Farmers' Almanac]]'' showing the moon was at a low angle, drastically reducing visibility. Based on this evidence, Armstrong was acquitted.<ref name="Donald150151"/> Lincoln rarely raised objections in the courtroom; but in an 1859 case, where he defended a cousin, Peachy Harrison, who was accused of stabbing another to death, Lincoln angrily protested the judge's decision to exclude evidence favorable to his client. Instead of holding Lincoln in contempt of court as was expected, the judge, a Democrat, reversed his ruling, allowing the evidence and acquitting Harrison.<ref name="Donald150151"/><ref>Harrison (1935), p. 270.</ref> ==Republican politics 1854–60== ===Emergence as Republican leader=== {{Further information|Slave and free states|Abraham Lincoln and slavery}} [[File:Abraham Lincoln by Byers, 1858 - crop.jpg|thumb|Lincoln in 1858, the year of [[Lincoln–Douglas debates|his debates]] with [[Stephen A. Douglas|Stephen Douglas]] over slavery]] The debate over the status of slavery in the territories exacerbated sectional tensions between the slave-holding South and the North, and the [[Compromise of 1850]] failed to defuse the issue.<ref>White, pp. 175–176.</ref> In the early 1850s, Lincoln supported efforts for sectional mediation, and his 1852 eulogy for Henry Clay focused on the latter's support for gradual emancipation and opposition to "both extremes" on the slavery issue.<ref>White, pp. 182–185.</ref> As the 1850s progressed, the debate over slavery in the [[Nebraska Territory]] and [[Kansas Territory]] became particularly acrimonious, and Senator [[Stephen A. Douglas]] of Illinois proposed [[Popular sovereignty in the United States#Emergence of the term "popular sovereignty" and its pejorative connotation|popular sovereignty]] as a compromise measure; the proposal would take the issue of slavery out of the hands of Congress by allowing the electorate of each territory to decide the status of slavery themselves. The proposal alarmed many Northerners, who hoped to stop the spread of slavery into the territories. Despite this Northern opposition, Douglas's [[Kansas–Nebraska Act]] narrowly passed Congress in May 1854.<ref>White, pp. 188–190.</ref> For months after its passage, Lincoln did not publicly comment on the Kansas–Nebraska Act, but he came to strongly oppose it.<ref>White, pp. 196–197.</ref> On October 16, 1854, in his "[[Abraham Lincoln's Peoria speech|Peoria Speech]]", Lincoln declared his opposition to slavery, which he repeated en route to the presidency.<ref>Thomas (2008), pp. 148–152.</ref> Speaking in his Kentucky accent, with a very powerful voice,<ref>White, p. 199.</ref> he said the Kansas Act had a "''declared'' indifference, but as I must think, a covert ''real'' zeal for the spread of slavery. I cannot but hate it. I hate it because of the monstrous injustice of slavery itself. I hate it because it deprives our republican example of its just influence in the world&nbsp;..."<ref>Basler (1953), p. 255.</ref> Lincoln's attacks on the Kansas–Nebraska Act marked his return to political life.<ref name=white203204>White, pp. 203–205.</ref> Nationally, the Whigs were irreparably split by the Kansas–Nebraska Act and other efforts to compromise on the slavery issue. Reflecting the demise of his party, Lincoln would write in 1855, "I think I am a Whig, but others say there are no Whigs, and that I am an abolitionist [...] I do no more than oppose the ''extension'' of slavery."<ref>White, pp. 215–216.</ref> Drawing on the antislavery portion of the Whig Party, and combining [[Free Soil Party|Free Soil]], [[Liberty Party (United States, 1840)|Liberty]], and antislavery [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] members, the new [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] formed as a northern party dedicated to antislavery.<ref>McGovern, pp. 38–39.</ref> Lincoln resisted early attempts to recruit him to the new party, fearing that it would serve as a platform for extreme abolitionists.<ref>White, pp. 203–204.</ref> Lincoln also still hoped to rejuvenate the ailing Whig Party, though he bemoaned his party's growing closeness with the nativist [[Know Nothing]] movement.<ref>White, pp. 191–194.</ref> In the 1854 elections, Lincoln was elected to the Illinois legislature but declined to take his seat.<ref name=white203204/> In the aftermath of the elections, which showed the power and popularity of the movement opposed to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, Lincoln instead sought election to the United States Senate.<ref>White, pp. 204–205.</ref> At that time, senators were elected by the state legislature.<ref>Oates, p. 119.</ref> After leading in the first six rounds of voting, but unable to obtain a majority, Lincoln instructed his backers to vote for [[Lyman Trumbull]]. Trumbull was an antislavery Democrat, and had received few votes in the earlier ballots; his supporters, also antislavery Democrats, had vowed not to support any Whig. Lincoln's decision to withdraw enabled his Whig supporters and Trumbull's antislavery Democrats to combine and defeat the mainstream Democratic candidate, [[Joel Aldrich Matteson]].<ref>White, pp. 205–208.</ref> In part due to the ongoing [[Bleeding Kansas|violent political confrontations in the Kansas]], opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act remained strong in Illinois and throughout the North. As the [[United States elections, 1856|1856 elections]] approached, Lincoln abandoned the defunct Whig Party in favor of the Republicans. He attended the May 1856 [[Bloomington Convention]], which formally established the [[Illinois Republican Party]]. The convention platform asserted that Congress had the right to regulate slavery in the territories and called for the immediate admission of Kansas as a free state. Lincoln gave the [[Lincoln's Lost Speech|final speech]] of the convention, in which he endorsed the party platform and called for the preservation of the Union.<ref>White, pp. 216–221.</ref> At the June [[1856 Republican National Convention]], Lincoln received significant support on the vice presidential ballot, though the party nominated a ticket of [[John C. Frémont]] and [[William Dayton]]. Lincoln strongly supported the Republican ticket, campaigning for the party throughout Illinois. The Democrats nominated former Ambassador [[James Buchanan]], who had been out of the country since 1853 and thus had avoided the debate over slavery in the territories, while the Know Nothings nominated former Whig President [[Millard Fillmore]].<ref>White, pp. 224–228.</ref> In the 1856 elections, Buchanan defeated both his challengers, but Frémont won several Northern states and Republican [[William Henry Bissell]] won election as Governor of Illinois. Though Lincoln did not himself win office, his vigorous campaigning had made him the leading Republican in Illinois.<ref>White, pp. 229–230.</ref> [[File:DredScott.jpg|alt=Painting|thumb|upright|A portrait of [[Dred Scott]]. Lincoln denounced the Supreme Court decision in ''Dred Scott v. Sandford'' as part of a conspiracy to extend slavery.]] [[Eric Foner]] (2010) contrasts the abolitionists and anti-slavery Radical Republicans of the Northeast who saw slavery as a sin, with the conservative Republicans who thought it was bad because it hurt white people and blocked progress. Foner argues that Lincoln was a moderate in the middle, opposing slavery primarily because it violated the [[republicanism in the United States|republicanism principles]] of the [[Founding Fathers of the United States|Founding Fathers]], especially the equality of all men and democratic self-government as expressed in the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]].<ref>Foner (2010), pp. 84–88.</ref> In March 1857, the Supreme Court issued its decision in ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]''. The opinion by Chief Justice [[Roger B. Taney]] held that blacks were not citizens and derived no rights from the Constitution. While many Democrats hoped that ''Dred Scott'' would end the dispute over slavery in the territories, the decision sparked further outrage in the North.<ref>White, pp. 236–238.</ref> Lincoln denounced the decision, alleging it was the product of a conspiracy of Democrats to support the [[Slave Power]].<ref>Zarefsky, pp. 69–110.</ref> Lincoln argued, "The authors of the Declaration of Independence never intended 'to say all were equal in color, size, intellect, moral developments, or social capacity', but they 'did consider all men created equal—equal in certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness'."<ref>Jaffa, pp. 299–300.</ref> ===Lincoln–Douglas debates and Cooper Union speech=== {{Further information|Lincoln–Douglas debates|Cooper Union speech}} Douglas was up for re-election in 1858, and Lincoln hoped to defeat the powerful Illinois Democrat. With the former Democrat Trumbull now serving as a Republican Senator, many in the party felt that a former Whig should be nominated in 1858, and Lincoln's 1856 campaigning and willingness to support Trumbull in 1854 had earned him favor in the party.<ref name="White, pp. 247–248">White, pp. 247–248.</ref> Some eastern Republicans favored the reelection of Douglas for the Senate in 1858, since he had led the opposition to the [[Lecompton Constitution]], which would have admitted Kansas as a [[slave state]].<ref>Oates, pp. 138–139.</ref> But many Illinois Republicans resented this eastern interference. For the first time, Illinois Republicans held a convention to agree upon a Senate candidate, and Lincoln won the party's Senate nomination with little opposition.<ref>White, pp. 247–250.</ref> Accepting the nomination, Lincoln delivered his [[Lincoln's House Divided Speech|House Divided Speech]], drawing on Mark 3:25, "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved—I do not expect the house to fall—but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other."<ref>White, p. 251.</ref> The speech created an evocative image of the danger of disunion caused by the slavery debate, and rallied Republicans across the North.<ref>Harris, p. 98.</ref> The stage was then set for the campaign for statewide election of the Illinois legislature which would, in turn, select Lincoln or Douglas as its U.S. senator.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 209.</ref> On being informed of Lincoln's nomination, Douglas stated "[Lincoln] is the strong man of the party...and if I beat him, my victory will be hardly won."<ref>White, pp. 257–258.</ref> The Senate campaign featured the seven [[Lincoln–Douglas debates]] of 1858, the most famous political debates in American history.<ref>McPherson (1993), p. 182.</ref> The principals stood in stark contrast both physically and politically. Lincoln warned that "[[The Slave Power]]" was threatening the values of republicanism, and accused Douglas of distorting the values of the Founding Fathers that [[all men are created equal]], while Douglas emphasized his [[Freeport Doctrine]], that local settlers were free to choose whether to allow slavery or not, and accused Lincoln of having joined the abolitionists.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 214–224.</ref> The debates had an atmosphere of a prize fight and drew crowds in the thousands. Lincoln stated Douglas' popular sovereignty theory was a threat to the nation's morality and that Douglas represented a conspiracy to extend slavery to free states. Douglas said that Lincoln was defying the authority of the U.S. Supreme Court and the ''Dred Scott'' decision.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 223.</ref> Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes, the Democrats won more seats, and the legislature re-elected Douglas to the Senate. Despite the bitterness of the defeat for Lincoln, his articulation of the issues gave him a national political reputation.<ref>Carwardine (2003), pp. 89–90.</ref> In May 1859, Lincoln purchased the ''Illinois Staats-Anzeiger'', a German-language newspaper which was consistently supportive; most of the state's 130,000 German Americans voted Democratic but there was Republican support that a German-language paper could mobilize.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 242, 412.</ref> In the aftermath of the 1858 election, newspapers frequently mentioned Lincoln as a potential Republican presidential candidate in 1860, with [[William H. Seward]], [[Salmon P. Chase]], [[Edward Bates]], and [[Simon Cameron]] looming as rivals for the nomination. While Lincoln was popular in the Midwest, he lacked support in the Northeast, and was unsure as to whether he should seek the presidency.<ref>White, pp. 291–293.</ref> In January 1860, Lincoln told a group of political allies that he would accept the 1860 presidential nomination if offered, and in the following months several local papers endorsed Lincoln for president.<ref>White, pp. 307–308.</ref> On February 27, 1860, New York party leaders invited Lincoln to give a [[Cooper Union speech|speech at Cooper Union]] to a group of powerful Republicans. Lincoln argued that the Founding Fathers had little use for popular sovereignty and had repeatedly sought to restrict slavery. Lincoln insisted the moral foundation of the Republicans required opposition to slavery, and rejected any "groping for some middle ground between the right and the wrong".<ref>Jaffa, p. 473.</ref> Despite his inelegant appearance—many in the audience thought him awkward and even ugly<ref>Holzer, pp. 108–111.</ref>—Lincoln demonstrated an intellectual leadership that brought him into the front ranks of the party and into contention for the Republican presidential nomination. Journalist [[Noah Brooks]] reported, "No man ever before made such an impression on his first appeal to a New York audience."<ref>Carwardine (2003), p. 97.</ref><ref>Holzer, p. 157.</ref> Historian [[David Herbert Donald|Donald]] described the speech as a "superb political move for an unannounced candidate, to appear in one rival's (Seward) own state at an event sponsored by the second rival's (Chase) loyalists, while not mentioning either by name during its delivery".<ref>Donald (1996), p. 240.</ref> In response to an inquiry about his presidential intentions, Lincoln said, "The taste ''is'' in my mouth a little."<ref>Donald (1996), p. 241.</ref> ===1860 Presidential nomination and campaign=== {{Main|Electoral history of Abraham Lincoln|United States presidential election, 1860}} [[File:AbrLincoln1860ColeT.jpg|thumb|A [[Timothy Cole]] wood engraving taken from a May 20, 1860, ambrotype of Lincoln, two days following his nomination for President]] On May 9–10, 1860, the Illinois Republican State Convention was held in Decatur.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 244.</ref> Lincoln's followers organized a campaign team led by [[David Davis (Supreme Court justice)|David Davis]], [[Norman B. Judd|Norman Judd]], [[Leonard Swett]], and Jesse DuBois, and Lincoln received his first endorsement to run for the presidency.<ref>Oates, pp. 175–176.</ref> Exploiting the embellished legend of his frontier days with his father (clearing the land and splitting fence rails with an ax), Lincoln's supporters adopted the label of "The Rail Candidate".<ref>Donald (1996), p. 245.</ref> In 1860 Lincoln described himself: "I am in height, six feet, four inches, nearly; lean in flesh, weighing, on an average, one hundred and eighty pounds; dark complexion, with coarse black hair, and gray eyes."<ref>{{cite letter |first=Abraham |last=Lincoln |recipient=Jesse W. Fell |subject=Herewith is a little sketch, as you requested |date=December 20, 1859 |url=https://www.nps.gov/libo/learn/historyculture/abraham_lincoln.htm |access-date=November 6, 2017 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107024658/https://www.nps.gov/libo/learn/historyculture/abraham_lincoln.htm |archivedate=November 7, 2017 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> On May 18, at the [[1860 Republican National Convention|Republican National Convention]] in Chicago, Lincoln became the Republican candidate on the third ballot, beating candidates such as Seward and Chase. A former Democrat, [[Hannibal Hamlin]] of Maine, was nominated for Vice President to balance the ticket. Lincoln's success depended on his campaign team, his reputation as a moderate on the slavery issue, and his strong support for Whiggish programs of internal improvements and the protective tariff.<ref>Luthin, pp. 609–629.</ref> On the third ballot Pennsylvania put him over the top. Pennsylvania iron interests were reassured by his support for protective tariffs.<ref>Hofstadter, pp. 50–55.</ref> Lincoln's managers had been adroitly focused on this delegation as well as the others, while following Lincoln's strong dictate to "Make no contracts that bind me".<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 247–250.</ref> Most Republicans agreed with Lincoln that the North was the aggrieved party, as the Slave Power tightened its grasp on the national government with the ''Dred Scott'' decision and the presidency of James Buchanan. Throughout the 1850s, Lincoln doubted the prospects of civil war, and his supporters rejected claims that his election would incite secession.<ref>Boritt (1994), pp. 10, 13, 18.</ref> Meanwhile, Douglas was selected as the candidate of the Northern Democrats. Delegates from 11 slave states walked out of the [[1860 Democratic National Convention|Democratic convention]], disagreeing with Douglas' position on popular sovereignty, and ultimately selected incumbent Vice President [[John C. Breckinridge]] as their candidate.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 253.</ref> A group of former Whigs and Know Nothings formed the [[Constitutional Union Party (United States)|Constitutional Union Party]] and nominated [[John Bell (Tennessee politician)|John Bell]] of Tennessee. Lincoln and Douglas would compete for votes in the North, while Bell and Breckinridge primarily found support in the South.<ref name="White, pp. 247–248"/> Lincoln had a highly effective campaign team who carefully projected his image as an ideal candidate. As Michael Martinez says: <blockquote>Lincoln and his political advisers manipulated his image and background....Sometimes he appeared as a straight-shooting, plain-talking, common-sense-wielding man of the people. His image as the "Rail Splitter" dates from this era. His supporters also portrayed him as "Honest Abe," the country fellow who was simply dressed and not especially polished or formal in his manner but who was as honest and trustworthy as his legs were long. Even Lincoln's tall, gangly frame was used to good advantage during the campaign as many drawings and posters show the candidates sprinting past his vertically challenged rivals. At other times, Lincoln appeared as a sophisticated, thoughtful, articulate, "presidential" candidate. <ref>{{cite book|author=J. Michael Martinez|title=Coming for to Carry Me Home: Race in America from Abolitionism to Jim Crow|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PoJ2uyDrg5MC&pg=PA59|year=2011|page=59|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180113192331/https://books.google.com/books?id=PoJ2uyDrg5MC&pg=PA59|archivedate=January 13, 2018|df=mdy-all|isbn=9781442215009}}</ref></blockquote> [[File:The Rail Candidate.jpg|thumb|alt=Lincoln being carried by two men on a long board.|''The Rail Candidate''—Lincoln's 1860 candidacy is depicted by crtitics as held up by the slavery issue—a slave on the left and party organization on the right.]] Prior to the Republican convention, the Lincoln campaign began cultivating a nationwide youth organization, the [[Wide Awakes]], which it used to generate popular support for Lincoln throughout the country to spearhead large voter registration drives, knowing that new voters and young voters tend to embrace new and young parties.<ref name=Audacious>{{cite book|title=Lincoln for President: An Unlikely Candidate, An Audacious Strategy, and the Victory No One Saw Coming|last=Chadwick|first=Bruce|url=https://books.google.com/?id=2PQqZzyw4uAC&pg=PA149&lpg=PA149&dq=Wide+Awake+Parade#v=onepage&q=Wide%20Awake%20Parade&f=false|pages=147–149|publisher=Sourcebooks|location=Naperville, Illinois|date=2009|accessdate=April 1, 2017|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170402091121/https://books.google.com/books?id=2PQqZzyw4uAC&pg=PA149&lpg=PA149&dq=Wide+Awake+Parade&source=bl&ots=EW1smye_L5&sig=jAlxzhglnsDrvWWIfb5qTPhRwro&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiH_a2bhoTTAhVC0oMKHX05Do4Q6AEIWzAQ#v=onepage&q=Wide%20Awake%20Parade&f=false|archivedate=April 2, 2017|df=mdy-all|isbn=9781402247569}}</ref> As Lincoln's ideas of abolishing [[slavery]] grew, so did his supporters. People of the Northern states knew the Southern states would vote against Lincoln because of his ideas of anti-slavery and took action to rally supporters for Lincoln.<ref name="murrin">Murrin, John. ''Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People''. Belmont: Clark Baxter, 2006.</ref> As Douglas and the other candidates went through with their campaigns, Lincoln was the only one of them who gave no speeches. Instead, he monitored the campaign closely and relied on the enthusiasm of the Republican Party. The party did the leg work that produced majorities across the North, and produced an abundance of campaign posters, leaflets, and newspaper editorials. There were thousands of Republican speakers who focused first on the party platform, and second on Lincoln's life story, emphasizing his childhood poverty. The goal was to demonstrate the superior power of "free labor", whereby a common farm boy could work his way to the top by his own efforts.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 254–256.</ref> The Republican Party's production of campaign literature dwarfed the combined opposition; a ''Chicago Tribune'' writer produced a pamphlet that detailed Lincoln's life, and sold 100,000 to 200,000 copies.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 254.</ref> ==Presidency== {{Main|Presidency of Abraham Lincoln}} ===1860 election and secession=== {{Main|United States presidential election, 1860|Baltimore Plot}} [[File:ElectoralCollege1860.svg|thumb|alt=Map of the U.S. showing Lincoln winning the North-east and West, Breckinridge winning the South, Douglas winning Missouri, and Bell winning Virginia, West Virginia, and Kentucky.|In 1860, northern and western [[Electoral College (United States)|electoral]] votes (shown in red) put Lincoln into the White House.]] On November 6, 1860, Lincoln was elected the 16th president of the United States, beating Douglas, Breckinridge, and Bell. He was the first president from the Republican Party. His victory was entirely due to the strength of his support in the North and West; no ballots were cast for him in 10 of the 15 Southern slave states, and he won only two of 996 counties in all the Southern states.<ref>Mansch, p. 61.</ref> Lincoln received 1,866,452 votes, Douglas 1,376,957 votes, Breckinridge 849,781 votes, and Bell 588,789 votes. Turnout was 82.2&nbsp;percent, with Lincoln winning the free Northern states, as well as California and Oregon. Douglas won Missouri, and split New Jersey with Lincoln.<ref>Harris, p. 243.</ref> Bell won Virginia, Tennessee, and Kentucky, and Breckinridge won the rest of the South.<ref>White, p. 350.</ref> Although Lincoln won only a plurality of the popular vote, his victory in the [[United States Electoral College|electoral college]] was decisive: Lincoln had 180 and his opponents added together had only 123. There were [[Electoral fusion|fusion tickets]] in which all of Lincoln's opponents combined to support the same slate of Electors in New York, New Jersey, and Rhode Island, but even if the anti-Lincoln vote had been combined in every state, Lincoln still would have won a majority in the Electoral College.<ref>Nevins, ''Ordeal of the Union'' vol 4. p. 312.</ref> [[File:Abraham Lincoln O-55, 1861-crop.jpg|thumb|left|The first photographic portrait of the new president]] As Lincoln's election became evident, secessionists made clear their intent to leave the Union before he took office the next March.<ref>Edgar, p. 350.</ref> On December 20, 1860, South Carolina took the lead by adopting an ordinance of secession; by February 1, 1861, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed.<ref name="Donald, p. 267"/><ref>Potter, p. 498.</ref> Six of these states then adopted a constitution and declared themselves to be a sovereign nation, the [[Confederate States of America]].<ref name="Donald, p. 267">Donald (1996), p. 267.</ref> The upper South and border states (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas) listened to, but initially rejected, the secessionist appeal.<ref>White, p. 362.</ref> President Buchanan and President-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy, declaring secession illegal.<ref>Potter, pp. 520, 569–570.</ref> The Confederacy selected [[Jefferson Davis]] as its provisional President on February 9, 1861.<ref>White, p. 369.</ref> There were attempts at compromise. The [[Crittenden Compromise]] would have extended the [[Missouri Compromise]] line of 1820, dividing the territories into slave and free, contrary to the Republican Party's free-soil platform.<ref name=White360-361>White, pp. 360–361.</ref> Lincoln rejected the idea, saying, "I will suffer death before I consent&nbsp;... to any concession or compromise which looks like buying the privilege to take possession of this government to which we have a constitutional right."<ref>Donald (1996), p. 268.</ref> Lincoln, however, did tacitly support the proposed [[Corwin Amendment]] to the Constitution, which passed Congress before Lincoln came into office and was then awaiting ratification by the states. That proposed amendment would have protected slavery in states where it already existed and would have guaranteed that Congress would not interfere with slavery without Southern consent.<ref>Vorenberg, p. 22.</ref><ref name=Vile_pp280>Vile (2003), ''Encyclopedia of Constitutional Amendments: Proposed Amendments, and Amending Issues 1789–2002'' pp.&nbsp;280–281</ref> A few weeks before the war, Lincoln sent a letter to every governor informing them Congress had passed a joint resolution to amend the Constitution.<ref name=Lupton_2006>Lupton (2006), [http://www.lib.niu.edu/2006/ih060934.html Abraham Lincoln and the Corwin Amendment] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160824072958/http://www.lib.niu.edu/2006/ih060934.html |date=August 24, 2016}}. Retrieved January 13, 2013</ref> Lincoln was open to the possibility of a constitutional convention to make further amendments to the Constitution.<ref name=Vile_p281>Vile (2003), ''Encyclopedia of Constitutional Amendments: Proposed Amendments, and Amending Issues 1789–2002'' p.&nbsp;281</ref> [[File:Abraham lincoln inauguration 1861.jpg|thumb|alt=A large crowd in front of a large building with many pillars.|March 1861 inaugural at the [[U.S. Capitol Building|Capitol building]]. [[United States Capitol dome|The dome]] above the rotunda was still under construction.]] En route to his inauguration by train, Lincoln addressed crowds and legislatures across the North.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 273–277.</ref> The president-elect then [[Baltimore Plot|evaded possible assassins]] in Baltimore, who were uncovered by Lincoln's head of security, [[Allan Pinkerton]]. On February 23, 1861, he arrived in disguise in Washington, D.C., which was placed under substantial military guard.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 277–279.</ref> Lincoln directed [[Abraham Lincoln's first inaugural address|his inaugural address]] to the South, proclaiming once again that he had no intention, or inclination, to abolish slavery in the Southern states: {{quote|Apprehension seems to exist among the people of the Southern States that by the accession of a Republican Administration their property and their peace and personal security are to be endangered. There has never been any reasonable cause for such apprehension. Indeed, the most ample evidence to the contrary has all the while existed and been open to their inspection. It is found in nearly all the published speeches of him who now addresses you. I do but quote from one of those speeches when I declare that "I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so."|[[Abraham Lincoln's first inaugural address|First inaugural address]], 4 March 1861<ref>Sandburg (2002), p. 212.</ref>}} The President ended his address with an appeal to the people of the South: "We are not enemies, but friends. We must not be enemies&nbsp;... The mystic chords of memory, stretching from every battlefield, and patriot grave, to every living heart and hearthstone, all over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the Union, when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better angels of our nature."<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 283–284.</ref> The failure of the [[Peace Conference of 1861]] signaled that legislative compromise was impossible. By March 1861, no leaders of the insurrection had proposed rejoining the Union on any terms. Meanwhile, Lincoln and the Republican leadership agreed that the dismantling of the Union could not be tolerated.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 268, 279.</ref> Lincoln said as the war was ending:<ref>March 4, 1865, [[Lincoln's second inaugural address]].</ref> {{quote|Both parties deprecated war, but one of them would make war rather than let the Nation survive, and the other would accept war rather than let it perish, and the war came.}} ===The Civil War=== {{Main|American Civil War|Battle of Fort Sumter}} [[File:Major Robert Anderson.jpg|alt=portrait|thumb|upright|[[Robert Anderson (Civil War)|Major Anderson]], Ft. Sumter commander]] The commander of Fort Sumter, South Carolina, [[Robert Anderson (Civil War)|Major Robert Anderson]], sent a request for provisions to Washington, and the execution of Lincoln's order to meet that request was seen by the secessionists as an act of war. On April 12, 1861, Confederate forces fired on Union troops at [[Battle of Fort Sumter|Fort Sumter]], forcing them to surrender, beginning the war. Historian [[Allan Nevins]] argued that the newly inaugurated Lincoln made three miscalculations: underestimating the gravity of the crisis, exaggerating the strength of Unionist sentiment in the South, and not realizing the Southern Unionists were insisting there be no invasion.<ref>Allan Nevins, ''Ordeal of the Union'' (1959) vol 5 p 29</ref> [[William Tecumseh Sherman]] talked to Lincoln during inauguration week and was "sadly disappointed" at his failure to realize that "the country was sleeping on a volcano" and that the South was preparing for war.<ref>Sherman, pp. 185–186.</ref> Historian [[David Herbert Donald]] concludes that, "His repeated efforts to avoid collision in the months between inauguration and the firing on Ft. Sumter showed he adhered to his vow not to be the first to shed fraternal blood. But he also vowed not to surrender the forts. The only resolution of these contradictory positions was for the confederates to fire the first shot; they did just that."<ref>Donald (1996), p. 293.</ref> On April 15, Lincoln called on all the states to send detachments totaling 75,000 troops to recapture forts, protect Washington, and "preserve the Union", which, in his view, still existed intact despite the actions of the seceding states. This call forced the states to choose sides. Virginia declared its secession and was rewarded with the Confederate capital, despite the exposed position of [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]] so close to Union lines. North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas also voted for secession over the next two months. Secession sentiment was strong in Missouri and Maryland, but did not prevail; Kentucky tried to be neutral.<ref name="Oates, p. 226">Oates, p. 226.</ref> The Confederate attack on Fort Sumter rallied Americans north of the [[Mason-Dixon line]] to the defense of the American nation. Historian Allan Nevins says:<ref>Allan Nevins, ''The War for the Union: The Improvised War 1861–1862'' (1959) pp.&nbsp;74–75</ref><ref>Russell McClintock (2008). ''Lincoln and the Decision for War: The Northern Response to Secession''. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. pp.&nbsp;254–274. {{isbn|9780807831885}}. Provides details of support across the North.</ref> {{quote|The thunderclap of Sumter produced a startling crystallization of Northern sentiment&nbsp;... Anger swept the land. From every side came news of mass meetings, speeches, resolutions, tenders of business support, the muster of companies and regiments, the determined action of governors and legislatures.}} States sent Union regiments south in response to Lincoln's call to save the capital and confront the rebellion. On April 19, mobs in Baltimore, which controlled the rail links, [[Baltimore riot of 1861|attacked Union troops]] who were changing trains, and local leaders' groups later burned critical rail bridges to the capital. The Army responded by arresting [[Maryland in the American Civil War#Imposition of martial law|local Maryland]] officials. Lincoln suspended the writ of ''[[Habeas corpus in the United States#Suspension during the Civil War|habeas corpus]]'' in areas the army felt it needed to secure for troops to reach Washington.<ref>Heidler (2000), p. 174.</ref> [[John Merryman]], a Maryland official involved in hindering the U.S. troop movements, petitioned Supreme Court Chief Justice and Marylander, [[Roger B. Taney]], author of the controversial pro-slavery ''Dred Scott'' opinion, to issue a writ of ''habeas corpus'', and in June Taney, acting as a circuit judge and not speaking for the Supreme Court, issued the writ, because in his opinion only Congress could suspend the writ. Lincoln continued the army policy that the writ was suspended in limited areas despite the [[Ex parte Merryman]] ruling.<ref>William C. Harris, ''Lincoln and the Border States: Preserving the Union'' (University Press of Kansas, 2011) pp.&nbsp;59–71</ref><ref>{{cite book|authorlink=Mark E. Neely Jr.|last=Neely |first=Mark E. |title=The Fate of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties |year=1992|pages=3–31}}</ref> ===Greenbacks currency=== {{Main|Greenback (1860s money)}} Before the Civil War, the only money issued by the United States was [[gold]] and [[silver]] coins, and only such coins ("specie") were [[legal tender]]; that is, payment in that form had to be accepted. Paper currency in the form of [[banknote]]s was issued by privately owned banks. [[Greenback (1860s money)|Greenbacks]] were paper currency (printed in [[green]] on the [[obverse and reverse|back]]) issued by the [[Union (American Civil War)|United States]] during the [[American Civil War]], they were in two forms: [[Demand Note]]s, issued In July 1861, Congress authorized $50,000,000 in Demand Notes. They bore no interest, but could be redeemed for specie "on demand". They were not legal tender (before March 1862), but like Treasury Notes could be used to pay customs duties. Unlike private and state banknotes, Demand Notes were printed on both sides. The [[Obverse and reverse|reverse side]] was printed in green ink, and so the Demand Notes were dubbed "greenbacks". Initially they were discounted relative to gold, but being fully redeemable in gold were soon at par. In December 1861, the government had to suspend redemption, and they declined. Chase authorized paying interest on Demand Notes, which sustained their value. Importers therefore continued to use Demand Notes in place of gold. In March 1862, Demand Notes were made legal tender. As Demand Notes were used to pay duties, they were taken out of circulation. By mid-1863, about 95% of them were gone. The other form of greenbacks where the [[United States Note]]s issued in 1862–1865. They were [[legal tender]] by law, but were not backed by [[gold]] or [[silver]], only the credibility of the U.S. government.<ref>[[#Brands|Brands, 2011]], p. 1</ref> Could ''not'' be used to pay customs duties or interest on the public debt. ===Union military strategy=== After the [[Battle of Fort Sumter]], Lincoln realized the importance of taking immediate executive control of the war and forming an overall [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] military strategy to put down the rebellion. Lincoln encountered an unprecedented political and military crisis, and he responded as [[commander-in-chief]], using unprecedented powers. He expanded his war powers, and imposed a blockade on all the Confederate shipping ports, disbursed funds before appropriation by Congress, and after suspending ''habeas corpus'', arrested and imprisoned thousands of suspected Confederate sympathizers. Lincoln was supported by Congress and the northern public for these actions. In addition, Lincoln had to contend with reinforcing strong Union sympathies in the border slave states and keeping the war from becoming an international conflict.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 303–304; Carwardine (2003), pp. 163–164.</ref> [[File:RunningtheMachine-LincAdmin.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|alt=A group of men sitting at a table as another man creates money on a wooden machine.|''Running the 'Machine'': An 1864 political cartoon satirizing Lincoln's administration—featuring [[William Fessenden]], [[Edwin Stanton]], [[William H. Seward|William Seward]], [[Gideon Welles]], Lincoln, and others]] The war effort was the source of continued disparagement of Lincoln, and dominated his time and attention. From the start, it was clear that bipartisan support would be essential to success in the war effort, and any manner of compromise alienated factions on both sides of the aisle, such as the appointment of Republicans and Democrats to command positions in the Union Army. Copperheads criticized Lincoln for refusing to compromise on the slavery issue. Conversely, the Radical Republicans criticized him for moving too slowly in abolishing slavery.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 315, 331–333, 338–339, 417.</ref> On August 6, 1861, Lincoln signed the [[Confiscation Act of 1861|Confiscation Act]] that authorized judiciary proceedings to confiscate and free slaves who were used to support the Confederate war effort. In practice, the law had little effect, but it did signal political support for abolishing slavery in the Confederacy.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 314; Carwardine (2003), p. 178.</ref> In late August 1861, General [[John C. Frémont]], the 1856 Republican presidential nominee, issued, without consulting his superiors in Washington, a proclamation of [[martial law]] in Missouri. He declared that any citizen found bearing arms could be [[court-martial]]ed and shot, and that slaves of persons aiding the rebellion would be freed. Frémont was already under a cloud with charges of negligence in his command of the [[Department of the West]] compounded with allegations of fraud and corruption. Lincoln overruled Frémont's proclamation. Lincoln believed that Fremont's emancipation was political, neither militarily necessary nor legal.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 314–317.</ref> After Lincoln acted, Union enlistments from Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri increased by over 40,000 troops.<ref>Carwardine (2003), p. 181.</ref> In foreign policy, Lincoln's main goal was to stop military aid from countries abroad to the Confederacy.{{sfn|Boritt|Pinsker|2002|pp=213–214}} Lincoln left most diplomatic matters to his Secretary of State, William Seward.{{sfn|Boritt|Pinsker|2002|pp=213–214}} At times Seward was too bellicose, so for balance Lincoln maintained a close working relationship with Senator [[Charles Sumner]], the chairman of the [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]].<ref>Donald (1996), p. 322.</ref> The [[Trent Affair]] of late 1861 threatened war with Great Britain. The U.S. Navy had illegally intercepted a British mail ship, the ''Trent'', on the high seas and seized two Confederate envoys; Britain protested vehemently while the U.S. cheered. Lincoln ended the crisis by releasing the two diplomats. Biographer [[James G. Randall]] has dissected Lincoln's successful techniques:<ref>{{cite book|author=James Garfield Randall|title=Lincoln the President: Springfield to Gettysburg|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vi8aAQAAIAAJ|year=1946|page=50|access-date=May 16, 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122025358/https://books.google.com/books?id=Vi8aAQAAIAAJ|archivedate=November 22, 2016|df=mdy-all|isbn=9780306807541}} quoted in Kevin Peraino, ''Lincoln in the World: The Making of a Statesman and the Dawn of American Power'' (2013) pp 160–61.</ref> {{quote|his restraint, his avoidance of any outward expression of truculence, his early softening of State Department's attitude toward Britain, his deference toward Seward and Sumner, his withholding of his own paper prepared for the occasion, his readiness to arbitrate, his golden silence in addressing Congress, his shrewdness in recognizing that war must be averted, and his clear perception that a point could be clinched for America's true position at the same time that full satisfaction was given to a friendly country.}} Lincoln painstakingly monitored the telegraphic reports coming into the [[United States War Department|War Department]] headquarters. He kept close tabs on all phases of the military effort, consulted with governors, and selected generals based on their past success (as well as their state and party). In January 1862, after many complaints of inefficiency and profiteering in the War Department, Lincoln replaced [[Simon Cameron]] with [[Edwin Stanton]] as [[United States Secretary of War|War Secretary]]. Stanton centralized the War Department's activities, auditing and cancelling contracts, saving the federal government $17,000,000.{{sfn|Oates|1974|p=115}} Stanton was a staunchly Unionist pro-business conservative Democrat who moved toward the Radical Republican faction. Nevertheless, he worked more often and more closely with Lincoln than any other senior official. "Stanton and Lincoln virtually conducted the war together," say Thomas and Hyman.<ref>Benjamin P. Thomas and Harold M. Hyman, ''Stanton, the Life and Times of Lincoln's Secretary of War'' (1962) pp. 71, 87, 229–30, 385 (quote)</ref> In terms of war strategy, Lincoln articulated two priorities: to ensure that Washington was well-defended, and to conduct an aggressive war effort that would satisfy the demand in the North for prompt, decisive victory; major Northern newspaper editors expected victory within 90 days.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 295–296.</ref> Twice a week, Lincoln would meet with his cabinet in the afternoon, and occasionally Mary Lincoln would force him to take a carriage ride because she was concerned he was working too hard.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 391–392.</ref> Lincoln learned from reading the theoretical book of his chief of staff General Henry Halleck, a disciple of the European strategist [[Antoine-Henri Jomini|Jomini]]; he began to appreciate the critical need to control strategic points, such as the Mississippi River.<ref>Ambrose, pp. 7, 66, 159.</ref> Lincoln saw the importance of [[Vicksburg, Mississippi|Vicksburg]] and understood the necessity of defeating the enemy's army, rather than simply capturing territory.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 432–436.</ref> ===General McClellan=== After the Union rout at [[First Battle of Bull Run|Bull Run]], the first major battle of the Civil War, and the retirement of the aged [[Winfield Scott]] in late 1861, Lincoln appointed Major General [[George B. McClellan]] general-in-chief of all the Union armies.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 318–319.</ref>{{sfn|Boritt|Pinsker|2002|p=213}} McClellan, a young West Point graduate, railroad executive, and Pennsylvania Democrat, took several months to plan and attempt his [[Peninsula Campaign]], longer than Lincoln wanted. The campaign's objective was to capture Richmond by moving the [[Army of the Potomac]] by boat to the peninsula and then overland to the Confederate capital. McClellan's repeated delays frustrated Lincoln and Congress, as did his position that no troops were needed to defend Washington. Lincoln insisted on holding some of McClellan's troops in defense of the capital; McClellan, who consistently overestimated the strength of Confederate troops, blamed this decision for the ultimate failure of the Peninsula Campaign.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 349–352.</ref> [[File:Lincoln and McClellan 1862-10-03.jpg|alt=Photograph of Lincoln and McClellan sitting at a table in a field tent|thumb|upright=1.15|Lincoln and [[George B. McClellan|George McClellan]] after the [[Battle of Antietam]] in 1862]] Lincoln removed McClellan as general-in-chief in March 1862, after McClellan's "Harrison's Landing Letter", in which he offered unsolicited political advice to Lincoln urging caution in the war effort.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 360–361.</ref> The office remained empty until July, when [[Henry Halleck]] was selected for it.<ref>[http://www.civilwar.org/education/history/biographies/henry-w-halleck.html Henry W. Halleck] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140120032121/http://www.civilwar.org/education/history/biographies/henry-w-halleck.html |title=''Civil War Trust'' |date=January 20, 2014}}</ref> McClellan's letter incensed Radical Republicans, who successfully pressured Lincoln to appoint [[John Pope (military officer)|John Pope]], a Republican, as head of the new [[Army of Virginia]]. Pope complied with Lincoln's strategic desire to move toward Richmond from the north, thus protecting the capital from attack.<ref name="Nevins 1960, pp. 2:159–162">Nevins (1960), pp. 2:159–162.</ref> However, lacking requested reinforcements from McClellan, now commanding the Army of the Potomac, Pope was soundly defeated at the [[Second Battle of Bull Run]] in the summer of 1862, forcing the Army of the Potomac to defend Washington for a second time.<ref name="Nevins 1960, pp. 2:159–162"/> The war also expanded with naval operations in 1862 when the [[CSS Virginia|CSS ''Virginia'']], formerly the USS ''Merrimack'', damaged or destroyed three Union vessels in Norfolk, Virginia, before being engaged and damaged by the [[USS Monitor|USS ''Monitor'']]. Lincoln closely reviewed the dispatches and interrogated naval officers during their clash in the [[Battle of Hampton Roads]].<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 339–340.</ref> Despite his dissatisfaction with McClellan's failure to reinforce Pope, Lincoln was desperate, and restored him to command of all forces around Washington, to the dismay of all in his cabinet but Seward.<ref>Goodwin, pp. 478–479.</ref> Two days after McClellan's return to command, General [[Robert E. Lee]]'s forces crossed the [[Potomac River]] into Maryland, leading to the [[Battle of Antietam]] in September 1862.<ref>Goodwin, pp. 478–480.</ref> The ensuing Union victory was among the bloodiest in American history, but it enabled Lincoln to announce that he would issue an [[Emancipation Proclamation]] in January. Having composed the Proclamation some time earlier, Lincoln had waited for a military victory to publish it to avoid it being perceived as the product of desperation.<ref>Goodwin, p. 481.</ref> McClellan then resisted the President's demand that he pursue Lee's retreating and exposed army, while his counterpart General [[Don Carlos Buell]] likewise refused orders to move the [[Army of the Ohio]] against rebel forces in eastern Tennessee. As a result, Lincoln replaced Buell with [[William Rosecrans]]; and, after the 1862 midterm elections, he replaced McClellan with Republican [[Ambrose Burnside]]. Both of these replacements were political moderates and prospectively more supportive of the Commander-in-Chief.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 389–390.</ref> [[File:Union soldiers entrenched along the west bank of the Rappahannock River at Fredericksburg, Virginia (111-B-157).jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Union soldiers before Marye's Heights, just prior to the [[Second Battle of Fredericksburg]] on May 3, 1863]] Burnside, against the advice of the president, prematurely launched an offensive across the [[Rappahannock River]] and was stunningly [[Battle of Fredericksburg|defeated by Lee at Fredericksburg]] in December. Not only had Burnside been defeated on the battlefield, but his soldiers were disgruntled and undisciplined. Desertions during 1863 were in the thousands and they increased after Fredericksburg.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 429–431.</ref> Lincoln brought in [[Joseph Hooker]], despite his record of loose talk about the need for a military dictatorship.<ref>Nevins 6:433–44</ref> The [[United States House of Representatives elections, 1862|mid-term elections]] in 1862 brought the Republicans severe losses due to sharp disfavor with the administration over its failure to deliver a speedy end to the war, as well as rising inflation, new high taxes, rumors of corruption, the suspension of ''habeas corpus'', [[Conscription|the military draft law]], and fears that freed slaves would undermine the labor market. The Emancipation Proclamation announced in September gained votes for the Republicans in the rural areas of New England and the upper Midwest, but it lost votes in the cities and the lower Midwest.<ref name="ReferenceA">Nevins vol 6 pp. 318–322, quote on p. 322.</ref> While Republicans were discouraged, Democrats were energized and did especially well in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and New York. The Republicans did maintain their majorities in Congress and in the major states, except New York. The Cincinnati ''Gazette'' contended that the voters were "depressed by the interminable nature of this war, as so far conducted, and by the rapid exhaustion of the national resources without progress".<ref name="ReferenceA"/> In the spring of 1863, Lincoln was optimistic about upcoming military campaigns to the point of thinking the end of the war could be near if a string of victories could be put together; these plans included attacks by Hooker on Lee north of Richmond, Rosecrans on Chattanooga, Grant on Vicksburg, and a naval assault on Charleston.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 422–423.</ref> Hooker was routed by Lee at the [[Battle of Chancellorsville]] in May,<ref>Nevins 6:432–450.</ref> but continued to command his troops for some weeks. He ignored Lincoln's order to divide his troops, and possibly force Lee to do the same in [[Harper's Ferry]], and tendered his resignation, which Lincoln accepted. He was replaced by [[George Meade]], who followed Lee into Pennsylvania for the [[Gettysburg Campaign]], which was a victory for the Union, though Lee's army avoided capture. At the same time, after initial setbacks, Grant laid siege to Vicksburg and the Union navy attained some success in Charleston harbor.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 444–447.</ref> After the Battle of Gettysburg, Lincoln clearly understood that his military decisions would be more effectively carried out by conveying his orders through his War Secretary or his general-in-chief on to his generals, who resented his civilian interference with their own plans. Even so, he often continued to give detailed directions to his generals as Commander-in-Chief.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 446.</ref> ===Emancipation Proclamation=== {{Main|Abraham Lincoln and slavery|Emancipation Proclamation}} [[File:Emancipation proclamation.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|''[[First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln]]'' by [[Francis Bicknell Carpenter]] (1864)|alt=A dark-haired, bearded, middle-aged man holding documents is seated among seven other men.]] Lincoln understood that the Federal government's power to end slavery was limited by the Constitution, which before 1865, committed the issue to individual states. He argued before and during his election that the eventual extinction of slavery would result from preventing its expansion into new U.S. territory. At the beginning of the war, he also sought to persuade the states to accept [[compensated emancipation]] in return for their prohibition of slavery. Lincoln believed that curtailing slavery in these ways would economically expunge it, as envisioned by the [[Founding Fathers of the United States|Founding Fathers]], under the constitution.<ref name="Mackubin">{{cite web |url=http://www.nationalreview.com/books/owens200403251139.asp |title=The Liberator |first=Thomas Owens |last=Mackubin |date=March 25, 2004 |work=National Review |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/62a7fJ9hj?url=http://old.nationalreview.com/books/owens200403251139.asp |archivedate=October 20, 2011 |deadurl=no |df=mdy |access-date=December 12, 2008}}</ref> President Lincoln rejected two geographically limited emancipation attempts by Major General John C. Frémont in August 1861 and by Major General [[David Hunter]] in May 1862, on the grounds that it was not within their power, and it would upset the border states loyal to the Union.<ref>Guelzo (1999), pp. 290–291.</ref> On June 19, 1862, endorsed by Lincoln, Congress passed an act banning slavery on all federal territory. In July, the [[Confiscation Act of 1862]] was passed, which set up court procedures that could free the slaves of anyone convicted of aiding the rebellion. Although Lincoln believed it was not within Congress's power to free the slaves within the states, he approved the bill in deference to the legislature. He felt such action could only be taken by the Commander-in-Chief using war powers granted to the president by the Constitution, and Lincoln was planning to take that action. In that month, Lincoln discussed a draft of the Emancipation Proclamation with his cabinet. In it, he stated that "as a fit and necessary military measure, on January 1, 1863, all persons held as slaves in the Confederate states will thenceforward, and forever, be free".<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 364–365.</ref> Privately, Lincoln concluded at this point that the slave base of the Confederacy had to be eliminated. However, Copperheads argued that emancipation was a stumbling block to peace and reunification. Republican editor [[Horace Greeley]] of the highly influential ''New York Tribune'' fell for the ploy,<ref>McPherson (1992), p. 124.</ref> and Lincoln refuted it directly in a shrewd letter of August 22, 1862. Although he said he personally wished all men could be free, Lincoln stated that the primary goal of his actions as the U.S. president (he used the first person pronoun and explicitly refers to his "official duty") was that of preserving the Union:<ref>Guelzo (2004), pp. 147–153.</ref> {{quote|My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or to destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone I would also do that. What I do about slavery, and the colored race, I do because I believe it helps to save the Union; and what I forbear, I forbear because I do not believe it would help to save the Union&nbsp;... [¶] I have here stated my purpose according to my view of official duty; and I intend no modification of my oft-expressed personal wish that all men everywhere could be free.<ref>Basler (1953), p. 388</ref>}} The Emancipation Proclamation, issued on September 22, 1862, and put into effect on January 1, 1863, declared free the slaves in 10 states not then under Union control, with exemptions specified for areas already under Union control in two states.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 364, 379.</ref> Lincoln spent the next 100 days preparing the army and the nation for emancipation, while Democrats rallied their voters in the 1862 off-year elections by warning of the threat freed slaves posed to northern whites.<ref>Louis P. Masur, ''Lincoln's Hundred Days: The Emancipation Proclamation and the War for the Union'' (Harvard University Press; 2012)</ref> Once the abolition of slavery in the rebel states became a military objective, as Union armies advanced south, more slaves were liberated until all three million of them in Confederate territory were freed. Lincoln's comment on the signing of the Proclamation was: "I never, in my life, felt more certain that I was doing right, than I do in signing this paper."<ref>Donald (1996), p. 407.</ref> For some time, Lincoln continued earlier plans to set up [[Abraham Lincoln on slavery#Colonization|colonies]] for the newly freed slaves. He commented favorably on colonization in the Emancipation Proclamation, but all attempts at such a massive undertaking failed.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 408.</ref> A few days after Emancipation was announced, 13 Republican governors met at the [[War Governors' Conference]]; they supported the president's Proclamation, but suggested the removal of General George B. McClellan as commander of the Union Army.<ref>Nevins (1960), pp. 2:239–240.</ref> Enlisting former slaves in the military was official government policy after the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation. By the spring of 1863, Lincoln was ready to recruit black troops in more than token numbers. In a letter to [[Andrew Johnson]], the military governor of Tennessee, encouraging him to lead the way in raising black troops, Lincoln wrote, "The bare sight of 50,000 armed and drilled black soldiers on the banks of the Mississippi would end the rebellion at once".<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 430–431.</ref> By the end of 1863, at Lincoln's direction, General [[Lorenzo Thomas]] had recruited 20 regiments of blacks from the Mississippi Valley.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 431.</ref> [[Frederick Douglass]] once observed of Lincoln: "In his company, I was never reminded of my humble origin, or of my unpopular color".<ref>Douglass, pp. 259–260.</ref> ===Gettysburg Address (1863)=== {{Main|Gettysburg Address}} [[File:Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, Gettysburg.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|The only confirmed photo of Abraham Lincoln at Gettysburg, some three hours before [[Gettysburg Address|the speech]]]] With the great Union victory at the [[Battle of Gettysburg]] in July 1863, and the defeat of the Copperheads in the Ohio election in the fall, Lincoln maintained a strong base of party support and was in a strong position to redefine the war effort, despite the [[New York City draft riots]]. The stage was set for his address at the Gettysburg battlefield cemetery on November 19, 1863.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 453–460.</ref> Defying Lincoln's prediction that "the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here", the Address became the most quoted speech in American history.<ref name="Bulla">Bulla (2010), p. 222.</ref> In 272 words, and three minutes, Lincoln asserted the nation was born not in 1789, but in 1776, "conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal". He defined the war as an effort dedicated to these principles of liberty and equality for all. The emancipation of slaves was now part of the national war effort. He declared that the deaths of so many brave soldiers would not be in vain, that slavery would end as a result of the losses, and the future of democracy in the world would be assured, that "government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth". Lincoln concluded that the Civil War had a profound objective: a new birth of freedom in the nation.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 460–466.</ref><ref>Wills, pp. 20, 27, 105, 146.</ref> ===General Grant=== [[File:The Peacemakers 1868.jpg|alt=Painting of four men conferring in a ship's cabin, entitled "The Peacemakers".|thumb|upright=1.35|President Lincoln (center right) with, from left, Generals [[William Tecumseh Sherman|Sherman]] and [[Ulysses S. Grant|Grant]] and Admiral [[David Dixon Porter|Porter]] in ''[[The Peacemakers]]'', an 1868 painting of events aboard the ''[[River Queen (steamboat)|River Queen]]'' in March 1865]] Meade's failure to capture Lee's army as it retreated from Gettysburg, and the continued passivity of the Army of the Potomac, persuaded Lincoln that a change in command was needed. General [[Ulysses S. Grant]]'s victories at the [[Battle of Shiloh]] and in the [[Vicksburg campaign]] impressed Lincoln and made Grant a strong candidate to head the Union Army. Responding to criticism of Grant after Shiloh, Lincoln had said, "I can't spare this man. He fights."<ref>Thomas (2008), p. 315.</ref> With Grant in command, Lincoln felt the Union Army could relentlessly pursue a series of coordinated offensives in multiple theaters, and have a top commander who agreed on the use of black troops.<ref>Nevins, ''Ordeal of the Union'' (Vol. IV), pp. 6–17.</ref> Nevertheless, Lincoln was concerned that Grant might be considering a candidacy for President in 1864, as McClellan was. Lincoln arranged for an intermediary to make inquiry into Grant's political intentions, and being assured that he had none, submitted to the Senate Grant's promotion to commander of the Union Army. He obtained Congress's consent to reinstate for Grant the rank of Lieutenant General, which no officer had held since George Washington.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 490–492.</ref> Grant waged his bloody [[Overland Campaign]] in 1864. This is often characterized as a [[attrition warfare|war of attrition]], given high Union losses at battles such as the [[Battle of the Wilderness]] and [[Battle of Cold Harbor|Cold Harbor]]. Even though they had the advantage of fighting on the defensive, the Confederate forces had "almost as high a percentage of casualties as the Union forces".<ref>McPherson (2009), p. 113.</ref> The high casualty figures of the Union alarmed the North; Grant had lost a third of his army, and Lincoln asked what Grant's plans were, to which the general replied, "I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer."<ref>Donald (1996), p. 501.</ref> {{CSS image crop|Image=LINCOLN, Abraham-President (BEP engraved portrait).jpg |bSize= 315|cWidth= 230|cHeight= 270|oTop= 56|oLeft= 44|Location= left|Description= [[Bureau of Engraving and Printing]] engraved portrait of Lincoln as President}} The Confederacy lacked reinforcements, so Lee's army shrank with every costly battle. Grant's army moved south, crossed the [[James River]], forcing a [[Siege of Petersburg|siege]] and trench warfare outside [[Petersburg, Virginia]]. Lincoln then made an extended visit to Grant's headquarters at City Point, Virginia. This allowed the president to confer in person with Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman about the hostilities, as Sherman coincidentally managed a hasty visit to Grant from his position in North Carolina.<ref name="whitehousehistory">{{cite web |url=http://www.whitehousehistory.org/whha_about/whitehouse_collection/whitehouse_collection-art-06.html |title=The Peacemakers |publisher=The White House Historical Association |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/62a8J9jOa?url=http://www.whitehousehistory.org/whha_about/whitehouse_collection/whitehouse_collection-art-06.html |archivedate=October 20, 2011 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy |access-date=May 3, 2009}}</ref> Lincoln and the Republican Party mobilized support for the draft throughout the North, and replaced the Union losses.<ref>Thomas (2008), pp. 422–424.</ref> Lincoln authorized Grant to target the Confederate infrastructure—such as plantations, railroads, and bridges—hoping to destroy the South's morale and weaken its economic ability to continue fighting. Grant's move to Petersburg resulted in the obstruction of three railroads between Richmond and the South. This strategy allowed Generals Sherman and [[Philip Sheridan]] to destroy plantations and towns in Virginia's [[Shenandoah Valley]]. The damage caused by [[Sherman's March to the Sea]] through Georgia in 1864 was limited to a {{convert|60|mi|km|adj=on}} swath, but neither Lincoln nor his commanders saw destruction as the main goal, but rather defeat of the Confederate armies. [[Mark E. Neely Jr.]] has argued that there was no effort to engage in "[[total war]]" against civilians which he believed did take place during World War II.<ref>Neely (2004), pp. 434–458.</ref>{{vague|date=December 2014}} Confederate general [[Jubal Early]] began a series of assaults in the North that threatened the Capital. During Early's [[Battle of Fort Stevens|raid on Washington, D.C.]] in 1864, Lincoln was watching the combat from an exposed position; Captain [[Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.|Oliver Wendell Holmes]] shouted at him, "Get down, you damn fool, before you get shot!"<ref>Thomas (2008), p. 434.</ref> After repeated calls on Grant to defend Washington, Sheridan was appointed and the threat from Early was dispatched.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 516–518.</ref> As Grant continued to wear down Lee's forces, efforts to discuss peace began. Confederate Vice President [[Alexander H. Stephens|Stephens]] led a group to meet with Lincoln, Seward, and others at [[Hampton Roads Conference|Hampton Roads]]. Lincoln refused to allow any negotiation with the Confederacy as a coequal; his sole objective was an agreement to end the fighting and the meetings produced no results.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 565.</ref> On April 1, 1865, Grant successfully outflanked Lee's forces in the [[Battle of Five Forks]] and nearly encircled Petersburg, and the Confederate government evacuated Richmond. Days later, when that city fell, Lincoln visited the vanquished Confederate capital; as he walked through the city, white Southerners were stone-faced, but [[freedmen]] greeted him as a hero. On April 9, Lee surrendered to Grant at [[Appomattox Court House National Historical Park|Appomattox]] and the war was effectively over.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 589.</ref> ===1864 re-election=== {{Main|Electoral history of Abraham Lincoln|United States presidential election, 1864}} [[File:1864 Electoral Map.png|thumb|alt=Map of the U.S. showing Lincoln winning all the Union states except for Kentucky, New Jersey, and Delaware. The Southern states are not included.|An [[Electoral College (United States)|electoral]] landslide for Lincoln (in red) in the 1864 election; southern states (brown) and territories (light brown) not in play]] While the war was still being waged, Lincoln faced reelection in 1864. Lincoln was a master politician, bringing together—and holding together—all the main factions of the Republican Party, and bringing in [[War Democrats]] such as [[Edwin M. Stanton]] and Andrew Johnson as well. Lincoln spent many hours a week talking to politicians from across the land and using his patronage powers—greatly expanded over peacetime—to hold the factions of his party together, build support for his own policies, and fend off efforts by Radicals to drop him from the 1864 ticket.<ref>Fish, pp. 53–69.</ref><ref>Tegeder, pp. 77–90.</ref> At its 1864 convention, the Republican Party selected Johnson, a War Democrat from the Southern state of Tennessee, as his running mate. To broaden his coalition to include War Democrats as well as Republicans, Lincoln ran under the label of the new [[National Union Party (United States)|Union Party]].<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 494–507.</ref> When Grant's 1864 spring campaigns turned into bloody stalemates and Union casualties mounted, the lack of military success wore heavily on the President's re-election prospects, and many Republicans across the country feared that Lincoln would be defeated. Sharing this fear, Lincoln wrote and signed a pledge that, if he should lose the election, he would still defeat the Confederacy before turning over the White House:<ref name="Grimsley, p. 80">Grimsley, p. 80.</ref> {{quote|This morning, as for some days past, it seems exceedingly probable that this Administration will not be re-elected. Then it will be my duty to so co-operate with the President elect, as to save the Union between the election and the inauguration; as he will have secured his election on such ground that he cannot possibly save it afterward.<ref>Basler (1953), p. 514.</ref>}} Lincoln did not show the pledge to his cabinet, but asked them to sign the sealed envelope. While the Democratic platform followed the "Peace wing" of the party and called the war a "failure", their candidate, General George B. McClellan, supported the war and repudiated the platform. Lincoln provided Grant with more troops and mobilized his party to renew its support of Grant in the war effort. Sherman's capture of Atlanta in September and [[David Farragut]]'s capture of Mobile ended defeatist jitters;<ref>Donald (1996), p. 531.</ref> the Democratic Party was deeply split, with some leaders and most soldiers openly for Lincoln. By contrast, the National Union Party was united and energized as Lincoln made emancipation the central issue, and state Republican parties stressed the [[perfidy]] of the Copperheads.<ref>Randall & Current (1955), p. 307.</ref> On November 8, Lincoln was re-elected in a landslide, carrying all but three states, and receiving 78 percent of the Union soldiers' vote.<ref name="Grimsley, p. 80"/><ref>Paludan, pp. 274–293.</ref> [[File:Abraham Lincoln second inaugural address.jpg|thumb|alt=A large crowd in front of a large building with many pillars.|Lincoln's second inaugural address in 1865 at the almost completed Capitol building]] On March 4, 1865, Lincoln delivered his [[Lincoln's second inaugural address|second inaugural address]]. In it, he deemed the high casualties on both sides to be God's will. Historian [[Mark Noll]] concludes it ranks "among the small handful of semi-sacred texts by which Americans conceive their place in the world".<ref>Noll, p. 426.</ref> Lincoln said: {{quote|Fondly do we hope—fervently do we pray—that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away. Yet, if God wills that it continue, until all the wealth piled by the [[wikt:bondman|bond-man's]] 250 years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash, shall be paid by another drawn with the sword, as was said 3,000 years ago, so still it must be said, "the judgments of the Lord, are true and righteous altogether". With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation's wounds; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow, and his orphan—to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace, among ourselves, and with all nations.<ref>Abraham Lincoln, ''Abraham Lincoln: Selected Speeches and Writings'' (Library of America edition, 2009) p 450</ref>}} ===Reconstruction=== {{Main|Reconstruction Era}} Reconstruction began during the war, as Lincoln and his associates anticipated questions of how to reintegrate the conquered southern states, and how to determine the fates of Confederate leaders and freed slaves. Shortly after Lee's surrender, a general had asked Lincoln how the defeated Confederates should be treated, and Lincoln replied, "Let 'em up easy."<ref>Thomas (2008), pp. 509–512.</ref> In keeping with that sentiment, Lincoln led the moderates regarding Reconstruction policy, and was opposed by the Radical Republicans, under Rep. [[Thaddeus Stevens]], Sen. [[Charles Sumner]] and Sen. [[Benjamin Wade]], political allies of the president on other issues. Determined to find a course that would reunite the nation and not alienate the South, Lincoln urged that speedy elections under generous terms be held throughout the war. His [[Ten percent plan|Amnesty Proclamation]] of December 8, 1863, offered pardons to those who had not held a Confederate civil office, had not mistreated Union prisoners, and would sign an oath of allegiance.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 471–472.</ref> [[File:Lincoln and Johnsond.jpg|alt=Cartoon of Lincoln and Johnson attempting to stitch up the broken Union|thumb|A political cartoon of Vice President Andrew Johnson (a former tailor) and Lincoln, 1865, entitled ''The 'Rail Splitter' At Work Repairing the Union''. The caption reads (Johnson): "Take it quietly Uncle Abe and I will draw it closer than ever." (Lincoln): "A few more stitches Andy and the good old Union will be mended."]] As Southern states were subdued, critical decisions had to be made as to their leadership while their administrations were re-formed. Of special importance were Tennessee and Arkansas, where Lincoln appointed Generals [[Andrew Johnson#General|Andrew Johnson]] and [[Frederick Steele]] as military governors, respectively. In Louisiana, Lincoln ordered General [[Nathaniel P. Banks]] to promote a plan that would restore statehood when 10 percent of the voters agreed to it. Lincoln's Democratic opponents seized on these appointments to accuse him of using the military to ensure his and the Republicans' political aspirations. On the other hand, the Radicals denounced his policy as too lenient, and passed their own plan, the [[Wade-Davis Bill]], in 1864. When Lincoln vetoed the bill, the Radicals retaliated by refusing to seat representatives elected from Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 485–486.</ref> Lincoln's appointments were designed to keep both the moderate and Radical factions in harness. To fill Chief Justice Taney's seat on the Supreme Court, he named the choice of the Radicals, Salmon P. Chase, who Lincoln believed would uphold the emancipation and paper money policies.<ref>Nevins, ''Ordeal of the Union'', Vol IV., p. 206.</ref> After implementing the Emancipation Proclamation, which did not apply to every state, Lincoln increased pressure on Congress to outlaw slavery throughout the entire nation with a constitutional amendment. Lincoln declared that such an amendment would "clinch the whole matter".<ref>Donald (1996), p. 561.</ref> By December 1863, a proposed constitutional amendment that would outlaw slavery was brought to Congress for passage. This first attempt at an amendment failed to pass, falling short of the required two-thirds majority on June 15, 1864, in the House of Representatives. Passage of the proposed amendment became part of the Republican/Unionist platform in the election of 1864. After a long debate in the House, a second attempt passed Congress on January 31, 1865, and was sent to the state legislatures for ratification.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 562–563.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/house-passes-the-13th-amendment |title=House passes the 13th Amendment – History.com This Day in History – 1/31/1865 |publisher=History.com |accessdate=November 19, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110065228/http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/house-passes-the-13th-amendment |archive-date=November 10, 2012 |deadurl=no |df=mdy}}</ref> Upon ratification, it became the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]] on December 6, 1865.<ref>{{cite web |title=Primary Documents in American History: 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution |url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/13thamendment.html |publisher=Library of Congress |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/62a9BIwNw?url=http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/13thamendment.html |archivedate=October 20, 2011 |deadurl=no |df=mdy |access-date=October 20, 2011}}</ref> As the war drew to a close, Lincoln's presidential Reconstruction for the South was in flux; having believed the federal government had limited responsibility to the millions of freedmen. He signed into law Senator Charles Sumner's [[Freedmen's Bureau]] bill that set up a temporary federal agency designed to meet the immediate material needs of former slaves. The law assigned land for a lease of three years with the ability to purchase title for the freedmen. Lincoln stated that his Louisiana plan did not apply to all states under Reconstruction. Shortly before his assassination, Lincoln announced he had a new plan for southern Reconstruction. Discussions with his cabinet revealed Lincoln planned short-term military control over southern states, until readmission under the control of southern Unionists.<ref>Carwardine (2003), pp. 242–243.</ref> Historians agree that it is impossible to predict exactly what Lincoln would have done about Reconstruction if he had lived, but they make projections based on his known policy positions and political acumen. Lincoln biographers [[James G. Randall]] and [[Richard Current]], according to David Lincove, argue that:<ref>{{cite book|last=Lincove|first=David A.|title=Reconstruction in the United States: An Annotated Bibliography|url=https://books.google.com/?id=3EQcT7-Dpi0C&pg=PA80|year= 2000|publisher=Greenwood|page=80|access-date=June 27, 2015|isbn=9780313291999}}</ref> {{quote|It is likely that had he lived, Lincoln would have followed a policy similar to Johnson's, that he would have clashed with congressional Radicals, that he would have produced a better result for the freedmen than occurred, and that his political skills would have helped him avoid Johnson's mistakes.}} [[Eric Foner]] argues that:<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery|url=https://books.google.com/?id=4b8m7cv3wTIC&pg=PA335|year=2010|publisher=W. W. Norton|pages=334–36|access-date=June 27, 2015|isbn=9780393340662}}</ref> {{quote|Unlike Sumner and other Radicals, Lincoln did not see Reconstruction as an opportunity for a sweeping political and social revolution beyond emancipation. He had long made clear his opposition to the confiscation and redistribution of land. He believed, as most Republicans did in April 1865, that the voting requirements should be determined by the states. He assumed that political control in the South would pass to white Unionists, reluctant secessionists, and forward-looking former Confederates. But time and again during the war, Lincoln, after initial opposition, had come to embrace positions first advanced by abolitionists and Radical Republicans.&nbsp;... Lincoln undoubtedly would have listened carefully to the outcry for further protection for the former slaves&nbsp;... It is entirely plausible to imagine Lincoln and Congress agreeing on a Reconstruction policy that encompassed federal protection for basic civil rights plus limited black suffrage, along the lines Lincoln proposed just before his death.}} ===Redefining the republic and republicanism=== [[File:Abraham Lincoln O-116 by Gardner, 1865-crop.png|thumb|alt=An older, tired-looking Abraham Lincoln with a beard.|Lincoln in February 1865, about two months before his death]] The successful reunification of the states had consequences for the name of the country. The term "the United States" has historically been used, sometimes in the plural ("these United States"), and other times in the singular, without any particular grammatical consistency. The Civil War was a significant force in the eventual dominance of the singular usage by the end of the 19th century.<ref name="Presidential Proclamation">{{cite web |url=http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2011/04/12/presidential-proclamation-civil-war-sesquicentennial |title=Presidential Proclamation-Civil War Sesquicentennial |publisher=The White House |date=April 12, 2011 |quote=...&nbsp;a new meaning was conferred on our country's name&nbsp;... |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/62aAPoA6B?url=http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2011/04/12/presidential-proclamation-civil-war-sesquicentennial |archivedate=October 20, 2011 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy |access-date=April 26, 2011}}</ref> In recent years, historians such as Harry Jaffa, Herman Belz, John Diggins, Vernon Burton and Eric Foner have stressed Lincoln's redefinition of ''republican values''. As early as the 1850s, a time when most political rhetoric focused on the sanctity of the Constitution, Lincoln redirected emphasis to the Declaration of Independence as the foundation of American political values—what he called the "sheet anchor" of republicanism.<ref>Jaffa, p. 399.</ref> The Declaration's emphasis on freedom and equality for all, in contrast to the Constitution's tolerance of slavery, shifted the debate. As Diggins concludes regarding the highly influential Cooper Union speech of early 1860, "Lincoln presented Americans a theory of history that offers a profound contribution to the theory and destiny of republicanism itself."<ref>Diggins, p. 307.</ref> His position gained strength because he highlighted the moral basis of republicanism, rather than its legalisms.<ref>Foner (2010), p. 215.</ref> Nevertheless, in 1861, Lincoln justified the war in terms of legalisms (the Constitution was a contract, and for one party to get out of a contract all the other parties had to agree), and then in terms of the national duty to guarantee a republican form of government in every state.<ref>Jaffa, p. 263.</ref> Burton (2008) argues that Lincoln's republicanism was taken up by the Freedmen as they were emancipated.<ref>Orville Vernon Burton, ''The Age of Lincoln'' (2008) p 243</ref> In March 1861, in Lincoln's [[Abraham Lincoln's first inaugural address|first inaugural address]], he explored the nature of democracy. He denounced secession as anarchy, and explained that majority rule had to be balanced by constitutional restraints in the American system. He said "A majority held in restraint by constitutional checks and limitations, and always changing easily with deliberate changes of popular opinions and sentiments, is the only true sovereign of a free people."<ref>Belz (1998), p. 86.</ref> {{Clear}} ===Other enactments=== Lincoln adhered to the Whig theory of the presidency, which gave Congress primary responsibility for writing the laws while the Executive enforced them. Lincoln vetoed only four bills passed by Congress; the only important one was the Wade-Davis Bill with its harsh program of Reconstruction.<ref>Donald (2001), p. 137.</ref> He signed the [[Homestead Act]] in 1862, making millions of acres of government-held land in the West available for purchase at very low cost. The [[Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act]], also signed in 1862, provided government grants for agricultural colleges in each state. The [[Pacific Railway Acts]] of 1862 and 1864 granted federal support for the construction of the United States' [[First Transcontinental Railroad]], which was completed in 1869.<ref>Paludan, p. 116.</ref> The passage of the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railway Acts was made possible by the absence of Southern congressmen and senators who had opposed the measures in the 1850s.<ref>McPherson (1993), pp. 450–452.</ref> {{Infobox U.S. Cabinet | Name = Lincoln | President = Abraham Lincoln | President date = 1861–1865 | Vice President = [[Hannibal Hamlin]] | Vice President date = 1861–1865 | Vice President 2 = [[Andrew Johnson]] | Vice President date 2 = 1865 | State = [[William H. Seward]] | State date = 1861–1865 | Treasury = [[Salmon P. Chase]] | Treasury date = 1861–1864 | Treasury 2 = [[William P. Fessenden]] | Treasury date 2 = 1864–1865 | Treasury 3 = [[Hugh McCulloch]] | Treasury date 3 = 1865 | War = [[Simon Cameron]] | War date = 1861–1862 | War 2 = [[Edwin M. Stanton]] | War date 2 = 1862–1865 | Justice = [[Edward Bates]] | Justice date = 1861–1864 | Justice 2 = [[James Speed]] | Justice date 2 = 1864–1865 | Post = [[Montgomery Blair]] | Post date = 1861–1864 | Post 2 = [[William Dennison Jr.]] | Post date 2 = 1864–1865 | Navy = [[Gideon Welles]] | Navy date = 1861–1865 | Interior = [[Caleb Blood Smith]] | Interior date = 1861–1862 | Interior 2 = [[John Palmer Usher]] | Interior date 2 = 1863–1865 | source = <ref>{{cite web |author=Summers, Robert |title=Abraham Lincoln |url=http://www.ipl.org/div/potus/alincoln.html |work=Internet Public Library 2 (IPL2) |publisher=U. Michigan and Drexel U. |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/62dM1T7zn?url=http://www.ipl.org/div/potus/alincoln.html |archivedate=October 22, 2011 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy |access-date=December 9, 2012}}</ref> }} Other important legislation involved two measures to raise revenues for the Federal government: tariffs (a policy with long precedent), and a new Federal income tax. In 1861, Lincoln signed the second and third [[Morrill Tariff]], the first having become law under James Buchanan. Also in 1861, Lincoln signed the [[Revenue Act of 1861]], creating the first U.S. income tax.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 424.</ref> This created a flat tax of 3 percent on incomes above $800 (${{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|800|1861|r=-2}}}} in current dollar terms), which was later changed by the [[Revenue Act of 1862]] to a progressive rate structure.<ref>Paludan, p. 111.</ref> Lincoln also presided over the expansion of the federal government's economic influence in several other areas. The creation of the system of national banks by the [[National Banking Act]] provided a strong financial network in the country. It also established a national currency. In 1862, Congress created, with Lincoln's approval, the [[United States Department of Agriculture|Department of Agriculture]].<ref name="Donald 2001 p. 424">Donald (2001), p. 424.</ref> In 1862, Lincoln sent a senior general, John Pope, to put down the "[[Dakota War of 1862|Sioux Uprising]]" in Minnesota. Presented with 303 execution warrants for convicted [[Sioux#Santee (Isáŋyathi or Eastern Dakota)|Santee Dakota]] who were accused of killing innocent farmers, Lincoln conducted his own personal review of each of these warrants, eventually approving 39 for execution (one was later reprieved).<ref>Cox, p. 182.</ref> President Lincoln had planned to reform federal Indian policy.<ref>Nichols, pp. 210–232.</ref> In the wake of Grant's casualties in his campaign against Lee, Lincoln had considered yet another executive call for a military draft, but it was never issued. In response to rumors of one, however, the editors of the ''[[New York World]]'' and the ''[[The Journal of Commerce|Journal of Commerce]]'' published a false draft proclamation which created an opportunity for the editors and others employed at the publications to corner the gold market. Lincoln's reaction was to send the strongest of messages to the media about such behavior; he ordered the military to seize the two papers. The seizure lasted for two days.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 501–502.</ref> Lincoln is largely responsible for the institution of the [[Thanksgiving (United States)|Thanksgiving holiday]] in the United States.<ref name="Donald 1996, p. 471">Donald (1996), p. 471.</ref> Before Lincoln's presidency, Thanksgiving, while a regional holiday in New England since the 17th century, had been proclaimed by the federal government only sporadically and on irregular dates. The last such proclamation had been during [[James Madison]]'s presidency 50 years before. In 1863, Lincoln declared the final Thursday in November of that year to be a day of Thanksgiving.<ref name="Donald 1996, p. 471"/> In June 1864, Lincoln approved the Yosemite Grant enacted by Congress, which provided unprecedented federal protection for the area now known as [[Yosemite National Park]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Schaffer|first=Jeffrey P.|title=Yosemite National Park: A Natural History Guide to Yosemite and Its Trails|publisher=Wilderness Press|page=48|location=Berkeley|year=1999|isbn=978-0-89997-244-2}}</ref> ===Judicial appointments=== {{Main|List of federal judges appointed by Abraham Lincoln}} ====Supreme Court appointments==== * [[Noah Haynes Swayne]] – 1862 * [[Samuel Freeman Miller]] – 1862 * [[David Davis (Supreme Court justice)|David Davis]] – 1862 * [[Stephen Johnson Field]] – 1863 * [[Salmon P. Chase|Salmon Portland Chase]] – 1864 (Chief Justice) [[File:Mathew Brady, Portrait of Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase, officer of the United States government (1860–1865, full version).jpg|thumb|right|[[Salmon Portland Chase]] was Lincoln's choice to be [[Chief Justice of the United States]].]] Lincoln's declared philosophy on court nominations was that "we cannot ask a man what he will do, and if we should, and he should answer us, we should despise him for it. Therefore we must take a man whose opinions are known."<ref name="Donald 1996, p. 471"/> Lincoln made five appointments to the United States Supreme Court. [[Noah Haynes Swayne]], nominated January 21, 1862, and appointed January 24, 1862, was chosen as an anti-slavery lawyer who was committed to the Union. [[Samuel Freeman Miller]], nominated and appointed on July 16, 1862, supported Lincoln in the 1860 election and was an avowed abolitionist. David Davis, Lincoln's campaign manager in 1860, nominated December 1, 1862, and appointed December 8, 1862, had also served as a judge in Lincoln's Illinois court circuit. [[Stephen Johnson Field]], a previous California Supreme Court justice, was nominated March 6, 1863, and appointed March 10, 1863, and provided geographic balance, as well as political balance to the court as a Democrat. Finally, Lincoln's Treasury Secretary, Salmon P. Chase, was nominated as Chief Justice, and appointed the same day, on December 6, 1864. Lincoln believed Chase was an able jurist, would support Reconstruction legislation, and that his appointment united the Republican Party.<ref>Blue, p. 245.</ref> ====Other judicial appointments==== Lincoln appointed 32 federal judges, including four Associate Justices and one Chief Justice to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]], and 27 judges to the [[United States district courts]]. Lincoln appointed no judges to the [[United States circuit court]]s during his time in office.<ref name="FJCdotGOV">{{cite web|title=Biographical Directory of Federal Judges|url=http://www.fjc.gov/public/home.nsf/hisj|website=Federal Judicial Center|accessdate=August 11, 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730115701/http://www.fjc.gov/public/home.nsf/hisj|archivedate=July 30, 2016}}</ref><ref name="FedJudgeListLincoln">{{cite web|title=Federal judges nominated by Abraham Lincoln|url=https://ballotpedia.org/Federal_judges_nominated_by_Abraham_Lincoln|website=BallotPedia|accessdate=August 11, 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150909092944/http://ballotpedia.org/Federal_judges_nominated_by_Abraham_Lincoln|archivedate=September 9, 2015}}</ref> ===States admitted to the Union=== [[West Virginia]], admitted to the Union June 20, 1863, contained the former north-westernmost counties of Virginia that seceded from Virginia after that commonwealth declared its secession from the Union. As a condition for its admission, West Virginia's constitution was required to provide for the gradual abolition of slavery. [[Nevada]], which became the third State in the far-west of the continent, was admitted as a free state on October 31, 1864.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 300, 539.</ref> {{Clear}} ==Assassination and funeral== {{Main|Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|Funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln}} [[File:Lincoln assassination slide c1900.png|thumb|left|alt=Image of Lincoln being shot by Booth while sitting in a theater booth.|Shown in the presidential booth of Ford's Theatre, from left to right, are assassin [[John Wilkes Booth]], Abraham Lincoln, [[Mary Todd Lincoln]], [[Clara Harris]], and [[Henry Rathbone]]]] Abraham Lincoln was assassinated by [[John Wilkes Booth]] on Good Friday, April 14, 1865, while attending a play at [[Ford's Theatre]] as the American Civil War was drawing to a close. The assassination occurred five days after the surrender of Robert E. Lee and the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia. Booth was a well-known actor and a Confederate spy from Maryland; though he never joined the Confederate army, he had contacts with the Confederate secret service.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 586–587.</ref> In 1864, Booth formulated a plan (very similar to one of Thomas N. Conrad previously authorized by the Confederacy)<ref>Donald (1996), p. 587.</ref> to kidnap Lincoln in exchange for the release of Confederate prisoners. After attending an April 11, 1865, speech in which Lincoln promoted voting rights for blacks, an incensed Booth changed his plans and became determined to assassinate the president.<ref>Harrison (2000), pp. 3–4.</ref> Learning that the President and Grant would be attending Ford's Theatre, Booth formulated a plan with co-conspirators to assassinate Lincoln and Grant at the theater, as well as Vice President Johnson and Secretary of State Seward at their homes. Without his main bodyguard, [[Ward Hill Lamon]], Lincoln left to attend the play ''[[Our American Cousin]]'' on April 14. At the last minute, Grant decided to go to New Jersey to visit his children instead of attending the play.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 594–597.</ref> Lincoln's bodyguard, John Parker, left Ford's Theater during intermission to drink at the saloon next door. The now unguarded President sat in his state box in the balcony. Seizing the opportunity, Booth crept up from behind and at about 10:13&nbsp;pm, aimed at the back of Lincoln's head and fired at point-blank range, mortally wounding the President. Major [[Henry Rathbone]] momentarily grappled with Booth, but Booth stabbed him and escaped.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 597.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/Lincolns-Missing-Bodyguard.html |title=Lincoln's Missing Bodyguard |first=Paul |last=Martin |date=April 8, 2010 |work=Smithsonian Magazine |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/62aAqLOzq?url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/Lincolns-Missing-Bodyguard.html |archivedate=October 20, 2011 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy |access-date=October 15, 2010}}</ref> After being on the run for 12 days, Booth was tracked down and found on a farm in Virginia, some {{convert|70|mi|km}} south of Washington. After refusing to surrender to Union troops, Booth was killed by Sergeant [[Boston Corbett]] on April 26.<ref>Steers, p. 153.</ref><ref>Donald (1996), p. 599.</ref> Doctor [[Charles Leale]], an Army surgeon, found the President unresponsive, barely breathing and with no detectable pulse. Having determined that the President had been shot in the head, and not stabbed in the shoulder as originally thought, he made an attempt to clear the blood clot, after which the President began to breathe more naturally.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.yahoo.com/report-first-doctor-reach-shot-lincoln-found-175353998.html |title=Report of first doctor to reach shot Lincoln found |access-date=June 6, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120606173005/http://news.yahoo.com/report-first-doctor-reach-shot-lincoln-found-175353998.html |archive-date=June 6, 2012 |deadurl=no |df=mdy}}</ref> The dying President was taken across the street to [[Petersen House]]. After remaining in a coma for nine hours, Lincoln died at 7:22&nbsp;am on April 15. According to eyewitnesses, he face was fixed in a smile when he expired.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fox|first1=Richard|title=Lincoln's Body: A Cultural History|date=2015|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393247244}}</ref><ref name="Abel4">{{cite book|last1=Abel|first1=E. Lawrence|title=A Finger in Lincoln's Brain: What Modern Science Reveals about Lincoln, His Assassination, and Its Aftermath|date=2015|publisher=ABC-CLIO|at= Chapter 14}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1865/04/17/news/our-great-loss-assassination-president-lincolndetails-fearful-crimeclosing.html|title=OUR GREAT LOSS; The Assassination of President Lincoln.|date=1865-04-17|newspaper=The New York Times|issn=0362-4331|access-date=2016-04-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Hay|first=John|title=The Life and Letters of John Hay Volume 1|date=1915|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company. Quote's original source is Hay's diary which is quoted in "Abraham Lincoln: A History", Volume 10, Page 292 by John G. Nicolay and John Hay|url=https://archive.org/stream/lifeandlettersof007751mbp/lifeandlettersof007751mbp_djvu.txt}}</ref> Secretary of War Stanton saluted and said, "Now he belongs to the ages."<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 598–599, 686. Witnesses have provided other versions of the quote, i.e. "He now belongs to the ages." and "He is a man for the ages."</ref> Lincoln's flag-enfolded body was then escorted in the rain to the White House by bareheaded Union officers, while the city's church bells rang. President Johnson was sworn in at 10:00&nbsp;am, less than 3 hours after Lincoln's death. The late President lay in state in the East Room, and then in the Capitol Rotunda from April 19 through April 21. For his final journey with his son Willie, both caskets were transported in the executive coach "United States" and for three weeks the ''Lincoln Special'' [[Funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln#Funeral train|funeral train]] decorated in black bunting<ref> {{cite web |url=http://www.lincolnfuneraltrain.com/html/funeral_train.html |title=The Lincoln Funeral Train |author=Scott D. Trostel |accessdate=November 20, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712183544/http://lincolnfuneraltrain.com/html/funeral_train.html |archive-date=July 12, 2013 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }} </ref> bore Lincoln's remains on a slow circuitous waypoint journey from Washington D.C. to Springfield, Illinois, stopping at many cities across the North for large-scale memorials attended by hundreds of thousands, as well as many people who gathered in informal trackside tributes with bands, bonfires, and hymn singing<ref>Trostel, pp. 31–58.</ref><ref>Goodrich, pp. 231–238.</ref> or silent reverence with hat in hand as the railway procession slowly passed by. Poet [[Walt Whitman]] composed ''[[When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd]]'' to eulogize Lincoln, one of four poems he wrote about the assassinated president.<ref>{{cite book |last=Peck |first=Garrett |title=Walt Whitman in Washington, D.C.: The Civil War and America's Great Poet |year=2015 |publisher=The History Press |location=Charleston, SC |isbn=978-1-62619-973-6 |pages=118–23}}</ref> Historians have emphasized the widespread shock and sorrow, but also noted that some Lincoln haters cheered when they heard the news.<ref>{{cite book|author=Martha Hodes|title=Mourning Lincoln|url=https://books.google.com/?id=59ZtBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA84|year=2015|publisher=Yale UP|pages=84, 86, 96–97|access-date=June 27, 2015|isbn=9780300213560}}</ref> African-Americans were especially moved; they had lost 'their [[Moses]]'.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hodes|title=Mourning Lincoln|url=https://books.google.com/?id=59ZtBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA164|year=2015|page=164|isbn=9780300213560}}</ref> In a larger sense, the outpouring of grief and anguish was in response to the deaths of so many men in the war that had just ended.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hodes|title=Mourning Lincoln|url=https://books.google.com/?id=59ZtBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA108|year=2015|pages=197–199|access-date=June 27, 2015|isbn=9780300213560}}</ref> ==Religious and philosophical beliefs== {{Further information|Abraham Lincoln and religion}} [[File:AbrahamLincolnOilPainting1869Restored.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=A painting of Lincoln sitting with his hand on his chin and his elbow on his leg.|''[[Abraham Lincoln (Healy)|Abraham Lincoln]]'', painting by [[George Peter Alexander Healy]] in 1869]] As a young man, Lincoln was a [[religious skepticism|religious skeptic]],<ref>{{cite book|author=Douglas L. Wilson|title=Honor's Voice: The Transformation of Abraham Lincoln|url=https://books.google.com/?id=KCM50uZMsQMC&pg=PA84|year=1999|publisher=Random House Digital, Inc.|page=84|isbn=978-0-307-76581-9|access-date=June 27, 2015}}</ref> or, in the words of a biographer, an [[iconoclasm|iconoclast]].<ref>Carwardine (2003), p. 4.</ref> Later in life, Lincoln's frequent use of religious imagery and language might have reflected his own personal beliefs or might have been a device to appeal to his audiences, who were mostly [[evangelicalism|evangelical]] Protestants.<ref>Carwardine (1997), pp. 27–55.</ref> He never joined a church, although he frequently attended with his wife.<ref>On claims that Lincoln was baptized by an associate of [[Alexander Campbell (clergyman)|Alexander Campbell]], see {{cite journal|url=http://www.acu.edu/sponsored/restoration_quarterly/archives/1990s/vol_38_no_2_contents/martin.html |last=Martin |first=Jim |title=The secret baptism of Abraham Lincoln |journal=Restoration Quarterly |volume=38 |issue=2 |year=1996 |access-date=May 27, 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019204330/http://www.acu.edu/sponsored/restoration_quarterly/archives/1990s/vol_38_no_2_contents/martin.html |archivedate=October 19, 2012 |df=mdy}}</ref> However, he was deeply familiar with the Bible, and he both quoted and praised it.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 48–49, 514–515.</ref> He was private about his beliefs and respected the beliefs of others. Lincoln never made a clear profession of Christian beliefs. However, he did believe in an all-powerful God that shaped events and, by 1865, was expressing those beliefs in major speeches.<ref>{{cite book|author=Mark A. Noll|title=A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada|url=https://books.google.com/?id=VGF3wbzzy9QC&pg=PA322|year=1992|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans|pages=321–22|access-date=June 27, 2015|isbn=9780802806512}}</ref> In the 1840s, Lincoln subscribed to the [[Doctrine of Necessity]], a belief that asserted the human mind was controlled by some higher power.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 48–49.</ref> In the 1850s, Lincoln believed in "providence" in a general way, and rarely used the language or imagery of the evangelicals; he regarded the republicanism of the Founding Fathers with an almost religious reverence.<ref>Grant R. Brodrecht, ''"Our country": Northern evangelicals and the Union during the Civil War and Reconstruction'' (2008) p. 40</ref> When he suffered the death of his son Edward, Lincoln more frequently expressed a need to depend on God.<ref>Parrillo, pp. 227–253.</ref> The death of his son Willie in February 1862 may have caused Lincoln to look toward religion for answers and solace.<ref>Wilson, pp. 251–254.</ref> After Willie's death, Lincoln considered why, from a divine standpoint, the severity of the war was necessary. He wrote at this time that God "could have either saved or destroyed the Union without a human contest. Yet the contest began. And having begun, He could give the final victory to either side any day. Yet the contest proceeds."<ref>Wilson, p. 254.</ref> On the day Lincoln was assassinated, he reportedly told his wife he desired to visit the [[Holy Land]].<ref>Guelzo (1999), p. 434</ref> ==Health== {{Main|Health of Abraham Lincoln}} Several claims abound that Lincoln's health was declining before the assassination. These are often based on [[list of photographs of Abraham Lincoln|photographs]] appearing to show weight loss and muscle wasting. One such claim is that he suffered from a rare genetic disorder, [[multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2b|MEN2b]],<ref name="theatlantic.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2009/05/was-lincoln-dying-before-he-was-shot/17955/ |title=Was Lincoln Dying Before He Was Shot? |date=May 20, 2009 |work=The Atlantic |accessdate=October 8, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413145051/http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2009/05/was-lincoln-dying-before-he-was-shot/17955/ |archive-date=April 13, 2014 |deadurl=no |df=mdy}}</ref> which manifests with a [[medullary thyroid carcinoma]], [[mucosal neuromata with endocrine tumors|mucosal neuromas]] and a [[marfanoid|Marfanoid appearance]]. Others simply claim he had [[Marfan syndrome]], based on his tall appearance with spindly fingers, and the association of possible [[aortic regurgitation]], which can cause bobbing of the head ([[De Musset's sign|DeMusset's sign]])&nbsp;– based on blurring of Lincoln's head in photographs, which back then had a long exposure time. {{As of|2009}}, DNA analysis was being refused by the Grand Army of the Republic museum in Philadelphia.<ref name="theatlantic.com"/>{{update inline|date=June 2018}} ==Historical reputation== {{See also|Cultural depictions of Abraham Lincoln}} [[File:Head of Abraham Lincoln at Mount Rushmore.jpg|thumb|Lincoln's image is carved into the stone of [[Mount Rushmore]].]] In [[historical rankings of Presidents of the United States|surveys of U.S. scholars ranking presidents]]<!--Lincoln is first in 9 of 17 on that page--> conducted since the 1940s, Lincoln is consistently ranked in the top three, often as number one.<ref name="Ranking Our Presidents"/><ref name="gallup"/> A 2004 study found that scholars in the fields of history and politics ranked Lincoln number one, while legal scholars placed him second after Washington.<ref name="Taranto">Taranto, p. 264.</ref> In presidential ranking polls conducted in the United States since 1948, Lincoln has been rated at the very top in the majority of polls. Generally, the top three presidents are rated as 1. Lincoln; 2. George Washington; and 3. Franklin D. Roosevelt, although Lincoln and Washington, and Washington and Roosevelt, are occasionally reversed.<ref>Densen, John V., editor, ''Reassessing The Presidency, The Rise of the Executive State and the Decline of Freedom'' (Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2001), pgs. 1–32; Ridings, William H., & Stuard B. McIver, ''Rating The presidents, A Ranking of U.S. Leaders, From the Great and Honorable to the Dishonest and Incompetent'' (Citadel Press, Kensington Publishing Corp., 2000).</ref> President Lincoln's assassination increased his status to the point of making him a national martyr. Lincoln was viewed by abolitionists as a champion for human liberty. Republicans linked Lincoln's name to their party. Many, though not all, in the South considered Lincoln as a man of outstanding ability.<ref>Chesebrough, pp. 76, 79, 106, 110.</ref> Historians have said he was "a classical liberal" in the 19th century sense. [[Allen C. Guelzo]] states that Lincoln was a<ref>{{cite book|author1=Joseph R. Fornieri|author2=Sara Vaughn Gabbard|title=Lincoln's America: 1809 – 1865|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xarqzbuf43sC&pg=PA19|year=2008|publisher=SIU Press|page=19|isbn=9780809387137}}</ref><ref>See also [[James G. Randall]], ''Lincoln the Liberal Statesman'' (1947).</ref> {{quote|classical liberal democrat—an enemy of artificial hierarchy, a friend to trade and business as ennobling and enabling, and an American counterpart to Mill, Cobden, and Bright (whose portrait Lincoln hung in his White House office).}} Lincoln became a favorite exemplar for liberal intellectuals across Europe and Latin America and even in Asia.<ref>{{cite book|author=Richard Carwardine and Jay Sexton, eds.|title=The Global Lincoln|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gs_1lpJvF34C&pg=PA54|year=2011|publisher=Oxford UP|pages=7, 9–10, 54|isbn=9780195379112}}</ref> Schwartz argues that Lincoln's American reputation grew slowly in the late 19th century until the [[Progressive Era]] (1900–1920s) when he emerged as one of the most venerated heroes in American history, with even white Southerners in agreement. The high point came in 1922 with the dedication of the [[Lincoln Memorial]] on the [[National Mall]] in Washington, D.C.<ref>Schwartz (2000), p. 109.</ref> In the [[New Deal]] era liberals honored Lincoln not so much as the self-made man or the great war president, but as the advocate of the common man who they believe would have supported the welfare state. In the [[Cold War]] years, Lincoln's image shifted to emphasize the symbol of freedom who brought hope to those oppressed by communist regimes.<ref>Schwartz (2009), pp. 23, 91–98.</ref> By the 1970s Lincoln had become a hero to [[Conservatism in the United States|political conservatives]]<ref>Havers, p. 96. Apart from neo-Confederates such as [[Mel Bradford]] who denounced his treatment of the white South.</ref> for his intense nationalism, support for business, his insistence on stopping the spread of human bondage, his acting in terms of [[John Locke|Lockean]] and [[Edmund Burke|Burkean]] principles on behalf of both liberty and tradition, and his devotion to the principles of the Founding Fathers.<ref>Belz (2006), pp. 514–518.</ref><ref>Graebner, pp. 67–94.</ref><ref>Smith, pp. 43–45.</ref> As a Whig activist, Lincoln was a spokesman for business interests, favoring high tariffs, banks, internal improvements, and railroads in opposition to the [[Jacksonian Democracy|agrarian Democrats]].<ref>Boritt (1994), pp. 196, 198, 228, 301.</ref> William C. Harris found that Lincoln's "reverence for the Founding Fathers, the Constitution, the laws under it, and the preservation of the Republic and its institutions undergirded and strengthened his conservatism".<ref>Harris, p. 2.</ref> James G. Randall emphasizes his tolerance and especially his moderation "in his preference for orderly progress, his distrust of dangerous agitation, and his reluctance toward ill digested schemes of reform". Randall concludes that, "he was conservative in his complete avoidance of that type of so-called 'radicalism' which involved abuse of the South, hatred for the slaveholder, thirst for vengeance, partisan plotting, and ungenerous demands that Southern institutions be transformed overnight by outsiders."<ref>Randall (1947), p. 175.</ref> By the late 1960s, some African American intellectuals led by [[Lerone Bennett Jr.]], rejected Lincoln's role as the Great Emancipator.<ref>Zilversmit, "Lincoln and the Problem of Race: A Decade of Interpretations" (1980) pp. 22–24.</ref><ref>John M. Barr, "Holding Up a Flawed Mirror to the American Soul: Abraham Lincoln in the Writings of Lerone Bennett Jr.," ''Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association'' 35 (Winter 2014), 43–65</ref> Bennett won wide attention when he called Lincoln a white supremacist in 1968.<ref>Bennett, pp. 35–42.</ref> He noted that Lincoln used ethnic slurs and told jokes that ridiculed blacks. Bennett argued that Lincoln opposed social equality, and proposed [[American Colonization Society|sending freed slaves]] to another country. Defenders, such as authors Dirck and Cashin, retorted that he was not as bad as most politicians of his day;<ref>Dirck (2008), p. 31.</ref> and that he was a "moral visionary" who deftly advanced the abolitionist cause, as fast as politically possible.<ref>Striner, pp. 2–4.</ref> The emphasis shifted away from Lincoln-the-emancipator to an argument that blacks had freed themselves from slavery, or at least were responsible for pressuring the government on emancipation.<ref>Cashin, p. 61.</ref><ref>Kelley & Lewis, p. 228.</ref> Historian Barry Schwartz wrote in 2009 that Lincoln's image suffered "erosion, fading prestige, benign ridicule" in the late 20th century.<ref>Schwartz (2009), p. 146.</ref> On the other hand, Donald opined in his 1996 biography that Lincoln was distinctly endowed with the personality trait of [[negative capability]], defined by the poet [[John Keats]] and attributed to extraordinary leaders who were "content in the midst of uncertainties and doubts, and not compelled toward fact or reason".<ref>Donald (1996), p. 15.</ref> In the 21st century, President [[Barack Obama]] named Lincoln his favorite president and insisted on using Lincoln's Bible for his swearing in to office at both his inaugurations.<ref>{{cite news|last=Hirschkorn|first=Phil|title=The Obama-Lincoln Parallel: A Closer Look|publisher=CBS News|date=January 17, 2009|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/the-obama-lincoln-parallel-a-closer-look/|accessdate=January 26, 2017|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822114242/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/the-obama-lincoln-parallel-a-closer-look/|archivedate=August 22, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/theoval/2013/01/10/obama-inaugural-bible-kennedy-king/1821363/ |title=Obama to be sworn in with Lincoln, King Bibles |author=David Jackson |work=USA Today |date=January 10, 2013 |accessdate=March 2, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150324044349/http://www.usatoday.com/story/theoval/2013/01/10/obama-inaugural-bible-kennedy-king/1821363/ |archive-date=March 24, 2015 |deadurl=no |df=mdy}}</ref><ref>Hornick, Ed. (2009, January 18). [http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/01/17/lincoln.obsession/index.html/ For Obama, Lincoln was model president]. CNN. Retrieved August 5, 2018.</ref> Lincoln has often been portrayed by Hollywood, almost always in a flattering light.<ref>Steven Spielberg, Doris Kearns Goodwin, and Tony Kushner, "Mr. Lincoln Goes to Hollywood", ''Smithsonian'' (2012) 43#7 pp. 46–53.</ref><ref>Melvyn Stokes, "Abraham Lincoln and the Movies", ''American Nineteenth Century History'' 12 (June 2011), 203–31.</ref> The Union nationalism as envisioned by Lincoln, "helped lead America to the nationalism of [[Theodore Roosevelt]], [[Woodrow Wilson]], and [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]]."{{sfn|Boritt|Pinsker|2002|p=222}} ==Memory and memorials== {{Main|Memorials to Abraham Lincoln|Cultural depictions of Abraham Lincoln}} [[File:Aerial view of Lincoln Memorial - west side.jpg|upright=1.1|thumb|alt=An aerial photo a large white building with big pillars.|[[Lincoln Memorial]] in Washington, D.C.]] Lincoln's portrait appears on two denominations of [[United States currency]], the [[Penny (United States coin)|penny]] and the [[United States five-dollar bill|$5 bill]]. His likeness also appears on many [[U.S. presidents on U.S. postage stamps#Abraham Lincoln|postage stamps]] and he has been memorialized in many town, city, and county names,<ref name="Dennis, p. 194">Dennis, p. 194.</ref> including the [[Lincoln, Nebraska|capital]] of Nebraska.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nebraska.gov/poi/general-info.html|title=Nebraska.gov|publisher=nebraska.gov|access-date=March 5, 2015|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316001401/http://www.nebraska.gov/poi/general-info.html|archivedate=March 16, 2015|df=mdy-all}}</ref> While he is usually portrayed bearded, he first grew a beard in 1860 at the suggestion of 11-year-old [[Grace Bedell]]. The most famous and most visited memorials are Lincoln's sculpture on [[Mount Rushmore]];<ref>{{cite web |title=Mount Rushmore National Memorial |url=http://www.nps.gov/moru/historyculture/index.htm |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/62dfUtolh?url=http://www.nps.gov/moru/historyculture/index.htm |archivedate=October 23, 2011 |deadurl=no |df=mdy |access-date=November 13, 2010}}</ref> [[Lincoln Memorial]], [[Ford's Theatre]], and [[Petersen House]] (where he died) in Washington, D.C.; and the [[Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum]] in [[Springfield, Illinois]], not far from [[Lincoln Home National Historic Site|Lincoln's home]], as well as [[Lincoln's Tomb|his tomb]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alplm.com/ |title=The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum |publisher=Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/62i1pRLLD?url=http://www.alplm.com/ |archivedate=October 25, 2011 |deadurl=no |df=mdy |access-date=September 23, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fordstheatre.org/home/about-fords |title=About Ford's |publisher=Ford's Theatre |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/62i1ux7Sk?url=http://www.fordstheatre.org/home/about-fords |archivedate=October 25, 2011 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy |access-date=September 23, 2009}}</ref> There was also the [[Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln]] exhibit in [[Disneyland]], and [[Hall of Presidents]] at [[Walt Disney World]], which had to do with [[Walt Disney]] admiring Lincoln ever since he was a little boy. Barry Schwartz, a sociologist who has examined America's cultural memory, argues that in the 1930s and 1940s, the memory of Abraham Lincoln was practically sacred and provided the nation with "a moral symbol inspiring and guiding American life". During the [[Great Depression]], he argues, Lincoln served "as a means for seeing the world's disappointments, for making its sufferings not so much explicable as meaningful". Franklin D. Roosevelt, preparing America for war, used the words of the Civil War president to clarify the threat posed by Germany and Japan. Americans asked, "What would Lincoln do?"<ref>Barry Schwartz, ''Abraham Lincoln in the Post-Heroic Era: History and Memory in Late Twentieth-Century America'' (2009) pp. xi, 9, 24</ref> However, Schwartz also finds that since World War II, Lincoln's symbolic power has lost relevance, and this "fading hero is symptomatic of fading confidence in national greatness". He suggested that [[postmodernism]] and [[multiculturalism]] have diluted greatness as a concept.<ref>Barry Schwartz, ''Abraham Lincoln in the Post-Heroic Era: History and Memory in Late Twentieth-Century America'' (2009) p. xi, 9</ref> The [[United States Navy]] {{sclass-|Nimitz|aircraft carrier|1}} {{USS|Abraham Lincoln|CVN-72}} is named after Lincoln, the second Navy ship to bear his name. ==See also== {{Wikipedia books}} * [[Outline of Abraham Lincoln]] * [[Sexuality of Abraham Lincoln]] * [[Dakota War of 1862]] * [[Grace Bedell]] * [[The Towers (Ohio State)|Lincoln Tower]] * [[List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln]] * [[List of civil rights leaders]] ==Notes== {{notelist}} ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Bibliography== {{Main|Bibliography of Abraham Lincoln}} {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal|last=Adams|first=Charles F.|date=April 1912|title=The Trent Affair|journal=The American Historical Review|volume=17|issue=3|pages=540–562|jstor=1834388|doi=10.2307/1834388}} * {{cite book|isbn=|oclc=1178496|title=Halleck: Lincoln's Chief of Staff|authorlink=Stephen E. Ambrose|last=Ambrose|first=Stephen E.|publisher=Louisiana State University Press|year=1962}} * {{cite book|ref=Baker|last=Baker|first=Jean H.|title=Mary Todd Lincoln: A Biography|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=1989|isbn=978-0-393-30586-9}} * {{cite book|last= Bartelt |first=William E.|title=There I Grew Up: Remembering Abraham Lincoln's Indiana Youth|publisher=Indiana Historical Society Press |location=Indianapolis |year=2008 |page=79 |isbn=978-0-87195-263-9}} * {{cite book|oclc=518824|title=Abraham Lincoln: His Speeches and Writings|editor1-link=Roy Basler|editor1-first=Roy Prentice|editor1-last=Basler|publisher=World Publishing|year=1946}} * {{cite book |editor1-last=Basler |editor1-first=Roy P.|title=The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln |publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=1953|volume=5}} * {{cite book|ref=Belz|last=Belz|first=Herman|title=Abraham Lincoln, Constitutionalism, and Equal Rights in the Civil War Era|publisher=Fordham University Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-8232-1769-4}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Belz|first=Herman|editor1-first=Bruce|editor1-last=Frohnen|editor2-first=Jeremy|editor2-last=Beer|editor3-first=Jeffrey O|editor3-last=Nelson|encyclopedia=American Conservatism: An Encyclopedia |title=Lincoln, Abraham|year=2006|publisher=ISI Books|isbn=978-1-932236-43-9}} * {{cite magazine|last=Bennett |first=Lerone, Jr. |authorlink=Lerone Bennett Jr. |date=February 1968|title=Was Abe Lincoln a White Supremacist?|magazine=Ebony|volume=23|issue=4|issn=0012-9011|url=https://books.google.com/?id=H84DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA35}} * {{cite book|ref=Blue|last=Blue|first=Frederick J.|title=Salmon P. Chase: a life in politics|publisher=The Kent State University Press|year=1987|isbn=978-0-87338-340-0}} <!-- NOT CITED IN ARTICLE *{{cite book|ref=Boritt1997|last=Boritt|first=Gabor S.|title=Why the Civil War Came|year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-511376-1}} --> * {{cite book|isbn=978-0-252-06445-6|title=Lincoln and the Economics of the American Dream|url=|authorlink=Gabor Boritt|ref=Boritt1994|last=Boritt|first=Gabor|publisher=University of Illinois Press|year=1994|origyear=1978}} ** {{cite book |last1=Boritt |first1=Gabor S. |last2=Pinsker |first2=Matthew |chapter=Abraham Lincoln |editor-last=Graff |editor-first=Henry |title=The Presidents: A Reference History |edition=7th |year=2002 |pages=209–223 |isbn=978-0-684-80551-1 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|ref=Bulla|last1=Bulla|first1= David W.|author2=Gregory A. Borchard|title=Journalism in the Civil War Era|year=2010|publisher=Peter Lang Publishing Inc.|isbn=978-1-4331-0722-1}} * {{cite book |last= Burlingame |first=Michael |title= Abraham Lincoln: A Life |publisher= Johns Hopkins University Press |series= |volume= I |edition= |year= 2008 |location= Baltimore, MD |page= |url= |isbn= 978-0-8018-8993-6}} * {{cite journal|last=Carwardine|first=Richard J.|authorlink=Richard Carwardine|date=Winter 1997|title=Lincoln, Evangelical Religion, and American Political Culture in the Era of the Civil War|journal=Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association|volume=18|issue=1|pages=27–55 |hdl=2027/spo.2629860.0018.104}} * {{cite book|ref=Carwardine|first=Richard|last=Carwardine|title=Lincoln|publisher=Pearson Education Ltd|year=2003|isbn=978-0-582-03279-8}} * {{cite book|isbn=978-0-691-09173-0|title=The War Was You and Me: Civilians in The American Civil War|last=Cashin|first=Joan E.|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2002}} * {{cite book|ref=Chesebrough|last=Chesebrough|first=David B.|title=No Sorrow Like Our Sorrow|publisher=Kent State University Press|year=1994|isbn=978-0-87338-491-9}} * {{cite book|ref=Cox|last=Cox|first=Hank H.|title=Lincoln and the Sioux Uprising of 1862|publisher=Cumberland House Publisher|year=2005|isbn=978-1-58182-457-5}} * {{cite book|ref=Cummings|last1=Cummings|first1=William W.|author2=James B. Hatcher|title=Scott Specialized Catalogue of United States Stamps|year=1982|publisher=Scott Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-89487-042-2}} * {{cite book|ref=Dennis|title=Red, White, and Blue Letter Days: an American Calendar|last=Dennis|first=Matthew|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0-8014-7268-8}} * {{cite book|ref=Diggins|title=The Lost Soul of American Politics: Virtue, Self-Interest, and the Foundations of Liberalism|last=Diggins|first=John P.|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1986|isbn=978-0-226-14877-9}} * {{cite book|isbn=978-0-87580-359-3|oclc=|title=Lincoln Emancipated: The President and the Politics of Race|last=Dirck|first=Brian R.|publisher=Northern Illinois University Press|year=2007}} * {{cite book|ref=Dirck|last=Dirck|first=Brian|title=Lincoln the Lawyer|publisher=University of Illinois Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-252-07614-5}} * {{cite book|ref=Donald1948|title=Lincoln's Herndon|authorlink=David Herbert Donald|first=David Herbert|last=Donald|publisher=A. A. Knopf|year=1948|oclc=186314258}} * {{cite book|ref=Donald|first=David Herbert|last=Donald|title=Lincoln|publisher=Simon and Schuster|year=1996|origyear=1995|isbn=978-0-684-82535-9}} [https://archive.org/details/lincoln00davi online] * {{cite book|ref=Donald2|first=David Herbert|last=Donald|title=Lincoln Reconsidered|year=2001|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-375-72532-6}} [https://archive.org/details/lincolnreconside00dona_0 online] * {{cite book|authorlink=Frederick Douglass|ref=Douglass|first=Frederick|last=Douglass|title=The Life and Times of Frederick Douglass|year=2008|publisher=Cosimo Classics|isbn=978-1-60520-399-7}} * {{cite book|ref=Edgar|first=Walter B.|last=Edgar|title=South Carolina: A History|year=1998|publisher=University of South Carolina Press|isbn=978-1-57003-255-4}} * {{cite journal|last=Fish|first=Carl Russell|authorlink=Carl Russell Fish |date=October 1902|title=Lincoln and the Patronage|journal=American Historical Review|volume=8|issue=1|pages=53–69|jstor=1832574|doi=10.2307/1832574}} * {{cite book|ref=Foner|authorlink=Eric Foner|last=Foner|first=Eric |title=Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War|year=1995|origyear=1970|isbn=978-0-19-509497-8|publisher=Oxford University Press}} * {{cite book|ref=Foner2|last=Foner|first= Eric|title=The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery|publisher=W.W. Norton|year=2010|isbn= 978-0-393-06618-0|title-link=The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery}} * {{cite journal|last=Gerleman|first=David J.|date=Winter 2017|title=Representative Lincoln at Work: Reconstructing a Legislative Career from Original Archival Documents|journal=The Capitol Dome|volume=54|issue=2|page=33–46|url=http://www.e-digitaleditions.com/i/930302-2017-dome-54-2.html}} * {{cite book|ref=Goodwin|first=Doris Kearns|last=Goodwin|authorlink=Doris Kearns Goodwin|title=Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln|isbn=978-0-684-82490-1|year=2005|publisher=Simon & Schuster}} * {{cite book|isbn=978-0-253-34567-7|oclc=|title=The Darkest Dawn: Lincoln, Booth, and the Great American Tragedy|last=Goodrich|first=Thomas|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=2005}} * {{cite book|oclc=428674|title=The Enduring Lincoln: Lincoln Sesquicentennial Lectures at the University of Illinois|chapter=Abraham Lincoln: Conservative Statesman|last=Graebner|first=Norman|publisher=University of Illinois Press |year=1959}} * {{cite book|ref=Grimsley|title=The Collapse of the Confederacy|last=Grimsley|first=Mark|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-8032-2170-3}} * {{cite book|ref=Guelzo1999|authorlink=Allen C. Guelzo|last=Guelzo|first=Allen C.|title=Abraham Lincoln: Redeemer President|isbn=978-0-8028-3872-8|year=1999|publisher=W.B. Eerdmans Publishing}} [https://archive.org/details/abrahamlincolnre00guel free to borrow] * {{cite book|ref=Guelzo2004|isbn=978-0-7432-2182-5|oclc=|title=Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation: The End of Slavery in America|last=Guelzo|first=Allen C.|publisher=Simon & Schuster|year=2004}} <!-- NOT CITED IN ARTICLE* {{cite book|ref=Guelzo2009|last=Guelzo|first=Allen C.|title=Lincoln: A Very Short Introduction|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=0-19-536780-4}} --> * {{cite book|ref=Handy|first= James S.|last=Handy|title=Book Review: Abraham Lincoln, the Lawyer-Statesman|publisher=Northwestern University Law Publication Association|year=1917}} * {{cite book|ref=Harrison1935|oclc=3512772|last=Harrison|first=J. Houston|title=Settlers by the Long Grey Trail|year=1935|publisher=J.K. Reubush}} * {{cite book|ref=Harrison2000|last=Harrison|first=Lowell Hayes|title=Lincoln of Kentucky|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8131-2156-7}} * {{cite book|ref=Harris|last=Harris|first=William C.|title=Lincoln's Rise to the Presidency|isbn=978-0-7006-1520-9|publisher=University Press of Kansas|year=2007}} * {{cite book|ref=Havers|last=Havers|first=Grant N.|title=Lincoln and the Politics of Christian Love|isbn=978-0-8262-1857-5|publisher=University of Missouri Press|year=2009}} * {{cite book|ref=Heidler2|title=Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History|editor-last=Heidler |editor-first=David S. |editor2-first=Jeanne T. |editor2-last=Heidler|year=2000|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company, Inc|isbn=978-0-393-04758-5}} * {{cite book|ref=Heidler|last=Heidler|first=David Stephen|title=The Mexican War|year=2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-32792-6}} * {{cite journal|last=Hofstadter|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Hofstadter |date=October 1938|title=The Tariff Issue on the Eve of the Civil War|journal=American Historical Review|volume=44|issue=1|pages=50–55|jstor=1840850|doi=10.2307/1840850}} * {{cite book|ref=Holzer|first=Harold|last=Holzer|title=Lincoln at Cooper Union: The Speech That Made Abraham Lincoln President|year=2004|publisher=Simon & Schuster|isbn=978-0-7432-9964-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lQmUab8SnhQC}} * {{cite book|ref=Jaffa|first=Harry V.|last=Jaffa|title=A New Birth of Freedom: Abraham Lincoln and the Coming of the Civil War|year=2000|isbn=978-0-8476-9952-0|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield}} * {{cite book|isbn=978-0-19-804006-4|oclc=|title=To Make Our World Anew: Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880|authorlink=Robin Kelley|last1=Kelley|first1=Robin D. G.|author2=Lewis, Earl|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2005}} * {{cite book|ref=Lamb|editor-last=Lamb |editor-first=Brian |editor2-first=Susan |editor2-last=Swain|title=Abraham Lincoln: Great American Historians on Our Sixteenth President|publisher=PublicAffairs|year=2008|isbn=978-1-58648-676-1}} * {{cite journal|last=Lupton|first=John A.|date=September–October 2006|title=Abraham Lincoln and the Corwin Amendment|journal=Illinois Heritage|volume=9|issue=5|page=34|url=http://www.lib.niu.edu/2006/ih060934.html}} <!-- NOT CITED IN ARTICLE *{{cite book|authorlink=Reinhard H. Luthin|ref=Luthin|first=Reinhard H.|last=Luthin|title=The First Lincoln Campaign|isbn=978-0-8446-1292-8|year=1944|publisher=Harvard University Press}} --> * {{cite journal|last=Luthin|first=Reinhard H. |date=July 1994|title=Abraham Lincoln and the Tariff|journal=American Historical Review|volume=49|issue=4|pages=609–629|jstor=1850218|doi=10.2307/1850218}} * McClintock, Russell (2008). ''Lincoln and the Decision for War: The Northern Response to Secession''. [[The University of North Carolina Press]]. {{ISBN|9780807831885}}. Online preview. * {{cite book |last=Madison |first=James H. |title= Hoosiers: A New History of Indiana |publisher= Indiana University Press and Indiana Historical Society Press |series= |volume= |edition= |year= 2014 |location= Bloomington and Indianapolis |page= 110 |url= |isbn= 978-0-253-01308-8}} * {{cite book|ref=Mansch|last=Mansch|first=Larry D.|title=Abraham Lincoln, President-Elect: The Four Critical Months from Election to Inauguration|publisher=McFarland|year=2005|isbn=978-0-7864-2026-1}} * {{cite book|authorlink=George McGovern|ref=McGovern|last=McGovern|first=George S.|title=Abraham Lincoln|publisher=Macmillan|year=2008|isbn=978-0-8050-8345-3}} * {{cite book|ref= McKirdy|last= McKirdy|first= Charles Robert|title= Lincoln Apostate: The Matson Slave Case|year=2011|publisher= Univ. Press of Mississippi|isbn= 978-1-60473-987-9}} * {{cite book|ref=McPherson1992|last=McPherson|first=James M.|authorlink=James M. McPherson|title=Abraham Lincoln and the Second American Revolution|year=1992|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-507606-6}} * {{cite book|ref=McPherson2|title=Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era|last=McPherson|first=James M.|year=1993|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-516895-2|title-link=Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era}} * {{cite book|ref=McPherson5|last=McPherson|first=James M.|title=Abraham Lincoln|year=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-537452-0}} * {{cite book |last= Miller |first=William Lee |title= Lincoln's Virtues: An Ethical Biography |publisher= Random House/Vintage Books |series= |volume= |edition= Vintage Books |year= 2002 |location= New York |page= |url= |isbn= 978-0-375-40158-9}} * {{cite book|authorlink=Mark E. Neely Jr.|ref=Neely |last=Neely |first=Mark E. |title=The Fate of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1992|pages=3–31|url=https://www.questia.com/library/79055660/the-fate-of-liberty-abraham-lincoln-and-civil-liberties}} * {{cite journal|last=Neely Jr.|first=Mark E.|date=December 2004|title=Was the Civil War a Total War?|journal=Civil War History|volume=50 |issue=4|pages=434–458|url=http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/civil_war_history/v050/50.4neely.html |doi=10.1353/cwh.2004.0073}} * {{cite book|ref=Nevins|last=Nevins|first=Allan|title=Ordeal of the Union; 8 vol|publisher=Scribner's|year=1947–71|isbn=978-0-684-10416-4}} ** {{cite book|ref=Nevins1950|last=Nevins|first=Allan|title=The Emergence of Lincoln: Prologue to Civil War, 1857–1861 2 vol|publisher=Scribner's|year=1950|isbn=978-0-684-10416-4}}, also published as vol 3–4 of ''Ordeal of the Union'' ** {{cite book|ref=Nevins1960|last=Nevins|first=Allan|title=The War for the Union; 4 vol 1861–1865|publisher=Scribner's|year=1960–1971|isbn=978-1-56852-297-5}}; also published as vol 5–8 of ''Ordeal of the Union'' * {{cite book|ref=Nichols|last=Nichols|first=David A.|title=Lincoln Looks West: From the Mississippi to the Pacific|editor=Richard W. Etulain|publisher=Southern Illinois University|year=2010|isbn=978-0-8093-2961-8}} * {{cite book|ref=Noll|last=Noll|first=Mark|title=America's God: From Jonathan Edwards to Abraham Lincoln|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-19-515111-4}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|last=Oates|first=Stephen B.|authorlink=Stephen B. Oates|title=Responses of the Presidents to Charges of Misconduct|editor=[[C. Vann Woodward]]|publisher=Dell Publishing Co., Inc.|date=1974|pages=111–123|chapter=Abraham Lincoln 1861–1865|location=New York City|isbn=978-0-440-05923-3}} ** {{cite book|ref=Oates|last=Oates|first=Stephen B.|authorlink=Stephen B. Oates|title=With Malice Toward None: a Life of Abraham Lincoln|publisher=HarperCollins|year=1993|isbn=978-0-06-092471-3}} * {{cite book|ref=Paludan|last=Paludan|first=Phillip Shaw|title=The Presidency of Abraham Lincoln|isbn=978-0-7006-0671-9|year=1994|publisher=University Press of Kansas}} * {{cite journal|last=Parrillo|first=Nicholas |date=September 2000|title=Lincoln's Calvinist Transformation: Emancipation and War|journal=Civil War History|volume=46|issue=3|pages=227–253|doi=10.1353/cwh.2000.0073}} * {{cite book|ref=Peterson|last=Peterson|first=Merrill D.|title=Lincoln in American Memory|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1995|isbn=978-0-19-509645-3}} * {{cite book|ref=Potter|last1=Potter|first1=David M.|author2=Don Edward Fehrenbacher|title=The impending crisis, 1848–1861|publisher=HarperCollins|year=1976|isbn=978-0-06-131929-7}} * {{cite book|ref=Prokopowicz|last=Prokopowicz|first=Gerald J.|title=Did Lincoln Own Slaves?|publisher=Vintage Books|year=2008|isbn=978-0-307-27929-3}} * {{cite book|oclc=748479|ref=Randall1947|last=Randall|first=James G.|authorlink=James G. Randall|title=Lincoln, the Liberal Statesman|year=1947|publisher=Dodd, Mead}} * {{cite book|oclc=5852442|ref=Randall|last1=Randall|first1=J.G.|author2=Current, Richard Nelson|series=Lincoln the President|volume=IV|title=Last Full Measure|publisher=Dodd, Mead|year=1955}} <!-- NOT CITED IN ARTICLE * {{cite book|ref=Reinhart|last=Reinhart|first=Mark S.|title=Abraham Lincoln on Screen|publisher=McFarland|year=2008|isbn=978-0-7864-3536-4}} --> * {{cite book|oclc=6579822|ref=Sandburg|last=Sandburg|first=Carl |title=Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie Years|year=1926|publisher=Harcourt, Brace & Company}} * {{cite book|ref=SandburgPW2002|last=Sandburg |first=Carl|title=Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie Years and the War Years|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|year=2002|isbn=978-0-15-602752-6}} * {{cite book|ref=Schwartz2000|last=Schwartz|first=Barry|title=Abraham Lincoln and the Forge of National Memory|year=2000|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-74197-0}} * {{cite book|ref=Schwartz2009|last=Schwartz|first=Barry|title=Abraham Lincoln in the Post-Heroic Era: History and Memory in Late Twentieth-Century America|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-226-74188-8}} * {{cite journal|last=Scott|first=Kenneth|date=September 1948|title=Press Opposition to Lincoln in New Hampshire|journal=The New England Quarterly|volume=21|issue=3|pages=326–341|jstor=361094|doi=10.2307/361094}} <!-- NOT CITED IN ARTICLE * {{cite book|ref=Scott|last=Scott|title=Scott 2006 Classic Specialized Catalogue|publisher=Scott Pub. Co.|year=2005|isbn=0-89487-358-X}} --> * {{cite book|ref=Sherman|last=Sherman|first=William T.|title=Memoirs of General W.T. Sherman|publisher=BiblioBazaar|year=1990|isbn=978-1-174-63172-6}} * {{cite book|ref=Simon|last=Simon|first=Paul|title=Lincoln's Preparation for Greatness: The Illinois Legislative Years|publisher=University of Illinois|year=1990|isbn=978-0-252-00203-8}} * {{cite book|ref=Smith|last=Smith|first=Robert C.|title=Conservatism and Racism, and Why in America They Are the Same|year=2010|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-1-4384-3233-5}} * {{cite book|ref=Steers|last=Steers|first=Edward|title=The Lincoln Assassination Encyclopedia|publisher=Harper Collins|year=2010|isbn=978-0-06-178775-1}} * {{cite book |last=Striner |first=Richard |title=Father Abraham: Lincoln's Relentless Struggle to End Slavery|year=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-518306-1}} * {{cite book|ref=Tagg|title=The Unpopular Mr. Lincoln:The Story of America's Most Reviled President|first=Larry|last=Tagg|publisher=Savas Beatie|year=2009|isbn=978-1-932714-61-6}} * {{cite book|ref=Taranto|last1=Taranto|first1=James|author2=Leonard Leo|title=Presidential Leadership: Rating the Best and the Worst in the White House|publisher=Simon and Schuster|year=2004|isbn=978-0-7432-5433-5}} * {{cite journal|last=Tegeder|first=Vincent G.|date=June 1948|title=Lincoln and the Territorial Patronage: The Ascendancy of the Radicals in the West|journal=Mississippi Valley Historical Review|volume=35|issue=1|pages=77–90|jstor=1895140|doi=10.2307/1895140}} <!-- NOT CITED IN ARTICLE *{{cite book|isbn=978-0-8071-3231-9|oclc=|title=Inside the Confederate Nation: Essays in Honor of Emory M. Thomas|url=|authorlink=Emory M. Thomas|last= Thomas|first=Emory M.|editor1-first=Lesley J.|editor1-last=Gordon|editor2-first=John C.|editor2-last=Inscoe|publisher=Louisiana State University Press|year=2007}} --> * {{cite book|ref=Thomas|first=Benjamin P.|authorlink=Benjamin P. Thomas|last=Thomas|title=Abraham Lincoln: A Biography|publisher=Southern Illinois University|year=2008|isbn=978-0-8093-2887-1}} [https://archive.org/details/abrahamlincoln00benj online] * {{cite book|isbn=978-0-925436-21-4|oclc=|title=The Lincoln Funeral Train: The Final Journey and National Funeral for Abraham Lincoln|last=Trostel|first=Scott D.|publisher=Cam-Tech Publishing|year=2002}} * {{cite book|ref=Vorenberg|last=Vorenberg|first=Michael|title=Final Freedom: the Civil War, the Abolition of Slavery, and the Thirteenth Amendment|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-521-65267-4}} * {{cite book|author=Warren, Louis A. |title=Lincoln's Youth: Indiana Years, Seven to Twenty-One, 1816–1830|publisher=Indiana Historical Society|location=Indianapolis |year=1991|pages= |isbn=978-0-87195-063-5}} * {{cite book|ref=White|last=White Jr.|first=Ronald C.|title=A. Lincoln: A Biography|publisher=Random House, Inc|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4000-6499-1}} * {{cite book|ref=Wills|first=Garry|last=Wills|authorlink=Garry Wills|title=Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words That Remade America|isbn=978-0-671-86742-3|year=1993|publisher=Simon & Schuster|title-link=Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words That Remade America}} * {{cite book|ref=Wilson|first=Douglas L.|last=Wilson|publisher=Knopf Publishing Group|title=Honor's Voice: The Transformation of Abraham Lincoln|year=1999|isbn=978-0-375-70396-6}} * {{cite book|ref=Winkle|last=Winkle|first=Kenneth J.|title=The Young Eagle: The Rise of Abraham Lincoln|year=2001|publisher=Taylor Trade Publications|isbn=978-0-87833-255-7}} * {{cite book|ref=Zarefsky|authorlink=David Zarefsky|isbn=978-0-226-97876-5|title=Lincoln, Douglas, and Slavery: In the Crucible of Public Debate|last=Zarefsky|first=David S.|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1993}} {{Refend}} <!-- NOT CITED IN ARTICLE *{{cite book|ref=Miller |first=William Lee |last=Miller |title=Lincoln's Virtues: An Ethical Biography |year=2002 |isbn=0-375-40158-X |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf}} --> ===Historiography=== * Barr, John M. "Holding Up a Flawed Mirror to the American Soul: Abraham Lincoln in the Writings of Lerone Bennett Jr.," Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association 35 (Winter 2014), 43–65. * Barr, John M. ''Loathing Lincoln: An American Tradition from the Civil War to the Present'' (LSU Press, 2014). * {{cite book|isbn=978-1-58182-369-1|title=One Hundred Essential Lincoln Books|last=Burkhimer|first=Michael|publisher=Cumberland House|location=|year=2003}} * {{cite book|isbn=978-0-393-06756-9|title=Our Lincoln: New Perspectives on Lincoln and His World|last=Foner|first=Eric|publisher=W.W. Norton |location=|year=2008}} * Holzer, Harold and Craig L. Symonds, eds. ''Exploring Lincoln: Great Historians Reappraise Our Greatest President'' (2015), essays by 16 scholars * Manning, Chandra, "The Shifting Terrain of Attitudes toward Abraham Lincoln and Emancipation", ''Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association'', 34 (Winter 2013), 18–39. * Smith, Adam I.P. "The 'Cult' of Abraham Lincoln and the Strange Survival of Liberal England in the Era of the World Wars", ''Twentieth Century British History'', (December 2010) 21#4 pp.&nbsp;486–509 * Spielberg, Steven; Goodwin, Doris Kearns; Kushner, Tony. "Mr. Lincoln Goes to Hollywood", ''Smithsonian'' (2012) 43#7 pp.&nbsp;46–53. * {{cite journal|last=Zilversmit|first=Arthur|year=1980|title=Lincoln and the Problem of Race: A Decade of Interpretations|journal=Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association|volume=2|issue=11|pages=22–45|url=https://web.viu.ca/davies/h325%20civil%20war/Lincoln%20and%20the%20Problem%20of%20Race.pdf}} ===Additional references=== {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |last=Foner |first=Philip S. |title=Abraham Lincoln: Selections from His Writings |authorlink=Philip S. Foner |publisher=International Publishers |year=1944 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/LincolnSelectionsWritings}} * {{cite book |last=Binns |first=Henry Bryan |title=Abraham Lincoln |authorlink= |publisher= London: J.M. Dent & co.; New York: E.P. Dutton & co. |year=1907 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/abrahamlincogreen00binn}} * {{cite book |last=Brooks |first=Noah |title=Abraham Lincoln |authorlink= |publisher=New York: F. DeFau & Co. |year=1894 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/abrahamlincoln07broo}} * {{cite book|isbn=978-0-8018-8993-6|title=Abraham Lincoln: A Life ''(2 volumes)''|authorlink=Michael Burlingame (historian)|last=Burlingame|first=Michael|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|location=|year=2008}} * {{cite book|isbn=978-0-87249-400-8|title=Lincoln and Black Freedom: A Study in Presidential Leadership|authorlink=LaWanda Cox |last=Cox|first=LaWanda|publisher=University of South Carolina Press |location=|year=1981}} * Green, Michael S. ''Lincoln and the Election of 1860'' (Concise Lincoln Library) [https://www.amazon.com/Lincoln-Election-1860-Concise-Library/dp/0809330350/ excerpt and text search] * {{cite book |last1= Herndon |first1=William Henry |last2=Weik|first2=Jesse William |last3=White |first3= Horace |title=Abraham Lincoln: the true story of a great life, '''Vol I''' |authorlink= |publisher= New York; London: D. Appleton and Co. |year=1920 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/abrahamlincv1hern}} * {{cite book |last1= Herndon |first1=William Henry |last2=Weik|first2=Jesse William |last3=White |first3= Horace |title=Abraham Lincoln: the true story of a great life, '''Vol II''' |authorlink= |publisher= New York; London: D. Appleton and Co. |year=1920 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/abrahamlincv2hern}} * {{cite book|author=Holzer, Harold|title=Lincoln President-Elect: Abraham Lincoln and the Great Secession Winter 1860–1861|url=https://books.google.com/?id=34cVaFHdgMMC|year=2008|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-7432-8947-4}} * {{cite book|isbn=978-1-59420-191-2|title=Tried by War: Abraham Lincoln as Commander in Chief|last=McPherson|first=James M.|publisher=Penguin Press |location=|year=2008}} * {{cite book|author=Miller, Richard Lawrence|title=Lincoln and His World: The Rise to National Prominence, 1843–1853|url=https://books.google.com/?id=c1odBTiRSJcC|year=2011|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-5928-5}}, vol 3. of detailed biography * {{cite book |last=Morse |first=John Torrey |title=Abraham Lincoln, '''Vol 1''' |authorlink= |publisher= Boston; New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Co. |year=1895 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/abrahamlincol00mors}} * {{cite book |last=Morse |first=John Torrey |title=Abraham Lincoln, '''Vol 2''' |authorlink= |publisher= Boston; New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Co. |year=1895 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/abrahamlinc1180mors}} * {{cite book|isbn=978-0-306-80209-6|title=The Abraham Lincoln Encyclopedia|last=Neely|first=Mark E|publisher=Da Capo Press|year=1984}} * {{cite book|isbn=978-0-674-51125-5|title=The Last Best Hope of Earth: Abraham Lincoln and the Promise of America |last=Neely|first=Mark E|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1994}} * Peraino, Kevin. ''Lincoln in the World: The Making of a Statesman and the Dawn of American Power'' (2013). * {{cite book|isbn=|oclc=4183070|title=Lincoln the President ''(4 volumes)''|last=Randall|first=James G.|publisher=Dodd, Mead|location=|year=1945–1955}} * [[Ronald C. White|White, Ronald C.]] ''A. Lincoln: A Biography'' (2006). * {{cite book |last= |first= |title=Abraham Lincoln and the battles of the Civil War |authorlink= |publisher=New York, The Century Co. |year=1887 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/abrahamlincolnba02newy}} * {{cite book |last=Whitlock |first=Brand |title=Abraham Lincoln |authorlink= |publisher=Paris: Payot & Cie. |year=1920 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/abrahamlin3105whit}} * {{cite book |last= |first= |title=Abraham Lincoln' Letter to Horace Greeley |authorlink= |publisher=Maria Ward |year=1862 |isbn= |url=http://loismac.wirededucator.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/Maria-Ward.pdf}} {{Refend}} ==External links== <!--======================== {{No more links}} ============================ | PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. Wikipedia | | is not a collection of links nor should it be used for advertising. | | | | Excessive or inappropriate links WILL BE DELETED. | | See [[Wikipedia:External links]] & [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. | | | | If there are already plentiful links, please propose additions or | | replacements on this article's discussion page, or submit your link | | to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) | | and link back to that category using the {{dmoz}} template. | ==={{No more links}}=========--> {{Sister project links|wikt=no|commons=Abraham Lincoln |b=no |n=no |q=Abraham Lincoln |s=Author:Abraham Lincoln|v=no|voy=no|species=no|display=Abraham Lincoln|d=Q91}} ===Official=== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150226220749/http://www.illinois.gov/alplm/library/Pages/default.aspx Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum] ** [https://papersofabrahamlincoln.org/about ALPLM's ongoing digitization of all Lincoln papers] * [http://www.whitehouse.gov/1600/presidents/abrahamlincoln White House biography] ===Organizations=== * [http://www.abrahamlincolnassociation.org/ Abraham Lincoln Association] * [http://www.lincolnbicentennial.org/ Abraham Lincoln Bicentennial Foundation] ===Media coverage=== * {{NYTtopic|people/l/abraham_lincoln}} ===Other=== {{Biographical Directory of Congress|L000313}} * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/lincoln/ Abraham Lincoln: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress] * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?125640-1/life-portrait-abraham-lincoln "Life Portrait of Abraham Lincoln"], from [[C-SPAN]]'s ''American presidents: Life Portraits'', June 28, 1999 * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?164439-1/writings-abraham-lincoln "Writings of Abraham Lincoln"] from [[C-SPAN]]'s ''[[American Writers: A Journey Through History]]'' * [http://www.shapell.org/Collection/The-Lincoln-Collection Abraham Lincoln: Original Letters and Manuscripts] – [[Shapell Manuscript Foundation]] * [http://lincoln.lib.niu.edu/ Lincoln/Net: Abraham Lincoln Historical Digitization Project] – Northern Illinois University Libraries * [http://edsitement.neh.gov/teaching-abraham-lincoln#node-19470 Teaching Abraham Lincoln] – [[National Endowment for the Humanities]] * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Abraham Lincoln}} * {{Librivox author |id=2233}} * [http://memory.loc.gov/diglib/ihas/loc.natlib.ihas.200002063/default.html In Popular Song:Our Noble Chief Has Passed Away by Cooper/Thomas] * [http://www.mchistory.org/perch/resources/Finding%20Aid%20PDFs/lincoln-abraham-miscellaneous-publications-1.pdf Abraham Lincoln Recollections and Newspaper Articles Collection], McLean County Museum of History * Digitized items in [https://www.loc.gov/collections/alfred-whital-stern-lincolniana/about-this-collection/ the Alfred Whital Stern Collection of Lincolniana] in the [https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/ Rare Book and Special Collections Division] in the [[Library of Congress]] {{Navboxes |title=Offices and distinctions |list1= {{s-start}} {{s-par|us-hs}} {{s-bef|before=[[John Henry (representative)|John Henry]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Member of the [[List of United States Representatives from Illinois|U.S. House of Representatives]]<br>from [[Illinois's 7th congressional district]]|years=1847–1849}} {{s-aft|after=[[Thomas L. 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Add: jstor, year, chapter, isbn, title-link, chapter-url, pmid. Removed parameters. You can [[WP:UCB|use this bot]] yourself. [[WP:DBUG|Report bugs here]]. | [[User:Sureshkhole|Sureshkhole]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{other uses}} {{pp-protected|small=yes}} {{good article}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2014}} {{Infobox philosopher | name=Aristotle | image=Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg | caption=Roman copy in marble of a Greek bronze<br />bust of Aristotle by [[Lysippos]], [[Circa|c.]] 330 BC,<br />with modern [[alabaster]] [[mantle (clothing)|mantle]] | birth_date=384 BC | birth_place=[[Stagira (ancient city)|Stagira]],<br />[[Chalkidiki]],<br />[[Chalcidian League]],<br />Northern [[Greece]] | death_date={{nowrap|322 BC (aged approx. 62)}} | death_place=[[Euboea]], Greece, [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)#Empire|Macedonian Empire]] | era=[[Ancient philosophy]] | region=[[Western philosophy]] | school_tradition={{Flatlist}} * [[Peripatetic school]] * [[Aristotelianism]] {{Endflatlist}} | main_interests={{Flatlist}} * [[Biology]] * [[Zoology]] * [[Psychology]]<ref name=kantor>{{cite book | last=Kantor | first=J. R. | title=The Scientific Evolution of Psychology, Volume I| year=1963 | publisher=Principia Press |page=116 | isbn=978-0-911188-25-7 }}</ref><ref>Aristotle (350 B.C.). [http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/soul.html ''On the soul'']. Translated by J. A. Smith</ref> * [[Physics]] * [[Metaphysics]] * [[Logic]] * [[Ethics]] * [[Rhetoric]] * [[Music]] * [[Poetry]] * [[Economics]] * [[Politics]] * [[Government]] {{Endflatlist}} | notable_ideas={{Flatlist}} * [[:Template:Aristotelianism|Aristotelian philosophy]] * [[Syllogism]] * [[On the Soul|Theory of the soul]] * [[Virtue ethics]] | influences = {{Flatlist}} * [[Plato]] {{Endflatlist}} | influenced = {{longitem|Virtually all subsequent [[Western philosophy]], [[Christian philosophy]] and pre-[[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] science (see [[List of writers influenced by Aristotle]])}} {{Endflatlist}} }} '''Aristotle''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ær|ɪ|ˌ|s|t|ɒ|t|əl}};<ref>[http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/aristotle "Aristotle"] entry in ''[[Collins English Dictionary]]''.</ref> {{lang-grc-gre|[[:el:Αριστοτέλης|Ἀριστοτέλης]]}} ''Aristotélēs'', {{IPA-grc|aristotélɛːs|pron}}; 384–322&nbsp;BC){{refn|That these dates (the first half of the Olympiad year 384/383 BC, and in 322 shortly before the death of Demosthenes) are correct was shown by [[August Boeckh]] (''Kleine Schriften'' VI 195); for further discussion, see [[Felix Jacoby]] on ''[[FGrHist]]'' 244 F 38. Ingemar Düring, ''Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition'', Göteborg, 1957, {{p.|253}}|group= n}} was an [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] [[philosopher]] and scientist born in the city of [[Stagira (ancient city)|Stagira]], [[Chalkidiki]], in the north of [[Classical Greece]]. Along with [[Plato]], Aristotle is considered the "Father of Western Philosophy", which inherited almost its entire lexicon from his teachings, including problems and methods of inquiry, so influencing almost all forms of knowledge. Little is known for certain about his life. His father, [[Nicomachus (father of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]], died when Aristotle was a child, and he was brought up by a guardian. At seventeen or eighteen years of age, he joined [[Plato's Academy]] in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven ([[Circa|c.]] 347 BC).<ref name=IEP/> His writings cover many subjects – including [[Physics (Aristotle)|physics]], [[biology]], [[zoology]], [[metaphysics]], [[logic]], ethics, [[aesthetics]], [[Poetics (Aristotle)|poetry]], theatre, music, [[rhetoric]], [[psychology]], [[linguistics]], [[economics]], [[politics]] and government&nbsp;– and constitute the first comprehensive system of [[Western philosophy]]. Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of [[Philip II of Macedon]], tutored [[Alexander the Great]] beginning in 343 BC.<ref name="philosophy1972">Russell, Bertrand. ''A History of Western Philosophy'', Simon & Schuster, 1972. Book One. Ancient Philosophy, Part II. Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, Chapter XXII. {{isbn|978-0671201586}}</ref> Teaching Alexander gave Aristotle many opportunities. He established a library in the [[Lyceum (Classical)|Lyceum]] which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books, which were [[papyrus]] [[scrolls]]. The fact that Aristotle was a pupil of Plato contributed to his former views of [[Platonism]], but, following Plato's death, Aristotle immersed himself in empirical studies and shifted from Platonism to [[empiricism]].{{sfn|Barnes|1995|p=16}} He believed all concepts and knowledge were ultimately based on [[perception]]. Aristotle's views on [[natural science]]s represent the groundwork underlying many of his works. Aristotle's views on [[Aristotelian physics|physical science]] profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from [[Late Antiquity]] and the [[Early Middle Ages]] into the [[Renaissance]], and were not replaced systematically until [[Age of Enlightenment|the Enlightenment]] and theories such as [[classical mechanics]]. Some of Aristotle's [[zoology|zoological]] observations, such as on the [[Hectocotylus|hectocotyl (reproductive) arm]] of the [[octopus]], were disbelieved until the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, studied by medieval scholars such as [[Peter Abelard]] and [[John Buridan]]. [[Aristotelianism]] profoundly influenced [[Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)|Islamic thought]] during the [[Middle Ages]], as well as [[Christian theology]], especially the [[Neoplatonism]] of the [[Early Church]] and the [[Scholasticism|scholastic]] tradition of the [[Catholic Church]]. Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as "The First Teacher". His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of [[virtue ethics]]. All aspects of Aristotle's philosophy continue to be the object of academic study. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues for publication, only around a third of his original output has survived, none of it intended for publication.{{sfn|Barnes|1995|p=9}} Aristotle has been depicted by major artists including [[Raphael]] and [[Rembrandt]]. [[Early Modern]] theories including [[William Harvey]]'s [[circulation of the blood]] and [[Galileo Galilei]]'s [[kinematics]] were developed in reaction to Aristotle's. In the 19th century, [[George Boole]] gave Aristotle's logic a mathematical foundation with his system of [[Boolean algebra|algebraic logic]]. In the 20th century, [[Martin Heidegger]] created a new interpretation of Aristotle's political philosophy, but elsewhere Aristotle was widely criticised, even ridiculed by thinkers such as the philosopher [[Bertrand Russell]] and the biologist [[Peter Medawar]].{{sfn|Leroi|2015|page=353}}<!--and see cited text below--> More recently, Aristotle has again been taken seriously, such as in the thinking of [[Ayn Rand]] and [[Alasdair MacIntyre]], while [[Armand Marie Leroi]] has reconstructed [[Aristotle's biology]]. The image of Aristotle tutoring the young Alexander remains current, and the ''Poetics'' continues to play a role in the [[cinema of the United States]]. == Life == [[File:20160518 092 mieza nympheum.jpg|thumb|left|School of Aristotle in [[Mieza, Macedonia|Mieza]], [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia, Greece]]]] In general, the details of Aristotle's life are not well-established. The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points.<ref>See Shields, C., "Aristotle's Philosophical Life and Writings" in ''The Oxford Handbook of Aristotle'' ([[Oxford University Press]], 2012), {{pp.|3|16}}, {{ISBN|978-0195187489}}. Düring, I., ''Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition'' (Göteborg, 1957) covers ancient biographies of Aristotle.</ref> Aristotle, whose name means "the best purpose" in Ancient Greek,<ref>{{cite web |last=Campbell |first=Michael |title=Behind the Name: Meaning, Origin and History of the Name "Aristotle" |url=http://www.behindthename.com/name/aristotle |website=Behind the Name |accessdate=6 April 2012}}<!--better source desirable--></ref> was born in 384&nbsp;BC in [[Stagira (ancient city)|Stagira]], [[Chalcidice]], about 55&nbsp;km (34 miles) east of modern-day [[Thessaloniki]].<ref>{{cite book |last=McLeisch |first=Kenneth Cole |title=Aristotle: The Great Philosophers |publisher=Routledge |date=1999 |isbn=978-0-415-92392-7 |page=5}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dimosaristoteli.gr/en/sights/aristotle-park |title=Aristoteles-Park in Stagira |publisher=Dimos Aristoteli |accessdate=20 March 2018}}</ref> His father [[Nicomachus (father of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]] was the personal physician to [[Amyntas III of Macedon|King Amyntas of Macedon]]. Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was about thirteen, and [[Proxenus of Atarneus]] became his guardian.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=Edith |title=Aristotle's Way: How Ancient Wisdom Can Change Your Life |date=2018 |publisher=[[The Bodley Head]] |page=14 |isbn=978-1847924070}}</ref> Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has survived, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)#Kingship and the royal court|Macedonian monarchy]].<ref>{{cite book | last=Anagnostopoulos | first=Georgios | title=A Companion to Aristotle | publisher=Wiley-Blackwell | year=2013 | isbn=978-1-118-59243-4 | page=4}}</ref> At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at [[Platonic Academy|Plato's Academy]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Blits |first=Kathleen C. |date=1999-04-15 |title=Aristotle: Form, function, and comparative anatomy |journal=The Anatomical Record |volume=257 |issue=2 |pages=58–63 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-0185(19990415)257:2<58::AID-AR6>3.0.CO;2-I|pmid=10321433 }}</ref> He remained there for nearly twenty years before leaving Athens in 348/47&nbsp;BC. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew [[Speusippus]], although it is possible that he feared the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens at that time and left before Plato died.<ref name="Lord Intro">{{cite book |editor=Lord, Carnes |title=The Politics |author=Aristotle |publisher=University of Chicago Press |date=1984 |pages=Introduction |isbn=978-0226921846}}</ref> Aristotle then accompanied [[Xenocrates]] to the court of his friend [[Hermias of Atarneus]] in [[Asia Minor]]. After the death of Hermias, Aristotle travelled with his pupil [[Theophrastus]] to the island of [[Lesbos]], where together they researched the [[botany]] and zoology of the island and its sheltered lagoon. While in Lesbos, Aristotle married [[Pythias]], either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. In 343 BC, Aristotle was invited by [[Philip II of Macedon]] to become the tutor to his son [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/aristotle/|title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|last=Shields|first=Christopher|date=2016|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|edition=Winter 2016}}</ref><ref name="philosophy1972"/> [[File:Aristoteles Louvre.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Bust (sculpture)|Portrait bust]] of Aristotle; an [[Roman Empire|Imperial Roman]] (1st or 2nd century AD) copy of a lost [[bronze sculpture]] made by [[Lysippos]]]] Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of [[Macedon]]. During Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, he gave lessons not only to Alexander, but also to two other future kings: [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]] and [[Cassander]].<ref name="Peter Green">{{cite book |author=Green, Peter |title=Alexander of Macedon |publisher=University of California Press |date=1991 |pages=58–59 |isbn=978-0520275867}}</ref> Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest and Aristotle's own attitude towards [[Persia]] was unabashedly [[Ethnocentricism|ethnocentric]]. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants".<ref name="Peter Green"/> By 335&nbsp;BC, Aristotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the [[Lyceum (Classical)|Lyceum]]. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with [[Herpyllis]] of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, [[Nicomachus (son of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]]. According to the ''[[Suda]]'', he also had an ''[[eromenos|erômenos]]'', [[Palaephatus|Palaephatus of Abydus]].<ref>William George Smith, ''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'', {{vol.|3}}, [http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/2421.html {{p.|88}}] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080628035803/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/2421.html |date=28 June 2008}}</ref> This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works.<ref name="philosophy1972"/> He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in [[treatise]] form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'', ''[[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]]'', ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'', ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', ''[[On the Soul]]'' and ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]''. Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to "logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance and theatre."<ref name=IEP>{{Cite IEP |url-id=aristotl |title=Aristotle (384—322 B.C.E.) |author=Anon |date=2009}}</ref> Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an [[Hagnothemis|unlikely claim]] made some six years after the death.<ref>{{cite book |author=Green, Peter |title=Alexander of Macedon |publisher=University of California Press |date=1991 |page=460 |isbn=978-0520275867}}</ref> Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322&nbsp;BC, Demophilus and [[Eurymedon the Hierophant]] reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Filonik |first=Jakub |date=2013 |title=Athenian impiety trials: a reappraisal |journal=Dike |issue=16 |pages=72–73 |doi=10.13130/1128-8221/4290 |doi-access=free}}</ref> prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in [[Chalcis|Chalcis, on Euboea]], at which occasion he was said to have stated: "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy"<ref>{{cite book |last=Jones |first=W. T. |title=The Classical Mind: A History of Western Philosophy |publisher=Harcourt Brace Jovanovich |date=1980 |page=216 |isbn=978-0-15-538312-8}}</ref><ref>''Vita Marciana'' 41, cf. [[Claudius Aelianus|Aelian]] ''Varia historica'' 3.36, Ingemar Düring, ''Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition'', Göteborg, 1957, T44a-e.</ref> – a reference to Athens's [[Trial of Socrates|trial and execution of Socrates]]. He died on Euboea of natural causes later that same year, having named his student [[Antipater]] as his chief [[executor]] and leaving a [[Will (law)|will]] in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.<ref>{{cite book |last=Haase |first=Wolfgang|title=Philosophie, Wissenschaften, Technik. Philosophie (Doxographica &#91;Forts. &#93;) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ifqGuiHo6eQC&pg=PA3862 |year=1992 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-013699-9 |page=3862}}</ref> ==Abstract philosophy== ===Logic=== {{main|Term logic}} {{details|Non-Aristotelian logic}} With the ''[[Prior Analytics]]'', Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Degnan, Michael |date=1994 |title=Recent Work in Aristotle's Logic |journal=Philosophical Books |volume=35 |issue=2 (April 1994) |pages=81–89}}</ref> and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in [[mathematical logic]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Corcoran, John |date=2009 |title=Aristotle's Demonstrative Logic |journal=History and Philosophy of Logic |volume=30 |pages=1–20}}</ref> [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] stated in the ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' that with Aristotle logic reached its completion.<ref>{{cite book |authorlink=Immanuel Kant |author=Kant, Immanuel |date=1787 |title=Critique of Pure Reason |edition=Second |pages=Preface |oclc=2323615}}</ref> <!-- ====History==== Aristotle states that 'on the subject of reasoning' he 'had nothing else on an earlier date to speak of'.<ref>{{cite book|last=Olmos|first=Paula|title=Greek Science in the Long Run: Essays on the Greek Scientific Tradition (4th c. BCE-17th c. CE)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u0UsBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA53|year=2012|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|isbn=978-1-4438-3841-2|page=53}}</ref> However, Plato reports that [[syntax]] was devised before him, by [[Prodicus of Ceos]], who was concerned by the correct use of words. Logic seems to have emerged from [[dialectics]]; the earlier philosophers made frequent use of concepts like ''[[reductio ad absurdum]]'' in their discussions, but never truly understood the logical implications. Even Plato had difficulties with logic; although he spoke of a [[deductive system]], he did not construct one, relying instead on dialectic argument.<ref name="Bochenski 1951">{{cite book | last=Bocheński | first=I. M. | title=Ancient Formal Logic | publisher=North-Holland | date=1951 | page= |oclc=1024546731}}</ref> Plato believed that deduction would simply follow from [[premise]]s, so he focused on maintaining solid premises so that the [[Logical consequence|conclusions]] would logically follow. He realised that a method for obtaining conclusions would be beneficial. He never devised such a method, but in his book ''[[Sophist (dialogue)|Sophist]]'', he introduced his division method.<ref>{{cite book | last=Rose | first=Lynn E. | title=Aristotle's Syllogistic | publisher=Charles C. Thomas | date=1968 | page= |oclc=860570393}}</ref> --> ====Analytics and the ''Organon''==== {{main|Organon}} {| class="wikitable floatright" |+ One of Aristotle's [[Syllogism#Types|types of syllogism]]{{refn|This [[Syllogism#Types|type of syllogism]], with all three terms in 'a', is known by the traditional (medieval) [[mnemonic]] B'''a'''rb'''a'''r'''a'''.<ref name=SEPmedieval-syllogism/>|group=n}} ! In words !! In terms{{refn|M is the Middle (here, Men), S is the Subject (Greeks), P is the Predicate (mortal).<ref name=SEPmedieval-syllogism/>|group=n}} !! In equations{{refn|The first equation can be read as 'It is not true that there exists an x such that x is a man and that x is not mortal.'<ref>{{cite web |title=Predicate Logic |url=https://www.cs.utexas.edu/~schrum2/cs301k/lec/topic04-predicateLogic.pdf |publisher=University of Texas |accessdate=29 March 2018 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329221535/https://www.cs.utexas.edu/~schrum2/cs301k/lec/topic04-predicateLogic.pdf |archivedate=29 March 2018|deadurl=no}}</ref>|group=n}} |- | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;All men are mortal.<br><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;All Greeks are men.<br><br>[[Therefore sign|∴]] All Greeks are mortal. || M a P<br><br>S a M<br><br>S a P || [[File:Modus Barbara Equations.svg|180px]] |} What we today call ''Aristotelian logic'' with its [[Syllogism#Types|types of syllogism]] (methods of logical argument),<ref name=SEPmedieval-syllogism>{{cite SEP|url-id=medieval-syllogism |title=Medieval Theories of the Syllogism |author=Lagerlund, Henrik |date=2016}}</ref> Aristotle himself would have labelled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean ''dialectics''. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the ''[[Organon]]'' around 40 BC by [[Andronicus of Rhodes]] or others among his followers.<ref name=Pickover2009>{{cite book |last=Pickover |first=Clifford A. |title=The Math Book: From Pythagoras to the 57th Dimension, 250 Milestones in the History of Mathematics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JrslMKTgSZwC&pg=PA52 |year=2009 |publisher=Sterling |isbn=978-1-4027-5796-9 |page=52}}</ref> The books are: # ''Categories'' # ''On Interpretation'' # ''Prior Analytics'' # ''Posterior Analytics'' # ''Topics'' # ''On Sophistical Refutations'' The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the ''Categories,'' the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in ''On Interpretation'', to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the ''Analytics'')<ref>"Prior Analytics", 24b18–20; [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#SynSemSen Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: ''Ancient Logic'': Aristotle: Non-Modal Syllogistic] and [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#ModLog ''Ancient Logic'': Aristotle: Modal Logic]</ref> and dialectics (in the ''Topics'' and ''Sophistical Refutations''). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory ''stricto sensu'': the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. The ''Rhetoric'' is not conventionally included, but it states that it relies on the ''Topics''.<ref name=SEParistotle-logic>{{cite SEP|url-id=aristotle-logic|author=Smith, Robin|title=Aristotle's Logic|date=2017}}</ref> ===Epistemology=== [[File:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Plato]] (left) and Aristotle in [[Raphael]]'s 1509 fresco, ''[[The School of Athens]]''. Aristotle holds his ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'' and gestures to the earth, representing empirical observation, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, representing [[The Forms]], and holds his ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=The School of Athens by Raphael |url=http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/famous-paintings/school-of-athens.htm |publisher=Visual Arts Cork |accessdate=22 March 2018}}</ref>]] Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the [[Universality (philosophy)|universal]]. Aristotle's [[ontology]] places the universal (''katholou'') in [[particular]]s (''kath' hekaston''), things in the world, whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things imitate. This means that Aristotle's [[epistemology]] is based on the study of things that exist or happen in the world, and rises to knowledge of the universal, whereas for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal [[Theory of Forms|Forms]] (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these.<ref name=SEParistotle-logic/> For Aristotle, "form" is still what [[phenomena]] are based on, but is "instantiated" in a particular substance.<ref name=SEPsubstuniv/> Aristotle uses [[Inductive reasoning|induction]] from examples alongside [[Deductive reasoning|deduction]], whereas Plato relies on deduction from ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'' principles.<ref name=SEParistotle-logic/> In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. Aristotle's work encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "science". Note, however, that his use of the term ''science'' carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle, "all science (''dianoia'') is either practical, poetical or theoretical" (''Metaphysics'' 1025b25). His practical science includes ethics and politics; his poetical science means the study of fine arts including poetry; his theoretical science covers physics, mathematics and metaphysics.<ref name="SEP"/> ===Metaphysics=== {{main|Metaphysics (Aristotle)}} Aristotle coined the term "metaphysics". He also called it "first philosophy", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative (''theoretikē'') philosophy which is "theological" and studies the divine. He wrote in his ''Metaphysics'' (1026a16): :if there were no other independent things besides the composite natural ones, the study of nature would be the primary kind of knowledge; but if there is some motionless independent thing, the knowledge of this precedes it and is first philosophy, and it is universal ''in just this way'', because it is first. And it belongs to this sort of philosophy to study being as being, both what it is and what belongs to it just by virtue of being.<ref>{{citation|author=Aristotle|title=Aristotle's ''Metaphysics''. A new translation by Joe Sachs|year=1999|page=111|publisher=Green Lion Press}}</ref> ====Substance, potentiality and actuality==== {{see|Hylomorphism|Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle)}} Aristotle examines the concepts of [[Substance theory|substance]] (''ousia'') and [[essence]] (''to ti ên einai'', "the what it was to be") in his ''Metaphysics'' (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form, a philosophical theory called [[hylomorphism]]. In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the [[Material substratum|substratum]], or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the ''potential'' house, while the form of the substance is the ''actual'' house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other [[Genus-differentia definition|differentia]] that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.<ref>Aristotle, ''Metaphysics'' VIII 1043a 10–30</ref><ref name=SEPactupote>{{cite SEP |url-id=aristotle-metaphysics/#ActuPote |title=Aristotle's Metaphysics |first=S. Marc |last=Cohen |date=2016}}</ref> With regard to the change (''[[Potentiality and actuality|kinesis]]'') and its causes now, as he defines in his ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'' and ''[[On Generation and Corruption]]'' 319b–320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from: # growth and diminution, which is change in quantity; # locomotion, which is change in space; and # alteration, which is change in quality. [[File:Flute-player dolphin Alcesti Group MAN.jpg|thumb|Aristotle argued that a capability like playing the flute could be acquired – [[Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle)|the potential made actual]] – by learning.]] The coming to be is a change where nothing persists of which the resultant is a property. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (''[[Dunamis|dynamis]]'') and actuality (''[[entelecheia]]'') in association with the matter and the form. Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing, or being acted upon, if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (''dynamei'') plant, and if is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (''poiein'') or 'be acted upon' (''paschein''), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate – being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise – acting). Actuality is the fulfilment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (''telos'') is the principle of every change, and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, therefore actuality is the end. Referring then to our previous example, we could say that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do.<ref name=SEPactupote/> <blockquote>For that for the sake of which (''to hou heneka'') a thing is, is its principle, and the becoming is for the sake of the end; and the actuality is the end, and it is for the sake of this that the potentiality is acquired. For animals do not see in order that they may have sight, but they have sight that they may see.<ref>Aristotle, ''Metaphysics'' IX 1050a 5–10</ref></blockquote> In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a [[final cause]] or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. With this definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, "what is it that makes a man one"? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same.<ref name=SEPactupote/><ref>Aristotle, ''Metaphysics'' VIII 1045a–b</ref><ref name=SEPsubstdef>{{cite SEP |url-id=aristotle-metaphysics/#SubsDefi |title=Aristotle's Metaphysics: Substance and Definition |first=S. Marc |last=Cohen |date=2016}}</ref> ====Universals and particulars==== [[File:Platonic and Aristotelian Forms.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|[[Plato]]'s [[Theory of forms|forms]] exist as [[universals]], like the ideal form of an apple. For Aristotle, both matter and form belong to the individual thing ([[hylomorphism]]).]] {{main|Aristotle's theory of universals}} Plato argued that all things have a [[Theory of forms|universal form]], which could be either a property or a relation to other things. When we look at an apple, for example, we see an apple, and we can also analyse a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, we can place an apple next to a book, so that we can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other. Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good" is still a proper universal form. Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated at some period of time, and that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. Where Plato spoke of the world of forms, a place where all universal forms subsist, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms.<ref name=SEPsubstuniv>{{cite SEP |url-id=aristotle-metaphysics/#SubsUniv |title=Aristotle's Metaphysics: Substances and Universals |first=S. Marc |last=Cohen |date=2016}}</ref><ref name=Lloyd1968>{{cite book | last=Lloyd | first=G. E. R. | author-link=G. E. R. Lloyd | date=1968 | work=Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of His Thought | title=The critic of Plato | publisher=Cambridge University Press| pages=43–47 | isbn=978-0-521-09456-6}}</ref> ==Natural philosophy== Aristotle's "natural philosophy" spans a wide range of natural phenomena including those now covered by physics, biology and other natural sciences.<ref name="SEP"/> ===Physics=== [[File:Four Classical Elements in Burning Log.svg|thumb|The four [[classical element]]s (fire, air, water, earth) of [[Empedocles]] and Aristotle illustrated with a burning log. The log releases all four elements as it is destroyed.]] {{main|Aristotelian physics}} ====Five elements==== {{main|Classical element}} In his ''[[On Generation and Corruption]]'', Aristotle related each of the four elements proposed earlier by [[Empedocles]], [[Earth (classical element)|Earth]], [[Water (classical element)|Water]], [[Air (classical element)|Air]], and [[Fire (classical element)|Fire]], to two of the four sensible qualities, hot, cold, wet, and dry. In the Empedoclean scheme, all matter was made of the four elements, in differing proportions. Aristotle's scheme added the heavenly [[Aether (classical element)|Aether]], the divine substance of the [[Celestial spheres|heavenly spheres]], stars and planets.{{sfn|Lloyd|1968|pages=133–139, 166–169}} {| class="wikitable" |+ [[Classical element|Aristotle's elements]]{{sfn|Lloyd|1968|pages=133–139, 166–169}} ! Element !! {{font color|red|Hot}}/{{font color|blue|Cold}} !! {{font color|green|Wet}}/{{font color|brown|Dry}} !! Motion !! Modern [[State of matter|state<br>of matter]] |- | '''[[Earth (classical element)|Earth]]''' || {{font color|blue|Cold}} || {{font color|brown|Dry}} || Down || [[Solid]] |- | '''[[Water (classical element)|Water]]''' || {{font color|blue|Cold}} || {{font color|green|Wet}} || Down || [[Liquid]] |- | '''[[Air (classical element)|Air]]''' || {{font color|red|Hot}} || {{font color|green|Wet}} || Up || [[Gas]] |- | '''[[Fire (classical element)|Fire]]''' || {{font color|red|Hot}} || {{font color|brown|Dry}} || Up || [[Plasma (physics)|Plasma]] |- | '''[[Aether (classical element)|Aether]]''' || (divine<br>substance) || — || Circular<br>(in heavens) || — |} ====Motion==== {{see|History of classical mechanics}} Aristotle describes two kinds of motion: "violent" or "unnatural motion", such as that of a thrown stone, in the ''Physics'' (254b10), and "natural motion", such as of a falling object, in ''On the Heavens'' (300a20). In violent motion, as soon as the agent stops causing it, the motion stops also; in other words, the natural state of an object is to be at rest,<ref name="Allain 2016">{{cite web |last1=Allain |first1=Rhett |title=I'm So Totally Over Newton's Laws of Motion |url=https://www.wired.com/2016/03/im-totally-newtons-laws-motion/|publisher=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |accessdate=11 May 2018 |date=21 March 2016}}</ref>{{refn|Rhett Allain notes that [[Newton's First Law]] is "essentially a direct reply to Aristotle, that the natural state is ''not to change'' motion.<ref name="Allain 2016"/>|group=n}} since Aristotle does not address [[friction]].<ref name="Drabkin1938"/> With this understanding, it can be observed that, as Aristotle stated, heavy objects (on the ground, say) require more force to make them move; and objects pushed with greater force move faster.<ref name="Susskind 2011"/>{{refn|Leonard Susskind comments that Aristotle had clearly never gone [[ice skating]] or he would have seen that it takes force to stop an object.<ref name="Susskind 2011"/>|group=n}} This would imply the equation<ref name="Susskind 2011"/> :: <math>F = mv</math>, clearly wrong in modern terms.<ref name="Susskind 2011"/> Natural motion depends on the element concerned: the aether naturally moves in a circle around the heavens,{{refn|For heavenly bodies like the Sun, Moon, and stars, the observed motions are "to a very good approximation" circular around the Earth's centre, (for example, the apparent rotation of the sky because of the rotation of the Earth, and the rotation of the moon around the Earth) as Aristotle stated.<ref name="Rovelli2015">{{cite journal |last1=Rovelli |first1=Carlo |title=Aristotle's Physics: A Physicist's Look |journal=Journal of the American Philosophical Association |volume=1 |issue=1 |year=2015 |pages=23–40 |doi=10.1017/apa.2014.11|arxiv=1312.4057 }}</ref>|group=n}} while the 4 Empedoclean elements move vertically up (like fire, as is observed) or down (like earth) towards their natural resting places.<ref name="Rovelli2015"/><ref name="Drabkin1938">{{cite journal |last1=Drabkin |first1=Israel E. |title=Notes on the Laws of Motion in Aristotle |journal=The American Journal of Philology |date=1938 |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=60–84| jstor=90584}}</ref>{{refn|Drabkin quotes numerous passages from ''Physics'' and ''On the Heavens'' (''De Caelo'') which state Aristotle's laws of motion.<ref name="Drabkin1938"/>|group=n}} [[File:Aristotle's laws of motion.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Aristotle's laws of motion. In ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'' he states that objects fall at a speed proportional to their weight and inversely proportional to the density of the fluid they are immersed in.<ref name="Drabkin1938"/> This is a correct approximation for objects in Earth's gravitational field moving in air or water.<ref name="Rovelli2015"/>]] In the ''Physics'' (215a25), Aristotle effectively states a quantitative law, that the speed, v, of a falling body is proportional (say, with constant c) to its weight, W, and inversely proportional to the density,{{refn|Drabkin agrees that density is treated quantitatively in this passage, but without a sharp definition of density as weight per unit volume.<ref name="Drabkin1938"/>|group=n}} ρ, of the fluid in which it is falling:<ref name="Rovelli2015"/><ref name="Drabkin1938"/> :: <math>v = c\frac{W}{\rho}</math> Aristotle implies that in a [[vacuum]] the speed of fall would become infinite, and concludes from this apparent absurdity that a vacuum is not possible.<ref name="Rovelli2015"/><ref name="Drabkin1938"/> Opinions have varied on whether Aristotle intended to state quantitative laws. Henri Carteron held the "extreme view"<ref name="Drabkin1938"/> that Aristotle's concept of force was basically qualitative,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Carteron |first1=Henri |title=Notion de Force dans le Systeme d'Aristote |date=1923 |publisher=J. Vrin |location=Paris |pages=1–32 and passim |language=French}}</ref> but other authors reject this.<ref name="Drabkin1938"/> [[Archimedes]] corrected Aristotle's theory that bodies move towards their natural resting places; metal boats can float if they [[Archimedes' principle|displace enough water]]; floating depends in Archimedes' scheme on the mass and volume of the object, not as Aristotle thought its elementary composition.<ref name="Rovelli2015"/> Aristotle's writings on motion remained influential until the [[Early Modern]] period. [[John Philoponus]] (in the [[Middle Ages]]) and [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] are said to have shown by experiment that Aristotle's claim that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect.<ref name="SEP">{{cite SEP |url-id=philoponus<!--see#2.2--> |title=John Philiponus |author=Wildberg, Christian |date=2016}}</ref> A contrary opinion is given by [[Carlo Rovelli]], who argues that Aristotle's physics of motion is correct within its domain of validity, that of objects in the [[Earth]]'s gravitational field immersed in a fluid such as air. In this system, heavy bodies in steady fall indeed travel faster than light ones (whether friction is ignored, or not<ref name="Rovelli2015"/>), and they do fall more slowly in a denser medium.<ref name="Susskind 2011">{{cite web |last1=Susskind |first1=Leonard |authorlink1=Leonard Susskind |title=Classical Mechanics, Lectures 2, 3 |url=http://theoreticalminimum.com/courses/classical-mechanics/2011/fall/lecture-2 |website=The Theoretical Minimum |date=3 October 2011 |accessdate=11 May 2018}}</ref>{{refn|Philoponus and Galileo correctly objected that for the transient phase (still increasing in speed) with heavy objects falling a short distance, the law does not apply: Galileo used balls on a short incline to show this. Rovelli notes that "Two heavy balls with the same shape and different weight do fall at different speeds from an aeroplane, confirming Aristotle's theory, not Galileo's."<ref name="Rovelli2015"/>|group=n}} Newton's "forced" motion corresponds to Aristotle's "violent" motion with its external agent, but Aristotle's assumption that the agent's effect stops immediately it stops acting (e.g., the ball leaves the thrower's hand) has awkward consequences: he has to suppose that surrounding fluid helps to push the ball along to make it continue to rise even though the hand is no longer acting on it, resulting in the Medieval [[theory of impetus]].<ref name="Rovelli2015"/> ====Four causes==== {{main|Four causes}} [[File:Aristotle's Four Causes of a Table.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|Aristotle argued by analogy with woodwork that a thing takes its form from [[four causes]]: in the case of a table, the wood used ([[material cause]]), its design ([[formal cause]]), the tools and techniques used ([[efficient cause]]), and its decorative or practical purpose ([[final cause]]).{{sfn|Leroi|2015|pages=88–90}}]] Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active factors. His term ''aitia'' is traditionally translated as "cause", but it does not always refer to temporal sequence; it might be better translated as "explanation", but the traditional rendering will be employed here.<ref name=Lloyd1996fourcauses>{{cite book | last=Lloyd | first=G. E. R. | author-link=G. E. R. Lloyd | date=1996 | work=Adversaries and Authorities: Investigations into ancient Greek and Chinese science | title=Causes and correlations | publisher=Cambridge University Press | pages=96–100, 106–107 | isbn=978-0-521-55695-8}}</ref><ref name="Hankison1998">{{cite book | last=Hankinson | first=R. J. | date=1998 | title=Cause and Explanation in Ancient Greek Thought | publisher=Oxford University Press | page=159 | isbn=978-0198237457 | doi=10.1093/0199246564.001.0001}}</ref> * [[Material cause]] describes the material out of which something is composed. Thus the material cause of a table is wood. It is not about action. It does not mean that one domino knocks over another domino.<ref name=Lloyd1996fourcauses/> * The [[formal cause]] is its form, i.e., the arrangement of that matter. It tells us what a thing is, that a thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put, the formal cause is the idea in the mind of the sculptor that brings the sculpture into being. A simple example of the formal cause is the mental image or idea that allows an artist, architect, or engineer to create a drawing.<ref name=Lloyd1996fourcauses/> * The [[efficient cause]] is "the primary source", or that from which the change under consideration proceeds. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, nonliving or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. In the case of two dominoes, when the first is knocked over it causes the second also to fall over.<ref name=Lloyd1996fourcauses/> In the case of animals, this agency is a combination of [[developmental biology|how it develops from the egg]], and [[physiology|how its body functions]].{{sfn|Leroi|2015|pages=91–92, 369–373}} * The [[final cause]] (''telos'') is its purpose, the reason why a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause is the purpose or function that something is supposed to serve. This covers modern ideas of motivating causes, such as volition.<ref name=Lloyd1996fourcauses/> In the case of living things, it implies [[adaptation]] to a particular way of life.{{sfn|Leroi|2015|pages=91–92, 369–373}} ====Optics==== {{further|History of optics}} Aristotle describes experiments in [[optics]] using a [[camera obscura]] in ''[[Problems (Aristotle)|Problems]]'', book 15. The apparatus consisted of a dark chamber with a small [[aperture]] that let light in. With it, he saw that whatever shape he made the hole, the sun's image always remained circular. He also noted that increasing the distance between the aperture and the image surface magnified the image.<ref>{{cite web |last=Lahanas |first=Michael |url=http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Optics.htm |title=Optics and ancient Greeks |website=Mlahanas.de |accessdate=26 April 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090411051535/http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Optics.htm |archivedate=11 April 2009 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy-all}}</ref> ====Chance and spontaneity==== {{further|Accident (philosophy)}} According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause such as simple necessity. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of [[Accident (philosophy)|accidental things]], "from what is spontaneous". There is also more a specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that only applies to people's moral choices.<ref>Aristotle, ''Physics'' 2.6</ref><ref name="Miller1973">{{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Willard M. |title=Aristotle on Necessity, Chance, and Spontaneity |journal=New Scholasticism |volume=47 |issue=2 |year=1973 |pages=204–213 |doi=10.5840/newscholas197347237}}</ref> ===Astronomy=== {{further|History of astronomy}} In [[astronomy]], Aristotle refuted [[Democritus]]'s claim that the [[Milky Way]] was made up of "those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays," pointing out correctly that if "the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them."<ref>Aristotle, ''Meteorology'' 1.8, trans. E.W. Webster, rev. J. Barnes.</ref> [[File:DenglerSW-Stromboli-20040928-1230x800.jpg|thumb|Aristotle noted that the ground level of the [[Aeolian islands]] changed before a [[volcanic eruption]].]] ===Geology=== {{further|History of geology}} Aristotle was one of the first people to record any [[geology|geological]] observations. He stated that [[Uniformitarianism|geological change]] was too slow to be observed in one person's lifetime.<ref>{{cite book |author=Moore, Ruth |title=The Earth We Live On |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |year=1956 |page=13 |oclc=1024467091}}</ref><ref>Aristotle. ''Meteorology''. Book 1, Part 14</ref> The geologist [[Charles Lyell]] noted that Aristotle described such change, including "lakes that had dried up" and "deserts that had become watered by rivers", giving as examples the growth of the [[Nile delta]] since the time of [[Homer]], and "the upheaving of one of the [[Aeolian islands]], previous to a [[volcanic eruption]]."'<ref>{{cite book |authorlink=Charles Lyell |author=Lyell, Charles |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesgeolo01unkngoog |title=Principles of Geology |date=1832 |page=17 |oclc=609586345}}</ref> ===Biology=== {{main|Aristotle's biology}} [[File:Tremoctopus violaceus5.jpg|thumb|upright|Among many pioneering zoological observations, Aristotle described the reproductive [[hectocotylus|hectocotyl arm]] of the [[octopus]] (bottom left).]] ====Empirical research==== Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically,{{sfn|Leroi|2015|page=7}} and biology forms a large part of his writings. He spent two years observing and describing the zoology of [[Lesbos]] and the surrounding seas, including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon in the centre of Lesbos.{{sfn|Leroi|2015|page=14}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Thompson |first1=D'Arcy |authorlink1=D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson |title=Historia animalium |work=The works of Aristotle translated into English |editor1=Ross, W.D.|editor2=Smith, J. A. |date=1910 |publisher=Clarendon Press |url=https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/history/index.html |page=Prefatory Note |oclc=39273217}}</ref> His data in ''[[History of Animals]]'', ''[[Generation of Animals]]'', ''[[Movement of Animals]]'', and ''[[Parts of Animals]]'' are assembled from his own observations, statements given by people with specialised knowledge such as beekeepers and fishermen, and less accurate accounts provided by travellers from overseas.{{sfn|Leroi|2015|pages=196, 248}} His apparent emphasis on animals rather than plants is a historical accident: his works on [[botany]] have been lost, but two books on plants by his pupil Theophrastus have survived.<ref name="Day2013">{{cite journal |last1=Day |first1=J. |title=Botany meets archaeology: people and plants in the past |journal=Journal of Experimental Botany |volume=64 |issue=18 |year=2013 |pages=5805–5816 |doi=10.1093/jxb/ert068|pmid=23669575 }}</ref> Aristotle reports on the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and the catches of fishermen. He describes the [[catfish]], [[electric ray]], and [[frogfish]] in detail, as well as [[cephalopod]]s such as the [[octopus]] and [[paper nautilus]]. His description of the [[hectocotylus|hectocotyl arm]] of cephalopods, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until the 19th century.{{sfn|Leroi|2015|pages=66–74, 137}} He gives accurate descriptions of the four-chambered fore-stomachs of [[ruminant]]s,{{sfn|Leroi|2015|pages=118–119}} and of the [[Ovoviviparity|ovoviviparous]] embryological development of the [[hound shark]].{{sfn|Leroi|2015|page=73}} He notes that an animal's structure is well matched to function, so, among birds, the [[heron]], which lives in marshes with soft mud and lives by catching fish, has a long neck and long legs, and a sharp spear-like beak, whereas [[duck]]s that swim have short legs and webbed feet.{{sfn|Leroi|2015|pages=135–136}} [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]], too, noted these sorts of differences between similar kinds of animal, but unlike Aristotle used the data to come to the theory of [[evolution]].{{sfn|Leroi|2015|page=206}} Aristotle's writings can seem to modern readers close to implying evolution, but while Aristotle was aware that new mutations or [[Hybridisation (biology)|hybridisations]] could occur, he saw these as rare accidents. For Aristotle, accidents, like heat waves in winter, must be considered distinct from natural causes. He was thus critical of Empedocles's materialist theory of a "survival of the fittest" origin of living things and their organs, and ridiculed the idea that accidents could lead to orderly results.<ref name=sed>{{cite book |title=Creationism and Its Critics in Antiquity |first=David |last=Sedley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SgRuJEfzUG8C |year=2007 |publisher=University of California Press |page=189 |isbn=978-0520253643}}</ref> To put his views into modern terms, he nowhere says that different species can have a [[common descent|common ancestor]], or that one kind can [[speciation|change into another]], or that kinds can become [[extinction|extinct]].{{sfn|Leroi|2015|page=273}} ====Scientific style==== [[File:Two of Aristotle's Growth Laws.svg|thumb|left|upright=1.4|Aristotle inferred growth laws from his observations on animals, including that [[brood size]] decreases with body mass, whereas [[gestation]] period increases. He was correct in these predictions, at least for mammals: data are shown for mouse and elephant.]] Aristotle did not do experiments in the modern sense.{{sfn|Taylor|1922|page=42}} He used the ancient Greek term ''pepeiramenoi'' to mean observations, or at most investigative procedures like dissection.{{sfn|Leroi|2015|pages=361–365}} In ''Generation of Animals'', he finds a fertilised hen's egg of a suitable stage and opens it to see the embryo's heart beating inside.<ref name=LeroiBBC>{{cite web |last1=Leroi |first1=Armand Marie (Presenter) |title=Aristotle's Lagoon: Embryo Inside a Chicken's Egg |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00gqlyy |publisher=BBC |accessdate=17 November 2016 |date=3 May 2011}}</ref>{{sfn|Leroi|2015|pages=197–200}} Instead, he practised a different style of science: systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these.{{sfn|Leroi|2015|pages=365–368}}{{sfn|Taylor|1922|page=49}} This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as [[genomics]]. It does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. In this sense, Aristotle's biology is scientific.{{sfn|Leroi|2015|pages=365–368}} From the data he collected and documented, Aristotle inferred quite a number of [[biological rules|rules]] relating the life-history features of the live-bearing tetrapods (terrestrial placental mammals) that he studied. Among these correct predictions are the following. Brood size decreases with (adult) body mass, so that an elephant has fewer young (usually just one) per brood than a mouse. [[Life expectancy|Lifespan]] increases with [[gestation period]], and also with body mass, so that elephants live longer than mice, have a longer period of gestation, and are heavier. As a final example, [[fecundity]] decreases with lifespan, so long-lived kinds like elephants have fewer young in total than short-lived kinds like mice.{{sfn|Leroi|2015|page=408}}{{-}} ====Classification of living things==== {{further|Scala naturae}} [[File:Scyliorhinus retifer embryo.JPG|thumb|Aristotle recorded that the [[embryo]] of [[Mustelus canis|<!--a different species shown-->a dogfish]] was attached by a cord to a kind of placenta (the [[yolk sac]]), like a higher animal; this formed an exception to the linear scale from highest to lowest.{{sfn|Leroi|2015|pages=72–74}}]] Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of [[animal]]s,<ref name="BergstromDugatkin2012">{{cite book |author1=Bergstrom, Carl T. |author2=Dugatkin, Lee Alan |title=Evolution |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SeaEZwEACAAJ |date=2012 |publisher=Norton |isbn=978-0-393-92592-0 |page=35}}</ref><ref name="Rhodes1974">{{cite book |last=Rhodes |first=Frank Harold Trevor |title=Evolution |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EWGt0bff8agC |date=1974 |publisher=Golden Press |isbn=978-0-307-64360-5 |page=7}}</ref> arranging these in the ''History of Animals'' in a graded scale of perfection, a ''[[scala naturae]]'', with man at the top. His system had eleven grades of animal, from highest potential to lowest, expressed in their form at birth: the highest gave [[viviparity|live birth]] to hot and wet creatures, the lowest laid cold, dry mineral-like eggs. Animals came above [[plant]]s, and these in turn were above minerals.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |authorlink=Ernst Mayr |date=1982 |title=The Growth of Biological Thought |publisher=Belknap Press |isbn=978-0674364462 |pages=201–202}} see also: {{cite book |last=Lovejoy |first=Arthur O. |authorlink=Arthur O. Lovejoy |date=31 January 1976 |title=The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674361539}}</ref> He grouped what the modern zoologist would call [[vertebrate]]s as the hotter "animals with blood", and below them the colder [[invertebrate]]s as "animals without blood". Those with blood were divided into the live-bearing ([[mammal]]s), and the egg-laying ([[bird]]s, [[reptile]]s, [[fish]]). Those without blood were insects, crustacea (non-shelled – cephalopods, and [[crustacea|shelled]]) and the hard-shelled [[mollusc]]s ([[bivalve]]s and [[gastropod]]s). He recognised that animals did not exactly fit into a linear scale, and noted various exceptions, such as that sharks had a [[placenta]] like the tetrapods. To a modern biologist, the explanation, not available to Aristotle,<!--Leroi p. 113--> is [[convergent evolution]].{{sfn|Leroi|2015|pages=111–119}} He believed that purposive final causes guided all natural processes; this [[teleological]] view justified his observed data as an expression of formal design.<ref>{{cite book |author=Mason, Stephen F. |title=A History of the Sciences |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/A_history_of_the_sciences.html?id=PLlMAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Collier Books |date=1979 |isbn=978-0020934004 |pages=43–44}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 80%;" |+ Aristotle's ''[[Scala naturae]]'' (highest to lowest) ! Group !! Examples<br>(given by Aristotle) !! Blood !! Legs !! Souls<br>(Rational,<br>Sensitive,<br>Vegetative) !! Qualities<br>({{font color|red|Hot}}–{{font color|blue|Cold}},<br>{{font color|green|Wet}}–{{font color|brown|Dry}}) |- | Man || Man || with&nbsp;blood || 2 legs || R, S, V || {{font color|red|Hot}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} |- | [[Mammal|Live-bearing tetrapods]] || Cat, [[hare]] || with&nbsp;blood || 4 legs || S, V || {{font color|red|Hot}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} |- | [[Cetaceans]] || [[Dolphin]], [[whale]] || with&nbsp;blood || none || S, V || {{font color|red|Hot}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} |- | [[Birds]] || [[Bee-eater]], [[nightjar]] || with&nbsp;blood || 2 legs || S, V || {{font color|red|Hot}}, {{font color|green|Wet}}, except {{font color|brown|Dry}} eggs |- | [[Reptile|Egg-laying tetrapods]] || [[Chameleon]], [[crocodile]] || with&nbsp;blood || 4 legs || S, V ||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} except scales, eggs |- | [[Snakes]] || Water snake, [[Ottoman viper]] || with&nbsp;blood || none || S, V || {{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} except scales, eggs |- | Egg-laying [[fish]]es || [[Sea bass]], [[Sparisoma cretense|parrotfish]] || with&nbsp;blood || none || S, V || {{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}}, including eggs |- | (Among the egg-laying fishes):<br>placental [[selachian]]s || [[Shark]], [[Skate (fish)|skate]] || with&nbsp;blood || none || S, V || {{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}}, but placenta like tetrapods |- | [[Crustaceans]] || [[Shrimp]], [[crab]] || without || many legs || S, V || {{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} except shell |- | [[Cephalopods]] || [[Squid]], [[octopus]] || without || tentacles || S, V || {{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} |- | [[Mollusc|Hard-shelled animals]] || [[Cockle (bivalve)|Cockle]], [[Charonia variegata|trumpet snail]] || without || none || S, V || {{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|brown|Dry}} (mineral shell) |- | Larva-bearing insects || [[Ant]], [[cicada]] || without || 6 legs || S, V || {{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|brown|Dry}} |- | [[Spontaneous generation|Spontaneously-generating]] || [[Sponges]], [[worm]]s || without || none || S, V || {{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} or {{font color|brown|Dry}}, from earth |- | [[Plants]] || [[Common fig|Fig]] || without || none || V || {{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|brown|Dry}} |- | [[Mineral]]s || Iron || without || none || none || {{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|brown|Dry}} |} ===Psychology=== ====Soul==== {{further|On the Soul}} [[File:Aristotelian Soul.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Aristotle proposed a three-part [[Soul#Aristotle|structure for souls]] of plants, animals, and humans, making humans unique in having all three types of soul.]] Aristotle's [[psychology]], given in his treatise ''[[On the Soul]]'' (''peri psyche''), posits three kinds of [[soul]] ("psyches"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. The human soul incorporates the powers of the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and to compare them using the ''[[Nous#Aristotle|nous]]'' (intellect) and ''logos'' (reason).{{sfn|Leroi|2015|pages=156–163}} For Aristotle, the soul is the [[Hylomorphism#Body–soul hylomorphism|form]] of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement).<ref>{{cite SEP|url-id=aristotle-psychology |title=Psychology |author=Shields, Christopher |date=2016}}</ref> In contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, he placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain.<ref>{{cite book |author=Mason, Stephen F. |title=A History of the Sciences |publisher=Collier Books |date=1979 |isbn=9780020934004 |oclc=924760574 |page=45}}</ref> Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally went against previous philosophers, with the exception of [[Alcmaeon of Croton|Alcmaeon]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Guthrie, W. |title=A History of Greek Philosophy Vol. 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2010 |page=348 |isbn=978-0521294201}}</ref> ====Memory==== According to Aristotle in ''On the Soul'', memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience in your mind and to distinguish between the internal "appearance" and an occurrence in the past.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bloch |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/?id=QwTHng_5RqAC&pg=PR9&dq=Aristotle+on+Memory+and+Recollection#v=onepage&q=Aristotle%20on%20Memory%20and%20Recollection&f=false |title=Aristotle on Memory and Recollection |date=2007 |page=12 |isbn=978-90-04-16046-0 |ref=harv}}</ref> In other words, a memory is a mental picture ([[wikt:phantasm|phantasm]]) that can be recovered. Aristotle believed an impression is left on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when [[stimulus (psychology)|stimuli]] such as sights or sounds are so complex that the nervous system cannot receive all the impressions at once. These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of sensation, Aristotelian '[[common sense]]', and thinking.{{sfn|Bloch|2007|p=61}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Carruthers |first=Mary |url=https://books.google.com/?id=dntrAnqfIasC&pg=PR8&dq=The+book+of+memory:+the+study+of+memory+in+medieval+times#v=onepage&q=The%20book%20of%20memory%3A%20the%20study%20of%20memory%20in%20medieval%20times&f=false |title=The Book of Memory: A Study of Memory in Medieval Culture |date=2007 |page=16 |isbn=978-0-521-42973-3 |ref=harv}}</ref> Aristotle uses the term 'memory' for the actual retaining of an experience in the impression that can develop from sensation, and for the intellectual anxiety that comes with the impression because it is formed at a particular time and processing specific contents. Memory is of the past, prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. Retrieval of impressions cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in our past experiences, both for our previous experience and present experience.{{sfn|Bloch|2007|p=25}} Because Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and perceive them as impressions, people are continually weaving together new impressions of experiences. To search for these impressions, people search the memory itself.<ref>{{cite book |last=Warren |first=Howard |url=https://books.google.com/?id=D4IXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=The+history+of+the+association+of+psychology#v=onepage&q=The%20history%20of%20the%20association%20of%20psychology&f=false |title=A History of the Association Psychology |date=1921 |page=30 |oclc=21010604 <!--dlc--> |ref=harv}}</ref> Within the memory, if one experience is offered instead of a specific memory, that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. Recollection occurs when one retrieved experience naturally follows another. If the chain of "images" is needed, one memory will stimulate the next. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until they reach the one that is needed.{{sfn|Warren|1921|p=25}} Recollection is thus the self-directed activity of retrieving the information stored in a memory impression.{{sfn|Carruthers|2007|p=19}} Only humans can remember impressions of intellectual activity, such as numbers and words. Animals that have perception of time can retrieve memories of their past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed.{{sfn|Warren|1921|p=296}} [[File:Aristotle Senses Perception Memory Dreams Action.svg|thumb|upright=2.3|Senses, perception, memory, dreams, action in Aristotle's psychology. Impressions are stored in the [[sensorium|seat of perception]], linked by his [[Laws of Association]] (similarity, contrast, and contiguity).]] Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain impressions, was connected systematically in relationships such as similarity, contrast, and contiguity, described in his [[Laws of Association]]. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within our mind. A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. According to Aristotle, association is the power innate in a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed remains of former experiences, allowing them to rise and be recalled.{{sfn|Warren|1921|p=259}} ====Dreams==== {{see |Dream#Classical history}} Aristotle describes sleep in ''On Sleep and Wakefulness''.<ref name=Dreaming>{{cite journal |last1=Holowchak |first1=Mark |title=Aristotle on Dreaming: What Goes on in Sleep when the 'Big Fire' goes out |journal=Ancient Philosophy |date=1996 |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=405–23 |url=http://www.pdcnet.org/ancientphil/Ancient-Philosophy |doi=10.5840/ancientphil199616244}}</ref> Sleep takes place as a result of overuse of the senses<ref name=Shute1941>{{cite book |last1=Shute |first1=Clarence |title=The Psychology of Aristotle: An Analysis of the Living Being |date=1941 |publisher=Columbia University Press |pages=115–18 |oclc=936606202 }}</ref> or of digestion,<ref name=Dreaming/> so it is vital to the body.<ref name=Shute1941/> While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do not function as they do during wakefulness. Since a person cannot sense during sleep they can not have desire, which is the result of sensation. However, the senses are able to work during sleep,<ref name=Shute1941/> albeit differently,<ref name=Dreaming/> unless they are weary.<ref name=Shute1941/> Dreams do not involve actually sensing a stimulus. In dreams, sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner.<ref name=Shute1941/> Aristotle explains that when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as the waves in a body of water, and then look away, the next thing they look at appears to have a wavelike motion. When a person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an impression.<ref name=Dreaming/> When the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly, a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and so the impressions of previously perceived stimuli are ignored.<ref name=Shute1941/> However, during sleep the impressions made throughout the day are noticed as there are no new distracting sensory experiences.<ref name=Dreaming/> So, dreams result from these lasting impressions. Since impressions are all that are left and not the exact stimuli, dreams do not resemble the actual waking experience.<ref name=Modrak>{{cite journal |last1=Modrak |first1=Deborah |title=Dreams and Method in Aristotle |journal=Skepsis: A Journal for Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Research |date=2009 |volume=20 |pages=169–181}}</ref> During sleep, a person is in an altered state of mind. Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus. For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by their feelings. Since a person sleeping is in a suggestible state and unable to make judgements, they become easily deceived by what appears in their dreams, like the infatuated person.<ref name=Dreaming/> This leads the person to believe the dream is real, even when the dreams are absurd in nature.<ref name=Dreaming/> One component of Aristotle's theory of dreams disagrees with previously held beliefs. He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and not sent by a divine being. Aristotle reasoned naturalistically that instances in which dreams do resemble future events are simply coincidences.<ref name=Webb>{{cite book |last1=Webb |first1=Wilse |title=Dreamtime and dreamwork: Decoding the language of the night |date=1990 |publisher=Jeremy P. Tarcher |isbn= 978-0-87477-594-5 |pages=174–84}}</ref> Aristotle claimed that a dream is first established by the fact that the person is asleep when they experience it. If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred. Secondly, any sensory experience that is perceived while a person is asleep does not qualify as part of a dream. For example, if, while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their dream they hear a door is shut, this sensory experience is not part of the dream. Lastly, the images of dreams must be a result of lasting impressions of waking sensory experiences.<ref name="Modrak"/> ==Practical philosophy== Aristotle's practical philosophy covers areas such as ethics, politics, and rhetoric.<ref name="SEP"/> {| class="wikitable floatright" align=right style="font-size: 80%;" |+ Virtues and their accompanying vices<ref name=IEP/> ! Too little !! Virtuous mean !! Too much |- | Humbleness || High-mindedness || Vainglory |- | Lack of purpose || Right ambition || Over-ambition |- | Spiritlessness || Good temper || Irascibility |- | Rudeness || Civility || Obsequiousness |- | Cowardice || Courage || Rashness |- | Insensibility || Self-control || Intemperance |- | Sarcasm || Sincerity || Boastfulness |- | Boorishness || Wit || Buffoonery |- | Shamelessness || Modesty || Shyness |- | Callousness || Just resentment || Spitefulness |- | Pettiness || Generosity || Vulgarity |- | Meanness || Liberality || Wastefulness |} ===Ethics=== {{main|Aristotelian ethics}} Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]''.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kraut |first1=Richard |title=Aristotle's Ethics |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/ |publisher=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |accessdate=19 March 2018 |date=1 May 2001}}</ref> Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (''ergon'') of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the ''[[De Anima|psuchē]]'' (''soul'') in accordance with reason (''[[logos]]''). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity (the virtuous mean, between the accompanying vices of excess or deficiency<ref name=IEP/>) of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, ''[[eudaimonia]]'', generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (''ēthikē'' ''[[arete (moral virtue)|aretē]]''), often translated as moral or ethical virtue or excellence.<ref>[[Nicomachean Ethics]] Book I. See for example chapter 7 [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0054%3Abekker%20page%3D1098a 1098a].</ref> Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom (''[[phronesis]]'') and their intellect (''[[nous]]'') can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished theoretical or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher.<ref>[[Nicomachean Ethics]] Book VI.</ref> ===Politics=== {{main|Politics (Aristotle)}} In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]''. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part".<ref>Politics 1253a19–24</ref> He also famously stated that "man is by nature a political animal" and also arguing that humanity's defining factor among others in the animal kingdom is its rationality.<ref>{{cite book |author=Aristotle |others=Translated by Ernest Barker and revised with introduction and notes by R. F. Stalley |title=Politics |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-953873-7 |pages=320–21 |edition=1st |origyear=1995}}</ref> Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ebenstein |first=Alan |author-link=Alan O. Ebenstein |author2=William Ebenstein |title=Introduction to Political Thinkers |publisher=Wadsworth Group |date=2002 |page=59}}</ref> [[File:Aristotle's constitutions.svg|thumb|upright=1.7|Aristotle's classifications of political constitutions]] The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (''[[polis]]'') which functions as a political "community" or "partnership" (''koinōnia'')<!-- (1252a1) -->. The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability<!-- (1280b29–31) -->, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together<!-- (1281a1–3) -->." This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with [[social contract]] theory, according to which individuals leave the [[state of nature]] because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences."{{refn|For a different reading of social and economic processes in the ''Nicomachean Ethics'' and ''Politics'' see Polanyi, Karl (1957) "Aristotle Discovers the Economy" in ''Primitive, Archaic and Modern Economies: Essays of Karl Polanyi'' ed. G. Dalton, Boston 1971, 78–115|group= n}} In ''[[Protrepticus (Aristotle)|Protrepticus]]'', the character 'Aristotle' states:<ref name=HutchinsonJohnson>{{cite web |author1=Hutchinson, D. S.|author2=Johnson, Monte Ransome |url=http://www.protrepticus.info/protr2017x20.pdf |title=Exhortation to Philosophy |website=Protrepticus |date=2015 |page=22}}</ref> {{quote|For we all agree that the most excellent man should rule, i.e., the supreme by nature, and that the law rules and alone is authoritative; but the law is a kind of intelligence, i.e. a discourse based on intelligence. And again, what standard do we have, what criterion of good things, that is more precise than the intelligent man? For all that this man will choose, if the choice is based on his knowledge, are good things and their contraries are bad. And since everybody chooses most of all what conforms to their own proper dispositions (a just man choosing to live justly, a man with bravery to live bravely, likewise a self-controlled man to live with self-control), it is clear that the intelligent man will choose most of all to be intelligent; for this is the function of that capacity. Hence it's evident that, according to the most authoritative judgment, intelligence is supreme among goods.<ref name=HutchinsonJohnson/>}} ===Economics=== {{main|Politics (Aristotle)}} Aristotle made substantial contributions to [[economics|economic thought]], especially to thought in the Middle Ages.<ref name=robbins2000>{{cite book |author=Robbins, Lionel |editor1=Medema, Steven G. |editor2=Samuels, Warren J. |title=A History of Economic Thought: The LSE Lectures |date=2000 |publisher=Princeton University Press | pages=20–24}}</ref> In ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', Aristotle addresses the city, [[property]], and [[trade]]. His response to criticisms of [[private property]], in [[Lionel Robbins]]'s view, anticipated later proponents of private property among philosophers and economists, as it related to the overall [[utility]] of social arrangements.<ref name=robbins2000/> Aristotle believed that although communal arrangements may seem beneficial to society, and that although private property is often blamed for social strife, such evils in fact come from [[human nature]]. In ''Politics'', Aristotle offers one of the earliest accounts of the origin of [[money]].<ref name=robbins2000/> Money came into use because people became dependent on one another, importing what they needed and exporting the surplus. For the sake of convenience, people then agreed to deal in something that is intrinsically useful and easily applicable, such as iron or [[silver]].<ref name=monroe1948>{{cite book |author=Aristotle |editor=Monroe, Arthur E. |title=Politics-Ethics, In Early Economic Thought: Selections from Economic Literature Prior to Adam Smith |date=1948 |publisher=Harvard University Press | pages=16–28}}</ref> Aristotle's discussions on [[retail]] and [[interest]] was a major influence on economic thought in the Middle Ages. He had a low opinion of retail, believing that contrary to using money to procure things one needs in managing the household, retail trade seeks to make a [[profit (economics)|profit]]. It thus uses goods as a means to an end, rather than as an end unto itself. He believed that retail trade was in this way unnatural. Similarly, Aristotle considered making a profit through interest unnatural, as it makes a gain out of the money itself, and not from its use.<ref name=monroe1948/> Aristotle gave a summary of the function of money that was perhaps remarkably precocious for his time. He wrote that because it is impossible to determine the value of every good through a count of the number of other goods it is worth, the necessity arises of a single universal standard of measurement. Money thus allows for the association of different goods and makes them "commensurable".<ref name=monroe1948/> He goes to on state that money is also useful for future exchange, making it a sort of security. That is, "if we do not want a thing now, we shall be able to get it when we do want it".<ref name=monroe1948/> ===Rhetoric and poetics=== [[File:Bénigne Gagneraux, The Blind Oedipus Commending his Children to the Gods.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|''The Blind Oedipus Commending his Children to the Gods'' (1784) by [[Bénigne Gagneraux]]. In his ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]'', Aristotle uses the tragedy ''[[Oedipus Rex|Oedipus Tyrannus]]'' by [[Sophocles]] as an example of how the perfect tragedy should be structured, with a generally good protagonist who starts the play prosperous, but loses everything through some ''[[hamartia]]'' (fault).<ref name="Kaufmann">{{cite book |last=Kaufmann |first=Walter Arnold |title=Tragedy and Philosophy|date=1968 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-02005-1 |pages=56–60 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=NTk9-180NbsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Aristotle+Oedipus+the+King#v=onepage&q=Aristotle%20Oedipus%20the%20King&f=false |ref=harv}}</ref>]] {{main|Rhetoric (Aristotle)|Poetics (Aristotle)}} Aristotle's ''Rhetoric'' proposes that a speaker can use three basic kinds of appeals to persuade his audience: ''[[ethos]]'' (an appeal to the speaker's character), ''[[pathos]]'' (an appeal to the audience's emotion), and ''[[logos]]'' (an appeal to logical reasoning).<ref name="Garver">{{cite book |last1=Garver |first1=Eugene |title=Aristotle's Rhetoric: An Art of Character |date=1994 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-28425-5 |pages=109–110 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=J2ldWwIQhHwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Aristotle+ethos+pathos+logos#v=onepage&q=ethos%20pathos%20logos&f=false |ref=harv}}</ref> He also categorises rhetoric into three genres: [[epideictic]] (ceremonial speeches dealing with praise or blame), [[Forensic rhetoric|forensic]] (judicial speeches over guilt or innocence), and [[Deliberative rhetoric|deliberative]] (speeches calling on an audience to make a decision on an issue).<ref name="Rorty">{{cite book |last1=Rorty |first1=Amélie Oksenberg |title=Structuring Rhetoric |work=Essays on Aristotle's ''Rhetoric'' |date=1996 |editor-last=Rorty |editor-first=Amélie Oksenberg |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-20227-6 |pages=3–7 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=vd7fEb1wOmYC&pg=PA6&dq=Aristotle+deliberative+forensic+and+epideictic#v=onepage&q=Aristotle%20deliberative%20forensic%20and%20epideictic&f=false |ref=harv}}</ref> Aristotle also outlines two kinds of rhetorical [[Proof (truth)|proofs]]: ''[[enthymeme]]'' (proof by [[syllogism]]) and ''[[paradeigma]]'' (proof by example).<ref name="Grimaldi">{{cite book |last=Grimaldi |first=William M. A. |chapter=Studies in the Philosophy of Aristotle's ''Rhetoric'' |title=Landmark Essays on Aristotelian Rhetoric |date=1998 |series=Landmark Essays |volume=14 |editor1-last=Enos |editor1-first=Richard Leo |editor2-last=Agnew |editor2-first=Lois Peters |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates |isbn=978-1-880393-32-1 |page=71|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sMihW5GdDzoC&pg=PA71&dq=Aristotle+paradeigma+and+enthymeme&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwifpKH4uPzZAhVrw1kKHWNWByAQ6AEIJzAA#v=onepage&q=Aristotle%20paradeigma%20and%20enthymeme&f=false |ref=harv}}</ref> Aristotle writes in his ''Poetics'' that [[epic poetry]], tragedy, comedy, [[Dithyramb|dithyrambic poetry]], painting, sculpture, music, and dance are all fundamentally acts of ''[[mimesis]]'' ("imitation"), each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner.<ref name="Halliwell2002">{{cite book |last1=Halliwell |first1=Stephen |authorlink=Stephen Halliwell (academic) |chapter=Inside and Outside the Work of Art|title=The Aesthetics of Mimesis: Ancient Texts and Modern Problems |date=2002 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-09258-4 |pages=152–159 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R8wctGFg12MC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Aristotle+mimesis&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjTkN39-o3aAhXRjVkKHQm7AoEQ6AEIQjAF#v=onepage&q=Aristotle%20mimesis&f=false |ref=harv}}</ref><ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' I 1447a</ref> He applies the term ''mimesis'' both as a property of a work of art and also as the product of the artist's intention<ref name="Halliwell2002"/> and contends that the audience's realisation of the ''mimesis'' is vital to understanding the work itself.<ref name="Halliwell2002"/> Aristotle states that ''mimesis'' is a natural instinct of humanity that separates humans from animals<ref name="Halliwell2002"/><ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' IV</ref> and that all human artistry "follows the pattern of nature".<ref name="Halliwell2002"/> Because of this, Aristotle believed that each of the mimetic arts possesses what [[Stephen Halliwell (academic)|Stephen Halliwell]] calls "highly structured procedures for the achievement of their purposes."<ref name="Halliwell2002"/> For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' III</ref> While it is believed that Aristotle's ''Poetics'' originally comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' VI</ref> The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the [[catharsis]] of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes ''Poetics'' with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' XXVI</ref> Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the [[Pythia|Delphic Oracle]] and studied the fables of [[Aesop]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Temple, Olivia; Temple, Robert (translators) |url=https://books.google.com/?id=ZB-rVxPvtPEC&pg=PR3 |title=The Complete Fables By Aesop |publisher=Penguin Classics |date=1998 |isbn=978-0-14-044649-4 |pages=Introduction, xi–xii}}</ref> ===Views on women=== {{main|Aristotle's views on women}} {{further|Aristotle's biology#Inheritance}} Aristotle's analysis of procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element. On this ground, proponents of [[feminist metaphysics]] have accused Aristotle of [[misogyny]]<ref name="Freeland">{{cite book |last=Freeland |first=Cynthia A. | title=Feminist Interpretations of Aristotle | publisher=Penn State University Press | date=1998 | isbn=978-0-271-01730-3}}</ref> and [[sexism]].<ref name="Morsink">{{cite journal |last=Morsink |first=Johannes | jstor=10.2307/4330727 | title=Was Aristotle's Biology Sexist? | journal=Journal of the History of Biology |date=Spring 1979 | volume=12 | issue=1 | pages=83–112 | doi=10.1007/bf00128136|pmid=11615776 }}</ref> However, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his ''Rhetoric'' that the things that lead to happiness need to be in women as well as men.{{refn|"Where, as among the Lacedaemonians, the state of women is bad, almost half of human life is spoilt."<ref>{{cite book |last=Roberts |first=Aristotle; |translator-first=W. |translator-last=Rhys |editor=Honeycutt, Lee |title=Rhetoric |chapter=Book I, Chapter 5 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150213075039/http://rhetoric.eserver.org/aristotle/rhet1-5.html |archivedate=13 February 2015 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>|group= n}} ==Influence== {{see|List of writers influenced by Aristotle}} More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived.{{sfn|Leroi|2015|p=8}}<ref>{{cite SEP|url-id=aristotle-influence|title=Aristotle's Influence|date=2018|edition=Spring 2018}}</ref> He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher [[Bryan Magee]], "it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did".<ref>{{cite book |last=Magee |first=Bryan |authorlink=Bryan Magee |title=The Story of Philosophy |date=2010 |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |page=34 |isbn=978-0241241264}}</ref> Among countless other achievements, Aristotle was the founder of [[formal logic]],<ref>{{cite book |author=Guthrie, W. K. C. |date=1990 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=8EG0yV0cGoEC&pg=PA156&dq#v=onepage&q=&f=false |title=A history of Greek philosophy: Aristotle : an encounter |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=156 |isbn=978-0-521-38760-6}}</ref><!--<ref>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Aristotle |volume=2 |page=518 |first=Thomas |last=Case}}</ref>--> pioneered the study of [[zoology]], and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/34560/Aristotle |title=Aristotle (Greek philosopher) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia |publisher=Britannica.com |accessdate=26 April 2009| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090422103155/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/34560/Aristotle| archivedate=22 April 2009 | deadurl=no}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Durant |first=Will |authorlink=Will Durant |title=The Story of Philosophy |origyear=1926 |date=2006 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-0-671-73916-4 |page= 92|title-link=The Story of Philosophy }}</ref><ref name="Grafton2010">{{cite book | author=Kukkonen, Taneli | editors=Grafton, Anthony et al | title=The classical tradition | publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press | year=2010 | isbn=978-0-674-03572-0 | pages=70–77}}</ref> Taneli Kukkonen, writing in ''The Classical Tradition'', observes that his achievement in founding two sciences is unmatched, and his reach in influencing "every branch of intellectual enterprise" including Western ethical and political theory, theology, rhetoric and literary analysis is equally long. As a result, Kukkonen argues, any analysis of reality today "will almost certainly carry Aristotelian overtones ... evidence of an exceptionally forceful mind."<ref name="Grafton2010"/> [[Jonathan Barnes]] wrote that "an account of Aristotle's intellectual afterlife would be little less than a history of European thought".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Jonathan |authorlink=Jonathan Barnes |title=Aristotle: A Very Short Introduction |date=1982 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=86 |isbn=978-0192854087}}</ref> ===On his successor, Theophrastus=== {{main|Theophrastus|Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)}} [[File:161Theophrastus 161 frontespizio.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Book frontispiece|Frontispiece]] to a 1644 version of [[Theophrastus]]'s ''[[Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)|Historia Plantarum]]'', originally written around 300 BC]] Aristotle's pupil and successor, [[Theophrastus]], wrote the ''[[Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)|History of Plants]]'', a pioneering work in botany. Some of his technical terms remain in use, such as [[carpel]] from ''carpos'', fruit, and [[pericarp]], from ''pericarpion'', seed chamber.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hooker |first=Sir William Jackson |authorlink=William Jackson Hooker |title=The British Flora: Comprising the Phaenogamous, Or Flowering Plants, and the Ferns |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v-IYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA219 |year=1831 |publisher=Longman |page=219 |oclc=17317293}}</ref> Theophrastus was much less concerned with formal causes than Aristotle was, instead pragmatically describing how plants functioned.<ref>Mayr, ''The Growth of Biological Thought'', pp. 90–91; Mason, ''A History of the Sciences'', p. 46</ref> ===On later Greek philosophers=== {{further|Peripatetic school}} The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the [[Peripatetic school]]. Aristotle's notable students included [[Aristoxenus]], [[Dicaearchus]], [[Demetrius of Phalerum]], [[Eudemos of Rhodes]], [[Harpalus]], [[Hephaestion]], [[Mnason of Phocis]], [[Nicomachus (son of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]], and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"<ref>[[Plutarch]], [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/plutarch/lives/alexander*/3.html''Life of Alexander''], Part 1, 7:7. From Loeb Classical Library, Vol VII, 1919.</ref> ===On Hellenistic science=== {{details|Ancient Greek medicine}} After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly.<ref name="Annas 2001, p. 252">{{cite book |author=Annas, Julia |title=Classical Greek Philosophy |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2001 |page=252 |isbn=978-0192853578}}</ref> It is not until the age of [[Alexandria]] under the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemies]] that advances in biology can be again found. The first medical teacher at Alexandria, [[Herophilos|Herophilus of Chalcedon]], corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between [[vein]]s and [[artery|arteries]], noting that the latter [[pulse]] while the former do not.<ref>Mason, ''A History of the Sciences'' p. 56</ref> Though a few ancient [[atomism|atomists]] such as [[Lucretius]] challenged the [[teleology|teleological]] viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, [[natural theology]]) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. [[Ernst Mayr]] states that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance."<ref>{{cite book |author=Mayr, Ernst |authorlink=Ernst Mayr |title=The Growth of Biological Thought |publisher=Harvard University Press |date=1985 |pages=90–94 |isbn=978-0674364462}}</ref> ===On Byzantine scholars=== {{see also|Commentaries on Aristotle|Byzantine Aristotelianism}} Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were Philoponus, Elias, and David in the sixth century, and [[Stephen of Alexandria]] in the early seventh century.{{sfn|Sorabji|1990|pages=20, 28, 35–36}} Philoponus stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought.{{sfn|Sorabji|1990|pages=233–274}} After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and [[Michael of Ephesus]] reappears in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by [[Anna Comnena]].{{sfn|Sorabji|1990|pages=20–21; 28–29, 393–406; 407–408}} ===On the medieval Islamic world=== {{further|Logic in Islamic philosophy|Transmission of the Greek Classics}} [[File:Arabic aristotle.jpg|thumb|upright|Islamic portrayal of Aristotle, c. 1220]] Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early [[Islamic theology]]. Most of the still extant works of Aristotle,<ref name="Kennedy-Day1998"/> as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers, scientists and scholars. [[Averroes]], [[Avicenna]] and [[Alpharabius]], who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced [[Thomas Aquinas]] and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. [[Alkindus]] considered Aristotle the outstanding and unique representative of philosophy<ref>''Rasa'il'' I, 103, 17, Abu Rida</ref> and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the "exemplar" for all future philosophers.<ref>''Comm. Magnum'' in Aristotle, ''De Anima'', III, 2, 43 Crawford</ref> Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the "First Teacher".<ref name="Kennedy-Day1998">{{cite book |last1=Kennedy-Day |first1=Kiki |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=1998 |url=https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/aristotelianism-in-islamic-philosophy/v-1 |publisher=Taylor and Francis |doi=10.4324/9780415249126-H002-1 |accessdate=29 March 2018|isbn=9780415250696 |chapter=Aristotelianism in Islamic philosophy }}</ref> The title "teacher" was first given to Aristotle by Muslim scholars, and was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]]) who were influenced by the tradition of [[Islamic philosophy]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |title=The Islamic Intellectual Tradition in Persia |date=1996 |publisher=Curzon Press |isbn=978-0-7007-0314-2 |pages=59–60}}</ref> In accordance with the Greek theorists, the Muslims considered Aristotle to be a dogmatic philosopher, the author of a closed system, and believed that Aristotle shared with [[Plato]] essential tenets of thought. Some went so far as to credit Aristotle himself with neo-Platonic metaphysical ideas.<ref name="ReferenceA">''Encyclopedia of Islam'', ''Aristutalis''<!--full ref or better source needed--></ref> ===On medieval Europe=== {{anchor|Phyllis}} [[File:Aristotle and Phyllis.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Woodcut of [[The tale of Phyllis and Aristotle|Aristotle ridden by Phyllis]] by [[Hans Baldung]], 1515<ref name=Louvre/>]] {{further|Aristotelianism|Syllogism#Medieval}} With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early [[medieval]] Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the ''Organon'' made by [[Boethius]]. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by [[Gerard of Cremona]],<ref>{{cite SEP |url-id=arabic-islamic-influence |title=Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West |author=Hasse, Dag Nikolaus |date=2014}}</ref> and from the original Greek, such as those by [[James of Venice]] and [[William of Moerbeke]]. After the [[Scholasticism|Scholastic]] Thomas Aquinas wrote his ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', working from Moerbeke's translations and calling Aristotle "The Philosopher",<ref>E.g. ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', Part I, Question 3</ref> the demand for Aristotle's writings grew, and the [[Greek language|Greek]] manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the [[Renaissance]].<ref>{{cite SEP |url-id=aristotelianism-renaissance |title=Aristotelianism in the Renaissance |author=Kuhn, Heinrich |date=2018}}</ref> These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. Scholars such as Boethius, [[Peter Abelard]], and [[John Buridan]] worked on Aristotelian logic.<ref>{{cite SEP |last=Lagerlund |first=Henrik |title=Medieval Theories of the Syllogism |url-id=medieval-syllogism}}</ref> The medieval English poet [[Geoffrey Chaucer|Chaucer]] describes his student as being happy by having <blockquote><poem>at his beddes heed Twenty bookes, clad in blak or reed, Of aristotle and his philosophie,<ref>[[Geoffrey Chaucer|Chaucer, Geoffrey]], ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]'', Prologue, lines 295–295</ref></poem></blockquote> A [[The tale of Phyllis and Aristotle|cautionary medieval tale]] held that Aristotle advised his pupil Alexander to avoid the king's seductive mistress, Phyllis, but was himself captivated by her, and allowed her to ride him. Phyllis had secretly told Alexander what to expect, and he witnessed Phyllis proving that a woman's charms could overcome even the greatest philosopher's male intellect. Artists such as [[Hans Baldung]] produced a series of illustrations of the popular theme.<ref>{{cite web |title=Aristotle and Phyllis |url=http://www.artic.edu/aic/collections/artwork/20121 |publisher=Art Institute Chicago |accessdate=22 March 2018}}</ref><ref name=Louvre>{{cite web |title=Phyllis and Aristotle {{!}} The Triumph of Seduction over Intellect |url=https://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/phyllis-and-aristotle |publisher=Louvre |accessdate=22 March 2018}}</ref> The Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in ''[[The Divine Comedy]]'': {| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 85%;" |+ ! [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]]<br>''L'Inferno'', Canto IV. 131–135 !! Translation<br>''Hell'' |- | <poem>vidi 'l maestro di color che sanno seder tra filosofica famiglia. Tutti lo miran, tutti onor li fanno: quivi vid'ïo Socrate e Platone che 'nnanzi a li altri più presso li stanno;</poem>|| <poem>I saw the Master there of those who know, Amid the philosophic family, By all admired, and by all reverenced; There Plato too I saw, and Socrates, Who stood beside him closer than the rest. </poem> |} ===On Early Modern scientists=== [[File:William Harvey ( 1578-1657) Venenbild.jpg|thumb|[[William Harvey]]'s ''[[Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus]]'', 1628, showed that the [[circulation of the blood|blood circulated]], contrary to classical era thinking.]] In the [[Early Modern]] period, scientists such as [[William Harvey]] in England and [[Galileo Galilei]] in Italy reacted against the theories of Aristotle and other classical era thinkers like [[Galen]], establishing new theories based to some degree on observation and experiment. Harvey demonstrated the [[circulation of the blood]], establishing that the heart functioned as a pump rather than being the seat of the soul and the controller of the body's heat, as Aristotle thought.<ref name="Aird 2011">{{cite journal | last=Aird| first=W. C. | title=Discovery of the cardiovascular system: from Galen to William Harvey | journal=Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis | volume=9 | year=2011 | doi=10.1111/j.1538-7836.2011.04312.x | pmid=21781247 | pages=118–129}}</ref> Galileo used more doubtful arguments to displace Aristotle's physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the same speed whatever their weight.<ref>{{cite SEP |url-id=galileo |title=Galileo Galilei |author=Machamer, Peter |date=2017}}</ref> ===On 19th-century thinkers=== The 19th-century German philosopher [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle.<ref>Durant, p. 86</ref> Aristotle rigidly separated action from production, and argued for the deserved subservience of some people ("natural slaves"), and the natural superiority (virtue, ''arete'') of others. It was [[Martin Heidegger]], not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition.<!--<ref name=Knight2007>{{cite book |author=Knight, Kelvin |title=Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics & Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre |publisher=Polity Press |date=2007 |pages=''passim'' !pages! |isbn=978-0745619774}}</ref>--><ref name=Sikka1997>{{cite book |author=Sikka, Sonya |title=Forms of Transcendence: Heidegger and Medieval Mystical Theology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UNYIDrA0zrYC&pg=PA265 |year=1997 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-3345-4 |page=265}}</ref> The English mathematician [[George Boole]] fully accepted Aristotle's logic, but decided "to go under, over, and beyond" it with his system of [[Boolean algebra|algebraic logic]] in his 1854 book ''[[The Laws of Thought]]''. This gives logic a mathematical foundation with equations, enables it to solve equations as well as check [[Validity (logic)|validity]], and allows it to handle a wider class of problems by expanding propositions of any number of terms, not just two.<ref>[[George Boole|Boole, George]] (2003) [1854]. ''The Laws of Thought'', facsimile, with introduction by J. Corcoran. Buffalo: Prometheus Books (2003). {{ISBN|9781591020899}}. Reviewed by James van Evra in ''Philosophy in Review'' '''24''' (2004). pp. 167–169.</ref> ===Modern rejection and rehabilitation=== [[File:Alexander and Aristotle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|left|"That most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander".<ref name="Grafton2010"/> Illustration by {{ill|Charles Laplante|fr}}, 1866]] During the 20th century, Aristotle's work was widely criticised. The philosopher [[Bertrand Russell]] argued that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell called Aristotle's ethics "repulsive", and labelled his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell stated that these errors made it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembered what an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.<ref name="philosophy1972"/> In 1985, the biologist [[Peter Medawar]] could still state in "pure seventeenth century"{{sfn|Leroi|2015|page=353}} tones that Aristotle had assembled "a strange and generally speaking rather tiresome farrago of hearsay, imperfect observation, wishful thinking and credulity amounting to downright gullibility".{{sfn|Leroi|2015|page=353}}<ref>{{cite book |author=Medawar, P. B.; Medawar, J. S. |year=1984 |title=Aristotle to Zoos: a philosophical dictionary of biology |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0192830432 |page=28}}</ref> By the start of the 21st century, however, Aristotle was taken more seriously: Kukkonen noted that "In the best 20th-century scholarship Aristotle comes alive as a thinker wrestling with the full weight of the Greek philosophical tradition."<ref name="Grafton2010"/> [[Ayn Rand]] accredited Aristotle as "the greatest philosopher in history" and cited him as a major influence on her thinking.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mayhew |first1=Robert |title=Aristotle For Objectivists|url=https://estore.aynrand.org/p/692/aristotle-for-objectivists-mp3-download |publisher=The Ayn Rand Institute |accessdate=29 March 2018}}</ref> More recently, [[Alasdair MacIntyre]] has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans.<ref name=Knight2007>{{cite book |author=Knight, Kelvin |title=Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics & Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre |publisher=Polity Press |date=2007 |pages=''passim'' |isbn=978-0745619774}}</ref> Kukkonen observed, too, that "that most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander" remained current, as in the 2004 film ''[[Alexander (2004 film)|Alexander]]'', while the "firm rules" of Aristotle's theory of drama have ensured a role for the ''Poetics'' in [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]].<ref name="Grafton2010"/> Biologists continue to be interested in Aristotle's thinking. [[Armand Marie Leroi]] has reconstructed Aristotle's biology,{{sfn|Leroi|2015}} while [[Tinbergen's four questions|Niko Tinbergen's four questions]], based on Aristotle's four causes, are used to analyse [[animal behaviour]]; they examine [[function (biology)|function]], [[phylogeny]], [[mechanism (biology)|mechanism]], and [[ontogeny]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=MacDougall-Shackleton |first=Scott A. |date=2011-07-27 |title=The levels of analysis revisited |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=366 |issue=1574 |pages=2076–2085 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0363 |pmc=3130367 |pmid=21690126}}</ref><ref name=h&h>Hladký, V. & Havlíček, J. (2013). ''[http://ishe.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/HEB_2013_28_4_3-11.pdf Was Tinbergen an Aristotelian? Comparison of Tinbergen's Four Whys and Aristotle's Four Causes]''. ''Human Ethology Bulletin'', 28(4), 3-11</ref> ==Surviving works== ===Corpus Aristotelicum=== {{main|Corpus Aristotelicum}} [[File:Aristotelis De Moribus ad Nicomachum.jpg|thumb|upright|First page of a 1566 edition of the ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'' in Greek and Latin]] The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organisation of [[Immanuel Bekker]]'s Royal Prussian Academy edition (''Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica'', Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works.<ref>[[Immanuel Bekker|Bekker, Immanuel]] (editor). (1831–1870) ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_jMz9zVYu9Q0C Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica]'', Berlin. (5 volumes).</ref> ===Loss and preservation=== {{see|Recovery of Aristotle}} Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, the common writing medium of that era.{{refn|"When the Roman dictator Sulla invaded Athens in 86 BC, he brought back to Rome a fantastic prize – Aristotle's library. Books then were papyrus rolls, from 10 to 20 feet long, and since Aristotle's death in 322 BC, worms and damp had done their worst. The rolls needed repairing, and the texts clarifying and copying on to new papyrus (imported from Egypt – Moses' bulrushes). The man in Rome who put Aristotle's library in order was a Greek scholar, Tyrannio."<ref name="Telegraph19May2001">{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/4723624/When-libraries-were-on-a-roll.html |title=When libraries were on a roll |date=19 May 2001 |publisher=Telegraph Media Group |accessdate=29 June 2017}}</ref>|group= n}} His writings are divisible into two groups: the "[[exoteric]]", intended for the public, and the "[[esoteric]]", for use within the [[Lyceum_(Classical)|Lyceum]] school.<ref>{{harvnb|Barnes|1995|p=12}}</ref>{{refn|Aristotle: ''Nicomachean Ethics'' 1102a26–27. Aristotle himself never uses the term "esoteric" or "acroamatic". For other passages where Aristotle speaks of ''exōterikoi logoi'', see [[W. D. Ross]], ''Aristotle's Metaphysics'' (1953), vol. 2, pp. 408–10. Ross defends an interpretation according to which the phrase, at least in Aristotle's own works, usually refers generally to "discussions not peculiar to the [[Peripatetic school]]", rather than to specific works of Aristotle's own.|group= n}}<ref>{{cite book |last=House |first=Humphry |url=https://archive.org/details/aristotlespoetic032945mbp |page=35 |title=Aristotle's Poetics |date=1956}}</ref> Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in characterisation from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with a view to subsequent publication, the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes not intended for publication.<ref name="Cornell">Irwin, Terence; [[Gail Fine|Fine, Gail]], [[Cornell University]], ''Aristotle: Introductory Readings.'' Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing Company, (1996), Introduction, pp. xi–xii. {{isbn|978-0872203396}}</ref>{{sfn|Barnes|1995|p=12}} [[Cicero]]'s description of Aristotle's literary style as "a river of gold" must have applied to the published works, not the surviving notes.{{refn|"''veniet flumen orationis aureum fundens Aristoteles''", (Google translation: "Aristotle will come pouring forth a golden stream of eloquence").<ref>{{cite book |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius |authorlink=Cicero |publication-date=1874 |year=106–43 BC |chapter=Book II, chapter XXXVIII, §119 |title=The Academica of Cicero |editor-first=James S. |editor-last=Reid |publisher=Macmillan}}</ref>|group= n}} A major question in the history of Aristotle's works is how the exoteric writings were all lost, and how the ones we now possess came to us.<ref>{{cite book |last=Barnes |first=Jonathan |authorlink=Jonathan Barnes |date=1997 |title=Roman Aristotle |editor-first=J. |editor-last=Barnes |editor2-first=M. |editor2-last=Griffin |work=Philosophia Togata |volume=II |pages=1–69 |isbn=978-0198152224}}</ref> The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes collected the esoteric works of Aristotle's school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more cohesive, larger works as they are known today.<ref>{{cite book | last=Anagnostopoulos | first=Georgios | title=A Companion to Aristotle | publisher=Wiley-Blackwell | year=2013 | isbn=978-1-118-59243-4 | page=16}}</ref>{{sfn|Barnes|1995|pp=10–15}} ==Legacy== ===Depictions=== Aristotle has been depicted by major artists including [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Lucas Cranach the Elder {{!}} Phyllis and Aristotle |url=http://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/2008/important-old-master-paintings-including-european-works-of-art-n08404/lot.78.html |publisher=[[Sotheby's]] |accessdate=23 March 2018 |date=2008}}</ref> [[Justus van Gent]], [[Raphael]], [[Paolo Veronese]], [[Jusepe de Ribera]],<ref name="Lee 2005">{{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Ellen Wardwell |last2=Robinson |first2=Anne |title=Indianapolis Museum of Art: Highlights of the Collection |publisher=[[Indianapolis Museum of Art]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-936260-77-8}}</ref> [[Rembrandt]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, Rembrandt (1653) |url=https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2002/jul/27/art.homer |publisher=[[The Guardian]] |accessdate=23 March 2018 |date=27 July 2002}}</ref> and [[Francesco Hayez]] over the centuries. Among the best-known is Raphael's [[fresco]] ''[[The School of Athens]]'', in the [[Apostolic Palace|Vatican's Apostolic Palace]], where the figures of Plato and Aristotle are central to the image, at the architectural [[vanishing point]], reflecting their importance.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Phelan |first1=Joseph |title=The Philosopher as Hero: Raphael's The School of Athens |url=http://www.artcyclopedia.com/feature-2002-09.html |publisher=ArtCyclopedia |accessdate=23 March 2018 |date=September 2002}}</ref> Rembrandt's ''[[Aristotle with a Bust of Homer]]'', too, is a celebrated work, showing the knowing philosopher and the blind Homer from an earlier age: as the art critic [[Jonathan Jones (journalist)|Jonathan Jones]] writes, "this painting will remain one of the greatest and most mysterious in the world, ensnaring us in its musty, glowing, pitch-black, terrible knowledge of time."<ref>{{cite book |last=Held |first=Julius |authorlink=Julius S. Held |title=Rembrandt's Aristotle and Other Rembrandt Studies |year=1969 |publisher=Princeton University Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Jones |first1=Jonathan |title=Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, Rembrandt (1653) |url=https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2002/jul/27/art.homer |accessdate=23 March 2018 |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=27 July 2002}}</ref> <gallery mode="packed" heights="170px"> File:Aristotle in Nuremberg Chronicle.jpg |''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'' [[anachronism|anachronistically]] shows Aristotle in a medieval scholar's clothing. Ink and watercolour on paper, 1493 File:Gent, Justus van - Aristotle - c. 1476.jpg |''Aristotle'' by [[Justus van Gent]]. Oil on panel, c. 1476 File:Lucas Cranach d.Ä. - Phyllis und Aristotle (1530).jpg|''Phyllis and Aristotle'' by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]]. Oil on panel, 1530 File:Biblioteka Marciana, Aristotel.jpg |''Aristotle'' by [[Paolo Veronese]], Biblioteka Marciana. Oil on canvas, 1560s File:Turchi-AristoteIMG 1713.JPG |''Aristotle and [[Campaspe]]'',{{refn|Compare the medieval tale of Phyllis and Alexander above.|group= n}} [[Alessandro Turchi]] (attrib.) Oil on canvas, 1713 File:Aristotle by Jusepe de Ribera.jpg |''[[Aristotle (Ribera painting)|Aristotle]]'' by [[Jusepe de Ribera]]. Oil on canvas, 1637 File:Rembrandt - Aristotle with a Bust of Homer - WGA19232.jpg |''Aristotle with a Bust of [[Homer]]'' by [[Rembrandt]]. Oil on canvas, 1653 File:Johann Jakob Dorner d Ä (attr) Aristoteles.jpg |''Aristotle'' by [[Johann Jakob Dorner the Elder]]. Oil on canvas, by 1813 File:Francesco Hayez 001.jpg |''Aristotle'' by [[Francesco Hayez]]. Oil on canvas, 1811 </gallery> ===Eponyms=== The [[Aristotle Mountains]] in [[Antarctica]] are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture, in his book ''[[Meteorology (Aristotle)|Meteorology]]'', the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region and called it ''Antarctica''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.aad.gov.au/aadc/gaz/scar/display_name.cfm?gaz_id=137410 |title=Aristotle Mountains |work=[[Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research|SCAR]] [[Composite Antarctic Gazetteer]] |publisher=[[Programma Nazionale di Ricerche in Antartide]] |agency=[[Department of the Environment and Energy]], [[Australian Antarctic Division]], [[Australian Government]] |access-date=March 1, 2018}}</ref> [[Aristoteles (crater)|Aristoteles]] is a crater on the Moon bearing the classical form of Aristotle's name.<ref>{{cite web |title=Aristoteles |url=https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/nomenclature/SearchResults;jsessionid=BE8F9834B709207DDD5D36EFA5506C7F |website=Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. United States Geological Survey |accessdate=19 March 2018}}</ref> ==See also== {{Portal|Aristotle}} * [[Aristotelian Society]] * [[Conimbricenses]] ==References== ===Notes=== {{Reflist|group=n|colwidth=24em}} ===Citations=== {{Reflist|colwidth=25em}} ===Sources=== * {{cite book |last=Barnes |first=Jonathan |authorlink=Jonathan Barnes |chapter=Life and Work |title=The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle |date=1995 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-42294-9 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WBqQOqM5dfsC |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |authorlink=Armand Marie Leroi |last=Leroi |first=Armand Marie |title=The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science |titlelink=Aristotle's Lagoon |publisher=Bloomsbury |date=2015 |isbn=978-1408836224 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book | last=Lloyd | first=G. E. R. | author-link=G. E. R. Lloyd | date=1968 | work=Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of His Thought | title=The critic of Plato | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-09456-6 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Sorabji |first=Richard |authorlink=Richard Sorabji |title=Aristotle Transformed |publisher=Duckworth |date=1990 |isbn=978-0715622544 |ref=harv}} ==Further reading== The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following references are only a small selection. {{refbegin |30em}} * [[J. L. Ackrill|Ackrill J. L.]] (1997). ''Essays on Plato and Aristotle'', Oxford University Press. * {{cite book |last=Ackrill |first=J. L. |title=Aristotle the Philosopher |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1981}} * {{Cite book |last=Adler |first=Mortimer J. | authorlink=Mortimer Adler |title=Aristotle for Everybody |publisher=Macmillan |date=1978|title-link=Aristotle for Everybody }} * {{cite book |last= Ammonius |editor1-last=Cohen |editor1-first=S. Marc |editor2-last=Matthews |editor2-first=Gareth B |title= On Aristotle's Categories |publisher=Cornell University Press |date= 1991 |isbn=978-0-8014-2688-9}} * {{cite book |last=Aristotle |title=The Works of Aristotle Translated into English Under the Editorship of W. D. Ross, 12 vols |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |date=1908–1952}} These translations are available in several places online; see External links. * Bakalis, Nikolaos. (2005). ''Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments'', Trafford Publishing {{ISBN |978-1-4120-4843-9}} * {{Cite book |last=Bocheński |first=I. M. |title=Ancient Formal Logic |publisher=North-Holland |date=1951}} * Bolotin, David (1998). ''An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing.'' Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works. * [[Myles Burnyeat|Burnyeat, M. F.]] ''et al.'' (1979). ''Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics''. Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy. * {{cite book |editor1-last=Cantor |editor1-first=Norman F. |editor2-first=Peter L. |editor2-last=Klein |title=Ancient Thought: Plato and Aristotle |volume=1 |series=Monuments of Western Thought |publisher=Blaisdell |date=1969}} * {{cite journal | last1=Chappell | first1=V. | year=1973 | title=Aristotle's Conception of Matter | url=| journal=Journal of Philosophy | volume=70 | issue=19| pages=679–96 | doi=10.2307/2025076| jstor=2025076 }} * Code, Alan (1995). Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76. * {{cite book |last=Ferguson |first=John |title=Aristotle |publisher=Twayne Publishers |date=1972}} * De Groot, Jean (2014). ''Aristotle's Empiricism: Experience and Mechanics in the 4th Century BC'', Parmenides Publishing, {{ISBN |978-1-930972-83-4}} * Frede, Michael (1987). ''Essays in Ancient Philosophy''. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. * {{cite book |last=Fuller |first=B.A.G. |authorlink=Benjamin_Apthorp_Gould_Fuller |series=History of Greek Philosophy |volume=3 |title=Aristotle |publisher=Cape |date=1923}} * [[Eugene Gendlin|Gendlin, Eugene T.]] (2012). ''[http://www.focusing.org/aristotle/ Line by Line Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima]'', Volume 1: Books I & II; Volume 2: Book III. The Focusing Institute. * Gill, Mary Louise (1989). ''Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity''. Princeton University Press. * {{Cite book |last=Guthrie |first=W. K. C. |title=A History of Greek Philosophy |volume=6 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=1981}} * Halper, Edward C. (2009). ''One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 1: Books Alpha – Delta'', Parmenides Publishing, {{ISBN |978-1-930972-21-6}}. * Halper, Edward C. (2005). ''One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 2: The Central Books'', Parmenides Publishing, {{ISBN |978-1-930972-05-6}}. * [[Terence Irwin|Irwin, T. H.]] (1988). [http://www.cyjack.com/cognition/Aristotle%27s%20first%20principles.pdf ''Aristotle's First Principles'']. Oxford: Clarendon Press, {{ISBN |0-19-824290-5}}. * {{cite book |last=Jaeger |first=Werner |title=Aristotle: Fundamentals of the History of His Development |editor-first=Richard |editor-last=Robinson |edition=2nd |publisher=Clarendon Press |date=1948}} * [[Alberto Jori|Jori, Alberto]] (2003). ''Aristotele'', Bruno Mondadori (Prize 2003 of the "[[International Academy of the History of Science]]") {{ISBN |978-88-424-9737-0}}. * {{cite book |editor-last=Kiernan |editor-first=Thomas P. |title=Aristotle Dictionary |publisher=Philosophical Library |date=1962}} * Knight, Kelvin (2007). ''Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre'', Polity Press. * Lewis, Frank A. (1991). ''Substance and Predication in Aristotle''. Cambridge University Press. * Lord, Carnes (1984). ''Introduction to ''The Politics'', by Aristotle''. Chicago University Press. * Loux, Michael J. (1991). Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. * Maso, Stefano (Ed.), Natali, Carlo (Ed.), Seel, Gerhard (Ed.) (2012) ''Reading Aristotle: Physics'' VII.3: ''What is Alteration?'' ''Proceedings of the International ESAP-HYELE Conference'', Parmenides Publishing. {{ISBN |978-1-930972-73-5}} * {{cite book |last=McKeon |first=Richard |title=Introduction to Aristotle |edition=2nd |publisher=University of Chicago Press |date=1973}} * {{cite journal |last=Owen |first=G. E. L. |year=1965c |title=The Platonism of Aristotle |journal=Proceedings of the British Academy |volume=50 |pages=125–150}} [Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R. R. K. Sorabji, eds.(1975). ''Articles on Aristotle'' Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth 14–34.] * Pangle, Lorraine Smith (2003). ''Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship''. Cambridge University Press. * {{cite book |last=Plato |authorlink=Plato |title=The Worlds of Plato and Aristotle |editor1-first=Harold Joseph |editor1-last=Allen |editor2-first=James B |editor2-last=Wilbur |publisher=Prometheus Books |date=1979}} * Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). ''Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics''. Hackett. * {{Cite book |last=Rose |first=Lynn E. | title=Aristotle's Syllogistic |publisher=Charles C Thomas |date=1968}} * {{Cite book |last=Ross |first=Sir David | authorlink=W. D. Ross |title=Aristotle |publisher=Routledge | edition=6th |date=1995}} * Scaltsas, T. (1994). ''Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics''. Cornell University Press. * Strauss, Leo (1964). "On Aristotle's ''Politics''", in ''The City and Man'', Rand McNally. * {{Cite book |last=Swanson |first=Judith |title=The Public and the Private in Aristotle's Political Philosophy |publisher=Cornell University Press |date=1992}} * {{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=Henry Osborn |authorlink=Henry Osborn Taylor |archivedate=27 March 2006 |title=Greek Biology and Medicine |date=1922 |chapter=Chapter 3: Aristotle's Biology |url=http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0051.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060327222953/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0051.html |deadurl=yes |accessdate=3 January 2017 |ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Veatch |first=Henry B. | authorlink=Henry Babcock Veatch |title=Aristotle: A Contemporary Appreciation |publisher=Indiana University Press |date=1974}} * {{cite book |last=Woods |first=M. J. |year=1991b |chapter=Universals and Particular Forms in Aristotle's Metaphysics |series=[[Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy]] |title=Aristotle and the Later Tradition |volume=Suppl |pages=41–56}} {{refend}} ==External links== {{Sister project links|b=no|n=no|s=Author:Aristotle}} {{Wikisourcelang|el|Αριστοτέλης|Ἀριστοτέλης}} {{Library resources box |by=yes |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Aristotle |viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }} * {{Britannica|34560}} * {{PhilPapers|category|aristotle}} * {{InPho|thinker|2553}} * At the [[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]: *: {{hlist |[http://www.iep.utm.edu/aristotl/ Aristotle (general article)] |[http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-bio/ Biology] |[http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-eth/ Ethics] |[http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-log/ Logic] |[http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-met/ Metaphysics] |[http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-mot/ Motion and its Place in Nature] |[http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-poe/ Poetics] |[http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-pol/ Politics]}} * From the [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]: *: {{hlist |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle Aristotle (general article)] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotelianism-renaissance/ Aristotle in the Renaissance] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-biology/ Biology] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-causality/ Causality] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-commentators/ Commentators on Aristotle] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/ Ethics] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/ Logic] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-mathematics/ Mathematics] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/ Metaphysics] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-natphil/ Natural philosophy] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-noncontradiction/ Non-contradiction] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-politics/ Political theory] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-psychology/ Psychology] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-rhetoric/ Rhetoric]}} * {{cite CE1913 |first=William |last=Turner |wstitle=Aristotle |volume=1 |short=x}} * {{cite LotEP |chapter=Aristotle}} ;Collections of works * At [http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index-Aristotle.html Massachusetts Institute of Technology] * {{Gutenberg author | id=Aristotle | name=Aristotle}} * {{Internet Archive author}} * {{Librivox author |id=602}} * {{OL author|OL22105A}} * {{en icon}} {{gr icon}} [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/perscoll?.submit=Change&collection=Any&type=text&lang=Any&lookup=Aristotle Perseus Project] at [[Tufts University]] * At the [https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/ University of Adelaide] * {{gr icon}} {{fr icon}} [http://remacle.org/bloodwolf/philosophes/Aristote/table.htm P. Remacle] * The 11-volume 1837 Bekker edition of ''Aristotle's Works'' in Greek ([http://isnature.org/Files/Aristotle/ PDF]{{dot}}[https://web.archive.org/web/20050816192647/http://grid.ceth.rutgers.edu/ancient/greek/aristotle_greek/ DJVU]) * Bekker's Prussian Academy of Sciences edition of the complete works: [https://archive.org/details/aristotelisopera01arisrich {{vol.|1}}] - [https://archive.org/details/aristotelisopera02arisrich {{vol.|2}}] - [https://archive.org/details/aristotelisopera03arisrich {{vol.|3}}] - [https://archive.org/details/aristotelisopera04arisrich {{vol.|4}}] - [https://archive.org/details/aristotelisopera05arisrich {{vol.|5}}] {{Navboxes|list= {{Peripatetics}} {{Metaphysics}} {{Ethics}} {{Natural history}} {{History of biology}} {{Philosophy of science}} {{Philosophy of language}} {{Jurisprudence}} {{Ancient Greece topics}} }} {{Aristotelianism}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Aristotle| ]] [[Category:384 BC births]] [[Category:322 BC deaths]] [[Category:4th-century BC philosophers]] [[Category:4th-century BC writers]] [[Category:Academic philosophers]] [[Category:Acting theorists]] [[Category:Ancient Greek mathematicians]] [[Category:Ancient Greek logicians]] [[Category:Ancient Greek metaphysicians]] [[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers of language]] [[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers of mind]] [[Category:Ancient Greek political philosophers]] [[Category:Ancient Greek epistemologists]] [[Category:Ancient Greek ethicists]] [[Category:Ancient Greek physicists]] [[Category:Ancient Greeks in Macedon]] [[Category:Ancient Stagirites]] [[Category:Attic Greek writers]] [[Category:Logicians]] [[Category:Cosmologists]] [[Category:Empiricists]] [[Category:Ancient Greek biologists]] [[Category:Humor researchers]] [[Category:Greek meteorologists]] [[Category:Metic philosophers in Classical Athens]] [[Category:Natural philosophers]] [[Category:Peripatetic philosophers]] [[Category:Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great]] [[Category:Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice]] [[Category:Philosophers of technology]] [[Category:Rhetoric theorists]] [[Category:Trope theorists]] [[Category:Ancient literary critics]] [[Category:Virtue ethicists]] [[Category:Zoologists]] [[Category:Greek male writers]] 1rgjeqpemn7bzjd3fvz82sekgjes52d 0 309 858104884 843437531 2018-09-05T02:51:52Z Smasongarrison 16185737 copy editing, applying [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser/General_fixes|General fixes]], replaced: In 2000 → In 2000, wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|the 1928 George Gershwin music|other uses}} {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Italic title}} {| align="right" |- | <score vorbis=1> { \time 2/4 \key f \major \relative c'' { \acciaccatura b8\mp( c-.) d,-. e4 | \acciaccatura b'8( c-.) d,-. e4 | \acciaccatura b'8( c-.) d,-. e-. d'-. | c c,16 d e4 | \acciaccatura b'8( c-.) d,-. e4 | \acciaccatura b'8( c_.) d,-. e-. d'-. | e16-. e-. e-. e-. e8-. a-. | g4->( f) } } </score> |- | <score vorbis=1> { \time 2/4 \clef bass { \partial 8 cis8->\f-\markup { \italic scherzando } | dis-> eis-> fis-> gis-> | fis-. eis4-> dis8\( | fis4 eis\) | \acciaccatura eis8( dis-.) cis4. ~ cis \acciaccatura eis8( dis-.) | cis2 } } </score> |- | style="padding-left: 2em;" | Themes from ''An American in Paris'' |} '''''An American in Paris''''' is a [[jazz]]-influenced orchestral piece by the American composer [[George Gershwin]], written in 1928. Inspired by the time Gershwin had spent in [[Paris]], it evokes the sights and energy of the French capital in the 1920s and is one of his best-known compositions. Gershwin composed ''An American in Paris'' on commission from the conductor [[Walter Damrosch]]. He scored the piece for the standard instruments of the [[symphony orchestra]] plus [[celesta]], [[saxophone]]s, and automobile horns. He brought back some Parisian taxi horns for the New York premiere of the composition, which took place on December&nbsp;13, 1928, in [[Carnegie Hall]], with Damrosch conducting the [[New York Philharmonic]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nyphil.org/~/media/pdfs/program-notes/1314/Gershwin-An%20American%20in%20Paris.pdf |format=PDF |title=Rhapsody in Blue for Piano and Orchestra : An American in Paris |author=George Gershwin |website=Nyphil.org |accessdate=2016-04-06}}</ref><ref>[https://nyphil.org/~/media/pdfs/newsroom/1314/Releases/gilbert-ozone-final.pdf ALAN GILBERT AND THE NEW YORK PHILHARMONIC: MAKOTO OZONE To Perform GERSHWIN’S RHAPSODY IN BLUE in One-Night-Only Concert All-American Program Also To Include BERNSTEIN’s Candide Overture and Symphonic Dances from West Side Story GERSHWIN's An American in Paris: April 22, 2014 at nyphil.org] Accessed 2017-06-20</ref> Gershwin completed the orchestration on November 18, less than four weeks before the work's premiere.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.kennedy-center.org/calendar/?fuseaction=composition&composition_id=2983 | title = An American in Paris: About the Work | publisher = [[The Kennedy Center]] | author = Richard Freed | accessdate = 5 December 2012 }}</ref> Gershwin collaborated on the original program notes with the critic and composer [[Deems Taylor]], noting that: "My purpose here is to portray the impression of an American visitor in Paris as he strolls about the city and listens to various street noises and absorbs the French atmosphere." When the tone poem moves into the [[blues]], "our American friend ... has succumbed to a spasm of [[homesickness]]." But, "nostalgia is not a fatal disease." The American visitor "once again is an alert spectator of Parisian life" and "the street noises and French atmosphere are triumphant."<ref name="JablonskiStewart1958">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nd7RCAL9XSwC&pg=PA139|title=The Gershwin Years: George And Ira|author1=Edward Jablonski|first=|author2=Lawrence D. Stewart|publisher=Da Capo Press|year=1958|isbn=978-0-306-80739-8|location=|pages=138–141}}</ref> ==Background== Gershwin was attracted by [[Maurice Ravel]]'s unusual chords. Upon Gershwin's request, Ravel accepted him as a student, and Gershwin went on his first trip to Paris in 1926 ready to study. After his initial student audition with Ravel turned into a sharing of musical theories, Ravel said he couldn't teach him but he would send a letter referring him to [[Nadia Boulanger]].<ref name="Spycket1992">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_-VcUAeWQr0C&pg=PA71|title=Nadia Boulanger|author=Jérôme Spycket|publisher=Pendragon Press|year=1992|isbn=978-0-945193-38-8|pages=71–73}}</ref><ref name="Pollack2007" /> While the studies were cut short, that 1926 trip resulted in the initial version of An American in Paris written as a 'thank you note' to Gershwin's hosts, Robert and Mabel Shirmer. Gershwin called it "a rhapsodic ballet"; it is written freely and in a much more modern idiom than his prior works.<ref name="JablonskiStewart1958" /> Gershwin strongly encouraged Ravel to come to the United States for a tour. To this end, upon his return to New York, Gershwin joined the efforts of Ravel's friend [[E. Robert Schmitz|Robert Schmitz]], a pianist Ravel had met during the War, to urge Ravel to tour the U.S. Schmitz was the head of Pro Musica, promoting Franco-American musical relations, and was able to offer Ravel a $12,000 fee for the tour, an enticement Gershwin knew would be important to Ravel. Gershwin greeted Ravel in New York in February 1928 at the start of Ravel's U.S. Tour, and joined Ravel again later in the tour in Los Angeles. After a lunch together with [[Charlie Chaplin|Chaplin]] in Beverly Hills, Ravel was persuaded to perform an unscheduled 'house concert' in a friend's music salon, performing among kindred spirits. Ravel's tour reignited Gershwin's desire to return to Paris which he did in March 1928. Ravel's high praise of Gershwin in an introductory letter to Boulanger caused Gershwin to seriously consider taking much more time to study abroad in Paris. Yet after playing for her, she told him she could not teach him. Nadia Boulanger gave Gershwin basically the same advice she gave all of her accomplished master students: "Don't copy others; be yourself." In this case, "Why try to be a second rate Ravel when you are already a first rate Gershwin?"<ref>Jablonski, Edward (1987). Gershwin. Doubleday. {{ISBN|0-385-19431-5}}.</ref> This did not set Gershwin back, as his real intent abroad was to complete a new work based on Paris and perhaps a second rhapsody for piano and orchestra to follow his ''[[Rhapsody in Blue]]''. Paris at this time hosted many expatriate writers, among them [[Ezra Pound]], [[W. B. Yeats]], [[Ernest Hemingway]]; and artist [[Pablo Picasso]].<ref>LSRI Archives Oral Interview Anita Loos and Mary Anita Loos October 1979 re: letters and Ravel's telegram to Gershwin</ref> ==Composition== Gershwin based ''An American in Paris'' on a melodic fragment called "Very Parisienne", written in 1926 on his first visit to Paris as a gift to his hosts, Robert and Mabel Schirmer. He described the piece as a "rhapsodic ballet" because it was written freely and is more modern than his previous works. Gershwin explained in ''[[Musical America]]'', "My purpose here is to portray the impressions of an American visitor in Paris as he strolls about the city, listens to the various street noises, and absorbs the French atmosphere."<ref name="Pollack2007">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RySwdc151ZoC&pg=PA431|title=George Gershwin: His Life and Work|author=Howard Pollack|first=|date=15 January 2007|publisher=University of California Press|year=|isbn=978-0-520-93314-9|location=|pages=119, 431–440}}</ref> The piece is structured into five sections, which culminate in a loose [[Ternary form|ABA format]]. Gershwin's first A episode introduces the two main "walking" themes in the "Allegretto grazioso" and develops a third theme in the "Subito con brio".<ref>{{cite book|last=Van Dyke|first=Joseph M.|year=2011|title=George Gershwin's An American in Paris for Two Pianos: A Critical Score Study and Performance Guide|series=(Doctoral Thesis)|location=Columbus, OH|publisher=OhioLINK Electronic Theses and Dissertations Center|url=https://etd.ohiolink.edu/pg_10?0::NO:10:P10_ACCESSION_NUM:osu1298660291}}</ref> The style of this A section is written in the typical French style of composers [[Claude Debussy]] and [[Les Six]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://csosoundsandstories.org/fascinatin-rhythm-when-ravel-met-gershwin-in-jazz-age-new-york/|title=Fascinatin’ rhythm: When Ravel met Gershwin in Jazz Age New York - CSO Sounds & Stories|website=csosoundsandstories.org|access-date=2017-09-04}}</ref> This A section featured duple meter, singsong rhythms, and diatonic melodies with the sounds of oboe, English horn, and taxi horns. The B section's "Andante ma con ritmo deciso" introduces the American [[Blues]] and spasms of homesickness. The "Allegro" that follows continues to express homesickness in a faster [[twelve-bar blues]]. In the B section, Gershwin uses common time, syncopated rhythms, and bluesy melodies with the sounds of trumpet, saxophone, and snare drum. "Moderato con grazia" is the last A section that returns to the themes set in A. After recapitulating the "walking" themes, Gershwin overlays the slow blues theme from section B in the final “Grandioso.” ==Instrumentation== ''An American in Paris'' is scored for 3 [[flute]]s (3rd doubling on [[piccolo]]), 2 [[oboe]]s, [[English horn]], 2 [[clarinet]]s in [[soprano clarinet|B-flat]], [[bass clarinet]] in B-flat, 2 [[bassoon]]s, 4 [[French horn|horn]]s in F, 3 [[trumpet]]s in B-flat, 3 [[trombone]]s, [[tuba]], [[timpani]], [[snare drum]], [[bass drum]], [[Triangle (musical instrument)|triangle]], [[wood block]], [[cymbal]]s, low and high [[Tom-tom drum|tom-tom]]s, [[xylophone]], [[glockenspiel]], [[celesta]], 4 [[vehicle horn|taxi horns]] labeled as A, B, C and D with circles around them, [[alto saxophone]]/[[soprano saxophone]], [[tenor saxophone]]/soprano saxophone/alto saxophone, [[baritone saxophone]]/soprano saxophone/alto saxophone, and [[String section|strings]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archives.nyphil.org/index.php/artifact/47d1f79a-8ea6-4aba-964f-989cb5dc2cd7/fullview#page/4/mode/2up|title=George Gershwin: An American in Paris (original score)|last=|first=|date=|website=New York Philharmonic Archives|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=2017-09-04}}</ref> Although most modern audiences have heard the taxi horns using the notes A, B, C and D, it has recently come to light<ref name="nytimes1">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/02/theater/have-we-been-playing-gershwin-wrong-for-70-years.html|title=Have We Been Playing Gershwin Wrong for 70 Years?|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|accessdate=2016-04-06}}</ref> that Gershwin's intention was to have used the notes A{{Music|flat}}_{[[Scientific pitch notation|4]]}, B{{Music|flat}}₄, D₅, and A₄.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.music.umich.edu/ami/gershwin/?p=715 |title=1929 Gershwin Taxi Horn Photo Clarifies Mystery|publisher=[[University of Michigan School of Music, Theatre & Dance]]|date=2016-03-05|accessdate=2016-04-06}}</ref> It is likely that in labeling the taxi horns as A, B, C and D with circles, he may have been referring to the use of the four different horns and not the notes that they played. The revised edition by F. Campbell-Watson calls for three saxophones, alto, tenor and baritone. In this arrangement the soprano and alto doublings have been rewritten to avoid changing instruments. In 2000, Gershwin specialist [[Jack Gibbons]] made his own restoration of the original orchestration of An American in Paris, working directly from Gershwin's original manuscript, including the restoration of Gershwin's soprano saxophone parts removed in F. Campbell-Watson's revision; Gibbons' restored orchestration of An American in Paris was performed at London's Queen Elizabeth Hall on July 9, 2000 by the City of Oxford Orchestra conducted by Levon Parikian<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.jackgibbons.com/reviews.htm|title=Musical Opinion review of Gershwin Spectacular|accessdate=2017-06-28}}</ref> [[William Merrigan Daly|William Daly]] arranged the score for piano solo which was published by New World Music in 1929. ==Response== Gershwin did not particularly like Walter Damrosch's interpretation at the world premiere of ''An American in Paris''. He stated that Damrosch's sluggish, dragging tempo caused him to walk out of the hall during a matinee performance of this work. The audience, according to Edward Cushing, responded with "a demonstration of enthusiasm impressively genuine in contrast to the conventional applause which new music, good and bad, ordinarily arouses." Critics believed that ''An American in Paris'' was better crafted than his lukewarm [[Concerto in F (Gershwin)|Concerto in F]]. Some did not think it belonged in a program with classical composers [[César Franck]], [[Richard Wagner]], or [[Guillaume Lekeu]] on its premiere. Gershwin responded to the critics, "It's not a Beethoven Symphony, you know... It's a humorous piece, nothing solemn about it. It's not intended to draw tears. If it pleases symphony audiences as a light, jolly piece, a series of impressions musically expressed, it succeeds."<ref name="Pollack2007" /> ==Preservation status== On September 22, 2013, it was announced that a musicological [[Historical editions (music)|critical edition]] of the full orchestral score will be eventually released. The Gershwin family, working in conjunction with the [[Library of Congress]] and the [[University of Michigan]], are working to make scores available to the public that represent Gershwin's true intent. It is unknown if the critical score will include the four minutes of material Gershwin later deleted from the work (such as the restatement of the blues theme after the faster 12 bar blues section), or if the score will document changes in the orchestration during Gershwin's composition process.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/new-critical-edition-of-george-and-ira-gershwins-works-to-be-compiled/ |title=New, critical edition of George and Ira Gershwin's works to be compiled &#124; PBS NewsHour |website=Pbs.org |date=2013-09-14 |accessdate=2016-04-06}}</ref> The score to ''An American in Paris'' is currently scheduled to be issued first in a series of scores to be released. The entire project may take 30 to 40 years to complete, but ''An American in Paris'' will be an early volume in the series.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.music.umich.edu/ami/gershwin/?page_id=59 |title=The Editions » Gershwin |website=Music.umich.edu |date= |accessdate=2016-04-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://musicologynow.ams-net.org/2013/09/george-and-ira-gershwin-critical-edition_20.html |title=Musicology Now: George and Ira Gershwin Critical Edition |website=Musicologynow.ams-net.org |date=2013-09-17 |accessdate=2016-04-06}}</ref> Two [[urtext edition]]s of the work have been published by the German publisher B-Note Music in 2015. The changes made by Campbell-Watson have been withdrawn in both editions. In the extended urtext, 120 bars of music have been re-integrated. Conductor Walter Damrosch had cut them shortly before the first performance.<ref>{{cite web |title=An American in Paris Urtext | url=https://www.bnote.de/?set=werk_detail&kompid=246&bnnr=16963&lc=en|website=Bnote.de |access-date=2015-12-14}}</ref> ==Recordings== [[File:American in Paris.tif|thumb|First recording]] ''An American in Paris'' has been frequently recorded. The first recording was made for [[RCA Victor]] in 1929 with [[Nathaniel Shilkret]] conducting the [[RCA Victor Symphony Orchestra]], drawn from members of the [[Philadelphia Orchestra]]. Gershwin was on hand to "supervise" the recording; however, Shilkret was reported to be in charge and eventually asked the composer to leave the recording studio. Then, a little later, Shilkret discovered there was no one to play the brief [[celesta]] solo during the slow section, so he hastily asked Gershwin if he might play the solo; Gershwin said he could and so he briefly participated in the actual recording. This recording is believed to use the taxi horns in the way that Gershwin had intended using the notes A flat, B flat, a higher C and a lower D.<ref name="nytimes1"/> The radio broadcast of the September&nbsp;8, 1937 Hollywood Bowl George Gershwin Memorial Concert, in which ''An American in Paris,'' also conducted by Shilkret, was second on the program, was recorded and was released in 1998 in a two-CD set. [[Arthur Fiedler]] and the [[Boston Pops Orchestra]] recorded the work for RCA Victor, including one of the first stereo recordings of the music. In 1945, [[Arturo Toscanini]] conducting the [[NBC Symphony Orchestra]] recorded the piece for [[RCA Victor]], one of the few commercial recordings Toscanini made of music by an American composer. The [[Seattle Symphony]] also recorded a version in 1990 of Gershwin's original score, before he made numerous edits resulting in the score as we hear it today.<ref>{{cite web|last=Bargreen |first=Melinda |url=http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19900628&slug=1079541 |title=Entertainment & the Arts &#124; Recordings &#124; Seattle Times Newspaper |website=Community.seattletimes.nwsource.com |date=1990-06-28 |accessdate=2016-04-06}}</ref> [[Harry James]] released a version of the blues section on his 1953 album ''One Night Stand,'' recorded live at the [[Aragon Ballroom (Chicago)|Aragon Ballroom in Chicago]] ([[Columbia Records|Columbia]] GL 522 and CL 522). ==Use in film== In 1951, [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer]] released the musical film ''[[An American in Paris (film)|An American in Paris]]'', featuring [[Gene Kelly]] and [[Leslie Caron]]. Winning the 1951 Best Picture Oscar and numerous other awards, the film was directed by [[Vincente Minnelli]], featured many tunes of Gershwin, and concluded with an extensive, elaborate dance sequence built around the ''An American in Paris'' symphonic poem (arranged for the film by [[Johnny Green]]), costing $500,000.<ref>The Eddie Mannix Ledger, Los Angeles: Margaret Herrick Library, Center for Motion Picture Study</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://daily.jstor.org/american-paris-onstage-onscreen/|title=An American in Paris: Onstage and Onscreen {{!}} JSTOR Daily|date=2015-05-19|work=JSTOR Daily|access-date=2017-09-08|language=en-US}}</ref> ==References== {{reflist}} ==Further reading== * Rimler, Walter. ''George Gershwin&nbsp;– An Intimate Portrait''. Urbana, University of Illinois Press, 2009. 29–33. * Pollack, Howard. ''George Gershwin&nbsp;– His Life and Work''. Berkeley, University of California Press, 2006. 431–42. == External links == * {{IMSLP|work=An American in Paris (Gershwin, George)|cname=''An American in Paris''}} * [https://archive.org/details/AnAmericanInParis 1944 recording] by the [[New York Philharmonic]] conducted by [[Artur Rodziński]] * {{YouTube|zi0ENw-JlUI|''An American in Paris''}}, New York Philharmonic, [[Leonard Bernstein]], 1959. {{webarchive|url=https://webrecorder.io/Germinal/wikipedia/20180529043352/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zi0ENw-JlUI |date=2018-05-29}} {{George Gershwin}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:American In Paris, An}} [[Category:Compositions by George Gershwin]] [[Category:Symphonic poems]] [[Category:Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients]] [[Category:1928 compositions]] [[Category:Music about Paris]] [[Category:Music commissioned by the New York Philharmonic]] 7ngtzr1kf6d4vphftl0jgnktz47hlqd 0 316 859367022 859366948 2018-09-13T15:53:30Z Thomas Mulligan 31906734 /* 1940s */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox award | name = Academy Award for Best Production Design | presenter = [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] (AMPAS) | country = United States | year = [[1st Academy Awards|1929]] | holder = [[Paul Denham Austerberry|Paul D. Austerberry]] <br/> [[Shane Vieau]] <br/> [[Jeff Melvin]] <br/>''[[The Shape of Water]]'' ([[90th Academy Awards|2017]]) }} The '''[[Academy Awards|Academy Award]] for Best Production Design''' recognizes achievement for [[art direction]] in [[art director#In film|film]]. The category's original name was '''Best Art Direction''', but was changed to its current name in 2012 for the [[85th Academy Awards]].<ref name="Music Rules">{{Cite web |url=http://www.oscars.org/press/pressreleases/2012/20120830.html |title=Music Rules Approved for 85th Academy Awards |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141004163009/http://www.oscars.org/press/pressreleases/2012/20120830.html |archivedate=2014-10-04 |accessdate=2012-08-31 |work=oscars.org}}</ref> This change resulted from the Art Director's branch of the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] (AMPAS) being renamed the Designer's branch. Since [[19th Academy Awards|1947]], the award is shared with the set decorator(s). It is awarded to the best interior design in a film.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.awardsandshows.com/features/best-art-direction-10.html |title=Academy Award for Best Art Direction |last= |first= |date= |website=Awardsandshows.com |access-date=June 4, 2016}}</ref> The films below are listed with their production year (for example, the [[72nd Academy Awards|2000 Academy Award]] for Best Art Direction is given to a film from 1999). In the lists below, the winner of the award for each year is shown first, followed by the other nominees. ==Superlatives== {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" |- ! width="150" | Category ! width="150" | Name ! width="150" | Superlative ! width="350" | Notes |- | Most Awards | rowspan="2" | [[Cedric Gibbons]] | 11 awards | Awards resulted from 39 nominations.<ref name="theoscarsite">{{cite web |url=http://theoscarsite.com/whoswho/gibbons_c.htm |title=Cedric Gibbons Biography |accessdate=2010-02-28 |work=theoscarsite.com}}</ref><ref name="findagrave">{{cite web |url=https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/5912059 |title=Find A Grave: Cedric Gibbons |accessdate=2010-02-28 |work=findagrave.com}}</ref> |- | Most Nominations | 39 nominations | Nominations resulted in 11 awards. |- | Most Nominations <br/> (without ever winning) | [[Roland Anderson]] | 15 nominations | Nominations resulted in no awards. |- |} {{clear}} ==Winners and nominees== {{legend|#FAEB86|indicates the winner}} ===1920s=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="5%" | Year ! width="45%" | Film ! width="50%" | Art director(s) |- | rowspan=5 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1927 in film|1927]]/[[1928 in film|28]]'''<br /> {{small|[[1st Academy Awards|(1st)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Dove (1927 film)|The Dove]]''''' | rowspan=2 | '''[[William Cameron Menzies]]''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Tempest (1928 film)|Tempest]]''''' |- | ''[[7th Heaven (1927 film)|7th Heaven]]'' | [[Harry Oliver]] |- | ''[[Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans]]'' | [[Rochus Gliese]] |- | rowspan=7 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1928 in film|1928]]/[[1929 in film|29]]''' <br /> {{small|[[2nd Academy Awards|(2nd)]]}}<br><ref group=note name=twentynine>The 2nd Academy Awards is unique in being the only occasion where there were no official nominees. Subsequent research by AMPAS has resulted in a list of unofficial or de facto nominees, based on records of which films were evaluated by the judges.</ref> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Bridge of San Luis Rey (1929 film)|The Bridge of San Luis Rey]]''''' | '''[[Cedric Gibbons]]''' |- | ''[[Alibi (1929 film)|Alibi]]'' | [[William Cameron Menzies]] |- | ''[[The Awakening (1928 film)|The Awakening]]'' | [[William Cameron Menzies]] |- | ''[[Dynamite (1929 film)|Dynamite]]'' | [[Mitchell Leisen]] |- | ''[[The Patriot (1928 film)|The Patriot]]'' | [[Hans Dreier]] |- | ''[[Street Angel (1928 film)|Street Angel]]'' | [[Harry Oliver]] |} ===1930s=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="5%" | Year ! width="45%" | Film ! width="50%" | Art director(s) |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1929 in film|1929]]/[[1930 in film|30]]'''<br /> {{small|[[3rd Academy Awards|(3rd)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[King of Jazz]]''''' | '''[[Herman Rosse]]''' |- | ''[[Bulldog Drummond (1929 film)|Bulldog Drummond]]'' | [[William Cameron Menzies]] |- | ''[[The Love Parade]]'' | [[Hans Dreier]] |- | ''[[Sally (1929 film)|Sally]]'' | [[Jack Okey]] |- | ''[[The Vagabond King (1930 film)|The Vagabond King]]'' | [[Hans Dreier]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1930 in film|1930]]/[[1931 in film|31]]'''<br /> {{small|[[4th Academy Awards|(4th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Cimarron (1931 film)|Cimarron]]''''' | '''[[Max Rée]]''' |- | ''[[Just Imagine]]'' | [[Stephen Goosson]] and [[Ralph Hammeras]] |- | ''[[Morocco (film)|Morocco]]'' | [[Hans Dreier]] |- | ''[[Svengali (1931 film)|Svengali]]'' | [[Anton Grot]] |- | ''[[Whoopee! (film)|Whoopee!]]'' | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] |- | rowspan=4 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1931 in film|1931]]/[[1932 in film|32]]'''<br /> {{small|[[5th Academy Awards|(5th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Transatlantic (1931 film)|Transatlantic]]''''' | '''[[Gordon Wiles]]''' |- | ''[[Arrowsmith (film)|Arrowsmith]]'' | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] |- | ''[[À Nous la Liberté]]'' | [[Lazare Meerson]] |- | rowspan=4 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1932 in film|1932]]/[[1933 in film|33]]'''<br /> {{small|[[6th Academy Awards|(6th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Cavalcade (1933 film)|Cavalcade]]''''' | '''[[William S. Darling]]''' |- | ''[[A Farewell to Arms (1932 film)|A Farewell to Arms]]'' | [[Hans Dreier]] and [[Roland Anderson]] |- | ''[[When Ladies Meet (1933 film)|When Ladies Meet]]'' | [[Cedric Gibbons]] |- | rowspan=4 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1934 in film|1934]]'''<br /> {{small|[[7th Academy Awards|(7th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Merry Widow (1934 film)|The Merry Widow]]''''' | '''[[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[Fredric Hope]]''' |- | ''[[The Affairs of Cellini]]'' | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] |- | ''[[The Gay Divorcee]]'' | [[Van Nest Polglase]] and [[Carroll Clark]] |- | rowspan=4 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1935 in film|1935]]'''<br /> {{small|[[8th Academy Awards|(8th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Dark Angel (1935 film)|The Dark Angel]]''''' | '''[[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]]''' |- | ''[[The Lives of a Bengal Lancer (film)|The Lives of a Bengal Lancer]]'' | [[Hans Dreier]] and [[Roland Anderson]] |- | ''[[Top Hat]]'' | [[Carroll Clark]] and [[Van Nest Polglase]] |- | rowspan=8 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1936 in film|1936]]'''<br /> {{small|[[9th Academy Awards|(9th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Dodsworth (film)|Dodsworth]]''''' | '''[[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]]''' |- | ''[[Anthony Adverse]]'' | [[Anton Grot]] |- | ''[[The Great Ziegfeld]]'' | [[Cedric Gibbons]], [[Eddie Imazu]] and [[Edwin B. Willis]] |- | ''[[Lloyd's of London (film)|Lloyds of London]]'' | [[William S. Darling]] |- | ''[[Magnificent Brute]]'' | [[Albert S. D'Agostino]] and [[Jack Otterson]] |- | ''[[Romeo and Juliet (1936 film)|Romeo and Juliet]]'' | [[Cedric Gibbons]], [[Fredric Hope]] and [[Edwin B. Willis]] |- | ''[[Winterset (film)|Winterset]]'' | [[Perry Ferguson]] |- | rowspan=13 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1937 in film|1937]]'''<br /> {{small|[[10th Academy Awards|(10th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Lost Horizon (1937 film)|Lost Horizon]]''''' | '''[[Stephen Goosson]]''' |- | ''[[Conquest (1937 film)|Conquest]]'' | [[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[William A. Horning]] |- | ''[[A Damsel in Distress]]'' | [[Carroll Clark]] |- | ''[[Dead End (1937 film)|Dead End]]'' | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] |- | ''[[Every Day's a Holiday (1937 film)|Every Day's a Holiday]]'' | [[Wiard Ihnen]] |- | ''[[The Life of Emile Zola]]'' | [[Anton Grot]] |- | ''[[Manhattan Merry-Go-Round (film)|Manhattan Merry-Go-Round]]'' | [[John Victor Mackay]] |- | ''[[The Prisoner of Zenda (1937 film)|The Prisoner of Zenda]]'' | [[Lyle R. Wheeler]] |- | ''[[Souls at Sea]]'' | [[Hans Dreier]] and [[Roland Anderson]] |- | ''[[Walter Wanger's Vogues of 1938]]'' | [[Alexander Toluboff]] |- | ''[[Wee Willie Winkie (film)|Wee Willie Winkie]]'' | [[William S. Darling]] and [[David S. Hall (art director)|David S. Hall]] |- | ''[[You're a Sweetheart]]'' | [[Jack Otterson]] |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1938 in film|1938]]'''<br /> {{small|[[11th Academy Awards|(11th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Adventures of Robin Hood]]''''' | '''[[Carl Jules Weyl]]''' |- | ''[[The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1938 film)|The Adventures of Tom Sawyer]]'' | [[Lyle R. Wheeler]] |- | ''[[Alexander's Ragtime Band (film)|Alexander's Ragtime Band]]'' | [[Bernard Herzbrun]] and [[Boris Leven]] |- | ''[[Algiers (film)|Algiers]]'' | [[Alexander Toluboff]] |- | ''[[Carefree (film)|Carefree]]'' | [[Van Nest Polglase]] |- | ''[[The Goldwyn Follies]]'' | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] |- | ''[[Holiday (1938 film)|Holiday]]'' | [[Stephen Goosson]] and [[Lionel Banks]] |- | ''[[If I Were King]]'' | [[Hans Dreier]] and [[John B. Goodman (art director)|John B. Goodman]] |- | ''[[Mad About Music]]'' | [[Jack Otterson]] |- | ''[[Marie Antoinette (1938 film)|Marie Antoinette]]'' | [[Cedric Gibbons]] |- | ''[[Merrily We Live]]'' | [[Charles D. Hall]] |- | rowspan=13 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1939 in film|1939]]'''<br /> {{small|[[12th Academy Awards|(12th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]]''''' | '''[[Lyle R. Wheeler]]''' |- | ''[[Beau Geste (1939 film)|Beau Geste]]'' | [[Hans Dreier]] and [[Robert Odell]] |- | ''[[Captain Fury]]'' | [[Charles D. Hall]] |- | ''[[First Love (1939 film)|First Love]]'' | [[Jack Otterson]] and [[Martin Obzina]] |- | ''[[Love Affair (1939 film)|Love Affair]]'' | [[Van Nest Polglase]] and [[Alfred Herman]] |- | ''[[Man of Conquest]]'' | [[John Victor Mackay]] |- | ''[[Mr. Smith Goes to Washington]]'' | [[Lionel Banks]] |- | ''[[The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex]]'' | [[Anton Grot]] |- | ''[[The Rains Came]]'' | [[William S. Darling]] and [[George Dudley (art director)|George Dudley]] |- | ''[[Stagecoach (1939 film)|Stagecoach]]'' | [[Alexander Toluboff]] |- | ''[[The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)|The Wizard of Oz]]'' | [[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[William A. Horning]] |- | ''[[Wuthering Heights (1939 film)|Wuthering Heights]]'' | [[James Basevi]] |} ===1940s=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="5%" | Year ! width="31%" | Film ! width="32%" | Art director(s) ! width="32%" | Interior decorator(s) |- | rowspan=19 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1940 in film|1940]]'''<br /> {{small|[[13th Academy Awards|(13th)]]}} <br /> <ref group=note name=forty>Prior to 1941, only credited art directors and assistant art directors were eligible for nomination.</ref> | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Black-and-White''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Pride and Prejudice (1940 film)|Pride and Prejudice]]''''' | '''[[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[Paul Groesse]]''' | '''—''' |- | ''[[Arise, My Love]]'' | [[Hans Dreier]] and [[Robert Usher]] | — |- | ''[[Arizona (1940 film)|Arizona]]'' | [[Lionel Banks]] and [[Robert Peterson (art director)|Robert Peterson]] | — |- | ''[[The Boys from Syracuse (film)|The Boys from Syracuse]]'' | [[Jack Otterson]] | — |- | ''[[Dark Command]]'' | [[John Victor Mackay]] | — |- | ''[[Foreign Correspondent (film)|Foreign Correspondent]]'' | [[Alexander Golitzen]] | — |- | ''[[Lillian Russell (film)|Lillian Russell]]'' | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] and [[Joseph C. Wright]] | — |- | ''[[My Favorite Wife]]'' | [[Van Nest Polglase]] and [[Mark-Lee Kirk]] | — |- | ''[[My Son, My Son! (film)|My Son, My Son!]]'' | [[John DuCasse Schulze]] | — |- | ''[[Our Town (1940 film)|Our Town]]'' | [[Lewis J. Rachmil]] | — |- | ''[[Rebecca (1940 film)|Rebecca]]'' | [[Lyle R. Wheeler]] | — |- | ''[[The Sea Hawk (1940 film)|The Sea Hawk]]'' | [[Anton Grot]] | — |- | ''[[The Westerner (film)|The Westerner]]'' | [[James Basevi]] | — |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Color''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Thief of Bagdad (1940 film)|The Thief of Bagdad]]''''' | '''[[Vincent Korda]]''' | '''—''' |- | ''[[Bitter Sweet (1940 film)|Bitter Sweet]]'' | [[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[John S. Detlie]] | — |- | ''[[Down Argentine Way]]'' | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] and [[Joseph C. Wright]] | — |- | ''[[North West Mounted Police (film)|North West Mounted Police]]'' | [[Hans Dreier]] and [[Roland Anderson]] | — |- | rowspan=16 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1941 in film|1941]]'''<br /> {{small|[[14th Academy Awards|(14th)]]}} <br /> <ref group=note name=sishopkins>[[Republic Pictures]] submitted ''[[Sis Hopkins (1941 film)|Sis Hopkins]]'' and it was initially named as a nominee. However, the studio later withdrew the film from consideration and it is not considered an official nominee.</ref><ref name=Database>{{cite web |url=http://awardsdatabase.oscars.org/ |title=The Official Academy Awards Database |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= |publisher=[[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] |access-date=January 4, 2018 |quote=}}</ref> | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Black-and-White''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[How Green Was My Valley (film)|How Green Was My Valley]]''''' | '''[[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] and [[Nathan H. Juran]] | '''[[Thomas Little]]''' |- | ''[[Citizen Kane]]'' | [[Perry Ferguson]] and [[Van Nest Polglase]] | [[A. Roland Fields]] and [[Darrell Silvera]] |- | ''[[The Flame of New Orleans]]'' | [[Martin Obzina]] and [[Jack Otterson]] | [[Russell A. Gausman]] |- | ''[[Hold Back the Dawn]]'' | [[Hans Dreier]] and [[Robert Usher]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]] |- | ''[[Ladies in Retirement]]'' | [[Lionel Banks]] | [[George Montgomery (set decorator)|George Montgomery]] |- | ''[[The Little Foxes (film)|The Little Foxes]]'' | [[Stephen Goosson]] | [[Howard Bristol]] |- | ''[[Sergeant York (film)|Sergeant York]]'' | [[John Hughes (art director)|John Hughes]] | [[Fred M. MacLean]] |- | ''[[The Son of Monte Cristo]]'' | [[John DuCasse Schulze]] | [[Edward G. Boyle]] |- | ''[[Sundown (1941 film)|Sundown]]'' | [[Alexander Golitzen]] | [[Richard Irvine]] |- | ''[[That Hamilton Woman]]'' | [[Vincent Korda]] | [[Julia Heron]] |- | ''[[When Ladies Meet (1941 film)|When Ladies Meet]]'' | [[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[Randall Duell]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]] |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Color''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Blossoms in the Dust]]''''' | '''[[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[Urie McCleary]]''' | '''[[Edwin B. Willis]]''' |- | ''[[Blood and Sand (1941 film)|Blood and Sand]]'' | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] and [[Joseph C. Wright]] | [[Thomas Little]] |- | ''[[Louisiana Purchase (film)|Louisiana Purchase]]'' | [[Raoul Pene Du Bois]] | [[Stephen Seymour]] |- | rowspan=17 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1942 in film|1942]]'''<br /> {{small|[[15th Academy Awards|(15th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Black-and-White''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[This Above All (film)|This Above All]]''''' | '''[[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] and [[Joseph C. Wright]]''' | '''[[Thomas Little]]''' |- | ''[[George Washington Slept Here]]'' | [[Max Parker]] and [[Mark-Lee Kirk]] | [[Casey Roberts]] |- | ''[[The Magnificent Ambersons (film)|The Magnificent Ambersons]]'' | [[Albert S. D'Agostino]] | [[A. Roland Fields]] and [[Darrell Silvera]] |- | ''[[The Pride of the Yankees]]'' | [[Perry Ferguson]] | [[Howard Bristol]] |- | ''[[Random Harvest (film)|Random Harvest]]'' | [[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[Randall Duell]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]] and [[Jack D. Moore|Jack Moore]] |- | ''[[The Shanghai Gesture]]'' | colspan=2|[[Boris Leven]] |- | ''[[Silver Queen]]'' | [[Ralph Berger]] | [[Emile Kuri]] |- | ''[[The Spoilers (1942 film)|The Spoilers]]'' | [[John B. Goodman (art director)|John B. Goodman]] and [[Jack Otterson]] | [[Russell A. Gausman]] and [[Edward Ray Robinson]] |- | ''[[Take a Letter, Darling]]'' | [[Hans Dreier]] and [[Roland Anderson]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]] |- | ''[[The Talk of the Town (1942 film)|The Talk of the Town]]'' | [[Lionel Banks]] and [[Rudolph Sternad]] | [[Fay Babcock]] |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Color''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[My Gal Sal]]''''' | '''[[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] and [[Joseph C. Wright]]''' | '''[[Thomas Little]]''' |- | ''[[Arabian Nights (1942 film)|Arabian Nights]]'' | [[Alexander Golitzen]] and [[Jack Otterson]] | [[Russell A. Gausman]] and [[Ira S. Webb]] |- | ''[[Captains of the Clouds]]'' | [[Ted Smith (art director)|Ted Smith]] | [[Casey Roberts]] |- | ''[[Jungle Book (1942 film)|Jungle Book]]'' | [[Vincent Korda]] | [[Julia Heron]] |- | ''[[Reap the Wild Wind]]'' | [[Hans Dreier]] and [[Roland Anderson]] | [[George Sawley]] |- | rowspan=13 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1943 in film|1943]]'''<br /> {{small|[[16th Academy Awards|(16th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Black-and-White''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Song of Bernadette (film)|The Song of Bernadette]]''''' | '''[[James Basevi]] and [[William S. Darling]]''' | '''[[Thomas Little]]''' |- | ''[[Five Graves to Cairo]]'' | [[Hans Dreier]] and [[Ernst Fegté]] | [[Bertram C. Granger]] |- | ''[[Flight for Freedom]]'' | [[Albert S. D'Agostino]] and [[Carroll Clark]] | [[Darrell Silvera]] and [[Harley Miller]] |- | ''[[Madame Curie (film)|Madame Curie]]'' | [[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[Paul Groesse]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]] and [[Hugh Hunt]] |- | ''[[Mission to Moscow]]'' | [[Carl Jules Weyl]] | [[George James Hopkins]] |- | ''[[The North Star (1943 film)|The North Star]]'' | [[Perry Ferguson]] | [[Howard Bristol]] |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Color''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Phantom of the Opera (1943 film)|Phantom of the Opera]]''''' | '''[[Alexander Golitzen]] and [[John B. Goodman (art director)|John B. Goodman]]''' | '''[[Russell A. Gausman]] and [[Ira S. Webb]]''' |- | ''[[For Whom the Bell Tolls (film)|For Whom the Bell Tolls]]'' | [[Hans Dreier]] and [[Haldane Douglas]] | [[Bertram C. Granger]] |- | ''[[The Gang's All Here (1943 film)|The Gang's All Here]]'' | [[James Basevi]] and [[Joseph C. Wright]] | [[Thomas Little]] |- | ''[[This Is the Army]]'' | [[John Hughes (art director)|John Hughes]] | [[George James Hopkins]] |- | ''[[Thousands Cheer]]'' | [[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[Daniel Cathcart]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]] and [[Jacques Mersereau]] |- | rowspan=17 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1944 in film|1944]]'''<br /> {{small|[[17th Academy Awards|(17th)]]}} <br /> <ref group=note name=openroad>[[United Artists]] submitted ''[[Song of the Open Road]]'' and it was initially named as a nominee. However, the studio later withdrew the film from consideration and it is not considered an official nominee.</ref><ref name=Database /> | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Black-and-White''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Gaslight (1944 film)|Gaslight]]''''' | '''[[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[William Ferrari]]''' | '''[[Paul Huldschinsky]] and [[Edwin B. Willis]]''' |- | ''[[Address Unknown (1944 film)|Address Unknown]]'' | [[Lionel Banks]] and [[Walter Holscher]] | [[Joseph Kish]] |- | ''[[The Adventures of Mark Twain (1944 film)|The Adventures of Mark Twain]]'' | [[John Hughes (art director)|John Hughes]] | [[Fred M. MacLean]] |- | ''[[Casanova Brown]]'' | [[Perry Ferguson]] | [[Julia Heron]] |- | ''[[Laura (1944 film)|Laura]]'' | [[Lyle R. Wheeler]] and [[Leland Fuller]] | [[Thomas Little]] |- | ''[[No Time for Love (1943 film)|No Time for Love]]'' | [[Hans Dreier]] and [[Robert Usher]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]] |- | ''[[Since You Went Away]]'' | [[Mark-Lee Kirk]] | [[Victor A. Gangelin]] |- | ''[[Step Lively (1944 film)|Step Lively]]'' | [[Albert S. D'Agostino]] and [[Carroll Clark]] | [[Darrell Silvera]] and [[Claude E. Carpenter]] |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Color''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Wilson (1944 film)|Wilson]]''''' | '''[[Wiard Ihnen]]''' | '''[[Thomas Little]]''' |- | ''[[The Climax]]'' | [[John B. Goodman (art director)|John B. Goodman]] and [[Alexander Golitzen]] | [[Russell A. Gausman]] and [[Ira S. Webb]] |- | ''[[Cover Girl (film)|Cover Girl]]'' | [[Lionel Banks]] and [[Cary Odell]] | [[Fay Babcock]] |- | ''[[The Desert Song (1943 film)|The Desert Song]]'' | [[Charles Novi]] | [[Jack McConaghy]] |- | ''[[Kismet (1944 film)|Kismet]]'' | [[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[Daniel B. Cathcart]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]] and [[Richard Pefferle]] |- | ''[[Lady in the Dark (film)|Lady in the Dark]]'' | [[Hans Dreier]] and [[Raoul Pene du Bois]] | [[Ray Moyer]] |- | ''[[The Princess and the Pirate]]'' | [[Ernst Fegté]] | [[Howard Bristol]] |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1945 in film|1945]]'''<br /> {{small|[[18th Academy Awards|(18th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Black-and-White''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Blood on the Sun]]''''' | '''[[Wiard Ihnen]]''' | '''[[A. Roland Fields]]''' |- | ''[[Experiment Perilous]]'' | [[Albert S. D'Agostino]] and [[Jack Okey]] | [[Darrell Silvera]] and [[Claude E. Carpenter]] |- | ''[[The Keys of the Kingdom (film)|The Keys of the Kingdom]]'' | [[James Basevi]] and [[William S. Darling]] | [[Thomas Little]] and [[Frank E. Hughes]] |- | ''[[Love Letters (1945 film)|Love Letters]]'' | [[Hans Dreier]] and [[Roland Anderson]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]] and [[Ray Moyer]] |- | ''[[The Picture of Dorian Gray (1945 film)|The Picture of Dorian Gray]]'' | [[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[Hans Peters (art director)|Hans Peters]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]] and [[John Bonar]] and [[Hugh Hunt]] |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Color''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Frenchman's Creek (film)|Frenchman's Creek]]''''' | '''[[Hans Dreier]] and [[Ernst Fegté]]''' | '''[[Samuel M. Comer]]''' |- | ''[[Leave Her to Heaven]]'' | [[Lyle R. Wheeler]] and [[Maurice Ransford]] | [[Thomas Little]] |- | ''[[National Velvet (film)|National Velvet]]'' | [[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[Urie McCleary]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]] and [[Mildred Griffiths]] |- | ''[[San Antonio (film)|San Antonio]]'' | [[Ted Smith (art director)|Ted Smith]] | [[Jack McConaghy]] |- | ''[[A Thousand and One Nights (1945 film)|A Thousand and One Nights]]'' | [[Stephen Goosson]] and [[Rudolph Sternad]] | [[Frank Tuttle (set decorator)|Frank Tuttle]] |- | rowspan=8 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1946 in film|1946]]'''<br /> {{small|[[19th Academy Awards|(19th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Black-and-White''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Anna and the King of Siam (film)|Anna and the King of Siam]]''''' | '''[[William S. Darling]] and [[Lyle R. Wheeler]]''' | '''[[Thomas Little]] and [[Frank E. Hughes]]''' |- | ''[[Kitty (1945 film)|Kitty]]'' | [[Hans Dreier]] and [[Walter H. Tyler]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]] and [[Ray Moyer]] |- | ''[[The Razor's Edge (1946 film)|The Razor's Edge]]'' | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] and [[Nathan H. Juran]] | [[Thomas Little]] and [[Paul S. Fox]] |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Color''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Yearling (film)|The Yearling]]''''' | '''[[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[Paul Groesse]]''' | '''[[Edwin B. Willis]]''' |- | ''[[Caesar and Cleopatra (1945 film)|Caesar and Cleopatra]]'' | [[John Bryan (art director)|John Bryan]] | — |- | ''[[Henry V (1944 film)|Henry V]]'' | [[Paul Sheriff]] and [[Carmen Dillon]] | — |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1947 in film|1947]]'''<br /> {{small|[[20th Academy Awards|(20th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Black-and-White''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Great Expectations (1946 film)|Great Expectations]]''''' | '''[[Wilfred Shingleton]]''' | '''[[John Bryan (art director)|John Bryan]]''' |- | ''[[The Foxes of Harrow]]'' | [[Lyle R. Wheeler]] and [[Maurice Ransford]] | [[Thomas Little]] and [[Paul S. Fox]] |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Color''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Black Narcissus]]''''' | '''[[Alfred Junge]]''' | '''—''' |- | ''[[Life with Father (film)|Life with Father]]'' | [[Robert M. Haas]] | [[George James Hopkins]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1948 in film|1948]]'''<br /> {{small|[[21st Academy Awards|(21st)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Black-and-White''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Hamlet (1948 film)|Hamlet]]''''' | '''[[Carmen Dillon]]''' | '''[[Roger K. Furse]]''' |- | ''[[Johnny Belinda (1948 film)|Johnny Belinda]]'' | [[Robert Haas (director)|Robert Haas]] | [[William O. Wallace]] |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Color''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Red Shoes (1948 film)|The Red Shoes]]''''' | '''[[Arthur Lawson (designer)|Arthur Lawson]]''' | '''[[Hein Heckroth]]''' |- | ''[[Joan of Arc (1948 film)|Joan of Arc]]'' | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] | [[Edwin Casey Roberts]] and [[Joseph Kish]] |- | rowspan=8 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1949 in film|1949]]'''<br /> {{small|[[22nd Academy Awards|(22nd)]]}} <br/> <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/1950 |title=The 22nd Academy Awards - 1950 |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= |publisher=[[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] |access-date=January 12, 2018 |quote=}}</ref> | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Black-and-White''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Heiress]]''''' | '''[[Harry Horner]] and [[John Meehan (art director)|John Meehan]]''' | '''[[Emile Kuri]]''' |- | ''[[Come to the Stable]]'' | [[Lyle R. Wheeler]] and [[Joseph C. Wright]] | [[Thomas Little]] and [[Paul S. Fox]] |- | ''[[Madame Bovary (1949 film)|Madame Bovary]]'' | [[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[Jack Martin Smith]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]] and [[Richard A. Pefferle]] |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Color''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Little Women (1949 film)|Little Women]]''''' | '''[[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[Paul Groesse]]''' | '''[[Edwin B. Willis]] and [[Jack D. Moore]]''' |- | ''[[Adventures of Don Juan]]'' | [[Edward Carrere]] | [[Lyle Reifsnider]] |- | ''[[Saraband for Dead Lovers|Saraband]]'' | [[Jim Morahan]] and [[William Kellner]] | [[Michael Relph]] |} ===1950s=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="5%" | Year ! width="31%" | Film ! width="32%" | Art director(s) ! width="32%" | Set decorator(s) |- | rowspan=8 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1950 in film|1950]]'''<br /> {{small|[[23rd Academy Awards|(23rd)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Black-and-White''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Sunset Boulevard (film)|Sunset Boulevard]]''''' | '''[[Hans Dreier]] and [[John Meehan (art director)|John Meehan]]''' | '''[[Samuel M. Comer]] and [[Ray Moyer]]''' |- | ''[[All About Eve]]'' | [[George Davis (art director)|George W. Davis]] and [[Lyle R. Wheeler]] | [[Thomas Little]] and [[Walter M. Scott]] |- | ''[[The Red Danube]]'' | [[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[Hans Peters (art director)|Hans Peters]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]] and [[Hugh Hunt]] |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Color''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Samson and Delilah (1949 film)|Samson and Delilah]]''''' | '''[[Hans Dreier]] and [[Walter H. Tyler]]''' | '''[[Samuel M. Comer]] and [[Ray Moyer]]''' |- | ''[[Annie Get Your Gun (film)|Annie Get Your Gun]]'' | [[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[Paul Groesse]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]] and [[Richard A. Pefferle]] |- | ''[[Destination Moon (film)|Destination Moon]]'' | [[Ernst Fegté]] | [[George Sawley]] |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1951 in film|1951]]'''<br /> {{small|[[24th Academy Awards|(24th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Black-and-White''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[A Streetcar Named Desire (1951 film)|A Streetcar Named Desire]]''''' | '''[[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]]''' | '''[[George James Hopkins]]''' |- | ''[[Fourteen Hours]]'' | [[Leland Fuller]] and [[Lyle R. Wheeler]] | [[Thomas Little]] and [[Fred J. Rode]] |- | ''[[House on Telegraph Hill]]'' | [[John DeCuir]] and [[Lyle R. Wheeler]] | [[Paul S. Fox]] and [[Thomas Little]] |- | ''[[La Ronde (1950 film)|La Ronde]]'' | [[Jean d'Eaubonne|D'Eaubonne]] | — |- | ''[[Too Young to Kiss]]'' | [[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[Paul Groesse]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]] and [[Jack D. Moore]] |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Color''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[An American in Paris (film)|An American in Paris]]''''' | '''[[E. Preston Ames]] and [[Cedric Gibbons]]''' | '''[[Edwin B. Willis]] and [[F. Keogh Gleason]]''' |- | ''[[David and Bathsheba (film)|David and Bathsheba]]'' | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]] and [[Lyle R. Wheeler]] | [[Paul S. Fox]] and [[Thomas Little]] |- | ''[[On the Riviera]]'' | [[Leland Fuller]] and [[Lyle R. Wheeler]] | [[Thomas Little]] and [[Walter M. Scott]] |- | ''[[Quo Vadis (1951 film)|Quo Vadis]]'' | [[Edward Carfagno]], [[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[William A. Horning]] | [[Hugh Hunt]] |- | ''[[The Tales of Hoffmann (film)|The Tales of Hoffmann]]'' | [[Hein Heckroth]] | — |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1952 in film|1952]]'''<br /> {{small|[[25th Academy Awards|(25th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Black-and-White''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Bad and the Beautiful]]''''' | '''[[Edward Carfagno]] and [[Cedric Gibbons]]''' | '''[[F. Keogh Gleason]] and [[Edwin B. Willis]]''' |- | ''[[Carrie (1952 film)|Carrie]]'' | [[Roland Anderson]] and [[Hal Pereira]] | [[Emile Kuri]] |- | ''[[My Cousin Rachel (1952 film)|My Cousin Rachel]]'' | [[John DeCuir]] and [[Lyle R. Wheeler]] | [[Walter M. Scott]] |- | ''[[Rashomon]]'' | [[So Matsuyama]] | [[H. Motsumoto]] |- | ''[[Viva Zapata!]]'' | [[Leland Fuller]] and [[Lyle R. Wheeler]] | [[Claude E. Carpenter]] and [[Thomas Little]] |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Color''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Moulin Rouge (1952 film)|Moulin Rouge]]''''' | '''[[Marcel Vertès]]''' | '''[[Paul Sheriff]]''' |- | ''[[Hans Christian Andersen (film)|Hans Christian Andersen]]'' | [[Antoni Clavé|Clavé]] and [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] | [[Howard Bristol]] |- | ''[[The Merry Widow (1952 film)|The Merry Widow]]'' | [[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[Paul Groesse]] | [[Arthur Krams]] and [[Edwin B. Willis]] |- | ''[[The Quiet Man]]'' | [[Frank Hotaling]] | [[John McCarthy Jr.]] and [[Charles S. Thompson]] |- | ''[[The Snows of Kilimanjaro (1952 film)|The Snows of Kilimanjaro]]'' | [[John DeCuir]] and [[Lyle R. Wheeler]] | [[Paul S. Fox]] and [[Thomas Little]] |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1953 in film|1953]]'''<br /> {{small|[[26th Academy Awards|(26th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Black-and-White''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Julius Caesar (1953 film)|Julius Caesar]]''''' | '''[[Edward Carfagno]] and [[Cedric Gibbons]]''' | '''[[Hugh Hunt]] and [[Edwin B. Willis]]''' |- | ''[[Martin Luther (1953 film)|Martin Luther]]'' | [[Paul Markwitz]] and [[Fritz Maurischat]] | — |- | ''[[The President's Lady]]'' | [[Leland Fuller]] and [[Lyle R. Wheeler]] | [[Paul S. Fox]] |- | ''[[Roman Holiday]]'' | [[Hal Pereira]] and [[Walter H. Tyler]] | — |- | ''[[Titanic (1953 film)|Titanic]]'' | [[Maurice Ransford]] and [[Lyle R. Wheeler]] | [[Stuart Reiss]] |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Color''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Robe (film)|The Robe]]''''' | '''[[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]] and [[Lyle R. Wheeler]]''' | '''[[Paul S. Fox]] and [[Walter M. Scott]]''' |- | ''[[Knights of the Round Table (film)|Knights of the Round Table]]'' | [[Alfred Junge]] and [[Hans Peters (art director)|Hans Peters]] | [[John Jarvis (set decorator)|John Jarvis]] |- | ''[[Lili]]'' | [[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[Paul Groesse]] | [[Arthur Krams]] and [[Edwin B. Willis]] |- | ''[[The Story of Three Loves]]'' | [[E. Preston Ames]], [[Edward Carfagno]], [[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[Gabriel Scognamillo]] | [[F. Keogh Gleason]], [[Arthur Krams]], [[Jack D. Moore]] and [[Edwin B. Willis]] |- | ''[[Young Bess]]'' | [[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[Urie McCleary]] | [[Jack D. Moore]] and [[Edwin B. Willis]] |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1954 in film|1954]]'''<br /> {{small|[[27th Academy Awards|(27th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Black-and-White''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[On the Waterfront]]''''' | '''[[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]]''' | '''—''' |- | ''[[The Country Girl (1954 film)|The Country Girl]]'' | [[Roland Anderson]] and [[Hal Pereira]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]] and [[Grace Gregory]] |- | ''[[Executive Suite]]'' | [[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[Edward Carfagno]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]] and [[Emile Kuri]] |- | ''[[Le Plaisir]]'' | [[Max Ophüls]] | — |- | ''[[Sabrina (1954 film)|Sabrina]]'' | [[Hal Pereira]] and [[Walter H. Tyler]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]] and [[Ray Moyer]] |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Color''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1954 film)|20,000 Leagues Under the Sea]]''''' | '''[[John Meehan (art director)|John Meehan]]''' | '''[[Emile Kuri]]''' |- | ''[[Brigadoon (film)|Brigadoon]]'' | [[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[E. Preston Ames]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]] and [[F. Keogh Gleason]] |- | ''[[Désirée (film)|Desiree]]'' | [[Lyle R. Wheeler]] and [[Leland Fuller]] | [[Walter M. Scott]] and [[Paul S. Fox]] |- | ''[[Red Garters (film)|Red Garters]]'' | [[Hal Pereira]] and [[Roland Anderson]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]] and [[Ray Moyer]] |- | ''[[A Star Is Born (1954 film)|A Star Is Born]]'' | [[Malcolm Bert]] and [[Gene Allen (art director)|Gene Allen]] | [[Irene Sharaff]] and [[George James Hopkins]] |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1955 in film|1955]]'''<br /> {{small|[[28th Academy Awards|(28th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Black-and-White''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Rose Tattoo (film)|The Rose Tattoo]]''''' | '''[[Hal Pereira]] and [[Tambi Larsen]]''' | '''[[Samuel M. Comer]] and [[Arthur Krams]]''' |- | ''[[Blackboard Jungle]]'' | [[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[Randall Duell]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]] and [[Henry Grace]] |- | ''[[I'll Cry Tomorrow]]'' | [[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[Malcolm Brown (art director)|Malcolm Brown]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]] and [[Hugh Hunt]] |- | ''[[The Man with the Golden Arm]]'' | [[Joseph C. Wright]] | [[Darrell Silvera]] |- | ''[[Marty (film)|Marty]]'' | [[Ted Haworth|Edward S. Haworth]] and [[Walter M. Simonds]] | [[Robert Priestley]] |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Color''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Picnic (1955 film)|Picnic]]''''' | '''[[William Flannery]]''' | '''[[Jo Mielziner]] and [[Robert Priestley]]''' |- | ''[[Daddy Long Legs (1955 film)|Daddy Long Legs]]'' | [[Lyle R. Wheeler]] and [[John DeCuir]] | [[Walter M. Scott]] and [[Paul S. Fox]] |- | ''[[Guys and Dolls (film)|Guys and Dolls]]'' | [[Oliver Smith (designer)|Oliver Smith]] and [[Joseph C. Wright]] | [[Howard Bristol]] |- | ''[[Love Is a Many-Splendored Thing (film)|Love Is a Many-Splendored Thing]]'' | [[Lyle R. Wheeler]] and [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]] | [[Walter M. Scott]] and [[Jack Stubbs]] |- | ''[[To Catch a Thief]]'' | [[Hal Pereira]] and [[Joseph McMillan Johnson]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]] and [[Arthur Krams]] |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1956 in film|1956]]'''<br /> {{small|[[29th Academy Awards|(29th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Black-and-White''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Somebody Up There Likes Me (1956 film)|Somebody Up There Likes Me]]''''' | '''[[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[Malcolm Brown (art director)|Malcolm Brown]]''' | '''[[Edwin B. Willis]] and [[F. Keogh Gleason]]''' |- | ''[[Seven Samurai|The Magnificent Seven]]'' | [[So Matsuyama]] | — |- | ''[[The Proud and Profane]]'' | [[Hal Pereira]] and [[A. Earl Hedrick]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]] and [[Frank R. McKelvy]] |- | ''[[The Solid Gold Cadillac]]'' | [[Ross Bellah]] | [[William Kiernan]] and [[Louis Diage]] |- | ''[[Teenage Rebel]]'' | [[Lyle R. Wheeler]] and [[Jack Martin Smith]] | [[Walter M. Scott]] and [[Stuart A. Reiss]] |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Color''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The King and I (1956 film)|The King and I]]''''' | '''[[Lyle R. Wheeler]] and [[John DeCuir]]''' | '''[[Walter M. Scott]] and [[Paul S. Fox]]''' |- | ''[[Around the World in 80 Days (1956 film)|Around the World in 80 Days]]'' | [[James W. Sullivan]] and [[Ken Adam]] | [[Ross J. Dowd]] |- | ''[[Giant (1956 film)|Giant]]'' | [[Boris Leven]] | [[Ralph S. Hurst]] |- | ''[[Lust for Life (film)|Lust for Life]]'' | [[Cedric Gibbons]] and [[Hans Peters (art director)|Hans Peters]] and [[E. Preston Ames]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]] and [[F. Keogh Gleason]] |- | ''[[The Ten Commandments (1956 film)|The Ten Commandments]]'' | [[Hal Pereira]] and [[Walter H. Tyler]] and [[Albert Nozaki]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]] and [[Ray Moyer]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1957 in film|1957]]'''<br /> {{small|[[30th Academy Awards|(30th)]]}} <br /> <ref group=note name=fiftyseven>In 1957 and 1958, black-and-white and color films competed in a combined Best Art Direction category.</ref> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Sayonara]]''''' | '''[[Ted Haworth]]''' | '''[[Robert Priestley]]''' |- | ''[[Funny Face]]'' | [[Hal Pereira]] and [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]] and [[Ray Moyer]] |- | ''[[Les Girls]]'' | [[William A. Horning]] and [[Gene Allen (art director)|Gene Allen]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]] and [[Richard Pefferle]] |- | ''[[Pal Joey (film)|Pal Joey]]'' | [[Walter Holscher]] | [[William Kiernan]] and [[Louis Diage]] |- | ''[[Raintree County (film)|Raintree County]]'' | [[William A. Horning]] and [[Urie McCleary]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]] and [[Hugh Hunt]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1958 in film|1958]]'''<br /> {{small|[[31st Academy Awards|(31st)]]}} <br/> <ref group=note name=fiftyseven /> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Gigi (1958 film)|Gigi]]''''' | '''[[William A. Horning]] {{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous award]])}} and [[E. Preston Ames]]''' | '''[[Henry Grace]] and [[F. Keogh Gleason]]''' |- | ''[[Auntie Mame (film)|Auntie Mame]]'' | [[Malcolm Bert]] | [[George James Hopkins]] |- | ''[[Bell, Book and Candle]]'' | [[Cary Odell]] | [[Louis Diage]] |- | ''[[A Certain Smile (film)|A Certain Smile]]'' | [[Lyle R. Wheeler]] and [[John DeCuir]] | [[Walter M. Scott]] and [[Paul S. Fox]] |- | ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'' | [[Hal Pereira]] and [[Henry Bumstead]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]] and [[Frank McKelvy]] |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1959 in film|1959]]'''<br /> {{small|[[32nd Academy Awards|(32nd)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Black-and-White''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Diary of Anne Frank (1959 film)|The Diary of Anne Frank]]''''' | '''[[Lyle R. Wheeler]] and [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]]''' | '''[[Walter M. Scott]] and [[Stuart A. Reiss]]''' |- | ''[[Career (1959 film)|Career]]'' | [[Hal Pereira]] and [[Walter H. Tyler]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]] and [[Arthur Krams]] |- | ''[[The Last Angry Man]]'' | [[Carl Anderson (art director)|Carl Anderson]] | [[William Kiernan]] |- | ''[[Some Like It Hot]]'' | [[Ted Haworth]] | [[Edward G. Boyle]] |- | ''[[Suddenly, Last Summer (film)|Suddenly, Last Summer]]'' | [[Oliver Messel]] and [[William Kellner]] | [[Scott Slimon]] |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Color''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Ben-Hur (1959 film)|Ben-Hur]]''''' | '''[[William A. Horning]] {{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous award]])}} and [[Edward Carfagno]]''' | '''[[Hugh Hunt]]''' |- | ''[[The Big Fisherman]]'' | [[John DeCuir]] | [[Julia Heron]] |- | ''[[Journey to the Center of the Earth (1959 film)|Journey to the Center of the Earth]]'' | [[Lyle R. Wheeler]], [[Franz Bachelin]] and [[Herman A. Blumenthal]] | [[Walter M. Scott]] and [[Joseph Kish]] |- | ''[[North by Northwest]]'' | [[William A. Horning]] {{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous nomination]])}}, [[Robert F. Boyle]] and [[Merrill Pye]] | [[Henry Grace]] and [[Frank McKelvy]] |- | ''[[Pillow Talk (film)|Pillow Talk]]'' | [[Richard H. Riedel]] {{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous nomination]])}} | [[Russell A. Gausman]] and [[Ruby R. Levitt]] |} ===1960s=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="5%" | Year ! width="31%" | Film ! width="32%" | Art director(s) ! width="32%" | Set decorator(s) |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1960 in film|1960]]'''<br /> {{small|[[33rd Academy Awards|(33rd)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Black-and-White''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Apartment]]''''' | '''[[Alexandre Trauner]]''' | '''[[Edward G. Boyle]]''' |- | ''[[The Facts of Life (film)|The Facts of Life]]'' | [[Joseph McMillan Johnson]] and [[Kenneth A. Reid]] | [[Ross Dowd]] |- | ''[[Psycho (1960 film)|Psycho]]'' | [[Joseph Hurley (art director)|Joseph Hurley]] and [[Robert Clatworthy (art director)|Robert Clatworthy]] | [[George Milo]] |- | ''[[Sons and Lovers (film)|Sons and Lovers]]'' | [[Tom Morahan]] | [[Lionel Couch]] |- | ''[[Visit to a Small Planet]]'' | [[Hal Pereira]] and [[Walter H. Tyler|Walter Tyler]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]] and [[Arthur Krams]] |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Color''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Spartacus (film)|Spartacus]]''''' | '''[[Harry Horner]]''' | '''[[Russell A. Gausman]] and [[Julia Heron]]''' |- | ''[[Cimarron (1960 film)|Cimarron]]'' | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]] and [[Addison Hehr]] | [[Henry Grace]], [[Hugh Hunt]] and [[Otto Siegel]] |- | ''[[It Started in Naples]]'' | [[Hal Pereira]] and [[Roland Anderson]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]] and [[Arrigo Breschi]] |- | ''[[Pepe (film)|Pepe]]'' | [[Ted Haworth]] | [[William Kiernan]] |- | ''[[Sunrise at Campobello]]'' | [[Edward Carrere]] | [[George James Hopkins]] |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1961 in film|1961]]'''<br /> {{small|[[34th Academy Awards|(34th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Black-and-White''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Hustler (film)|The Hustler]]''''' | '''[[Alexandre Trauner]]''' | '''[[Gene Callahan]]''' |- | ''[[The Absent-Minded Professor]]'' | [[Carroll Clark]] | [[Emile Kuri]] and [[Hal Gausman]] |- | ''[[The Children's Hour (1961 film)|The Children's Hour]]'' | [[Fernando Carrere]] | [[Edward G. Boyle]] |- | ''[[Judgment at Nuremberg]]'' | [[Rudolph Sternad]] | [[George Milo]] |- | ''[[La Dolce Vita]]'' | [[Piero Gherardi]] | — |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Color''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[West Side Story (film)|West Side Story]]''''' | '''[[Boris Leven]]''' | '''[[Victor A. Gangelin]]''' |- | ''[[Breakfast at Tiffany's (film)|Breakfast at Tiffany's]]'' | [[Hal Pereira]] and [[Roland Anderson]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]] and [[Ray Moyer]] |- | ''[[El Cid (film)|El Cid]]'' | [[Veniero Colasanti]] and [[John Moore (designer)|John Moore]] | — |- | ''[[Flower Drum Song (film)|Flower Drum Song]]'' | [[Alexander Golitzen]] and [[Joseph C. Wright]] | [[Howard Bristol]] |- | ''[[Summer and Smoke (film)|Summer and Smoke]]'' | [[Hal Pereira]] and [[Walter H. Tyler|Walter Tyler]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]] and [[Arthur Krams]] |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1962 in film|1962]]'''<br /> {{small|[[35th Academy Awards|(35th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Black-and-White''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[To Kill a Mockingbird (film)|To Kill a Mockingbird]]''''' | '''[[Alexander Golitzen]] and [[Henry Bumstead]]''' | '''[[Oliver Emert]]''' |- | ''[[Days of Wine and Roses (film)|Days of Wine and Roses]]'' | [[Joseph C. Wright]] | [[George James Hopkins]] |- | ''[[The Longest Day (film)|The Longest Day]]'' | [[Ted Haworth]], [[Léon Barsacq]] and [[Vincent Korda]] | [[Gabriel Bechir]] |- | ''[[Period of Adjustment (film)|Period of Adjustment]]'' | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]] and [[Edward Carfagno]] | [[Henry Grace]] and [[Richard Pefferle]] |- | ''[[The Pigeon That Took Rome]]'' | [[Hal Pereira]] and [[Roland Anderson]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]] and [[Frank R. McKelvy]] |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Color''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Lawrence of Arabia (film)|Lawrence of Arabia]]''''' | '''[[John Box]] and [[John Stoll]]''' | '''[[Dario Simoni]]''' |- | ''[[The Music Man (1962 film)|The Music Man]]'' | [[Paul Groesse]] | [[George James Hopkins]] |- | ''[[Mutiny on the Bounty (1962 film)|Mutiny on the Bounty]]'' | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]] and [[Joseph McMillan Johnson]] | [[Henry Grace]] and [[Hugh Hunt]] |- | ''[[That Touch of Mink]]'' | [[Alexander Golitzen]] and [[Robert Clatworthy (art director)|Robert Clatworthy]] | [[George Milo]] |- | ''[[The Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm]]'' | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]] and [[Edward Carfagno]] | [[Henry Grace]] and [[Richard Pefferle]] |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1963 in film|1963]]'''<br /> {{small|[[36th Academy Awards|(36th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Black-and-White''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[America America]]''''' | '''[[Gene Callahan]]''' | '''—''' |- | ''[[8½]]'' | [[Piero Gherardi]] | — |- | ''[[Hud (1963 film)|Hud]]'' | [[Hal Pereira]] and [[Tambi Larsen]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]] and [[Robert R. Benton]] |- | ''[[Love with the Proper Stranger]]'' | [[Hal Pereira]] and [[Roland Anderson]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]] and [[Grace Gregory]] |- | ''[[Twilight of Honor]]'' | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]] and [[Paul Groesse]] | [[Henry Grace]] and [[Hugh Hunt]] |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Color''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Cleopatra (1963 film)|Cleopatra]]''''' | '''[[John DeCuir]], [[Jack Martin Smith]], [[Hilyard M. Brown]], [[Herman A. Blumenthal]], [[Elven Webb]], [[Maurice Pelling]] and [[Boris Juraga]]''' | '''[[Walter M. Scott]], [[Paul S. Fox]] and [[Ray Moyer]]''' |- | ''[[The Cardinal]]'' | [[Lyle R. Wheeler]] | [[Gene Callahan]] |- | ''[[Come Blow Your Horn (film)|Come Blow Your Horn]]'' | [[Hal Pereira]] and [[Roland Anderson]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]] and [[James W. Payne]] |- | ''[[How the West Was Won (film)|How the West Was Won]]'' | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]], [[William Ferrari]] {{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous nomination]])}} and [[Addison Hehr]] | [[Henry Grace]], [[Don Greenwood Jr.]] and [[Jack Mills (art director)|Jack Mills]] |- | ''[[Tom Jones (1963 film)|Tom Jones]]'' | [[Ralph W. Brinton]] and [[Ted Marshall]] | [[Jocelyn Herbert]] and [[Josie MacAvin]] |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1964 in film|1964]]'''<br /> {{small|[[37th Academy Awards|(37th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Black-and-White''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Zorba the Greek (film)|Zorba the Greek]]''''' | '''[[Vassilis Photopoulos]]''' | '''—''' |- | ''[[The Americanization of Emily]]'' | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]], [[Hans Peters (art director)|Hans Peters]] and [[Elliot Scott]] | [[Henry Grace]] and [[Robert R. Benton]] |- | ''[[Hush… Hush, Sweet Charlotte]]'' | [[William Glasgow]] | [[Raphaël Bretton]] |- | ''[[The Night of the Iguana (film)|The Night of the Iguana]]'' | [[Stephen B. Grimes]] | — |- | ''[[Seven Days in May]]'' | [[Cary Odell]] | [[Edward G. Boyle]] |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Color''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[My Fair Lady (film)|My Fair Lady]]''''' | '''[[Gene Allen (art director)|Gene Allen]] and [[Cecil Beaton]]''' | '''[[George James Hopkins]]''' |- | ''[[Becket (1964 film)|Becket]]'' | [[John Bryan (art director)|John Bryan]] and [[Maurice Carter (film designer)|Maurice Carter]] | [[Patrick McLoughlin (set decorator)|Patrick McLoughlin]] and [[Robert Cartwright]] |- | ''[[Mary Poppins (film)|Mary Poppins]]'' | [[Carroll Clark]] and [[William H. Tuntke]] | [[Emile Kuri]] and [[Hal Gausman]] |- | ''[[The Unsinkable Molly Brown (film)|The Unsinkable Molly Brown]]'' | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]] and [[E. Preston Ames]] | [[Henry Grace]] and [[Hugh Hunt]] |- | ''[[What a Way to Go!]]'' | [[Jack Martin Smith]] and [[Ted Haworth]] | [[Walter M. Scott]] and [[Stuart A. Reiss]] |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1965 in film|1965]]'''<br /> {{small|[[38th Academy Awards|(38th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Black-and-White''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Ship of Fools (film)|Ship of Fools]]''''' | '''[[Robert Clatworthy (art director)|Robert Clatworthy]]''' | '''[[Joseph Kish]]''' |- | ''[[King Rat (1965 film)|King Rat]]'' | [[Robert Emmet Smith]] | [[Frank Tuttle (set decorator)|Frank Tuttle]] |- | ''[[A Patch of Blue]]'' | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]] and [[Urie McCleary]] | [[Henry Grace]] and [[Charles S. Thompson]] |- | ''[[The Slender Thread]]'' | [[Hal Pereira]] and [[Jack Poplin]] | [[Robert R. Benton]] and [[Joseph Kish]] |- | ''[[The Spy Who Came in from the Cold (film)|The Spy Who Came in from the Cold]]'' | [[Hal Pereira]] and [[Tambi Larsen]] | [[Ted Marshall]] and [[Josie MacAvin]] |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Color''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Doctor Zhivago (film)|Doctor Zhivago]]''''' | '''[[John Box]] and [[Terence Marsh]]''' | '''[[Dario Simoni]]''' |- | ''[[The Agony and the Ecstasy (film)|The Agony and the Ecstasy]]'' | [[John DeCuir]] and [[Jack Martin Smith]] | [[Dario Simoni]] |- | ''[[The Greatest Story Ever Told]]'' | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]], [[William Creber]] and [[David S. Hall (art director)|David S. Hall]] {{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous nomination]])}} | [[Ray Moyer]] and [[Fred M. MacLean]] and [[Norman Rockett]] |- | ''[[Inside Daisy Clover]]'' | [[Robert Clatworthy (art director)|Robert Clatworthy]] | [[George James Hopkins]] |- | ''[[The Sound of Music (film)|The Sound of Music]]'' | [[Boris Leven]] | [[Walter M. Scott]] and [[Ruby Levitt]] |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1966 in film|1966]]'''<br /> {{small|[[39th Academy Awards|(39th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Black-and-White''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (film)|Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?]]''''' | '''[[Richard Sylbert]]''' | '''[[George James Hopkins]]''' |- | ''[[The Fortune Cookie]]'' | [[Robert Luthardt]] | [[Edward G. Boyle]] |- | ''[[The Gospel According to St. Matthew (film)|The Gospel According to St. Matthew]]'' | [[Luigi Scaccianoce]] | — |- | ''[[Is Paris Burning? (film)|Is Paris Burning?]]'' | [[Willy Holt]], [[Marc Frédérix]] and [[Pierre Guffroy]] | — |- | ''[[Mister Buddwing]]'' | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]] and [[Paul Groesse]] | [[Henry Grace]] and [[Hugh Hunt]] |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" | '''Color''' |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Fantastic Voyage]]''''' | '''[[Jack Martin Smith]] and [[Dale Hennesy]]''' | '''[[Walter M. Scott]] and [[Stuart A. Reiss]]''' |- | ''[[Gambit (1966 film)|Gambit]]'' | [[Alexander Golitzen]] and [[George C. Webb]] | [[John McCarthy Jr.]] and [[John P. Austin]] |- | ''[[Juliet of the Spirits]]'' | [[Piero Gherardi]] | — |- | ''[[The Oscar (film)|The Oscar]]'' | [[Hal Pereira]] and [[Arthur Lonergan]] | [[Robert R. Benton]] and [[James W. Payne]] |- | ''[[The Sand Pebbles (film)|The Sand Pebbles]]'' | [[Boris Leven]] | [[Walter M. Scott]], [[John Sturtevant]] and [[William Kiernan]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1967 in film|1967]]'''<br /> {{small|[[40th Academy Awards|(40th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Camelot (film)|Camelot]]''''' | '''[[John Truscott]] and [[Edward Carrere]]''' | '''[[John W. Brown (set decorator)|John W. Brown]]''' |- | ''[[Doctor Dolittle (film)|Doctor Dolittle]]'' | [[Mario Chiari]], [[Jack Martin Smith]] and [[Ed Graves]] | [[Walter M. Scott]] and [[Stuart A. Reiss]] |- | ''[[Guess Who's Coming to Dinner]]'' | [[Robert Clatworthy (art director)|Robert Clatworthy]] | [[Frank Tuttle (set decorator)|Frank Tuttle]] |- | ''[[The Taming of the Shrew (1967 film)|The Taming of the Shrew]]'' | [[Renzo Mongiardino]], [[John DeCuir]], [[Elven Webb]] and [[Giuseppe Mariani]] | [[Dario Simoni]] and [[Luigi Gervasi]] |- | ''[[Thoroughly Modern Millie]]'' | [[Alexander Golitzen]] and [[George C. Webb]] | [[Howard Bristol]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1968 in film|1968]]'''<br /> {{small|[[41st Academy Awards|(41st)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Oliver! (film)|Oliver!]]''''' | '''[[John Box]] and [[Terence Marsh]]''' | '''[[Vernon Dixon]] and [[Ken Muggleston]]''' |- | ''[[The Shoes of the Fisherman]]'' | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]] and [[Edward Carfagno]] | — |- | ''[[Star! (film)|Star!]]'' | [[Boris Leven]] | [[Walter M. Scott]] and [[Howard Bristol]] |- | ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'' | [[Anthony Masters]], [[Harry Lange (film designer)|Harry Lange]] and [[Ernest Archer]] | — |- | ''[[War and Peace (film series)|War and Peace]]'' | [[Mikhail Bogdanov (artist)|Mikhail Bogdanov]] and [[Gennady Myasnikov]] | [[Georgi Koshelev]] and [[V. Uvarov|Vladimir Uvarov]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1969 in film|1969]]'''<br /> {{small|[[42nd Academy Awards|(42nd)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Hello, Dolly! (film)|Hello, Dolly!]]''''' | '''[[John DeCuir]], [[Jack Martin Smith]] and [[Herman A. Blumenthal]]''' | '''[[Walter M. Scott]], [[George James Hopkins]] and [[Raphaël Bretton]]''' |- | ''[[Anne of the Thousand Days]]'' | [[Maurice Carter (film designer)|Maurice Carter]] and [[Lionel Couch]] | [[Patrick McLoughlin (set decorator)|Patrick McLoughlin]] |- | ''[[Gaily, Gaily]]'' | [[Robert F. Boyle]] and [[George B. Chan]] | [[Edward G. Boyle]] and [[Carl Biddiscombe]] |- | ''[[Sweet Charity (film)|Sweet Charity]]'' | [[Alexander Golitzen]] and [[George C. Webb]] | [[Jack D. Moore]] |- | ''[[They Shoot Horses, Don't They? (film)|They Shoot Horses, Don't They?]]'' | [[Harry Horner]] | [[Frank R. McKelvy]] |} ===1970s=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="5%" | Year ! width="31%" | Film ! width="32%" | Art director(s) ! width="32%" | Set decorator(s) |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1970 in film|1970]]''' <br /> {{small|[[43rd Academy Awards|(43rd)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Patton (film)|Patton]]''''' | '''[[Urie McCleary]] and [[Gil Parrondo]]''' | '''[[Antonio Mateos]] and [[Pierre-Louis Thévenet]]''' |- | ''[[Airport (1970 film)|Airport]]'' | [[Alexander Golitzen]] and [[E. Preston Ames]] | [[Jack D. Moore]] and [[Mickey S. Michaels]] |- | ''[[The Molly Maguires]]'' | [[Tambi Larsen]] | [[Darrell Silvera]] |- | ''[[Scrooge (1970 film)|Scrooge]]'' | [[Terence Marsh]] and [[Robert Cartwright]] | [[Pamela Cornell]] |- | ''[[Tora! Tora! Tora!]]'' | [[Jack Martin Smith]], [[Yoshirō Muraki]], [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] and [[Taizô Kawashima]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]], [[Arthur Krams]] and [[Norman Rockett]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1971 in film|1971]]'''<br /> {{small|[[44th Academy Awards|(44th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Nicholas and Alexandra]]''''' | '''[[John Box]], [[Ernest Archer]], [[Jack Maxsted]] and [[Gil Parrondo]]''' | '''[[Vernon Dixon]]''' |- | ''[[The Andromeda Strain (film)|The Andromeda Strain]]'' | [[Boris Leven]] and [[William H. Tuntke]] | [[Ruby Levitt]] |- | ''[[Bedknobs and Broomsticks]]'' | [[John B. Mansbridge]] and [[Peter Ellenshaw]] | [[Emile Kuri]] and [[Hal Gausman]] |- | ''[[Fiddler on the Roof (film)|Fiddler on the Roof]]'' | [[Robert F. Boyle]] and [[Michael Stringer]] | [[Peter Lamont]] |- | ''[[Mary, Queen of Scots (1971 film)|Mary, Queen of Scots]]'' | [[Terence Marsh]] and [[Robert Cartwright]] | [[Peter Howitt (set decorator)|Peter Howitt]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1972 in film|1972]]'''<br /> {{small|[[45th Academy Awards|(45th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Cabaret (1972 film)|Cabaret]]''''' | '''[[Rolf Zehetbauer]] and [[Hans Jürgen Kiebach]]''' | '''[[Herbert Strabel]]''' |- | ''[[Lady Sings the Blues (film)|Lady Sings the Blues]]'' | [[Carl Anderson (art director)|Carl Anderson]] | [[Reg Allen (set decorator)|Reg Allen]] |- | ''[[The Poseidon Adventure (1972 film)|The Poseidon Adventure]]'' | [[William Creber]] | [[Raphaël Bretton]] |- | ''[[Travels with My Aunt (film)|Travels with My Aunt]]'' | [[John Box]], [[Gil Parrondo]] and [[Robert W. Laing]] | — |- | ''[[Young Winston]]'' | [[Donald M. Ashton]] and [[Geoffrey Drake]] | [[John Graysmark]], [[William Hutchinson (art director)|William Hutchinson]] and [[Peter James (set decorator)|Peter James]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1973 in film|1973]]'''<br /> {{small|[[46th Academy Awards|(46th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Sting]]''''' | '''[[Henry Bumstead]]''' | '''[[James W. Payne]]''' |- | ''[[Brother Sun, Sister Moon]]'' | [[Lorenzo Mongiardino]] and [[Gianni Quaranta]] | [[Carmelo Patrono]] |- | ''[[The Exorcist (film)|The Exorcist]]'' | [[Bill Malley]] | [[Jerry Wunderlich]] |- | ''[[Tom Sawyer (1973 film)|Tom Sawyer]]'' | [[Philip M. Jefferies]] | [[Robert De Vestel]] |- | ''[[The Way We Were]]'' | [[Stephen B. Grimes]] | [[William Kiernan]] {{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous nomination]])}} |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1974 in film|1974]]'''<br /> {{small|[[47th Academy Awards|(47th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Godfather Part II]]''''' | '''[[Dean Tavoularis]] and [[Angelo P. Graham]]''' | '''[[George R. Nelson]]''' |- | ''[[Chinatown (1974 film)|Chinatown]]'' | [[Richard Sylbert]] and [[W. Stewart Campbell]] | [[Ruby Levitt]] |- | ''[[Earthquake (1974 film)|Earthquake]]'' | [[Alexander Golitzen]] and [[E. Preston Ames]] | [[Frank R. McKelvy]] |- | ''[[The Island at the Top of the World]]'' | [[Peter Ellenshaw]], [[John B. Mansbridge]], [[Walter H. Tyler|Walter Tyler]] and [[Al Roelofs]] | [[Hal Gausman]] |- | ''[[The Towering Inferno]]'' | [[William Creber]] and [[Ward Preston]] | [[Raphaël Bretton]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1975 in film|1975]]'''<br /> {{small|[[48th Academy Awards|(48th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Barry Lyndon]]''''' | '''[[Ken Adam]] and [[Roy Walker (production designer)|Roy Walker]]''' | '''[[Vernon Dixon]]''' |- | ''[[The Hindenburg (film)|The Hindenburg]]'' | [[Edward Carfagno]] | [[Frank R. McKelvy]] |- | ''[[The Man Who Would Be King (film)|The Man Who Would Be King]]'' | [[Alexandre Trauner]] and [[Tony Inglis]] | [[Peter James (set decorator)|Peter James]] |- | ''[[Shampoo (film)|Shampoo]]'' | [[Richard Sylbert]] and [[W. Stewart Campbell]] | [[George Gaines (set decorator)|George Gaines]] |- | ''[[The Sunshine Boys (1975 film)|The Sunshine Boys]]'' | [[Albert Brenner]] | [[Marvin March]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1976 in film|1976]]'''<br /> {{small|[[49th Academy Awards|(49th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[All the President's Men (film)|All the President's Men]]''''' | '''[[George C. Jenkins|George Jenkins]]''' | '''[[George Gaines (set decorator)|George Gaines]]''' |- | ''[[The Incredible Sarah]]'' | [[Elliot Scott]] | [[Norman Reynolds]] |- | ''[[The Last Tycoon (1976 film)|The Last Tycoon]]'' | [[Gene Callahan]] and [[Jack T. Collis]] | [[Jerry Wunderlich]] |- | ''[[Logan's Run (film)|Logan's Run]]'' | [[Dale Hennesy]] | [[Robert De Vestel]] |- | ''[[The Shootist]]'' | [[Robert F. Boyle]] | [[Arthur Jeph Parker]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1977 in film|1977]]'''<br /> {{small|[[50th Academy Awards|(50th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Star Wars (film)|Star Wars]]''''' | '''[[John Barry (set designer)|John Barry]], [[Norman Reynolds]] and [[Leslie Dilley]]''' | '''[[Roger Christian (filmmaker)|Roger Christian]]''' |- | ''[[Airport '77]]'' | [[George C. Webb]] | [[Mickey S. Michaels]] |- | ''[[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]]'' | [[Joe Alves]] and [[Dan Lomino]] | [[Phil Abramson]] |- | ''[[The Spy Who Loved Me (film)|The Spy Who Loved Me]]'' | [[Ken Adam]] and [[Peter Lamont]] | [[Hugh Scaife]] |- | ''[[The Turning Point (1977 film)|The Turning Point]]'' | [[Albert Brenner]] | [[Marvin March]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1978 in film|1978]]'''<br /> {{small|[[51st Academy Awards|(51st)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Heaven Can Wait (1978 film)|Heaven Can Wait]]''''' | '''[[Paul Sylbert]] and [[Edwin O'Donovan]]''' | '''[[George Gaines (set decorator)|George Gaines]]''' |- | ''[[The Brink's Job]]'' | [[Dean Tavoularis]] and [[Angelo P. Graham]] | [[George R. Nelson]] |- | ''[[California Suite (film)|California Suite]]'' | [[Albert Brenner]] | [[Marvin March]] |- | ''[[Interiors]]'' | [[Mel Bourne]] | [[Daniel Robert]] |- | ''[[The Wiz (film)|The Wiz]]'' | [[Tony Walton]] and [[Philip Rosenberg]] | [[Edward Stewart (set decorator)|Edward Stewart]] and [[Robert Drumheller]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1979 in film|1979]]'''<br /> {{small|[[52nd Academy Awards|(52nd)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[All That Jazz (film)|All That Jazz]]''''' | '''[[Philip Rosenberg]] and [[Tony Walton]]''' | '''[[Edward Stewart (set decorator)|Edward Stewart]] and [[Gary J. Brink]]''' |- | ''[[Alien (film)|Alien]]'' | [[Michael Seymour (production designer)|Michael Seymour]], [[Leslie Dilley]] and [[Roger Christian (filmmaker)|Roger Christian]] | [[Ian Whittaker]] |- | ''[[Apocalypse Now]]'' | [[Dean Tavoularis]] and [[Angelo P. Graham]] | [[George R. Nelson]] |- | ''[[The China Syndrome]]'' | [[George C. Jenkins|George Jenkins]] | [[Arthur Jeph Parker]] |- | ''[[Star Trek: The Motion Picture]]'' | [[Harold Michelson]], [[Joe Jennings]], [[Leon Harris (art director)|Leon Harris]] and [[John Vallone]] | [[Linda DeScenna]] |} ===1980s=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="5%" | Year ! width="31%" | Film ! width="32%" | Art director(s) ! width="32%" | Set decorator(s) |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1980 in film|1980]]''' <br /> {{small|[[53rd Academy Awards|(53rd)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Tess (1979 film)|Tess]]''''' | '''[[Pierre Guffroy]] and [[Jack Stephens (set decorator)|Jack Stephens]]''' | '''—''' |- | ''[[Coal Miner's Daughter (film)|Coal Miner's Daughter]]'' | [[John W. Corso]] | [[John M. Dwyer]] |- | ''[[The Elephant Man (film)|The Elephant Man]]'' | [[Stuart Craig]] and [[Robert Cartwright]] | [[Hugh Scaife]] |- | ''[[The Empire Strikes Back]]'' | [[Norman Reynolds]] , [[Leslie Dilley]], [[Harry Lange (film designer)|Harry Lange]] and [[Alan Tomkins]] | [[Michael D. Ford]] |- | ''[[Kagemusha]]'' | [[Yoshirō Muraki]] | — |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1981 in film|1981]]''' <br /> {{small|[[54th Academy Awards|(54th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]''''' | '''[[Norman Reynolds]] and [[Leslie Dilley]]''' | '''[[Michael D. Ford]]''' |- | ''[[The French Lieutenant's Woman (film)|The French Lieutenant's Woman]]'' | [[Assheton Gorton]] | [[Ann Mollo]] |- | ''[[Heaven's Gate (film)|Heaven's Gate]]'' | [[Tambi Larsen]] | [[James L. Berkey]] |- | ''[[Ragtime (film)|Ragtime]]'' | [[John Graysmark]], [[Patrizia von Brandenstein]] and [[Tony Reading]] | [[George DeTitta Sr.]], [[George DeTitta Jr.]] and [[Peter Howitt (set decorator)|Peter Howitt]] |- | ''[[Reds (film)|Reds]]'' | [[Richard Sylbert]] | [[Michael Seirton]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1982 in film|1982]]''' <br /> {{small|[[55th Academy Awards|(55th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Gandhi (film)|Gandhi]]''''' | '''[[Stuart Craig]] and [[Robert W. Laing]]''' | '''[[Michael Seirton]]''' |- | ''[[Annie (1982 film)|Annie]]'' | [[Dale Hennesy]] {{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous nomination]])}} | [[Marvin March]] |- | ''[[Blade Runner]]'' | [[Lawrence G. Paull]] and [[David L. Snyder]] | [[Linda DeScenna]] |- | ''[[La traviata (1983 film)|La traviata]]'' | [[Franco Zeffirelli]] and [[Gianni Quaranta]] | — |- | ''[[Victor/Victoria]]'' | [[Rodger Maus]], [[Tim Hutchinson (production designer)|Tim Hutchinson]] and [[William Craig Smith]] | [[Harry Cordwell]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1983 in film|1983]]''' <br /> {{small|[[56th Academy Awards|(56th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Fanny and Alexander]]''''' | '''[[Anna Asp]]''' | '''[[Susanne Lingheim]]''' |- | ''[[Return of the Jedi]]'' | [[Norman Reynolds]], [[Fred Hole]] and [[James L. Schoppe]] | [[Michael D. Ford]] |- | ''[[The Right Stuff (film)|The Right Stuff]]'' | [[Geoffrey Kirkland]], [[Richard Lawrence (art director)|Richard Lawrence]], [[W. Stewart Campbell]] and [[Peter R. Romero]] | [[Jim Poynter]] and [[George R. Nelson]] |- | ''[[Terms of Endearment]]'' | [[Polly Platt]] and [[Harold Michelson]] | [[Tom Pedigo]] and [[Anthony Mondell]] |- | ''[[Yentl (film)|Yentl]]'' | [[Roy Walker (production designer)|Roy Walker]] and [[Leslie Tomkins]] | [[Tessa Davies]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1984 in film|1984]]''' <br /> {{small|[[57th Academy Awards|(57th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Amadeus (film)|Amadeus]]''''' | '''[[Patrizia von Brandenstein]]''' | '''[[Karel Černý (art director)|Karel Černý]]''' |- | ''[[The Cotton Club (film)|The Cotton Club]]'' | [[Richard Sylbert]] | [[George Gaines (set decorator)|George Gaines]] |- | ''[[The Natural (film)|The Natural]]'' | [[Mel Bourne]] and [[Angelo P. Graham]] | [[Bruce Weintraub]] |- | ''[[A Passage to India (film)|A Passage to India]]'' | [[John Box]] | [[Hugh Scaife]] |- | ''[[2010 (film)|2010]]'' | [[Albert Brenner]] | [[Rick Simpson]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1985 in film|1985]]''' <br /> {{small|[[58th Academy Awards|(58th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Out of Africa (film)|Out of Africa]]''''' | '''[[Stephen B. Grimes]]''' | '''[[Josie MacAvin]]''' |- | ''[[Brazil (1985 film)|Brazil]]'' | [[Norman Garwood]] | [[Maggie Gray]] |- | ''[[The Color Purple (film)|The Color Purple]]'' | [[J. Michael Riva]] and [[Bo Welch]] | [[Linda DeScenna]] |- | ''[[Ran (film)|Ran]]'' | [[Yoshirō Muraki]] and [[Shinobu Muraki]] | — |- | ''[[Witness (1985 film)|Witness]]'' | [[Stan Jolley]] | [[John H. Anderson]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1986 in film|1986]]''' <br /> {{small|[[59th Academy Awards|(59th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[A Room with a View (1985 film)|A Room with a View]]''''' | '''[[Gianni Quaranta]] and [[Brian Ackland-Snow]]''' | '''[[Brian Savegar]] and [[Elio Altramura]]''' |- | ''[[Aliens (film)|Aliens]]'' | [[Peter Lamont]] | [[Crispian Sallis]] |- | ''[[The Color of Money]]'' | [[Boris Leven]] | [[Karen O'Hara]] |- | ''[[Hannah and Her Sisters]]'' | [[Stuart Wurtzel]] | [[Carol Joffe]] |- | ''[[The Mission (1986 film)|The Mission]]'' | [[Stuart Craig]] | [[Jack Stephens (set decorator)|Jack Stephens]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1987 in film|1987]]''' <br /> {{small|[[60th Academy Awards|(60th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Last Emperor]]''''' | '''[[Ferdinando Scarfiotti]]''' | '''[[Bruno Cesari]] and [[Osvaldo Desideri]]''' |- | ''[[Empire of the Sun (film)|Empire of the Sun]]'' | [[Norman Reynolds]] | [[Harry Cordwell]] |- | ''[[Hope and Glory (film)|Hope and Glory]]'' | [[Anthony D. G. Pratt|Anthony Pratt]] | [[Joanne Woollard]] |- | ''[[Radio Days]]'' | [[Santo Loquasto]] | [[Carol Joffe]], [[Leslie Bloom]] and [[George DeTitta Jr.]] |- | ''[[The Untouchables (film)|The Untouchables]]'' | [[Patrizia von Brandenstein]] and [[William A. Elliott]] | [[Hal Gausman]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1988 in film|1988]]''' <br /> {{small|[[61st Academy Awards|(61st)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Dangerous Liaisons]]''''' | '''[[Stuart Craig]]''' | '''[[Gérard James]]''' |- | ''[[Beaches (film)|Beaches]]'' | [[Albert Brenner]] | [[Garrett Lewis]] |- | ''[[Rain Man]]'' | [[Ida Random]] | [[Linda DeScenna]] |- | ''[[Tucker: The Man and His Dream]]'' | [[Dean Tavoularis]] | [[Armin Ganz]] |- | ''[[Who Framed Roger Rabbit]]'' | [[Elliot Scott]] | [[Peter Howitt (set decorator)|Peter Howitt]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1989 in film|1989]]''' <br /> {{small|[[62nd Academy Awards|(62nd)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Batman (1989 film)|Batman]]''''' | '''[[Anton Furst]]''' | '''[[Peter Young (set decorator)|Peter Young]]''' |- | ''[[The Abyss]]'' | [[Leslie Dilley]] | [[Anne Kuljian]] |- | ''[[The Adventures of Baron Munchausen]]'' | [[Dante Ferretti]] | [[Francesca Lo Schiavo]] |- | ''[[Driving Miss Daisy]]'' | [[Bruno Rubeo]] | [[Crispian Sallis]] |- | ''[[Glory (1989 film)|Glory]]'' | [[Norman Garwood]] | [[Garrett Lewis]] |} ===1990s===<!-- This section is linked from [[Quills]] --> {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="5%" | Year ! width="31%" | Film ! width="32%" | Art director(s) ! width="32%" | Set decorator(s) |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1990 in film|1990]]'''<br /><small>[[63rd Academy Awards|(63rd)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Dick Tracy (1990 film)|Dick Tracy]]''''' | '''[[Richard Sylbert]]''' | '''[[Rick Simpson]]''' |- | ''[[Cyrano de Bergerac (1990 film)|Cyrano de Bergerac]]'' | [[Ezio Frigerio]] | [[Jacques Rouxel (production designer)|Jacques Rouxel]] |- | ''[[Dances with Wolves]]'' | [[Jeffrey Beecroft]] | [[Lisa Dean]] |- | ''[[The Godfather Part III]]'' | [[Dean Tavoularis]] | [[Gary Fettis]] |- | ''[[Hamlet (1990 film)|Hamlet]]'' | [[Dante Ferretti]] | [[Francesca Lo Schiavo]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1991 in film|1991]]'''<br /><small>[[64th Academy Awards|(64th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Bugsy]]''''' | '''[[Dennis Gassner]]''' | '''[[Nancy Haigh]]''' |- | ''[[Barton Fink]]'' | [[Dennis Gassner]] | [[Nancy Haigh]] |- | ''[[The Fisher King]]'' | [[Mel Bourne]] | [[Cindy Carr]] |- | ''[[Hook (film)|Hook]]'' | [[Norman Garwood]] | [[Garrett Lewis]] |- | ''[[The Prince of Tides]]'' | [[Paul Sylbert]] | [[Caryl Heller]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1992 in film|1992]]'''<br /><small>[[65th Academy Awards|(65th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Howards End (film)|Howards End]]''''' | '''[[Luciana Arrighi]]''' | '''[[Ian Whittaker]]''' |- | ''[[Bram Stoker's Dracula]]'' | [[Thomas E. Sanders]] | [[Garrett Lewis]] |- | ''[[Chaplin (film)|Chaplin]]'' | [[Stuart Craig]] | [[Chris A. Butler]] |- | ''[[Toys (film)|Toys]]'' | [[Ferdinando Scarfiotti]] | [[Linda DeScenna]] |- | ''[[Unforgiven]]'' | [[Henry Bumstead]] | [[Janice Blackie-Goodine]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1993 in film|1993]]'''<br /><small>[[66th Academy Awards|(66th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Schindler's List]]''''' | '''[[Allan Starski]]''' | '''[[Ewa Braun]]''' |- | ''[[Addams Family Values]]'' | [[Ken Adam]] | [[Marvin March]] |- | ''[[The Age of Innocence (1993 film)|The Age of Innocence]]'' | [[Dante Ferretti]] | [[Robert J. Franco]] |- | ''[[Orlando (film)|Orlando]]'' | [[Ben Van Os]] and [[Jan Roelfs]] | — |- | ''[[The Remains of the Day (film)|The Remains of the Day]]'' | [[Luciana Arrighi]] | [[Ian Whittaker]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1994 in film|1994]]'''<br /><small>[[67th Academy Awards|(67th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Madness of King George]]''''' | '''[[Ken Adam]]''' | '''[[Carolyn Scott]]''' |- | ''[[Bullets over Broadway]]'' | [[Santo Loquasto]] | [[Susan Bode]] |- | ''[[Forrest Gump]]'' | [[Rick Carter]] | [[Nancy Haigh]] |- | ''[[Interview with the Vampire (film)|Interview with the Vampire]]'' | [[Dante Ferretti]] | [[Francesca Lo Schiavo]] |- | ''[[Legends of the Fall]]'' | [[Lilly Kilvert]] | [[Dorree Cooper]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1995 in film|1995]]'''<br /><small>[[68th Academy Awards|(68th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Restoration (1995 film)|Restoration]]''''' | '''[[Eugenio Zanetti]]''' | '''—''' |- | ''[[Apollo 13 (film)|Apollo 13]]'' | [[Michael Corenblith]] | [[Merideth Boswell]] |- | ''[[Babe (film)|Babe]]'' | [[Roger Ford (production designer)|Roger Ford]] | [[Kerrie Brown]] |- | ''[[A Little Princess (1995 film)|A Little Princess]]'' | [[Bo Welch]] | [[Cheryl Carasik]] |- | ''[[Richard III (1995 film)|Richard III]]'' | [[Tony Burrough]] | — |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1996 in film|1996]]'''<br /><small>[[69th Academy Awards|(69th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The English Patient (film)|The English Patient]]''''' | '''[[Stuart Craig]]''' | '''[[Stephenie McMillan]]''' |- | ''[[The Birdcage]]'' | [[Bo Welch]] | [[Cheryl Carasik]] |- | ''[[Evita (1996 film)|Evita]]'' | [[Brian Morris (art director)|Brian Morris]] | Philippe Turlure |- | ''[[Hamlet (1996 film)|Hamlet]]'' | [[Tim Harvey (art director)|Tim Harvey]] | — |- | ''[[Romeo + Juliet]]'' | [[Catherine Martin (designer)|Catherine Martin]] | [[Brigitte Broch]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1997 in film|1997]]'''<br /><small>[[70th Academy Awards|(70th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Titanic (1997 film)|Titanic]]''''' | '''[[Peter Lamont]]''' | '''[[Michael D. Ford]]''' |- | ''[[Gattaca]]'' | [[Jan Roelfs]] | Nancy Nye |- | ''[[Kundun]]'' | [[Dante Ferretti]] | [[Francesca Lo Schiavo]] |- | ''[[L.A. Confidential (film)|L.A. Confidential]]'' | [[Jeannine Oppewall]] | [[Jay Hart]] |- | ''[[Men in Black (1997 film)|Men in Black]]'' | [[Bo Welch]] | [[Cheryl Carasik]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1998 in film|1998]]'''<br /><small>[[71st Academy Awards|(71st)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Shakespeare in Love]]''''' | '''[[Martin Childs]]''' | '''Jill Quertier''' |- | ''[[Elizabeth (film)|Elizabeth]]'' | [[John Myhre]] | [[Peter Howitt (set decorator)|Peter Howitt]] |- | ''[[Pleasantville (film)|Pleasantville]]'' | [[Jeannine Oppewall]] | [[Jay Hart]] |- | ''[[Saving Private Ryan]]'' | [[Tom Sanders (art director)|Tom Sanders]] | [[Lisa Dean Kavanaugh]] |- | ''[[What Dreams May Come (film)|What Dreams May Come]]'' | [[Eugenio Zanetti]] | [[Cindy Carr]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1999 in film|1999]]'''<br /><small>[[72nd Academy Awards|(72nd)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Sleepy Hollow (film)|Sleepy Hollow]]''''' | '''[[Rick Heinrichs]]''' | '''[[Peter Young (set decorator)|Peter Young]]''' |- | ''[[Anna and the King]]'' | [[Luciana Arrighi]] | [[Ian Whittaker]] |- | ''[[The Cider House Rules (film)|The Cider House Rules]]'' | David Gropman | [[Beth Rubino]] |- | ''[[The Talented Mr. Ripley (film)|The Talented Mr. Ripley]]'' | [[Roy Walker (production designer)|Roy Walker]] | [[Bruno Cesari]] |- | ''[[Topsy-Turvy]]'' | [[Eve Stewart]] | John Bush |} ===2000s=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="5%" | Year ! width="31%" | Film ! width="32%" | Art director(s) ! width="32%" | Set decorator(s) |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[2000 in film|2000]]'''<br /><small>[[73rd Academy Awards|(73rd)]]</small> <br/> <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/2001 |title=The 73rd Academy Awards - 2001 |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= |publisher=[[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] |access-date=January 12, 2018 |quote=}}</ref> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]''''' | '''[[Timmy Yip]]''' | '''—''' |- | ''[[Gladiator (2000 film)|Gladiator]]'' | [[Arthur Max]] | [[Crispian Sallis]] |- | ''[[How the Grinch Stole Christmas (2000 film)|How the Grinch Stole Christmas]]'' | [[Michael Corenblith]] | [[Merideth Boswell]] |- | ''[[Quills]]'' | [[Martin Childs]] | Jill Quertier |- | ''[[Vatel (film)|Vatel]]'' | [[Jean Rabasse]] | Françoise Benoît-Fresco |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[2001 in film|2001]]'''<br /><small>[[74th Academy Awards|(74th)]]</small> <br/> <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/2002 |title=The 74th Academy Awards - 2002 |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= |publisher=[[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] |access-date=January 12, 2018 |quote=}}</ref> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Moulin Rouge!]]''''' | '''[[Catherine Martin (designer)|Catherine Martin]]''' | '''[[Brigitte Broch]]''' |- | ''[[Amélie]]'' | [[Aline Bonetto]] | [[Marie-Laure Valla]] |- | ''[[Gosford Park]]'' | Stephen Altman | [[Anna Pinnock]] |- | ''[[Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (film)|Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone]]'' | [[Stuart Craig]] | [[Stephenie McMillan]] |- | ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring]]'' | [[Grant Major]] | [[Dan Hennah]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[2002 in film|2002]]'''<br /><small>[[75th Academy Awards|(75th)]]</small> <br/> <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/2003 |title=The 75th Academy Awards - 2003 |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= |publisher=[[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] |access-date=January 12, 2018 |quote=}}</ref> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Chicago (2002 film)|Chicago]]''''' | '''[[John Myhre]]''' | '''[[Gordon Sim]]''' |- | ''[[Frida]]'' | Felipe Fernández del Paso | [[Hania Robledo]] |- | ''[[Gangs of New York]]'' | [[Dante Ferretti]] | [[Francesca Lo Schiavo]] |- | ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers]]'' | [[Grant Major]] | [[Dan Hennah]] and [[Alan Lee (illustrator)|Alan Lee]] |- | ''[[Road to Perdition]]'' | [[Dennis Gassner]] | [[Nancy Haigh]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[2003 in film|2003]]'''<br /><small>[[76th Academy Awards|(76th)]]</small> <br/> <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/2004 |title=The 76th Academy Awards - 2004 |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= |publisher=[[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] |access-date=January 12, 2018 |quote=}}</ref> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King]]''''' | '''[[Grant Major]]''' | '''[[Dan Hennah]] and [[Alan Lee (illustrator)|Alan Lee]]''' |- | ''[[Girl with a Pearl Earring (film)|Girl with a Pearl Earring]]'' | [[Ben Van Os]] | Cecile Heideman |- | ''[[The Last Samurai]]'' | [[Lilly Kilvert]] | [[Gretchen Rau]] |- | ''[[Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World]]'' | [[William Sandell]] | [[Robert Gould (art director)|Robert Gould]] |- | ''[[Seabiscuit (film)|Seabiscuit]]'' | [[Jeannine Oppewall]] | [[Leslie Pope]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[2004 in film|2004]]'''<br /><small>[[77th Academy Awards|(77th)]]</small> <br/> <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/2005 |title=The 77th Academy Awards - 2005 |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= |publisher=[[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] |access-date=January 12, 2018 |quote=}}</ref> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Aviator (2004 film)|The Aviator]]''''' | '''[[Dante Ferretti]]''' | '''[[Francesca Lo Schiavo]]''' |- | ''[[Finding Neverland (film)|Finding Neverland]]'' | [[Gemma Jackson]] | [[Trisha Edwards]] |- | ''[[Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events]]'' | [[Rick Heinrichs]] | [[Cheryl Carasik]] |- | ''[[The Phantom of the Opera (2004 film)|The Phantom of the Opera]]'' | [[Anthony D. G. Pratt|Anthony Pratt]] | [[Celia Bobak]] |- | ''[[A Very Long Engagement]]'' | [[Aline Bonetto]] | — |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[2005 in film|2005]]'''<br /><small>[[78th Academy Awards|(78th)]]</small> <br/> <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/2006 |title=The 78th Academy Awards - 2006 |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= |publisher=[[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] |access-date=January 12, 2018 |quote=}}</ref> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Memoirs of a Geisha (film)|Memoirs of a Geisha]]''''' | '''[[John Myhre]]''' | '''[[Gretchen Rau]]''' |- | ''[[Good Night, and Good Luck.]]'' | [[Jim Bissell]] | [[Jan Pascale]] |- | ''[[Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (film)|Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire]]'' | [[Stuart Craig]] | [[Stephenie McMillan]] |- | ''[[King Kong (2005 film)|King Kong]]'' | [[Grant Major]] | [[Dan Hennah]] and [[Simon Bright]] |- | ''[[Pride and Prejudice (2005 film)|Pride & Prejudice]]'' | [[Sarah Greenwood]] | [[Katie Spencer]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[2006 in film|2006]]'''<br /><small>[[79th Academy Awards|(79th)]]</small> <br/> <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/2007 |title=The 79th Academy Awards - 2007 |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= |publisher=[[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] |access-date=January 12, 2018 |quote=}}</ref> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Pan's Labyrinth]]''''' | '''[[Eugenio Caballero]]''' | '''[[Pilar Revuelta]]''' |- | ''[[Dreamgirls (film)|Dreamgirls]]'' | [[John Myhre]] | [[Nancy Haigh]] |- | ''[[The Good Shepherd (film)|The Good Shepherd]]'' | [[Jeannine Claudia Oppewall]] | [[Gretchen Rau]] and [[Leslie E. Rollins]] |- | ''[[Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest]]'' | [[Rick Heinrichs]] | [[Cheryl Carasik]] |- | ''[[The Prestige (film)|The Prestige]]'' | [[Nathan Crowley]] | [[Julie Ochipinti]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[2007 in film|2007]]'''<br /><small>[[80th Academy Awards|(80th)]]</small> <br/> <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/2008 |title=The 80th Academy Awards - 2008 |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= |publisher=[[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] |access-date=January 12, 2018 |quote=}}</ref> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (2007 film)|Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street]]''''' | '''[[Dante Ferretti]]''' | '''[[Francesca Lo Schiavo]]''' |- | ''[[American Gangster (film)|American Gangster]]'' | [[Arthur Max]] | [[Beth A. Rubino]] |- | ''[[Atonement (film)|Atonement]]'' | [[Sarah Greenwood]] | [[Katie Spencer]] |- | ''[[The Golden Compass (film)|The Golden Compass]]'' | [[Dennis Gassner]] | [[Anna Pinnock]] |- | ''[[There Will Be Blood]]'' | [[Jack Fisk]] | [[Jim Erickson]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[2008 in film|2008]]'''<br /><small>[[81st Academy Awards|(81st)]]</small> <br/> <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/2009 |title=The 81st Academy Awards - 2009 |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= |publisher=[[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] |access-date=January 12, 2018 |quote=}}</ref> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Curious Case of Benjamin Button (film)|The Curious Case of Benjamin Button]]''''' | '''[[Donald Graham Burt]]''' | '''[[Victor J. Zolfo]]''' |- | ''[[Changeling (2008 film)|Changeling]]'' | [[James J. Murakami]] | [[Gary Fettis]] |- | ''[[The Dark Knight (film)|The Dark Knight]]'' | [[Nathan Crowley]] | [[Peter Lando]] |- | ''[[The Duchess (film)|The Duchess]]'' | [[Michael Carlin (art director)|Michael Carlin]] | [[Rebecca Alleway]] |- | ''[[Revolutionary Road (film)|Revolutionary Road]]'' | Kristi Zea | [[Debra Schutt]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[2009 in film|2009]]'''<br /><small>[[82nd Academy Awards|(82nd)]]</small> <br/> <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/2010 |title=The 82nd Academy Awards - 2010 |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= |publisher=[[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] |access-date=January 12, 2018 |quote=}}</ref> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Avatar (2009 film)|Avatar]]''''' | '''[[Rick Carter]] and [[Robert Stromberg]]''' | '''[[Kim Sinclair]]''' |- | ''[[The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus]]'' | Dave Warren and [[Anastasia Masaro]] | Caroline Smith |- | ''[[Nine (2009 live-action film)|Nine]]'' | [[John Myhre]] | [[Gordon Sim]] |- | ''[[Sherlock Holmes (2009 film)|Sherlock Holmes]]'' | [[Sarah Greenwood]] | [[Katie Spencer]] |- | ''[[The Young Victoria]]'' | [[Patrice Vermette]] | [[Maggie Gray]] |} ===2010s=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="5%" | Year ! width="31%" | Film ! width="32%" | Production designer(s) ! width="32%" | Set decorator(s) |- | rowspan="6" style="text-align:center" | '''[[2010 in film|2010]]'''<br /><small>[[83rd Academy Awards|(83rd)]]</small> <br/> <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/2011 |title=The 83rd Academy Awards - 2011 |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= |publisher=[[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] |access-date=January 12, 2018 |quote=}}</ref> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Alice in Wonderland (2010 film)|Alice in Wonderland]]''''' | '''[[Robert Stromberg]]''' | '''[[Karen O'Hara]]''' |- | ''[[Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1]]'' | [[Stuart Craig]] | [[Stephenie McMillan]] |- | ''[[Inception]]'' | [[Guy Hendrix Dyas]] | [[Larry Dias]] and [[Doug Mowat (set decorator)|Doug Mowat]] |- | ''[[The King's Speech]]'' | [[Eve Stewart]] | [[Judy Farr (set decorator)|Judy Farr]] |- | ''[[True Grit (2010 film)|True Grit]]'' | [[Jess Gonchor]] | [[Nancy Haigh]] |- | rowspan="6" style="text-align:center" | '''[[2011 in film|2011]]'''<br /><small>[[84th Academy Awards|(84th)]]</small> <br/> <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/2012 |title=The 84th Academy Awards - 2012 |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= |publisher=[[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] |access-date=January 12, 2018 |quote=}}</ref> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Hugo (film)|Hugo]]''''' | '''[[Dante Ferretti]]''' | '''[[Francesca Lo Schiavo]]''' |- | ''[[The Artist (film)|The Artist]]'' | [[Laurence Bennett]] | [[Robert Gould (art director)|Robert Gould]] |- | ''[[Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2]]'' | [[Stuart Craig]] | [[Stephenie McMillan]] |- | ''[[Midnight in Paris]]'' | [[Anne Seibel]] | [[Hélène Dubreuil]] |- | ''[[War Horse (film)|War Horse]]'' | [[Rick Carter]] | [[Lee Sandales]] |- | rowspan="6" style="text-align:center" | '''[[2012 in film|2012]]'''<br /><small>[[85th Academy Awards|(85th)]]</small> <br/> <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/2013 |title=The 85th Academy Awards - 2013 |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= |publisher=[[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] |access-date=January 12, 2018 |quote=}}</ref> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Lincoln (film)|Lincoln]]''''' | '''[[Rick Carter]]''' | '''[[Jim Erickson]]''' |- | ''[[Anna Karenina (2012 film)|Anna Karenina]]'' | [[Sarah Greenwood]] | [[Katie Spencer]] |- | ''[[The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey]]'' | [[Dan Hennah]] | [[Ra Vincent]] and [[Simon Bright]] |- | ''[[Les Misérables (2012 film)|Les Misérables]]'' | [[Eve Stewart]] | [[Anna Lynch-Robinson]] |- | ''[[Life of Pi (film)|Life of Pi]]'' | David Gropman | [[Anna Pinnock]] |- | rowspan="6" style="text-align:center" | '''[[2013 in film|2013]]'''<br /><small>[[86th Academy Awards|(86th)]]</small> <br/> <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/2014 |title=The 86th Academy Awards - 2014 |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= |publisher=[[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] |access-date=January 12, 2018 |quote=}}</ref> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Great Gatsby (2013 film)|The Great Gatsby]]''''' | '''[[Catherine Martin (designer)|Catherine Martin]]''' | '''[[Beverley Dunn (set decorator)|Beverley Dunn]]''' |- | ''[[American Hustle]]'' | [[Judy Becker]] | [[Heather Loeffler]] |- | ''[[Gravity (2013 film)|Gravity]]'' | [[Andy Nicholson (production designer)|Andy Nicholson]] | [[Rosie Goodwin]] and [[Joanne Woollard]] |- | ''[[Her (film)|Her]]'' | [[K. K. Barrett]] | [[Gene Serdena]] |- | ''[[12 Years a Slave (film)|12 Years a Slave]]'' | [[Adam Stockhausen]] | [[Alice Baker (set decorator)|Alice Baker]] |- | rowspan="6" style="text-align:center" | '''[[2014 in film|2014]]'''<br /><small>[[87th Academy Awards|(87th)]]</small> <br/> <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/2015 |title=The 87th Academy Awards - 2015 |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= |publisher=[[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] |access-date=January 12, 2018 |quote=}}</ref> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Grand Budapest Hotel]]''''' | '''[[Adam Stockhausen]]''' | '''[[Anna Pinnock]]''' |- | ''[[The Imitation Game]]'' | Maria Djurkovic | Tatiana Macdonald |- | ''[[Interstellar (film)|Interstellar]]'' | [[Nathan Crowley]] | [[Gary Fettis]] |- | ''[[Into the Woods (film)|Into the Woods]]'' | [[Dennis Gassner]] | [[Anna Pinnock]] |- | ''[[Mr. Turner]]'' | Suzie Davies | Charlotte Watts |- | rowspan="6" style="text-align:center" | '''[[2015 in film|2015]]'''<br /><small>[[88th Academy Awards|(88th)]]</small> <br/> <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/2016 |title=The 88th Academy Awards - 2016 |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= |publisher=[[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] |access-date=January 12, 2018 |quote=}}</ref> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Mad Max: Fury Road]]''''' | '''[[Colin Gibson (production designer)|Colin Gibson]]''' | '''[[Lisa Thompson (set decorator)|Lisa Thompson]]''' |- | ''[[Bridge of Spies (film)|Bridge of Spies]]'' | [[Adam Stockhausen]] | [[Rena DeAngelo]] and [[Bernhard Henrich]] |- | ''[[The Danish Girl (film)|The Danish Girl]]'' | [[Eve Stewart]] | [[Michael Standish]] |- | ''[[The Martian (film)|The Martian]]'' | [[Arthur Max]] | [[Celia Bobak]] |- | ''[[The Revenant (2015 film)|The Revenant]]'' | [[Jack Fisk]] | [[Hamish Purdy]] |- | rowspan="6" style="text-align:center" | '''[[2016 in film|2016]]'''<br /><small>[[89th Academy Awards|(89th)]]</small> <br /> <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/movies/la-et-mn-oscars-2017-nominees-winners-list-20170123-story.html |title=Academy Awards 2017: Complete list of Oscar winners and nominees |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=February 26, 2017 |website= |publisher=''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' |access-date=January 8, 2018 |quote=}}</ref> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[La La Land (film)|La La Land]]''''' | '''[[David and Sandy Reynolds-Wasco|David Wasco]]''' | '''[[David and Sandy Reynolds-Wasco|Sandy Reynolds-Wasco]]''' |- | ''[[Arrival (film)|Arrival]]'' | [[Patrice Vermette]] | [[Paul Hotte]] |- | ''[[Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them (film)|Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them]]'' | [[Stuart Craig]] | [[Anna Pinnock]] |- | ''[[Hail, Caesar!]]'' | [[Jess Gonchor]] | [[Nancy Haigh]] |- | ''[[Passengers (2016 film)|Passengers]]'' | [[Guy Hendrix Dyas]] | [[Gene Serdena]] |- | rowspan="6" style="text-align:center" | '''[[2017 in film|2017]]'''<br /><small>[[90th Academy Awards|(90th)]]</small> <br /> <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2018/01/oscar-nominations-2018-full-list |title=Oscar Nominations 2018: See the Full List |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=February 26, 2017 |website= |publisher=''[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]'' |access-date=January 23, 2018 |quote=}}</ref> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Shape of Water]]''''' | '''[[Paul Denham Austerberry]]''' | '''[[Shane Vieau]] and [[Jeff Melvin]]''' |- | ''[[Beauty and the Beast (2017 film)|Beauty and the Beast]]'' | [[Sarah Greenwood]] | [[Katie Spencer]] |- | ''[[Blade Runner 2049]]'' | [[Dennis Gassner]] | [[Alessandra Querzola]] |- | ''[[Darkest Hour (film)|Darkest Hour]]'' | [[Sarah Greenwood]] | [[Katie Spencer]] |- | ''[[Dunkirk (2017 film)|Dunkirk]]'' | [[Nathan Crowley]] | [[Gary Fettis]] |} ==See also== * [[BAFTA Award for Best Production Design]] * [[Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Art Direction]] ==Notes== {{reflist|group=note}} ==References== {{Reflist}} {{Academy Awards}} {{Academy Award Best Art Direction}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Academy Award for Best Production Design}} [[Category:Academy Awards|Best Production Design]] [[Category:Best Art Direction Academy Award winners|*]] [[Category:Awards for best art direction]] nw3vq8qront2psxo0uwndqtv3h9zgaq 0 324 861740979 861738479 2018-09-29T17:43:32Z Crboyer 656385 Reverted 1 edit by [[Special:Contributions/2A00:23C5:8A11:3700:E4E1:EBA2:CE30:FE9A|2A00:23C5:8A11:3700:E4E1:EBA2:CE30:FE9A]] ([[User talk:2A00:23C5:8A11:3700:E4E1:EBA2:CE30:FE9A|talk]]) to last revision by MarnetteD. ([[WP:TW|TW]]) wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect2|Oscars|The Oscar|other uses|Oscar (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}} {{Infobox award | name = The Oscars | current_awards = 90th Academy Awards | image = Academy Award trophy.jpg | alt = | caption = | description = Excellence in cinematic achievements | presenter = [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] | country = United States | year = {{Start date and age|df=yes|1929|5|16}} | website = {{url|http://oscar.go.com/}} }} {{Infobox election | election_name = Most recent Academy Award winners | election_date = [[90th Academy Awards|Best in films in 2017]] | type = primary | ongoing = no | previous_election = 89th Academy Awards | previous_year = 2016 | next_election = 91st Academy Awards | next_year = 2018 | 1blank = Award | 2blank = Winner <!-- NOTE: Non-free images of film posters or living people must comply with [[Wikipedia:Non-free content criteria]], rules #8 and #10c--> | image1 = File:Gary Oldman by Gage Skidmore.jpg | image1_size = 160x160px | 1data1 = [[Academy Award for Best Actor|Best Actor]] | 2data1 = [[Gary Oldman]]<br />(''[[Darkest Hour (film)|Darkest Hour]]'') | image2 = File:Frances McDormand 2015 (cropped).jpg | image2_size = 160x160px | 1data2 = [[Academy Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]] | 2data2 = [[Frances McDormand]]<br />(''[[Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri]]'') | image4 = File:Sam Rockwell (8279227257).jpg | image4_size = 160x160px | 1data4 = [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]] | 2data4 = [[Sam Rockwell]]<br />(''[[Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri]]'') | image5 = File:Allison Janney4crop.jpg | image5_size = 160x160px | 1data5 = [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]] | 2data5 = [[Allison Janney]]<br />(''[[I, Tonya]]'') | image7 = Guillermo del Toro in 2017.jpg | image7_size = 160x160px | 1data7 = [[Academy Award for Best Director|Best Director]] | 2data7 = [[Guillermo del Toro]]<br />(''[[The Shape of Water]]'') | image8 = Jordan Peele Peabody 2014 (cropped).jpg | image8_size = 160x160px | 1data8 = [[Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay|Best Original Screenplay]] | 2data8 = [[Jordan Peele]]<br />(''[[Get Out]]'') <!-- NOTE: Non-free images of film posters must comply with [[Wikipedia:Non-free content criteria]], rules #8 and #10c--> | title = Best Picture | before_election = ''[[Moonlight (2016 film)|Moonlight]]'' | after_election = ''[[The Shape of Water]]'' }} The '''Academy Awards''', also known as the '''Oscars''',<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thewrap.com/ampas-drops-85th-academy-awards-now-its-just-oscars-78211/ |title=AMPAS Drops '85th Academy Awards' - Now It's Just 'The Oscars' |last= |first= |date=19 February 2013 |work=[[TheWrap]] |access-date=2017-04-09 |dead-url=no |language=en-US |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160803081821/http://www.thewrap.com/ampas-drops-85th-academy-awards-now-its-just-oscars-78211/ |archivedate=3 August 2016 }}</ref> are a set of 24 awards for artistic and technical merit in the [[film industry]], given annually by the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] (AMPAS), to recognize excellence in cinematic achievements as assessed by the Academy's voting membership. The various category winners are awarded a copy of a golden statuette, officially called the "Academy Award of Merit", although more commonly referred to by its nickname "Oscar". The award was originally sculpted by [[George Stanley (sculptor)|George Stanley]] from a design sketch by [[Cedric Gibbons]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Nichols|first1=Chris|title=Meet George Stanley, Sculptor of the Academy Award|url=http://www.lamag.com/askchris/meet-george-stanley-sculptor-of-the-academy-award/|accessdate=6 November 2017|publisher=Los Angeles Magazine|date=25 February 2016}}</ref> AMPAS first [[1st Academy Awards|presented it in 1929]] at a private dinner hosted by [[Douglas Fairbanks]] in the [[Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oscars.org/aboutacademyawards/index.html|title=About the Academy Awards|publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences|accessdate=13 April 2007|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070407234926/http://www.oscars.org/aboutacademyawards/index.html|archivedate=7 April 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,273341,00.html |title=The Birth of Oscar |first=Andrew |last=Essex |work=[[Entertainment Weekly]] |date=14 May 1999 |accessdate=2 March 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111215005/http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0%2C%2C273341%2C00.html |archivedate=11 November 2013 |deadurl=yes }}</ref> The Academy Awards ceremony was first broadcast on radio in 1930 and televised for the first time in 1953. It is the oldest worldwide entertainment awards ceremony and is now seen live in more than 200 countries, including being streamed live online.<ref>{{cite web|title=History of the Academy Awards |url=http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/about/history.html |publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences |accessdate=13 January 2014 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5uKhyVna9?url=http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/about/history.html |archivedate=18 November 2010 |deadurl=no |df=dmy }}</ref> Its equivalents – the [[Emmy Award]]s for television, the [[Tony Award]]s for theater, and the [[Grammy Award]]s for music – are modeled after the Academy Awards.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Oscars – Feb 24th 2013 |url=http://www.platinumagencygroup.co.uk/#!los-angeles/c1drk |website=platinumagencygroup.co.uk |accessdate=2 December 2014 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141223013443/http://www.platinumagencygroup.co.uk/ |archivedate=23 December 2014 }}</ref> The [[90th Academy Awards]] ceremony, honoring the best [[2017 in film|films of 2017]], was held on 4 March 2018, at the [[Dolby Theatre]], in [[Los Angeles]], [[California]]. The ceremony was hosted by [[Jimmy Kimmel]] and was broadcast on [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]. A total of 3,072 Oscars have been awarded from the inception of the award through the [[90th Academy Awards|90th]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oscars.org/oscars/statuette |title=Oscar Statuette |work=Oscars.org – Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences |accessdate=7 February 2017 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210171816/http://www.oscars.org/oscars/statuette |archivedate=10 February 2017 }}</ref> ==History== The [[1st Academy Awards|first Academy Awards]] presentation was held on 16 May 1929, at a private dinner function at the [[Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel]] with an audience of about 270 people. The post-awards party was held at the Mayfair Hotel.<ref name="history">{{cite web|url=http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/about/history.html |title=History of the Academy Awards |work=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5uKhyVna9?url=http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/about/history.html |archivedate=18 November 2010 |deadurl=no |df=dmy }}</ref> The cost of guest tickets for that night's ceremony was $5 (${{Inflation|US|5|1929}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars). Fifteen statuettes were awarded, honoring artists, directors and other participants in the film-making industry of the time, for their works during the 1927–28 period. The ceremony ran for 15&nbsp;minutes. Winners were announced to media three months earlier. That was changed for the second ceremony in 1930. Since then, for the rest of the first decade, the results were given to newspapers for publication at 11:00&nbsp;pm on the night of the awards.<ref name="history" /> This method was used until an occasion when the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' announced the winners before the ceremony began; as a result, the Academy has, since 1941, used a sealed envelope to reveal the name of the winners.<ref name="history" /> ===Institutions=== The first Best Actor awarded was [[Emil Jannings]], for his performances in ''[[The Last Command (1928 film)|The Last Command]]'' and ''[[The Way of All Flesh (1927 film)|The Way of All Flesh]]''. He had to return to Europe before the ceremony, so the Academy agreed to give him the prize earlier; this made him the first Academy Award winner in history. At that time, the winners were recognized for all of their work done in a certain category during the qualifying period; for example, Jannings received the award for two movies in which he starred during that period, and [[Janet Gaynor]] later won a single Oscar for performances in three films. With the fourth ceremony, however, the system changed, and professionals were honored for a specific performance in a single film. For the first six ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned two calendar years.<ref name="history" /> At the 29th ceremony, held on 27 March 1957, the [[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film|Best Foreign Language Film]] category was introduced. Until then, foreign-language films had been honored with the Special Achievement Award. The 74th Academy Awards, held in 2002, presented the first [[Academy Award for Best Animated Feature]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://nypost.com/2014/02/28/disney-hoping-to-win-first-oscar-for-best-animated-feature/|title=Disney hoping to win first Oscar for Best Animated Feature|date=2014-02-28|work=New York Post|access-date=2018-04-18|language=en-US}}</ref> Since 1973, all Academy Awards ceremonies have ended with the [[Academy Award for Best Picture]]. Traditionally, the previous year's winner for Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor present the awards for Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress, while the previous year's winner for Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress present the awards for Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor. ==Oscar statuette== ===Other awards presented by the Academy=== :''See also {{section link| |Special categories}} (below).'' In addition to the Academy Award of Merit (Oscar award), there are nine honorary (non-competitive) awards presented by the Academy from time to time (except for the Academy Honorary Award, the Technical Achievement Award, and the Student Academy Awards, which are presented annually): * [[Governors Awards]]: ** The [[Academy Honorary Award]] (annual) (which may or may not be in the form of an Oscar statuette); <!-- See [[Governors Awards#Description and history]]. --> ** The [[Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award]] (since 1938) (in the form of a bust of Thalberg); ** The [[Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award]] (since 1957) (in the form of an Oscar statuette); <!-- See [[Governors Awards#Description and history]]. --> * The [[Academy Scientific and Technical Award]]s: ** Academy Award of Merit (non-competitive) (in the form of an Oscar statuette); ** [[Scientific and Engineering Award]] (in the form of a bronze tablet); ** [[Academy Award for Technical Achievement|Technical Achievement Award]] (annual) (in the form of a certificate); ** The [[John A. Bonner Medal of Commendation]] (since 1978) (in the form of a medal); ** The [[Gordon E. Sawyer Award]] (since 1982); and * The Academy [[Student Academy Awards]] (annual). The Academy also awards [[Nicholl Fellowships in Screenwriting]]. <!-- See [[Governors Awards#Description and history]]. --> ===Academy Award of Merit (Oscar statuette)=== :''See also {{slink| |Awards of Merit categories}} (below)'' The best known award is the Academy Award of Merit, more popularly known as the Oscar statuette.<ref name=statuette>{{cite web|title=Oscar Statuette |publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences |url=http://www.oscars.org/oscars/statuette |accessdate=2017-02-27 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301182257/https://www.oscars.org/oscars/statuette |archivedate=1 March 2017 }}</ref> Made of gold-plated [[bronze]] on a black metal base, it is 13.5&nbsp;in (34.3&nbsp;cm) tall, weighs 8.5&nbsp;lb (3.856&nbsp;kg), and depicts a knight rendered in [[Art Deco]] style holding a [[crusades|crusader's]] sword standing on a reel of film with five spokes. The five spokes represent the original branches of the Academy: Actors, Writers, Directors, Producers, and Technicians.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/about/awards/oscar.html/?pn=statuette|title= Oscar Statuette: Legacy|publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences|accessdate = 13 April 2007|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20131211172055/http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/about/awards/oscar.html/?pn=statuette|archivedate= 11 December 2013}}</ref> The model for the statuette is said to be Mexican actor [[Emilio Fernández|Emilio "El Indio" Fernández]].<ref name=":0">{{cite web |url=http://abcnews.go.com/ABC_Univision/Entertainment/meet-emilio-fernandez-face-oscars/story?id=18550020 |title=Meet the Mexican Model Behind the Oscar Statue |last= |first= |date= |website= |publisher= |accessdate=2016-02-27 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303023939/http://abcnews.go.com/ABC_Univision/Entertainment/meet-emilio-fernandez-face-oscars/story?id=18550020 |archivedate=3 March 2016 }}</ref> Sculptor [[George Stanley (sculptor)|George Stanley]] (who also did the Muse Fountain at the [[Hollywood Bowl]]) sculpted [[Cedric Gibbons]]' design. The statuettes presented at the initial ceremonies were gold-plated solid bronze. Within a few years the bronze was abandoned in favor of [[Britannia metal]], a pewter-like alloy which is then plated in copper, nickel silver, and finally, 24-karat gold.<ref>{{cite web|title=Oscar Statuette |url=http://www.oscars.org/oscars/statuette |website=Oscars.org {{!}} Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences |access-date=2016-01-15 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115015214/http://www.oscars.org/oscars/statuette |archivedate=15 January 2016 }}</ref> Due to a metal shortage during World War II, Oscars were made of painted plaster for three years. Following the war, the Academy invited recipients to redeem the plaster figures for gold-plated metal ones.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.oscars.com/legacy/?pn=statuette&page=2|title= Oscar Statuette: Manufacturing, Shipping and Repairs|publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences|accessdate = 13 April 2007 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070927134712/http://www.oscars.com/legacy/?pn=statuette&page=2 |archivedate = 27 September 2007}}</ref> The only addition to the Oscar since it was created is a minor streamlining of the base. The original Oscar mold was cast in 1928 at the [[C.W. Shumway & Sons]] Foundry in [[Batavia, Illinois]], which also contributed to casting the molds for the [[Vince Lombardi Trophy]] and [[Emmy Award]]'s statuettes. From 1983 to 2015,<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.boston.com/bigpicture/2009/02/at_work.html#photo14| title=Eladio Gonzalez sands and buffs Oscar #3453| work=Boston Globe| date=20 February 2009| accessdate=21 February 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090223085458/http://www.boston.com/bigpicture/2009/02/at_work.html| archivedate= 23 February 2009 | deadurl= no}}</ref> approximately 50 Oscars in a tin alloy with gold plating were made each year in Chicago by Illinois manufacturer [[R.S. Owens & Company]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.foxnews.com/printer_friendly_wires/2009Jan26/0,4675,OscarGoldplatedJourney,00.html|title=Oscar 3453 is 'born' in Chicago factory|last=Babwin|first=Don|date=27 January 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140310092910/http://www.foxnews.com/printer_friendly_wires/2009Jan26/0%2C4675%2COscarGoldplatedJourney%2C00.html|archivedate=10 March 2014|deadurl=no|agency=Associated Press}} (''[https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2245&dat=20090127&id=n_UlAAAAIBAJ&sjid=ff0FAAAAIBAJ&pg=6931,2001573 Lodi News-Sentinel]'')<!--DEAD LINK url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5jL1cVq-oMS6qeuUPUWfAQpf85fewD95V3MV80--><!--DEAD LINK archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5e8JdSe3B |archivedate=27 January 2009--></ref> It takes between three and four weeks to manufacture 50 statuettes.<ref name=":0" /> In 2016, the Academy returned to bronze as the core metal of the statuettes, handing manufacturing duties to [[Walden, New York]]-based Polich Tallix Fine Art Foundry.<ref name="Oscarstatuettes2016">{{cite web|title=THE ACADEMY AND POLICH TALLIX FINE ART FOUNDRY REVIVE THE ART OF OSCAR STATUETTES |url=http://www.oscars.org/news/academy-and-polich-tallix-fine-art-foundry-revive-art-oscarr-statuettes |publisher=The Academy |work=Natalie Kojen |date=16 February 2016 |accessdate=18 February 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160218215850/http://www.oscars.org/news/academy-and-polich-tallix-fine-art-foundry-revive-art-oscarr-statuettes |archivedate=18 February 2016 }}</ref><ref>http://www.recordonline.com/news/20170127/foundry-seeks-tax-breaks-in-move-to-walden</ref> While based on a digital scan of an original 1929 Oscar, the statuettes retain their modern-era dimensions and black pedestal. Cast in liquid bronze from [[3D-printed]] ceramic molds and polished, they are then electroplated in 24-karat gold by [[Brooklyn, New York]]–based Epner Technology. The time required to produce 50 such statuettes is roughly three months.<ref>{{cite web|title=Oscar Statuette Gets a Face-Lift – This year's statuettes will be produced by Polich Tallix Fine Art Foundry and will be hand-cast in bronze before receiving their 24-karat gold finish. |url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/oscar-statuette-gets-a-face-866321 |work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] |author=Gregg Kilday |date=16 February 2016 |accessdate=18 February 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505081009/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/oscar-statuette-gets-a-face-866321 |archivedate=5 May 2016 }}</ref> R.S. Owens is expected to continue producing other awards for the Academy and service existing Oscars that need replating.<ref>{{cite web|title=OSCAR STATUETTES, longtime creation of Chicago-based company, will now be made in New York |url=http://chicago.suntimes.com/entertainment/oscar-statuettes-longtime-creations-of-chicago-based-company-will-now-be-made-in-new-york/ |publisher=[[Chicago Sun-Times]] |work=Miriam Di Nunzio |date=16 February 2016 |accessdate=18 February 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308120546/http://chicago.suntimes.com/entertainment/oscar-statuettes-longtime-creations-of-chicago-based-company-will-now-be-made-in-new-york/ |archivedate=8 March 2016 }}</ref> ===Naming=== The origin of the name ''Oscar'' is disputed. One biography of [[Bette Davis]], who was a president of the Academy, claims she named the Oscar after her first husband, band leader Harmon Oscar Nelson.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000012/bio|title= Bette Davis biography|publisher=The Internet Movie Database|accessdate = 13 April 2007| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070308152931/http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000012/bio| archivedate= 8 March 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Another claimed origin is the Academy's Executive Secretary, [[Margaret Herrick]], first saw the award in 1931 and made reference to the statuette's reminding her of her "Uncle Oscar" (a nickname for her cousin Oscar Pierce).<ref>"Oscar" in the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', June 2008 Draft Revision.</ref> Columnist Sidney Skolsky was present during Herrick's naming and seized the name in his byline, "Employees have affectionately dubbed their famous statuette 'Oscar'." <ref>{{cite book| last = Levy| first = Emanuel| title = All About Oscar: The History and Politics of the Academy Awards| year = 2003| publisher = Burns & Oates| isbn = 978-0-8264-1452-6}}</ref> One of the earliest mentions of the term ''Oscar'' dates to a [[Time (magazine)|''Time'' magazine]] article about the 1934 [[6th Academy Awards]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,747239,00.html |work=Time |title=Cinema: Oscars |date=26 March 1934 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130813182253/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C747239%2C00.html |archivedate=13 August 2013 |deadurl=yes }}</ref> [[Walt Disney]] also thanked the Academy for his Oscar as early as 1932.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://d23.disney.go.com/news/2010/03/oscar-winning-walt/|title= Oscar®-Winning Walt|publisher=Disney.Go.com|accessdate = 25 February 2012|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20130116193800/http://d23.disney.go.com/news/2010/03/oscar-winning-walt/|archivedate= 16 January 2013}}</ref> The trophy officially received the name "Oscar" in 1939 by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. ===Engraving=== To prevent information identifying the Oscar winners from leaking ahead of the ceremony, Oscar statuettes presented at the ceremony have blank baseplates. Until 2010, winners returned their statuettes to the Academy, and had to wait several weeks to have their names inscribed on their respective Oscars. Since 2010, winners have had the option of having engraved nameplates applied to their statuettes at an inscription-processing station at the Governor's Ball, a party held immediately after the Oscar ceremony. The R.S. Owens company has engraved nameplates made before the ceremony, bearing the name of every potential winner. The nameplates for the non-winning nominees are later recycled.<ref>{{citation |title=Oscar statues to include engraved names |author=Greg Kilday |date=9 February 2010 |work=The Hollywood Reporter |url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/oscar-statues-include-engraved-names-20476 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150412143119/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/oscar-statues-include-engraved-names-20476 |archivedate=12 April 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=Governors Ball Secrets: Welcome to the 'Engraving Station,' Where Oscar Statuettes Get Personalized |url=http://parade.com/266251/stevedaly/governors-ball-secrets-welcome-to-the-engraving-station-where-oscar-statuettes-get-personalized/ |author=Steve Daly |date=28 February 2014 |publisher=Parade Magazine |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227170517/http://parade.com/266251/stevedaly/governors-ball-secrets-welcome-to-the-engraving-station-where-oscar-statuettes-get-personalized/ |archivedate=27 February 2015 }}</ref> ===Ownership of Oscar statuettes=== Since 1950, the statuettes have been legally encumbered by the requirement that neither winners nor their heirs may sell the statuettes without first offering to sell them back to the Academy for US$1. If a winner refuses to agree to this stipulation, then the Academy keeps the statuette. Academy Awards not protected by this agreement have been sold in public auctions and private deals for six-figure sums.<ref>(Levy 2003, pg 28)</ref> In December 2011, [[Orson Welles]]' 1941 Oscar for ''[[Citizen Kane]]'' ([[Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay]]) was put up for auction, after his heirs won a 2004 court decision contending that Welles did not sign any agreement to return the statue to the Academy.<ref>{{cite news|url = http://www.cnn.com/2011/12/12/showbiz/orson-welles-oscar/index.html|title = Orson Welles' 'Citizen Kane' Oscar for sale|publisher = CNN|first = Alan|last = Duke|date = 12 December 2011|accessdate = 12 December 2011|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20131112025602/http://www.cnn.com/2011/12/12/showbiz/orson-welles-oscar/index.html|archivedate = 12 November 2013}}</ref> On 20 December 2011, it sold in an online auction for US$861,542.<ref name="Welles' Oscar sold">{{cite news|title=Orson Welles' 'Citizen Kane' Oscar brings $861,000|url=http://www.cnn.com/2011/12/21/showbiz/orson-welles-oscar/index.html|accessdate=7 April 2013|newspaper=CNN|date=21 December 2011|author=Duke, Alan|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116121806/http://www.cnn.com/2011/12/21/showbiz/orson-welles-oscar/index.html|archivedate=16 January 2014}}</ref> In 1992, [[Harold Russell]] needed money for his wife's medical expenses. In a controversial decision, he consigned his 1946 Oscar for Best Supporting Actor for ''[[The Best Years of Our Lives]]'' to Herman Darvick Autograph Auctions, and on 6 August 1992, in [[New York City]], the Oscar sold to a private collector for $60,500. Since he won the award before 1950, he was not required to offer it to the Academy first. Russell defended his decision, saying, "I don't know why anybody would be critical. My wife's health is much more important than sentimental reasons. The movie will be here, even if Oscar isn't." Harold Russell is the only Academy Award-winning actor to ever sell an Oscar.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/12/movies/redcarpet/id-really-like-to-thank-my-pal-at-the-auction-house.html|title=I'd Really Like to Thank My Pal at the Auction House|last=Rothman|first=Heathcliff|date=12 February 2006|work=The New York Times|access-date=2017-09-20|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> While the Oscar is owned by the recipient, it is essentially not on the open market.<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.forbes.com/2005/02/28/cx_lr_0228oscarsales.html|title = Psst! Wanna Buy An Oscar?|work=Forbes |author=Lacey Rose|date=28 February 2005|accessdate =13 April 2007|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111214351/http://www.forbes.com/2005/02/28/cx_lr_0228oscarsales.html|archivedate=11 November 2013}}</ref> [[Mike Todd|Michael Todd's]] grandson tried to sell Todd's Oscar statuette to a movie prop collector in 1989, but the Academy won the legal battle by getting a permanent injunction. Although some Oscar sales transactions have been successful, some buyers have subsequently returned the statuettes to the Academy, which keeps them in its treasury.<ref>(Levy 2003, pg 29)</ref> ==Nomination== Since 2004, Academy Award nomination results have been announced to the public in mid-January. Prior to that, the results were announced in early February. ===Voters=== The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), a professional honorary organization, maintains a voting membership of over 8,000 {{as of|lc=y|2018}}.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.refinery29.com/2018/02/190829/academy-members-women-oscar-voters|title=How Many Women Are Actually Voting For The Oscar Winners?|access-date=2018-04-18|language=en}}</ref> Academy membership is divided into different branches, with each representing a different discipline in film production. Actors constitute the largest voting bloc, numbering 1,311 members (22 percent) of the Academy's composition. Votes have been certified by the auditing firm [[PricewaterhouseCoopers]] (and its predecessor [[Price Waterhouse]]) for the past 83 annual awards ceremonies. The firm mails the ballots of eligible nominees to members of the Academy in December to reflect the previous eligible year with a due date sometime in January of the next year, then tabulates the votes in a process that takes thousands of hours.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://mentalfloss.com/article/54560/how-are-oscar-nominees-chosen|title=How Are Oscar Nominees Chosen?|date=2017-01-24|access-date=2018-07-23|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/4769730.stm|title = The men who are counting on Oscar|publisher=BBC News|author=Jackie Finlay|date=3 March 2006|accessdate =13 April 2007| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070319204536/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/4769730.stm| archivedate= 19 March 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>[http://www.marketwatch.com/story/meet-the-two-people-who-already-know-the-oscar-winners-2017-02-24?mod=mw_share_twitter Meet the only two people in the world who already know all the Oscar winners {{!}} Market Watch] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170227150240/http://www.marketwatch.com/story/meet-the-two-people-who-already-know-the-oscar-winners-2017-02-24?mod=mw_share_twitter |date=27 February 2017 }}</ref> All AMPAS members must be invited to join by the Board of Governors, on behalf of Academy Branch Executive Committees. Membership eligibility may be achieved by a competitive nomination or a member may submit a name based on other significant contributions to the field of motion pictures. New membership proposals are considered annually. The Academy does not publicly disclose its membership, although as recently as 2007 press releases have announced the names of those who have been invited to join. The 2007 release also stated that it has just under 6,000 voting members. While the membership had been growing, stricter policies have kept its size steady since then.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.oscars.org/press/pressreleases/2007/07.06.18.html|title = Academy Invites 115 to Become Members|publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences|accessdate = 4 September 2007 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070827031611/http://www.oscars.org/press/pressreleases/2007/07.06.18.html |archivedate = 27 August 2007}}</ref> In 2012, the results of a study conducted by the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' were published describing the demographic breakdown of approximately 88% of AMPAS' voting membership. Of the 5,100+ active voters confirmed, 94% were Caucasian, 77% were male, and 54% were found to be over the age of 60. 33% of voting members are former nominees (14%) and winners (19%).<ref>{{cite news|last=Horn |first=John |title=Unmasking the Academy |url=http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/news/movies/academy/la-et-unmasking-oscar-academy-project-html,0,7473284.htmlstory |accessdate=15 October 2013 |newspaper=The Los Angeles Times |date=19 February 2012 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307133844/http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/news/movies/academy/la-et-unmasking-oscar-academy-project-html%2C0%2C7473284.htmlstory |archivedate=7 March 2014 |deadurl=yes }}</ref> In May 2011, the Academy sent a letter advising its 6,000 or so voting members that an online system for Oscar voting would be implemented in 2013.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/05/23/electronic-voting-comes-to-the-oscars-finally | work=The New York Times | first=Michael | last=Cieply | title=Electronic Voting Comes to The Oscars (Finally) | date=23 May 2011| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105075132/http://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/05/23/electronic-voting-comes-to-the-oscars-finally/ | archivedate=5 January 2014}}</ref> ===Rules=== According to Rules 2 and 3 of the official Academy Awards Rules, a film must open in the previous calendar year, from midnight at the start of 1 January to midnight at the end of 31 December, in [[Los Angeles County, California]], and play for seven consecutive days, to qualify (except for the Best Foreign Language Film, Best Documentary Feature, and Best Documentary Short Subject).<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/rules/rule02.html |title = Rule Two: Eligibility |publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences |accessdate = 13 April 2007 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20131110071910/http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/rules/rule02.html |archivedate = 10 November 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://submissions.oscars.org/FAQ.aspx |title=Oscars Submission FAQ |date= |accessdate=2015-03-16 |website= |publisher= |last= |first= |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150401230002/https://submissions.oscars.org/FAQ.aspx |archivedate=1 April 2015 }}</ref> The Best Foreign Language Film award does not require a U.S. release. The Best Documentary Feature award requires week-long releases in ''both'' Los Angeles County ''and'' [[New York City]] during the previous calendar year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oscars.org/sites/oscars/files/90aa_doc_features.pdf |title=Documentary Feature |work=90th Academy Awards: Special Rules for the Documentary Awards |publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences |accessdate=26 April 2017 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170426153538/http://www.oscars.org/sites/oscars/files/90aa_doc_features.pdf |archivedate=26 April 2017 }}</ref> The Best Documentary Short Subject award has noticeably different eligibility rules from most other competitive awards. First, the qualifying period for release does not coincide with a calendar year, instead covering a one-year period starting on 1 September and ending on 31 August of the calendar year before the ceremony. Second, there are multiple methods of qualification. The main method is a week-long theatrical release in ''either'' Los Angeles County ''or'' New York City during the eligibility period. Films also can qualify by winning specified awards at one of a number of competitive film festivals designated by the Academy. Finally, a film that is selected as a gold, silver, or bronze medal winner in the Documentary category of the immediately previous Student Academy Awards is also eligible.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oscars.org/sites/oscars/files/90aa_short_subject.pdf |title=Documentary Feature |work=90th Academy Awards: Special Rules for the Documentary Awards |publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences |accessdate=26 April 2017 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170426153720/http://www.oscars.org/sites/oscars/files/90aa_short_subject.pdf |archivedate=26 April 2017 }}</ref> For example, the 2009 [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]] winner, ''[[The Hurt Locker]]'', was actually first released in 2008, but did not qualify for the [[81st Academy Awards|2008 awards]] as it did not play its Oscar-qualifying run in Los Angeles until mid-2009, thus qualifying for the [[82nd Academy Awards|2009 awards]]. Foreign films must include English subtitles, and each country can submit only one film per year.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.youbioit.com/en/article/shared-information/949/academy-and-its-oscar-awards |title = The Academy and its Oscar Awards – Reminder List of Eligible Releases |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20131111232741/http://www.youbioit.com/en/article/shared-information/949/academy-and-its-oscar-awards |archivedate = 11 November 2013 }}</ref> Rule 2 states that a film must be feature-length, defined as a minimum of 40&nbsp;minutes, except for short-subject awards, and it must exist either on a [[35 mm film|35 mm]] or [[70 mm film]] print or in 24&nbsp;frame/s or 48&nbsp;frame/s [[progressive scan]] [[digital cinema]] format with a minimum projector resolution of 2048 by 1080 pixels.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.oscars.org/sites/default/files/87aa_rules.pdf|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20141021054540/http://www.oscars.org/sites/default/files/87aa_rules.pdf|archivedate = 21 October 2014|title = Academy Award Rules|date = |accessdate = 2015-03-17|website = |publisher = |last = |first =}}</ref> Effective with the [[90th Academy Awards]], presented in 2018, multi-part and limited series will be ineligible for the Best Documentary Feature award. This followed the win of ''[[O.J.: Made in America]]'', an eight-hour presentation that was screened in a limited release before being broadcast in five parts on [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] and [[ESPN]], in that category in [[89th Academy Awards|2017]]. The Academy's announcement of the new rule made no direct mention of that film.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://variety.com/2017/film/news/oscars-new-rules-documentary-oj-made-in-america-barred-1202026406/ |title=Oscars: New Rules Bar Multi-Part Documentaries Like ‘O.J.: Made in America’ |first=Dave |last=McNary |publisher=''Variety'' |date=7 April 2017 |accessdate=2017-05-30 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170415012418/http://variety.com/2017/film/news/oscars-new-rules-documentary-oj-made-in-america-barred-1202026406/ |archivedate=15 April 2017 }}</ref> Producers must submit an Official Screen Credits online form before the deadline; in case it is not submitted by the defined deadline, the film will be ineligible for Academy Awards in any year. The form includes the production credits for all related categories. Then, each form is checked and put in a Reminder List of Eligible Releases. In late December ballots and copies of the Reminder List of Eligible Releases are mailed to around 6,000 active members. For most categories, members from each of the branches vote to determine the nominees only in their respective categories (i.e. only directors vote for directors, writers for writers, actors for actors, etc.). In the special case of Best Picture, all voting members are eligible to select the nominees. In all major categories, a variant of the [[single transferable vote]] is used, with each member casting a ballot with up to five nominees (ten for Best Picture) ranked preferentially.<ref name="TheEnvelope">{{cite web|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061017160343/http://theenvelope.latimes.com/awards/oscars/env-oscarvote7jan07%2C0%2C6919642%2Cprint.story?coll=env-home-headlines |archivedate=17 October 2006 |url=http://theenvelope.latimes.com/awards/oscars/env-oscarvote7jan07,0,6919642,print.story?coll=env-home-headlines |title=Eight things every voter (and fan) should know about Oscar's decidedly unique nomination process. |first=Steve |last=Pond |accessdate=2007-01-27 |date=7 January 2006 |publisher=[[Los Angeles Times]] |deadurl=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ew.com/article/2011/01/27/oscar-voter-ballot-reader-poll-results |title=Oscars: The wacky way the Academy counts votes, and the results of our 'If You Were an Oscar Voter' poll |last=Young |first=John |date=27 January 2011 |work=[[Entertainment Weekly]] |accessdate=29 February 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506042043/http://www.ew.com/article/2011/01/27/oscar-voter-ballot-reader-poll-results |archivedate=6 May 2016 }}</ref><ref name="vox" /> In certain categories, including Foreign Film, Documentary and Animated Feature, nominees are selected by special screening committees made up of members from all branches. In most categories the winner is selected from among the nominees by [[plurality voting]] of all members.<ref name="TheEnvelope" /><ref name="vox" /> Since 2009, the Best Picture winner has been chosen by [[instant runoff voting]].<ref name="vox">{{cite press release|url=http://www.oscars.org/press/pressreleases/2009/20090831a.html|title=Preferential Voting Extended to Best Picture on Final Ballot for 2009 Oscars|date=31 August 2009|work=[[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]]|accessdate=29 February 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091010053612/http://www.oscars.org/press/pressreleases/2009/20090831a.html|archivedate=10 October 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/2015/2/22/8084239/oscars-2015-ballot |title=The Oscars' messed-up voting process, explained |last=VanDerWerff |first=Todd on |date=22 February 2015 |work=[[Vox (website)|Vox]] |accessdate=29 February 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225211043/http://www.vox.com/2015/2/22/8084239/oscars-2015-ballot |archivedate=25 February 2016 }}</ref> Since 2013, re-weighted [[range voting]] has been used to select the nominees for the [[Academy Award for Best Visual Effects|Best Visual Effects]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oscars.org/sites/oscars/files/89aa_rules.pdf#page=32 |title=89TH ANNUAL ACADEMY AWARDS OF MERIT |last= |first= |date=2016 |website= |publisher= |at=RULE TWENTY-TWO SPECIAL RULES FOR THE VISUAL EFFECTS AWARD |access-date= |quote=Five productions shall be selected using reweighted range voting to become the nominations for final voting for the Visual Effects award. |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202000636/http://www.oscars.org/sites/oscars/files/89aa_rules.pdf |archivedate=2 February 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://rangevoting.org/RRV.html |title=RangeVoting.org - Reweighted Range Voting - a PR voting method that feels like range voting |website=rangevoting.org |access-date=2017-01-13 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170116092648/http://www.rangevoting.org/RRV.html |archivedate=16 January 2017 }}</ref> Film companies will spend as much as several million dollars on marketing to awards voters for a movie in the running for Best Picture, in attempts to improve chances of receiving Oscars and other movie awards conferred in [[Oscar season]]. The Academy enforces rules to limit overt campaigning by its members so as to try to eliminate excesses and prevent the process from becoming undignified. It has an awards czar on staff who advises members on allowed practices and levies penalties on offenders.<ref>{{cite book |title=Marketing to Moviegoers: A Handbook of Strategies and Tactics|first=Robert |last=Marich |publisher=[[Southern Illinois University Press]] |edition=3rd|year=2013 |pages=235–48}}</ref> For example, a producer of the 2009 Best Picture nominee ''[[The Hurt Locker]]'' was disqualified as a producer in the category when he contacted associates urging them to vote for his film and not another that was seen as the front-runner (''The Hurt Locker'' eventually won). ==Awards ceremonies== {{See also|List of Academy Awards ceremonies}} ===Telecast=== [[File:31st Acad Awards.jpg|thumb|31st Academy Awards Presentations,<br>[[Pantages Theatre (Hollywood)|Pantages Theatre]], Hollywood, 1959]] [[File:81st Academy Awards Ceremony.JPG|thumb|81st Academy Awards Presentations,<br>[[Dolby Theatre]], Hollywood, 2009]] The major awards are presented at a live televised ceremony, commonly in late February or early March following the relevant calendar year, and six weeks after the announcement of the nominees. It is the culmination of the film awards season, which usually begins during November or December of the previous year. This is an elaborate extravaganza, with the invited guests walking up the red carpet in the creations of the most prominent fashion designers of the day. [[Black tie]] dress is the most common outfit for men, although fashion may dictate not wearing a [[bow-tie]], and musical performers sometimes do not adhere to this. (The artists who recorded the nominees for Best Original Song quite often perform those songs live at the awards ceremony, and the fact that they are performing is often used to promote the television broadcast.) The Academy Awards is the only awards show televised live in the United States (excluding Hawaii), Canada, and the United Kingdom, and gathers millions of viewers elsewhere throughout the world. The Oscars were first televised in [[25th Academy Awards|1953]] by [[NBC]], which continued to broadcast the event until [[32nd Academy Awards|1960]], when [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] took over, televising the festivities (including the first color broadcast of the event in [[38th Academy Awards|1966]]) through [[42nd Academy Awards|1970]]. NBC regained the rights for five years {{nowrap|(1971–75),}} then ABC resumed broadcast duties in [[48th Academy Awards|1976]] and its current contract with the Academy runs through 2028.<ref>{{cite news|url =http://www.oscars.org/news/abc-signs-expansive-new-agreement-broadcast-oscarsr-hollywoods-biggest-entertainment-ceremony|title=ABC SIGNS EXPANSIVE NEW AGREEMENT TO BROADCAST THE OSCARS®, HOLLYWOOD'S BIGGEST ENTERTAINMENT CEREMONY, THROUGH 2028|publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences |date= 31 August 2016|accessdate = 17 February 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202130914/https://www.oscars.org/news/abc-signs-expansive-new-agreement-broadcast-oscarsr-hollywoods-biggest-entertainment-ceremony|archivedate = 2 February 2017}}</ref> The Academy has also produced condensed versions of the ceremony for broadcast in international markets (especially those outside of the Americas) in more desirable local timeslots. The ceremony was broadcast live internationally for the first time via satellite since 1970, but only two South American countries, Chile and Brazil, purchased the rights to air the broadcast. By that time, the television rights to the Academy Awards had been sold in 50 countries. A decade later, the rights were already being sold to 60 countries, and by [[56th Academy Awards|1984]], the TV rights to the Awards were licensed in 76 countries. The ceremonies were moved up from late March/early April to late February since [[76th Academy Awards|2004]] to help disrupt and shorten the intense [[For Your Consideration (advertising)|lobbying and ad campaigns]] associated with [[Oscar season]] in the film industry. Another reason was because of the growing TV ratings success coinciding with the [[NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament|NCAA Basketball Tournament]], which would cut into the Academy Awards audience. (In [[48th Academy Awards|1976]] and [[49th Academy Awards|1977]], ABC's regained Oscars were moved from Tuesday to Monday and went directly opposite NBC's NCAA title game.) The earlier date is also to the advantage of ABC, as it now usually occurs during the highly profitable and important February [[sweeps]] period. Some years, the ceremony is moved into first Sunday of March in order to avoid clash with the [[Winter Olympic Games]]. Another reason for the move to late February and early March is also to avoid the awards ceremony occurring so close to the religious holidays of [[Passover]] and [[Easter]], which for decades had been a grievance from members and the general public. Advertising is somewhat restricted, however, as traditionally no movie studios or competitors of official Academy Award sponsors may advertise during the telecast. The production of the Academy Awards telecast currently holds the distinction of winning the most [[Emmy Awards|Emmys]] in history, with 47 wins and 195 nominations overall since that award's own launch in [[21st Academy Awards|1949]].<ref>{{cite news|url = http://goldderby.latimes.com/awards_goldderby/2010/07/emmys-love-for-oscars-continues-with-12-nominations.html|title = Emmys love for Oscars continues with 12 nominations |work=Los Angeles Times |author=Tom O'Neil|date= 12 July 2010|accessdate = 13 August 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100819172053/http://goldderby.latimes.com/awards_goldderby/2010/07/emmys-love-for-oscars-continues-with-12-nominations.html| archivedate= 19 August 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> After many years of being held on Mondays at 9:00&nbsp;pm [[Eastern Time Zone|Eastern]]/6:00 p.m [[Pacific Time Zone|Pacific]], since the [[71st Academy Awards|1999 ceremonies]], it was moved to Sundays at 8:30&nbsp;pm ET/5:30&nbsp;pm PT.<ref>{{cite news|url = https://www.nytimes.com/1998/04/08/movies/tv-notes-moving-oscar-night.html|title = TV Notes; Moving Oscar Night|work=The New York Times |author=Bill Carter|date= 8 April 1998|accessdate = 8 March 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140304185231/http://www.nytimes.com/1998/04/08/movies/tv-notes-moving-oscar-night.html|archivedate=4 March 2014}}</ref> The reasons given for the move were that more viewers would tune in on Sundays, that Los Angeles rush-hour traffic jams could be avoided, and an earlier start time would allow viewers on the East Coast to go to bed earlier.<ref>[https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1955&dat=19980701&id=-CsiAAAAIBAJ&sjid=eqYFAAAAIBAJ&pg=6637,43314 Academy Awards will move to Sunday night] Reading Eagle – 1 July 1998; From ''Google News Archive''</ref> For many years the film industry opposed a Sunday broadcast because it would cut into the weekend box office.<ref>[https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1980&dat=19990319&id=sKEiAAAAIBAJ&sjid=laoFAAAAIBAJ&pg=1224,4570799 Never Say Never: Academy Awards move to Sunday] The Item – 19 March 1999. Google News Archive.</ref> In 2010, the Academy contemplated moving the ceremony even further back into January, citing TV viewers' fatigue with the film industry's long awards season. However, such an accelerated schedule would dramatically decrease the voting period for its members, to the point where some voters would only have time to view the contending films streamed on their computers (as opposed to traditionally receiving the films and ballots in the mail). Furthermore, a January ceremony on Sunday would clash with [[National Football League]] playoff games.<ref>{{cite news|url = http://articles.latimes.com/2010/oct/05/entertainment/la-et-oscars-20101005|title = Academy looks to move 2012 Oscar ceremony up several weeks |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |author=John Horn|date= 5 October 2010|accessdate = 28 February 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140308124541/http://articles.latimes.com/2010/oct/05/entertainment/la-et-oscars-20101005|archivedate=8 March 2014}}</ref> Originally scheduled for 8 April 1968, the [[40th Academy Awards]] ceremony was postponed for two days, because of the [[Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.|assassination]] of [[Martin Luther King Jr.|Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.]]. On 30 March 1981, the [[53rd Academy Awards]] was postponed for one day, after [[Attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan|the shooting]] of President [[Ronald Reagan]] and others in [[Washington, D.C.]] In 1993, an ''In Memoriam'' segment was introduced,<ref name="fawcett">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2010/mar/10/oscars-farrah-fawcett|title=Farrah Fawcett:Oscars director apologises for 'In Memoriam' omission|work=The Guardian |accessdate=8 March 2010 | location=London | first=Ben | last=Child | date=10 March 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100414020632/http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2010/mar/10/oscars-farrah-fawcett| archivedate= 14 April 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> honoring those who had made a significant contribution to cinema who had died in the preceding 12 months, a selection compiled by a small committee of Academy members.<ref>{{cite news|first=Sandy |last=Cohen |title=Oscar's 'In Memoriam' segment is touching to watch, painful to make |url=https://www.usatoday.com/life/movies/movieawards/oscars/2010-03-03-oscar-memorial-segment_N.htm |agency=[[Associated Press]] |work=USA Today |date=3 March 2010 |accessdate=8 March 2010 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100306133003/http://www.usatoday.com/life/movies/movieawards/oscars/2010-03-03-oscar-memorial-segment_N.htm |archivedate=6 March 2010 }}</ref> This segment has drawn criticism over the years for the omission of some names. Criticism was also levied for many years regarding another aspect, with the segment having a "[[popularity contest]]" feel as the audience varied their applause to those who had died by the subject's cultural impact; the applause has since been muted during the telecast, and the audience is discouraged from clapping during the segment and giving silent reflection instead. In terms of broadcast length, the ceremony generally averages three and a half hours. The first Oscars, in 1929, lasted 15&nbsp;minutes. At the other end of the spectrum, the 2002 ceremony lasted four hours and twenty-three minutes.<ref>Ehbar, Ned (28 February 2014). "Did you know?" ''Metro''. New York City. p. 18.</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,48650,00.html |title=Halle Berry, Denzel Washington Win Big |work=[[Fox News]] |publisher=[[21st Century Fox]] |date=25 March 2002 |accessdate=4 March 2017 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514053517/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0%2C2933%2C48650%2C00.html |archivedate=14 May 2012 }}</ref> In 2010, the organizers of the Academy Awards announced winners' [[Oscar speech|acceptance speeches]] must not run past 45&nbsp;seconds. This, according to organizer Bill Mechanic, was to ensure the elimination of what he termed "the single most hated thing on the show" – overly long and embarrassing displays of emotion.<ref>{{cite news | url = https://www.theguardian.com/film/2010/feb/16/oscar-winners-speeches-cut | location=London | work=The Guardian | title=Cut … all change at Oscars as winners are given just 45&nbsp;seconds to say thanks | first=Sam | last=Jones | date=16 February 2010| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110128143126/http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2010/feb/16/oscar-winners-speeches-cut | archivedate=28 January 2011}}</ref> In 2016, in a further effort to streamline speeches, winners' dedications were displayed on an on-screen [[news ticker|ticker]].<ref name="usatoday-thankyouscroll">{{cite web|title=Can the 'thank-you scroll' save Oscar speeches? |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/movies/2016/02/25/thank-you-scroll-oscars-telecast/80840490/ |website=USA Today |accessdate=29 February 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160228195632/http://www.usatoday.com/story/life/movies/2016/02/25/thank-you-scroll-oscars-telecast/80840490/ |archivedate=28 February 2016 }}</ref> During the 2018 ceremony, host [[Jimmy Kimmel]] acknowledged how long the ceremony had become, by announcing that he would give a brand-new [[jet ski]] to whoever gave the shortest speech of the night (a reward won by [[Mark Bridges (costume designer)|Mark Bridges]] when accepting his [[Academy Award for Best Costume Design|Best Costume Design]] award for ''[[Phantom Thread]]'').<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://time.com/5185611/oscars-jet-ski/|title=This Costume Designer Won Jimmy Kimmel's Jet Ski at the Oscars|website=Time|language=en|access-date=2018-03-05}}</ref> Although still dominant in ratings, the viewership of the Academy Awards have steadily dropped; the [[88th Academy Awards]] were the lowest-rated in the past eight years (although with increases in male and 18-49 viewership), while the show itself also faced mixed reception. Following the show, ''[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]'' reported that ABC was, in negotiating an extension to its contract to broadcast the Oscars, seeking to have more creative control over the broadcast itself. Currently and nominally, AMPAS is responsible for most aspects of the telecast, including the choice of production staff and hosting, although ABC is allowed to have some input on their decisions.<ref name="variety-struggleabc">{{cite web|title=ABC's Oscar Contract Renegotiations: Who'll Get Creative Control? |url=https://variety.com/2016/tv/news/abc-academy-oscars-deal-renegotiations-oscars-2016-1201718452/ |website=Variety |accessdate=2 March 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160302000335/http://variety.com/2016/tv/news/abc-academy-oscars-deal-renegotiations-oscars-2016-1201718452/ |archivedate=2 March 2016 }}</ref> In August 2016, AMPAS extended its contract with ABC through 2028: the contract neither contains any notable changes, nor gives ABC any further creative control over the telecast.<ref name="variety-2028">{{cite web|title=Inside the Oscars Deal: What it Means for ABC and the Academy |url=https://variety.com/2016/tv/news/abc-oscars-deal-status-quo-1201849487/ |website=Variety |accessdate=2 September 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160901184910/http://variety.com/2016/tv/news/abc-oscars-deal-status-quo-1201849487/ |archivedate=1 September 2016 }}</ref> ===TV ratings=== Historically, the "Oscarcast" has pulled in a bigger haul when box-office hits are favored to win the Best Picture trophy. More than 57.25 million viewers tuned to the telecast for the [[70th Academy Awards]] in 1998, the year of ''[[Titanic (1997 film)|Titanic]]'', which generated close to US$600 million at the North American box office pre-Oscars.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/businesstechnology/2004196530_oscarads23.html | work=The Seattle Times | title=Academy's red carpet big stage for advertisers | first=Meg | last=James | date=23 February 2008| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111117115833/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/businesstechnology/2004196530_oscarads23.html | archivedate=17 November 2011}}</ref> The [[76th Academy Awards]] ceremony in which ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King]]'' (pre-telecast box office earnings of US$368 million) received 11 Awards including Best Picture drew 43.56 million viewers.<ref name="usatoday_oscar">{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/life/movies/movieawards/oscars/2005-01-26-oscar-telecast_x.htm |work=USA Today |title=Oscars lack blockbuster to lure TV viewers |date=26 January 2005 |first=Scott |last=Bowles |accessdate=8 November 2006 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060915033557/http://www.usatoday.com/life/movies/movieawards/oscars/2005-01-26-oscar-telecast_x.htm |archivedate=15 September 2006 }}</ref> The most watched ceremony based on [[Nielsen ratings]] to date, however, was the [[42nd Academy Awards]] (Best Picture ''[[Midnight Cowboy]]'') which drew a 43.4% household rating on 7 April 1970.<ref>{{cite news|author=Justin Oppelaar |url=http://www.variety.com/index.asp?layout=chart_pass&charttype=chart_topshowsalltime |title=Charts and Data: Top 100 TV Shows of All Time by '&#39;Variety'&#39; |publisher=Variety.com |date=9 October 2002 |accessdate=2014-02-26|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118083655/http://www.variety.com/index.asp?layout=chart_pass&charttype=chart_topshowsalltime |archivedate=18 January 2012}}</ref> By contrast, ceremonies honoring films that have not performed well at the box office tend to show weaker ratings. The [[78th Academy Awards]] which awarded low-budgeted, independent film ''[[Crash (2004 film)|Crash]]'' (with a pre-Oscar gross of US$53.4 million) generated an audience of 38.64 million with a household rating of 22.91%.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/life/television/news/2006-03-07-nielsen-analysis_x.htm |title=Low Ratings ''Crash'' Party |work=USA Today |first=Gary |last=Levin |date=7 March 2006 |accessdate=14 April 2010 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611173534/http://www.usatoday.com/life/television/news/2006-03-07-nielsen-analysis_x.htm |archivedate=11 June 2010 }}</ref> In 2008, the [[80th Academy Awards]] telecast was watched by 31.76 million viewers on average with an 18.66% household rating, the lowest rated and least watched ceremony at the time, in spite of celebrating 80 years of the Academy Awards.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.capecodonline.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20080227/LIFE/802270307 |title=Oscar ratings worst ever |work=The Washington Post |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140330005242/http://www.capecodonline.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F20080227%2FLIFE%2F802270307 |archivedate=30 March 2014 |deadurl=yes }}</ref> The Best Picture winner of that particular ceremony was another independently financed film (''[[No Country for Old Men (film)|No Country for Old Men]]''). ==Venues== In 1929, the first Academy Awards were presented at a banquet dinner at the [[Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel]]. From 1930 to 1943, the ceremony alternated between two venues: the [[Ambassador Hotel (Los Angeles)|Ambassador Hotel]] on [[Wilshire Boulevard]] and the [[Millennium Biltmore Hotel|Biltmore Hotel]] in downtown Los Angeles. [[Grauman's Chinese Theatre]] in Hollywood then hosted the awards from 1944 to 1946, followed by the [[Shrine Auditorium]] in Los Angeles from 1947 to 1948. The [[21st Academy Awards]] in 1949 were held at the Academy Award Theatre at what was the Academy's headquarters on [[Melrose Avenue]] in Hollywood.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.oscars.org/aboutacademyawards/venues.html |title = Oscars Award Venues |publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences |accessdate = 13 April 2007 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20061212063803/http://www.oscars.org/aboutacademyawards/venues.html |archivedate = 12 December 2006}}</ref> From 1950 to 1960, the awards were presented at Hollywood's [[Pantages Theatre (Hollywood)|Pantages Theatre]]. With the advent of television, the awards from 1953 to 1957 took place simultaneously in Hollywood and New York, first at the [[Majestic Theatre (Columbus Circle)|NBC International Theatre]] (1953) and then at the [[New Century Theatre|NBC Century Theatre]], after which the ceremony took place solely in Los Angeles. The Oscars moved to the [[Santa Monica Civic Auditorium]] in [[Santa Monica, California]] in 1961. By 1969, the Academy decided to move the ceremonies back to Los Angeles, this time to the [[Dorothy Chandler Pavilion]] at the [[Los Angeles Music Center|Los Angeles County Music Center]]. In 2002, the [[Dolby Theatre]] (previously known as the Kodak Theatre) became the presentation's current venue.<ref>{{cite news|title=Oscars' home renamed Dolby Theatre |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-505245_162-57425417/oscars-home-renamed-dolby-theatre/ |publisher=[[CBS News]] |accessdate=1 May 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502081049/http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-505245_162-57425417/oscars-home-renamed-dolby-theatre/ |archivedate=2 May 2012}}</ref> {{clear}} ==Awards of Merit categories== ===Current categories=== {{Columns-list|colwidth=30em| * [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]]: since 1927/28 * [[Academy Award for Best Director|Best Director]]: since 1927/28 * [[Academy Award for Best Actor|Best Actor in a Leading Role]]: since 1927/28 * [[Academy Award for Best Actress|Best Actress in a Leading Role]]: since 1927/28 * [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Actor in a Supporting Role]]: since 1936 * [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Actress in a Supporting Role]]: since 1936 * [[Academy Award for Best Animated Feature|Best Animated Feature Film]]: since 2001 * [[Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film|Best Animated Short Film]]: since 1930/31 * [[Academy Award for Best Cinematography|Best Cinematography]]: since 1927/28 * [[Academy Award for Best Costume Design|Best Costume Design]]: since 1948 * [[Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature|Best Documentary Feature]]: since 1943 * [[Academy Award for Best Documentary (Short Subject)|Best Documentary Short Subject]]: since 1941 * [[Academy Award for Best Film Editing|Best Film Editing]]: since 1934 * [[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film|Best Foreign Language Film]]: since 1947 * [[Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film|Best Live Action Short Film]]: since 1931/32 * [[Academy Award for Best Makeup and Hairstyling|Best Makeup and Hairstyling]]: since 1981 * [[Academy Award for Best Original Score|Best Original Score]]: since 1934 * [[Academy Award for Best Original Song|Best Original Song]]: since 1934 * [[Academy Award for Best Production Design|Best Production Design]]: since 1927/28 * [[Academy Award for Best Sound Editing|Best Sound Editing]]: since 1963 * [[Academy Award for Best Sound Mixing|Best Sound Mixing]]: since 1929/30 * [[Academy Award for Best Visual Effects|Best Visual Effects]]: since 1939 * [[Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay|Best Adapted Screenplay]]: since 1927/28 * [[Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay|Best Original Screenplay]]: since 1940 }} In the first year of the awards, the Best Directing award was split into two categories (Drama and Comedy). At times, the Best Original Score award has also been split into separate categories (Drama and Comedy/Musical). From the 1930s through the 1960s, the Art Direction (now Production Design), Cinematography, and Costume Design awards were likewise split into two categories (black-and-white films and color films). Prior to 2012, the Production Design award was called Art Direction, while the Makeup and Hairstyling award was called Makeup. In August 2018, the Academy announced that several categories would not be televised live, but rather be recorded during commercial breaks and aired later in the ceremony.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/race/academy-plans-three-hour-oscars-telecast-adds-popular-film-category-1133138|title=Oscars Won't Televise All Awards, Adds Popular Film Category|last=|first=|date=|work=The Hollywood Reporter|access-date=8 August 2018|language=en}}</ref> ===Discontinued categories=== {{Columns-list|colwidth=30em| * [[Academy Award for Best Assistant Director|Best Assistant Director]]: 1932/33 to 1937 * [[Academy Award for Best Director|Best Director, Comedy Picture]]: 1927/28 * [[Academy Award for Best Director|Best Director, Dramatic Picture]]: 1927/28 * [[Academy Award for Best Dance Direction|Best Dance Direction]]: 1935 to 1937 * [[Academy Award for Best Visual Effects|Best Engineering Effects]]: 1927/28 * [[Academy Award for Best Original Score|Best Original Musical or Comedy Score]]: 1995 to 1998 * [[Academy Award for Best Original Score|Best Original Musical]]: 1984 * [[Academy Award for Best Story|Best Original Story]]: 1927/28 to 1956 * [[Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film|Best Short Subject – 1 Reel]]: 1936 to 1956 * [[Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film|Best Short Subject – 2 Reel]]: 1936 to 1956 * [[Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film|Best Short Subject – Color]]: 1936 to 1937 * [[Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film|Best Short Subject – Comedy]]: 1931/32 to 1935 * [[Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film|Best Short Subject – Novelty]]: 1931/32 to 1935 * Academy Award for Best Title Writing: 1927/28 * Academy Award for Best Unique and Artistic Production: 1927/28}} ===Proposed categories=== The Board of Governors meets each year and considers new award categories. To date, the following proposed categories have been rejected: * Best Casting: rejected in 1999<ref name="mentalfloss">{{cite web|last1=Conradt|first1=Stacy |title=The Quick 10: 10 Bygone (or rejected) Academy Awards Categories |url=http://mentalfloss.com/article/24001/quick-10-10-bygone-or-rejected-academy-awards-categories|website=Mental Floss|accessdate=3 July 2017}}</ref> * [[Academy Award for Outstanding Achievement in Popular Film|Best Popular Film]]: 2018<ref>{{cite news|last=Kilday|first=Gregg|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/academy-postponing-new-popular-oscar-category-1140423|title=Academy Postponing New Popular Oscar Category|newspaper=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]|date=September 6, 2018|accessdate=September 9, 2018}}</ref> * Best Stunt Coordination: rejected every year from 1991 to 2012<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.filmschoolrejects.com/opinions/its-time-to-create-an-oscar-for-stunt-coordinators-etrav.php |publisher=Film School Rejects | title=It's Time to Create an Oscar For Stunt Coordinators | date=1 April 2012| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104200600/http://www.filmschoolrejects.com/opinions/its-time-to-create-an-oscar-for-stunt-coordinators-etrav.php | archivedate=4 November 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url = http://actionfest.com/stunt-legends-man-of-action-jack-gills-quest-to-gain-academy-award-recognition-for-stunt-professionals-part-2/ |publisher=Action Fest | title=Jack Gill Interview | date=4 April 2012| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130428074119/http://actionfest.com/stunt-legends-man-of-action-jack-gills-quest-to-gain-academy-award-recognition-for-stunt-professionals-part-2/ | archivedate=28 April 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/race/academy-votes-creating-oscar-category-202123 | work=The Hollywood Reporter | first=Jonathan | last=Handel | title=Academy Votes Against Creating Oscar Category for Stunt Coordinators | date=15 June 2011| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131026022931/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/race/academy-votes-creating-oscar-category-202123 | archivedate=26 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://theenvelope.latimes.com/movies/env-fi-stunts4aug04,0,3864314.story?coll=env-movies |title=One stunt they've been unable to pull off |work=Los Angeles Times |author=Michael Hiltzik |date=4 August 2005 |accessdate=13 April 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130922144011/http://theenvelope.latimes.com/movies/env-fi-stunts4aug04%2C0%2C3864314.story?coll=env-movies |archivedate=22 September 2013 |deadurl=yes }}</ref> * Best Title Design: rejected in 1999<ref name="mentalfloss"/> ==Special categories== The Special Academy Awards are voted on by special committees, rather than by the Academy membership as a whole. They are not always presented on a consistent annual basis. ===Current special categories=== :''For a list of all nine awards, see {{section link| |Other awards presented by the Academy}} (above)'' * [[Academy Honorary Award]]: since 1929 * [[Academy Scientific and Technical Award]] (three different awards): since 1931 * [[Gordon E. Sawyer Award]]: since 1981 * [[Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award]]: since 1957 <!-- Established in 1956; first presented in early 1957. --> * [[Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award]]: since 1938 <!-- Established in 1937; first presented in early 1938. --> * [[Special Achievement Academy Award|Academy Special Achievement Award]]: from 1972 to 1995, and again for 2017 ===Discontinued special categories=== * [[Academy Juvenile Award]]: 1934 to 1960 ==Criticism== {{Undue weight section|date=April 2016}} ===Accusations of commercialism=== Due to the positive exposure and prestige of the Academy Awards, studios spend millions of dollars and hire publicists specifically to promote their films during what is typically called the "[[Oscar season]]". This has generated accusations of the Academy Awards being influenced more by marketing than quality. [[William Friedkin]], an Academy Award-winning film director and former producer of the ceremony, expressed this sentiment at a conference in New York in 2009, describing it as "the greatest promotion scheme that any industry ever devised for itself".<ref>{{cite AV media |people=Friedkin, William (Director) |date=24 February 2009|title=Director William Friedkin at the Hudson Union Society |url=http://fora.tv/2009/02/24/Director_William_Friedkin_at_the_Hudson_Union_Society#William_Friedkin_Says_Oscars_Simply_a_Promotion_Scheme |accessdate=11 March 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090310081013/http://fora.tv/2009/02/24/Director_William_Friedkin_at_the_Hudson_Union_Society| archivedate= 10 March 2009| deadurl= no}}</ref> Tim Dirks, editor of [[American Movie Classics|AMC's]] [[filmsite.org]], has written of the Academy Awards, {{quote|Unfortunately, the critical worth, artistic vision, cultural influence and innovative qualities of many films are not given the same voting weight. Especially since the 1980s, moneymaking "formula-made" blockbusters with glossy production values have often been crowd-pleasing titans (and Best Picture winners), but they haven't necessarily been great films with depth or critical acclaim by any measure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.filmsite.org/oscars.html |title=Academy Awards – The Oscars |accessdate=4 October 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140120093333/http://www.filmsite.org/oscars.html|archivedate=20 January 2014}}</ref>}} ===Accusations of bias=== {{further|Oscar bait}} Typical criticism of the Academy Awards for Best Picture is that among the winners and nominees there is an over-representation of romantic historical epics, biographical dramas, romantic dramedies, and family melodramas, most of which are released in the U.S. the last three months of the calendar year. The Oscars have been infamously known for selecting specific genres of movies to be awarded. This has led to the coining of the term '[[Oscar bait]]', describing such movies. This has led at times to more specific criticisms that the Academy is disconnected from the audience, e.g., by favoring 'Oscar bait' over audience favorites, or favoring historical melodramas over critically acclaimed movies that depict current life issues.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nypost.com/p/entertainment/movies/have_the_oscars_jumped_the_shark_LLhBrvPY35EnSH0iQzrqRJ |title=Have the Oscars jumped the shark? |accessdate=24 January 2012 | work=New York Post |first=Kyle |last=Smith|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120418115808/http://www.nypost.com/p/entertainment/movies/have_the_oscars_jumped_the_shark_LLhBrvPY35EnSH0iQzrqRJ |archivedate=18 April 2012}}</ref> ===Allegations of a lack of diversity=== The Academy Awards have long received criticism over its lack of diversity among the nominees.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/movies/la-et-mn-hollywood-diversity-disabled-20160610-snap-story.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2017-04-25 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170426062804/http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/movies/la-et-mn-hollywood-diversity-disabled-20160610-snap-story.html |archivedate=26 April 2017 }}</ref><ref>diversityhttps://www.theguardian.com/society/2017/feb/24/oscars-diversity-debate-must-include-learning-disability</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/oscars-2016-lack-diversity-historically-problem/story?id=37062502 |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2017-04-25 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170426150745/http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/oscars-2016-lack-diversity-historically-problem/story?id=37062502 |archivedate=26 April 2017 }}</ref> This criticism is based on the statistics from every Academy Awards since 1929 which shows us that only 6.4% of academy award nominees have been non-white and since 1991, 11.2% of nominees have been non-white, with the rate of winners being even more polarizing.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://labs.time.com/story/oscars-diversity/|title=This Chart Proves the Oscars Have a Serious Diversity Problem|last=Berman|first=Eliza|website=labs.time.com|language=en|access-date=2018-04-25}}</ref> The [[88th Academy Awards|88th awards ceremony]] became the target of a boycott, popularized on social media by the #OscarsSoWhite, based on critics' perception that its all-white acting nominee list reflected bias. In response, the Academy initiated "historic" changes in membership by the year 2020.<ref>{{cite news|last=Sims |first=David |title=Can a Boycott Change the Oscars? |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2016/01/can-a-boycott-change-the-oscars/424593/ |work=[[The Atlantic]] |date=19 January 2016 |accessdate=29 February 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160226162236/http://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2016/01/can-a-boycott-change-the-oscars/424593/ |archivedate=26 February 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Kreps |first=Daniel |title=Academy Promises 'Historic' Changes to Diversify Membership |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/movies/news/academy-promises-historic-changes-to-diversify-membership-20160123 |work=[[Rolling Stone]] |date=23 January 2016 |accessdate=29 February 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160226155628/http://www.rollingstone.com/movies/news/academy-promises-historic-changes-to-diversify-membership-20160123 |archivedate=26 February 2016 }}</ref> ===Symbolism or sentimentalization=== Acting prizes in certain years have been criticized for not recognizing superior performances so much as being awarded for personal popularity<ref>{{cite web|url=http://incontention.com/?p=1045 |title=What's the worst Best Actor choice of all time? |accessdate=4 October 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100115115957/http://incontention.com/?p=1045|archivedate=15 January 2010}}</ref> or presented as a "career honor" to recognize a distinguished nominee's entire body of work.<ref>{{cite book| last = Levy| first = Emanuel| title = All about Oscar: the history and politics of the Academy Awards – The Career Oscars| url = https://books.google.com/?id=dH2Lb_YhIhAC&pg=PA268| accessdate = 4 October 2009| year = 2003| publisher = Burns & Oates| isbn = 978-0-8264-1452-6}}</ref> ===Refusing the award=== Some winners critical of the Academy Awards have boycotted the ceremonies and refused to accept their Oscars. The first to do so was screenwriter [[Dudley Nichols]] (Best Writing in 1935 for ''[[The Informer (1935 film)|The Informer]]''). Nichols boycotted the [[8th Academy Awards]] ceremony because of conflicts between the Academy and the Writers' Guild.<ref name="DYK">{{cite web|url=http://www.biography.com/oscars/oscars_didyouknow.jsp|title=The Oscars Did You Know?|accessdate=18 June 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090623000022/http://www.biography.com/oscars/oscars_didyouknow.jsp| archivedate= 23 June 2009 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Nichols eventually accepted the 1935 award three years later, at the 1938 ceremony. Nichols was nominated for three further Academy Awards during his career. [[George C. Scott]] became the second person to refuse his award (Best Actor in 1970 for ''[[Patton (film)|Patton]]'') at the [[43rd Academy Awards]] ceremony. Scott described it as a "meat parade", saying "I don't want any part of it."<ref>{{cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/obituaries/455563.stm |publisher=BBC News | title=George C Scott: The man who refused an Oscar | date=23 September 1999| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311095900/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/obituaries/455563.stm | archivedate=11 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,904789,00.html |work=Time |title=Show Business: Meat Parade |date=8 March 1971 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221203341/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C904789%2C00.html |archivedate=21 December 2008 |deadurl=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biography.com/oscars/oscars_didyouknow.jsp |title=Fast Facts – Did You Know? |publisher=Biography.com |date=16 May 1929 |accessdate=6 February 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100210075430/http://www.biography.com/oscars/oscars_didyouknow.jsp| archivedate= 10 February 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> The third person to refuse the award was [[Marlon Brando]], who refused his award (Best Actor for 1972's ''[[The Godfather]]'') citing the film industry's discrimination and mistreatment of [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]]. At the [[45th Academy Awards]] ceremony, Brando sent actress and [[civil rights activist]] [[Sacheen Littlefeather]] to read a 15-page speech detailing his criticisms.<ref name=DYK /> ===Incidents=== At the 2017 awards ceremony, Warren Beatty and Faye Dunaway mistakenly announced that ''La La Land'' was the Best Picture award recipient, instead of ''Moonlight'', the actual winner. Beatty had been given the wrong envelope and after hesitating during the announcement, handed the envelope to Dunaway, which listed Emma Stone as Best Actress for ''La La Land'' and led to the confusion. The proper winner was announced after the acceptance speeches by ''La La Land'' producers Jordan Horowitz, Marc Platt and Fred Berger. The following year, Beatty and Dunaway were invited back as announcers for Best Picture winner, which they accomplished without error.<ref>{{cite news |title=Warren Beatty recalls 'chaos' of Oscars night |url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2017/apr/14/warren-beatty-recalls-chaos-of-oscars-night |first=Maev |last=Kennedy |accessdate=1 August 2018 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180801190400/https://www.theguardian.com/film/2017/apr/14/warren-beatty-recalls-chaos-of-oscars-night |archivedate=1 August 2018 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> ==Associated events== The following events are closely associated with the annual Academy Awards: * [[César Award]]s * Nominees luncheon * [[Governors Awards]] * The 25th [[Independent Spirit Awards]] (in 2010), usually held in Santa Monica the Saturday before the Oscars, marked the first time it was moved to a Friday and a change of venue to [[L.A. Live]] * The annual "Night Before", traditionally held at the [[Beverly Hills Hotel]], begun in 2002 and generally known as ''the ''party of the season, benefits the [[Motion Picture and Television Fund]], which operates a retirement home for SAG actors in the [[San Fernando Valley]] * [[Elton John AIDS Foundation Academy Award Party]] airs the awards live at the nearby [[Pacific Design Center]] * The Governors' Ball is the Academy's official after-party, including dinner (until 2011), and is adjacent to the awards-presentation venue * The Vanity Fair after-party, historically at the former Morton's restaurant, since 2009 has been at the [[Sunset Tower]] ==Presenter and performer gifts== It has become a tradition to give out gift bags to the presenters and performers at the Oscars. In recent years, these gifts have also been extended to award nominees and winners.<ref name="ABCGiftBag">{{cite web|last=Valenti|first=Catherine|title=No Oscar? How About a Gift Bag?|url=http://abcnews.go.com/Business/story?id=86683|publisher=ABC News|accessdate=11 March 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140425162335/http://abcnews.go.com/Business/story?id=86683|archivedate=25 April 2014}}</ref> The value of each of these gift bags can reach into the tens of thousands of dollars. In 2014, the value was reported to be as high as US$80,000.<ref name="CBSGiftBag">{{cite news|last=Peterson|first=Kim|title=Oscars' gift bag has $80,000 worth of swag|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/oscars-gift-bag-has-80000-worth-of-swag/|publisher=CBS News|accessdate=11 March 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140305230143/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/oscars-gift-bag-has-80000-worth-of-swag/|archivedate=5 March 2014}}</ref> The value has risen to the point where the U.S. [[Internal Revenue Service]] issued a statement regarding the gifts and their taxable status.<ref name="IRSGiftBag">{{cite web|last=Staff|title=IRS Statement on Oscar Goodie Bags|url=https://www.irs.gov/uac/IRS-Statement-on-Oscar-Goodie-Bags|publisher=IRS.gov|accessdate=11 March 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311093138/https://www.irs.gov/uac/IRS-Statement-on-Oscar-Goodie-Bags|archivedate=11 March 2014}}</ref> Oscar gift bags have included vacation packages to Hawaii and Mexico and Japan, a private dinner party for the recipient and friends at a restaurant, [[videophone]]s, a four-night stay at a hotel, watches, bracelets, vacation packages, spa treatments, bottles of vodka, maple salad dressing, and weight-loss gummie candy.<ref name=ABCGiftBag /><ref name="ABCGiftBag2">{{cite web|last=Valiente|first=Alexa|title=What Surprising Freebies Are Inside the 2014 Oscar Nominees' Gift Bags|url=http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/surprising-freebies-inside-2014-oscar-nominees-gift-bags/story?id=22518285|publisher=ABC News|accessdate=11 March 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311095026/http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/surprising-freebies-inside-2014-oscar-nominees-gift-bags/story?id=22518285|archivedate=11 March 2014}}</ref><ref name="VarietyGiftBag">{{cite news|last=Bacardi|first=Francesca|title=Oscar 'Losers' Become Winners with Distinctive Assets Gift Bags|url=https://variety.com/2014/film/news/oscar-losers-become-winners-with-distinctive-assets-gift-bags-1201100762/|publisher=Variety|accessdate=11 March 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311095625/http://variety.com/2014/film/news/oscar-losers-become-winners-with-distinctive-assets-gift-bags-1201100762/|archivedate=11 March 2014}}</ref> Some of the gifts have even had a "risque" element to them; in 2014, the adult products retailer [[Adam & Eve (company)|Adam & Eve]] had a "Secret Room Gifting Suite". Celebrities visiting the gifting suite included [[Judith Hoag]], [[Carolyn Hennesy]], [[Kate Linder]], [[Chris Mulkey]], [[Jim O'Heir]], and [[NBA]] player [[John Salley]].<ref name="AandEOscarGifts">{{cite web|last=Staff|title=Adam & Eve Had Secret Room Gifting Suite for Oscars' Celebs|url=http://business.avn.com/articles/novelty/Adam-Eve-Had-Secret-Room-Gifting-Suite-for-Oscars-Celebs-551833.html|publisher=Adult Video News|accessdate=11 March 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311092632/http://business.avn.com/articles/novelty/Adam-Eve-Had-Secret-Room-Gifting-Suite-for-Oscars-Celebs-551833.html|archivedate=11 March 2014}}</ref> ==Television ratings and advertisement prices== From 2006 onwards, results are Live+SD, all previous years are Live viewing<ref name = tvbythenumbers /> {| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="margin:auto; margin:auto;" |- ! Year ! Viewers,<br />millions<ref name="tvbythenumbers">{{cite web |url=http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/2012/02/24/with-no-blockbusters-up-for-best-picture-expect-academy-awards-viewership-to-fall-ratings-history-your-guess-for-this-year-poll/120239/|title=With No Blockbusters Up For Best Picture, Expect 'Academy Awards' Viewership To Fall; Ratings History + Your Guess For This Year (Poll)|work=TV by the Numbers |first=Sara |last=Bibel |date=24 February 2012 |accessdate=4 March 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131210015818/http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/2012/02/24/with-no-blockbusters-up-for-best-picture-expect-academy-awards-viewership-to-fall-ratings-history-your-guess-for-this-year-poll/120239/|archivedate=10 December 2013}}</ref> ! Ad price,<ref name = tvbythenumbers /><ref name="kantarmedia">{{cite web |url=http://kantarmediana.com/intelligence/press/advertising-vitality-of-the-academy-awards|title=Kantar Media Reports On The Advertising Vitality Of The Academy Awards – Historical Advertising Data Showcases Ad Pricing Trends and Top Marketers; Super Bowl Overlap Increases as Sales Rise |work=[[Kantar Group#Kantar Media|Kantar Media]] |first= |last= |date=13 February 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420031629/http://kantarmediana.com/intelligence/press/advertising-vitality-of-the-academy-awards |archivedate=20 April 2013 |accessdate=20 February 2017}}</ref><br />[[United States dollar|USD]], millions ! Adjusted Price,<br />[[United States dollar|USD]], millions |- |[[90th Academy Awards|2018]] |26.5 |Not available |Not available |- | [[89th Academy Awards|2017]] | 32.9 | Not available | Not available |- | [[88th Academy Awards|2016]] | 34.3 | Not available | Not available |- | [[87th Academy Awards|2015]] | 37.260<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/2015/02/24/sunday-final-ratings-oscars-adjusted-up/366838/ |title=Sunday Final Ratings: Oscars Adjusted Up |work=TVbytheNumbers |accessdate=27 October 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151022064452/http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/2015/02/24/sunday-final-ratings-oscars-adjusted-up/366838/ |archivedate=22 October 2015 }}</ref> | 1.95<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/mikeozanian/2015/02/20/the-oscars-beat-the-super-bowl-in-advertising-premium/ |title=The Oscars Beat The Super Bowl In Advertising Premium |author=Mike Ozanian |work=Forbes |accessdate=27 October 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151014033148/http://www.forbes.com/sites/mikeozanian/2015/02/20/the-oscars-beat-the-super-bowl-in-advertising-premium/ |archivedate=14 October 2015 }}</ref> | {{Inflation|USD|1.95|2015|r=2}} |- | [[86th Academy Awards|2014]] | 43.740<ref>{{cite news |first=Rick |last=Kissell |title=Oscars on ABC Draw Largest Audience in 10 Years |url=https://variety.com/2014/tv/ratings/early-ratings-oscars-look-to-be-up-slightly-from-last-year-1201124513/ |work=Variety |date=3 March 2014 |accessdate=4 March 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140308205925/http://variety.com/2014/tv/ratings/early-ratings-oscars-look-to-be-up-slightly-from-last-year-1201124513/ |archivedate=8 March 2014}}</ref> | 1.8 – 1.9<ref name="adprices">{{cite news |first= Brian|last=Steinberg |title=Oscar Ad Prices Hit All-Time High as ABC Sells Out 2014 Telecast (EXCLUSIVE) |url=https://variety.com/2013/tv/news/oscar-ad-prices-hit-all-time-high-as-abc-sells-out-2014-telecast-exclusive-1200778642/ |work=Variety |date=3 March 2014 |accessdate=4 March 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407201755/http://variety.com/2013/tv/news/oscar-ad-prices-hit-all-time-high-as-abc-sells-out-2014-telecast-exclusive-1200778642/|archivedate=7 April 2014}}</ref> | {{Inflation|USD|1.8|2014|r=2}} - {{Inflation|USD|1.9|2014|r=2}} |- | [[85th Academy Awards|2013]] | 40.376<ref name="nielsen">{{cite web |url=http://www.nielsen.com/us/en/newswire/2013/tops-of-2013-tv-and-social-media.html|title=Tops of 2013: TV and Social Media|work=TV by the Numbers |first=Sara |last=Bibel |date=12 December 2013 |accessdate=4 March 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140425182227/http://www.nielsen.com/us/en/newswire/2013/tops-of-2013-tv-and-social-media.html|archivedate=25 April 2014}}</ref> | 1.65 – 1.8<ref name = adprices /> | {{Inflation|USD|1.65|2013|r=2}} - {{Inflation|USD|1.8|2013|r=2}} |- | [[84th Academy Awards|2012]] | 39.460<ref name="var1">{{cite news|url=http://www.variety.com/article/VR1118050758?categoryid=14&cs=1&nid=2562|title=Crystal, social media fuel Oscar ratings | last = Kissell | first=Rick | date=27 February 2012 |accessdate=26 April 2012 | work = Variety |publisher=PMC}}</ref> | 1.610 | {{Inflation|USD|1.61|2012|r=2}} |- | [[83rd Academy Awards|2011]] | 37.919 | 1.3684 | {{Inflation|USD|1.3684|2011|r=2}} |- | [[82nd Academy Awards|2010]] | 41.699 | 1.1267 | {{Inflation|USD|1.1267|2010|r=2}} |- | [[81st Academy Awards|2009]] | 36.310 | 1.3<ref name = adprices /> | {{Inflation|USD|1.3|2009|r=2}} |- | [[80th Academy Awards|2008]] | 32.006 | 1.82<ref name = adprices /> | {{Inflation|USD|1.82|2008|r=2}} |- | [[79th Academy Awards|2007]] | 40.172 | 1.6658 | {{Inflation|USD|1.6658|2007|r=2}} |- | [[78th Academy Awards|2006]] | 38.939 | 1.6468 | {{Inflation|USD|1.6468|2006|r=2}} |- | [[77th Academy Awards|2005]] | 42.139 | 1.503 | {{Inflation|USD|1.503|2005|r=2}} |- | [[76th Academy Awards|2004]] | 43.531 | 1.5031 | {{Inflation|USD|1.5031|2004|r=2}} |- | [[75th Academy Awards|2003]] | 33.043 | 1.3458 | {{Inflation|USD|1.3458|2003|r=2}} |- | [[74th Academy Awards|2002]] | 41.782 | 1.29 | {{Inflation|USD|1.29|2002|r=2}} |- | [[73rd Academy Awards|2001]] | 42.944 | 1.45 | {{Inflation|USD|1.45|2001|r=2}} |- | [[72nd Academy Awards|2000]] | 46.333 | 1.305 | {{Inflation|USD|1.305|2000|r=2}} |- | [[71st Academy Awards|1999]] | 45.615 | 1 | {{Inflation|USD|1|1999|r=2}} |- | [[70th Academy Awards|1998]] | 55.249 | 0.95 | {{Inflation|USD|0.95|1998|r=2}} |- | [[69th Academy Awards|1997]] | 40.075 | 0.85 | {{Inflation|USD|0.85|1997|r=2}} |- | [[68th Academy Awards|1996]] | 44.867 | 0.795 | {{Inflation|USD|0.795|1996|r=2}} |- | [[67th Academy Awards|1995]] | 48.279 | 0.7 | {{Inflation|USD|0.7|1995|r=2}} |- | [[66th Academy Awards|1994]] | 45.083 | 0.6435 | {{Inflation|USD|0.6435|1994|r=2}} |- | [[65th Academy Awards|1993]] | 45.735 | 0.6078 | {{Inflation|USD|0.6078|1993|r=2}} |- | [[64th Academy Awards|1992]] | 44.406 | Not available | Not available |- | [[63rd Academy Awards|1991]] | 42.727 | Not available | Not available |- | [[62nd Academy Awards|1990]] | 40.375 | 0.45 | {{Inflation|USD|0.45|1990|r=2}} |- | [[61st Academy Awards|1989]] | 42.619 | 0.375 | {{Inflation|USD|0.375|1989|r=2}} |- | [[60th Academy Awards|1988]] | 42.227 | 0.36 | {{Inflation|USD|0.36|1988|r=2}} |- | [[59th Academy Awards|1987]] | 37.190 | 0.335 | {{Inflation|USD|0.335|1987|r=2}} |- | [[58th Academy Awards|1986]] | 37.757 | 0.32 | {{Inflation|USD|0.32|1986|r=2}} |- | [[57th Academy Awards|1985]] | 38.855 | 0.315 | {{Inflation|USD|0.315|1985|r=2}} |- | [[56th Academy Awards|1984]] | 42.051 | 0.275 | {{Inflation|USD|0.275|1984|r=2}} |- | [[55th Academy Awards|1983]] | 53.235 | 0.245 | {{Inflation|USD|0.245|1983|r=2}} |- | [[54th Academy Awards|1982]] | 46.245 | Not available | Not available |- | [[53rd Academy Awards|1981]] | 39.919 | Not available | Not available |- | [[52nd Academy Awards|1980]] | 48.978 | Not available | Not available |- | [[51st Academy Awards|1979]] | 46.301 | Not available | Not available |- | [[50th Academy Awards|1978]] | 48.501 | Not available | Not available |- | [[49th Academy Awards|1977]] | 39.719 | Not available | Not available |- | [[48th Academy Awards|1976]] | 46.751 | Not available | Not available |- | [[47th Academy Awards|1975]] | 48.127 | Not available | Not available |- | [[46th Academy Awards|1974]] | 44.712 | Not available | Not available |} ==Trademark== {{expand section|date=February 2016}} <!--Please expand--> The term "Oscar" is a registered trademark of the AMPAS; however, in the [[Italian language]], it is used [[generic trademark|generically]] to refer to any award or award ceremony, regardless of which field.<ref>[http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/court-oscar-may-be-generic-132235 Court: 'Oscar' may be generic term in Italian - Hollywood Reporter<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160217200730/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/court-oscar-may-be-generic-132235 |date=17 February 2016 }}</ref><ref>[http://uk.reuters.com/article/industry-oscar-dc-idUKN1527923720070316 Court: Oscar may be generic term in Italian | Reuters<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429045816/http://uk.reuters.com/article/industry-oscar-dc-idUKN1527923720070316 |date=29 April 2016 }}</ref> ==See also== {{Wikipedia books|Academy Awards}} * [[List of film awards]] * [[List of actors with Academy Award nominations]] {{Portal bar|Academy Awards|Film in the United States|Greater Los Angeles}} ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Further reading== * Brokaw, Lauren (2010). [https://web.archive.org/web/20100307140008/http://thedailytruffle.com/2010/03/oscar-week-parties-the-weekly-juice-oscar-edition/ "Wanna see an Academy Awards invite? We got it along with all the major annual events surrounding the Oscars"]. Los Angeles: The Daily Truffle. * {{cite book |last=Cotte |first=Oliver |title=Secrets of Oscar-winning animation: Behind the scenes of 13 classic short animations |year=2007 |publisher=Focal Press |isbn=978-0-240-52070-4}} * {{cite book |last1=Kinn |first1=Gail |last2=Piazza |first2=Jim |title=The Academy Awards: The Complete History of Oscar |year=2002 |publisher=Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers |isbn=978-1-57912-240-9}} * {{cite book |last=Levy |first=Emanuel |title=All About Oscar: The History and Politics of the Academy Awards |year=2003 |publisher=Burns & Oates |isbn=978-0-8264-1452-6}} * Wright, Jon (2007). ''The Lunacy of Oscar: The Problems with Hollywood's Biggest Night''. Thomas Publishing, Inc. ==External links== {{commons category|Academy Awards}} <!-- Please do not list any more fan sites here as per [[WP:NOT]] --> * {{Official website}} of the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] * {{IMDb event|0000003|Academy Awards}} * [http://www.oscars.org/oscars/awards-databases-0 Official Academy Awards Database] (searchable) {{Academy Awards}} {{Academy Awards lists}} {{Cinema of the United States}} {{National Cinema Awards}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Academy Awards| ]] [[Category:American film awards]] [[Category:Awards established in 1929]] [[Category:1929 establishments in California]] [[Category:Cinema of Southern California]] [[Category:Hollywood history and culture]] [[Category:American annual television specials]] [[Category:Annual events in Los Angeles County, California]] [[Category:Events in Los Angeles]] [[Category:Live television programs]] 3a8f5du037u67g7x4y6l9vrjjnn0aq1 0 325 783823573 160875351 2017-06-04T21:58:08Z Tom.Reding 9784415 +{{R category shell}} using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Action film]] {{Redirect category shell|1= {{R from other capitalisation}} }} ti18sce0xwf2nzv9h781t6sin87lrtd 0 330 837663731 836351691 2018-04-22T06:42:19Z Galobtter 19502780 /* top */ cited enough wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox film | name = Actresses | image = Actrius film poster.jpg | alt = | caption = Catalan language film poster | film name = ([[Catalan language|Catalan]]: '''''Actrius''''') | director = [[Ventura Pons]] | producer = Ventura Pons | writer = [[Josep Maria Benet i Jornet]] | screenplay = Ventura Pons | story = | based on = {{based on|(stage play) ''E.R.''|Josep Maria Benet i Jornet}} | starring = {{ubl|[[Núria Espert]]|[[Rosa Maria Sardà]]|[[Anna Lizaran]]|[[Mercè Pons]]}} | narrator = <!-- or: |narrators = --> | music = Carles Cases | cinematography = Tomàs Pladevall | editing = Pere Abadal | production companies = {{ubl|[[Canal+|Canal+ España]]|Els Films de la Rambla S.A.|[[Generalitat de Catalunya|Generalitat de Catalunya - Departament de Cultura]]|[[Televisión Española]]}} | distributor = [[Buena Vista International]] | released = {{film date|df=yes|1997|1|17|[[Spain]]}} | runtime = 100 minutes | country = Spain | language = Catalan | budget = | gross = <!--(please use condensed and rounded values, e.g. "£11.6 million" not "£11,586,221")--> }} '''''Actresses''''' ([[Catalan language|Catalan]]: '''''Actrius''''') is a 1997 [[Catalan language]] Spanish drama film produced and directed by [[Ventura Pons]] and based on the award-winning stage play ''E.R.'' by [[Josep Maria Benet i Jornet]]. The film has no male actors, with all roles played by females.<ref name="El Pais">{{cite news|last1=Torres|first1=Rosanna|title='E. R', de Benet i Jornet, es llevada al cine y al teatro|url=http://elpais.com/diario/1996/10/15/cultura/845330405_850215.html|accessdate=21 December 2015|language=Spanish|publisher=[[El Pais]]|date=15 October 1996}}</ref> The film was produced in 1996.<ref name="Daily Mail">{{cite news|last1=Tooky|first1=Christopher|title=Ripe for a siesta.|url=https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-109798413.html|accessdate=21 December 2015|agency=[[Highbeam]]|publisher=[[Daily Mail]]|date=16 April 1999}}</ref> ==Synopsis== In order to prepare herself to play a role commemorating the life of legendary actress Empar Ribera, young actress ([[Mercè Pons]]) interviews three established actresses who had been the Ribera's pupils: the international diva Glòria Marc ([[Núria Espert]]), the television star Assumpta Roca ([[Rosa Maria Sardà]]), and dubbing director Maria Caminal ([[Anna Lizaran]]).<ref name=SFF>{{cite web | url=http://www.stockholmfilmfestival.se/en/festival/1997/film/actrius | title=Actrius | publisher=[[Stockholm International Film Festival]] | date=1997 | accessdate=21 December 2015 }}</ref> ==Cast== * [[Núria Espert]] as Glòria Marc * [[Rosa Maria Sardà]] as Assumpta Roca * [[Anna Lizaran]] as Maria Caminal * [[Mercè Pons]] as Estudiant ==Recognition== ===Screenings=== ''Actrius'' screened in 2001 at the [[Grauman's Egyptian Theatre]] in an [[American Cinematheque]] retrospective of the works of its director. The film had first screened at the same location in 1998.<ref name="LA Times">{{cite news|last1=THomas|first1=Kevin|title=Sometimes, the World Gets in the Way|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2001/mar/01/entertainment/ca-31570|accessdate=21 December 2015|publisher=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=1 March 2001}}</ref> It was also shown at the 1997 [[Stockholm International Film Festival]].<ref name=SFF /> ===Reception=== In ''Movie - Film - Review'', ''[[Daily Mail]]'' staffer Christopher Tookey wrote that though the actresses were "competent in roles that may have some reference to their own careers", the film "is visually unimaginative, never escapes its stage origins, and is almost totally lacking in revelation or surprising incident".<ref name=Tookey/> Noting that there were "occasional, refreshing moments of intergenerational bitchiness", they did not "justify comparisons to ''[[All About Eve]]''", and were "insufficiently different to deserve critical parallels with ''[[Rashomon]]''".<ref name=Tookey/> He also wrote that ''[[The Guardian]]'' called the film a "slow, stuffy chamber-piece", and that ''[[The Evening Standard]]'' stated the film's "best moments exhibit the bitchy tantrums seething beneath the threesome's composed veneers".<ref name=Tookey>{{cite web|last1=Tookey|first1=Chris|title=review: Actresses / Actrius / Actrices|url=http://www.movie-film-review.com/devFilm.asp?ID=12423|publisher=Movie - Film - Review|accessdate=21 December 2015}}</ref> [[MRQE]] wrote "This cinematic adaptation of a theatrical work is true to the original, but does not stray far from a theatrical rendering of the story."<ref name=MRQE>{{cite web|last1=staff|title=Actrius (1997)|url=http://www.mrqe.com/movie_reviews/actrius-m100030469|publisher=[[MRQE]]|accessdate=21 December 2015}}</ref> ===Awards and nominations=== * 1997, won 'Best Catalan Film' at [[Butaca Awards]] for [[Ventura Pons]] * 1997, won 'Best Catalan Film Actress' at Butaca Awards, shared by [[Núria Espert]], [[Rosa Maria Sardà]], [[Anna Lizaran]], and [[Mercè Pons]] * 1998, nominated for 'Best Screenplay' at [[Goya Awards]], shared by [[Josep Maria Benet i Jornet]] and Ventura Pons ==References== {{reflist}} ==External links== * {{IMDb title|0115462|Actresses}} * {{official website|https://web.archive.org/web/20090217140746/http://venturapons.com/filmografia/actrices.html}} [[Wayback Machine|as archived February 17, 2009]] (Spanish) [[Category:1997 films]] [[Category:1990s drama films]] [[Category:Spanish films]] [[Category:Catalan-language films]] [[Category:Films set in Barcelona]] [[Category:Films directed by Ventura Pons]] 5rgcth3eb83ocssqzluf3dq27izc7ha 0 332 845354683 843177809 2018-06-11T07:08:33Z Coolabahapple 23515484 removed [[Category:Australian picture books]] using [[WP:HC|HotCat]], unnecessary cat as in a more specific cat. wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox book|<!-- See Wikipedia:WikiProject_Novels or Wikipedia:WikiProject_Books --> | name = '''Animalia''' | image = Animalia (book cover).jpg | caption = | alt = Book cover: a larger picture framed by smaller pictures, all of which contain different animals, and title with author at the top | author = [[Graeme Base]] | illustrator = Graeme Base | country = Australia | language = English | genre = [[Picture books]] | publisher = [[Harcourt Brace Jovanovich]] | release_date = 1986 | pages = 32 | isbn = 0-810-91868-4 | oclc = }} <!--{{Infobox publication|image=Animalia.jpg|caption=Book cover}}--> '''''Animalia''''' is an illustrated [[Children's literature|children's book]] by [[Graeme Base]]. It was originally published in 1986, followed by a tenth anniversary edition in 1996, and a 25th anniversary edition in 2012. Over three million copies have been sold.<ref>{{cite web|last=Puffin Books|title=Animalia 25th Anniversary Edition|url=http://www.puffin.com.au/products/9780670076673/animalia-25th-anniversary-edition|accessdate=7 June 2013}}</ref> A special numbered and signed anniversary edition was also published in 1996, with an embossed gold jacket.<ref>{{cite web|last=ABE Books|title=Animalia (Numbered and Signed anniversary edition)|url=http://www.abebooks.com/Animalia-Numbered-Signed-Anniversary-Edition-Base/3201558151/bd|accessdate=8 June 2013}}</ref> ==Synopsis== ''Animalia'' is an [[alliteration|alliterative]] [[alphabet]] book and contains twenty-six illustrations, one for each letter of the alphabet. Each illustration features an animal from the animal kingdom (A is for [[alligator]], B is for [[butterfly]], etc.) along with a short poem utilizing the letter of the page for many of the words. The illustrations contain many other objects beginning with that letter that the reader can try to identify. As an additional challenge, the author has hidden a picture of himself as a child in every picture. ==Related products== Julia MacRae Books published an ''Animalia'' [[colouring book]] in 2008.<ref>{{cite web|last=Penguin Books |title=Animalia Colouring Book |url=http://www.penguin.com.au/products/9781405904674/animalia-colouring-book |accessdate=8 June 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002205038/http://www.penguin.com.au/products/9781405904674/animalia-colouring-book |archivedate=2 October 2013 }}</ref> [[Abrams Books|H. N. Abrams]] also published a wall calendar colouring book version for children the same year.<ref>{{cite web|last=LibraryThing.com|title=Animalia 2008 Coloring Calendar|url=http://www.librarything.com/work/6090521|accessdate=8 June 2013}}</ref> H. N. Abrams published ''The Animalia Wall Frieze'', a fold-out over 26 feet in length, in which the author created new riddles for each letter.<ref>{{cite web|last=BookFinder.com|title=The Animalia Wall Frieze|url=http://www.bookfinder.com/dir/i/The_Animalia_Wall_Frieze/0810924757/|accessdate=8 June 2013}}</ref> The Great American Puzzle Factory created a 300-piece jigsaw puzzle based on the book's cover.<ref>{{cite web|last=Amazon.com|title=Animalia 300-piece jigsaw puzzle|url=https://www.amazon.com/Animalia-Graeme-Piece-Jigsaw-Puzzle/sim/B000R2ZUCE/2|accessdate=8 June 2013}}</ref> ==Adaptations== A [[Animalia (TV series)|television series]] was also created, based on the book, which airs in the United States, Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, Norway and [[Venezuela]]. It also airs on [[Minimax (TV channel)|Minimax]] for the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Slovakia]]. And recently in [[Greece]] on the channel [[ET1 (Greece)|ET1]]. The [[Australian Children's Television Foundation]] released a teaching resource DVD-ROM in 2011 to accompany the TV series with teaching aids for classroom use.<ref>{{cite web|last=Curriculum Press |title=Animalia - Primary teaching resource |url=http://www.curriculumpress.edu.au/main/goproduct/13167 |accessdate=7 June 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130503092444/http://www.curriculumpress.edu.au/main/goproduct/13167 |archivedate=3 May 2013 }}</ref> In 2010, The Base Factory and AppBooks released Animalia as an application for [[iPad]] and [[iPhone]]/[[iPod Touch]].<ref>{{cite web|last=MyBookCorner.com.au|title=Animalia - Anniversary Edition|url=http://www.mybookcorner.com.au/apps/611-animalia-anniversary-edition|accessdate=7 June 2013}}</ref> ==Awards== ''Animalia'' won the Young Australian's Best Book Award in 1987 for Best Picture Story Book.<ref>{{cite web|last=Yabba.org|title=Award Winners - 1986 through 2011|url=http://yabba.org.au/award-winners-1986-through-2011/|accessdate=8 June 2013}}</ref> The [[Children's Book Council of Australia]] designated ''Animalia'' a 1987 [[Children's Book of the Year Award: Picture Book|Picture Book of the Year]]: Honour Book.<ref>{{cite web|last=The Children's Book Council of Australia |title=Winners and Commended Books 1980 - 1989 |url=http://cbca.org.au/8089.htm |accessdate=8 June 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216043453/http://cbca.org.au/8089.htm |archivedate=16 December 2014 }}</ref> Kid's Own Australian Literature Awards named ''Animalia'' the 1988 Picture Book Winner.<ref>{{cite web|last=KOALA New South Wales |title=Complete list of KOALA winners 1987 to 2012 |url=http://www.koalansw.org.au/storage/Complete%20list%20winners%201987%20to%202012.pdf |accessdate=8 June 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130409162703/http://www.koalansw.org.au/storage/Complete%20list%20winners%201987%20to%202012.pdf |archivedate=9 April 2013 }}</ref> ==References== {{Reflist}} ==External links== {{Portal |Children's literature}} * [http://www.graemebase.com Graeme Base's official website] * [http://www.animalia.tv Animalia The Television Series official website] * [http://www.thelittlebigbookclub.com.au/sites/thelittlebigbookclub.com.au/files/files/title_resource/learning_time_2-3_years_july2011.pdf A Learning Time activity guide] for ''Animalia'' created by The Little Big Book Club {{Graeme Base}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Animalia (Book)}} [[Category:Alphabet books]] [[Category:1986 children's books]] [[Category:Picture books by Graeme Base]] [[Category:Puzzle books]] [[Category:Australian children's books]] 6w4exa3f8cu42ppmt1o9ikb3kxv368l 0 334 859981494 859979571 2018-09-17T15:34:03Z Plaba123 32607913 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contribs/125.26.129.212|125.26.129.212]] ([[User talk:125.26.129.212|talk]]) to last version by Kvng wikitext text/x-wiki '''International Atomic Time''' ('''TAI''', from the French name '''{{lang|fr|temps atomique international}}'''<ref>Temps atomique 1975</ref>) is a high-precision atomic [[coordinate time|coordinate]] [[time standard]] based on the notional passage of [[proper time]] on [[Earth]]'s [[geoid]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1986CeMec..38..155G |title=Is the International Atomic Time TAI a coordinate time or a proper time? |publisher=Adsabs.harvard.edu |date= |accessdate=8 May 2013}}</ref> It is the principal realisation of [[Terrestrial Time]] (except for a fixed offset of epoch). It is also the basis for [[Coordinated Universal Time]] (UTC), which is used for civil timekeeping all over the Earth's surface. {{as of|2016|12|31}} when another [[leap second]] was added,<ref name="Bulletin C 52">{{cite web|url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eoppc/bul/bulc/bulletinc.52|first=Christian|last=Bizouard|title=Bulletin C 52|publisher=[[IERS]]|location=Paris|date=6 July 2016|accessdate=31 December 2016}}</ref> TAI is exactly 37 seconds ahead of UTC. The 37 seconds results from the initial difference of 10 seconds at the start of 1972, plus 27 leap seconds in UTC since 1972. TAI may be reported using traditional means of specifying days, carried over from non-uniform time standards based on the rotation of the Earth. Specifically, both [[Julian Date]]s and the [[Gregorian calendar]] are used. TAI in this form was synchronised with [[Universal Time]] at the beginning of 1958, and the two have drifted apart ever since, due to the changing motion of the Earth. ==Operation== TAI is a [[weighted average]] of the time kept by over 400 [[atomic clock]]s<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://iag.dgfi.tum.de/fileadmin/IAG-docs/Travaux2013/08_BIPM.pdf |title=Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM) Time Department |publisher=Report of the International Association of Geodesy 2011-2013 |date= |accessdate=11 April 2017 }}</ref> in over 50 national laboratories worldwide.<ref name="Time n.d.">{{cite web |title = Time |url=http://www.bipm.org/en/scientific/tai/ |publisher = International Bureau of Weights and Measures |access-date = 22 May 2013 }}</ref> The majority of the clocks involved are [[caesium clock]]s; the [[International System of Units]] (SI) definition of the [[second]] is based on [[caesium]].{{sfn|McCarthy|Seidelmann|2009|p=207, 214}} The clocks are compared using [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] signals and [[two-way satellite time and frequency transfer]].<ref name="Circular T">{{citation |title=Circular T |publisher=[[International Bureau of Weights and Measures]] |url=ftp://ftp2.bipm.fr/pub/tai/publication/cirt/ |access-date=2017-09-05}}</ref> Due to the [[signal averaging]] TAI is an [[order of magnitude]] more stable than its best constituent clock. The participating institutions each broadcast, in [[real-time data|real time]], a frequency signal with [[timecode]]s, which is their estimate of TAI. Time codes are usually published in the form of UTC, which differs from TAI by a well-known integer number of seconds. These time scales are denoted in the form ''UTC(NPL)'' in the UTC form, where ''NPL'' in this case identifies the [[National Physical Laboratory, UK]]. The TAI form may be denoted ''TAI(NPL)''. The latter is not to be confused with ''TA(NPL)'', which denotes an independent atomic time scale, not synchronised to TAI or to anything else. The clocks at different institutions are regularly compared against each other. The [[International Bureau of Weights and Measures]] (BIPM, France), combines these measurements to retrospectively calculate the weighted average that forms the most stable time scale possible.<ref name="Time n.d."/> This combined time scale is published monthly in "Circular T",<ref name="Circular T"/> and is the [[Canonical form|canonical]] TAI. This time scale is expressed in the form of tables of differences UTC-UTC(''k'') (equivalent to TAI-TAI(''k'')) for each participating institution ''k''. The same circular also gives tables of TAI-TA(''k''), for the various unsynchronised atomic time scales. Errors in publication may be corrected by issuing a revision of the faulty Circular T or by errata in a subsequent Circular T. Aside from this, once published in Circular T, the TAI scale is not revised. In hindsight it is possible to discover errors in TAI, and to make better estimates of the true proper time scale. Since the published circulars are definitive, better estimates do not create another version of TAI; it is instead considered to be creating a better realisation of [[Terrestrial Time]] (TT). ==History== Early atomic time scales consisted of [[quartz clock]]s with frequencies calibrated by a single atomic clock; the atomic clocks were not operated continuously. Atomic timekeeping services started experimentally in 1955, using the first caesium atomic clock at the [[National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)|National Physical Laboratory, UK (NPL)]] and was used as a basis for calibrating the quartz clocks at the [[Royal Greenwich Observatory]].<ref>{{citation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M0E-5yH7c7QC&pg=PA384&lpg=PA384&dq=greenwich+atomic+scale&source=bl&ots=dHvt98gd1G&sig=L_Bptk9nh-SzddsyVTM5qkSqde0&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjnpLrFkcLcAhVh3IMKHUH2B10Q6AEwD3oECAcQAQ#v=onepage&q=greenwich%20atomic%20scale&f=false |title=The steady march of atomic time |author=Humphry Smith |work=New Scientist |date=February 1982}}</ref><!--[[User:Kvng/RTH]]--> The [[International Time Bureau]] (BIH) began a time scale, T_m or AM, in July 1955, using both local caesium clocks and comparisons to distant clocks using the phase of [[VLF]] radio signals. The [[United States Naval Observatory]] began the A.1 scale 13 September 1956, using an [[Atomichron]] commercial atomic clock, followed by the NBS-A scale at the [[National Bureau of Standards]], [[Boulder, Colorado]]. Both the BIH scale and A.1 were defined by an [[Epoch (reference date)|epoch]] at the beginning of 1958<ref>It was set to read Julian Date 2436204.5 (1 January 1958 00:00:00) at the corresponding [[UT2]] instant.</ref> The procedures used by the BIH evolved, and the name for the time scale changed: "A3" in 1963 and "TA(BIH)" in 1969.{{sfn|McCarthy|Seidelmann|2009|p=199&ndash;201}} This synchronisation was inevitably imperfect, depending as it did on the [[astronomy|astronomical]] realisation of UT2. At the time, UT2 as published by various observatories differed by several hundredths of a second. The SI second was defined in terms of the caesium atom in 1967, and in 1971 the name International Atomic Time (TAI) was assigned to a time scale based on SI seconds with no leap seconds.{{sfn|McCarthy|Seidelmann|2009|p=202&ndash;204}} During this time, irregularities in the atomic time were detected and corrected. In 1967 it was suggested that nearby masses caused clocks to operate at different rates, but this was disproven in 1968.<ref>William Markowitz. "Nondependence of Frequency on Mass: A Differential Experiment" {{doi|10.1126/science.162.3860.1387}}</ref> In the 1970s, it became clear that the clocks participating in TAI were ticking at different rates due to [[gravitational time dilation]], and the combined TAI scale therefore corresponded to an average of the altitudes of the various clocks. Starting from Julian Date 2443144.5 (1 January 1977 00:00:00), corrections were applied to the output of all participating clocks, so that TAI would correspond to proper time at [[mean sea level]] (the geoid). Because the clocks were, on average, well above sea level, this meant that TAI slowed down, by about one part in a trillion. The former uncorrected time scale continues to be published, under the name ''EAL'' (''Echelle Atomique Libre'', meaning ''Free Atomic Scale'').{{sfn|McCarthy|Seidelmann|2009|p=215}} The instant that the gravitational correction started to be applied serves as the epoch for [[Barycentric Coordinate Time]] (TCB), [[Geocentric Coordinate Time]] (TCG), and [[Terrestrial Time]] (TT), which represent three fundamental time scales in the solar system.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Brumberg|first1=V.A.|last2=Kopeikin|first2=S.M.|title=Relativistic time scales in the solar system|journal=[[Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy]]|issn=0923-2958|volume=48|issue=1|pages=23–44|date=March 1990|doi=10.1007/BF00050674|bibcode=1990CeMDA..48...23B}}</ref> All three of these time scales were defined to read JD 2443144.5003725 (1 January 1977 00:00:32.184) exactly at that instant.<ref>The offset is to provide continuity with the older [[Ephemeris Time]].</ref> TAI was henceforth a realisation of TT, with the equation TT(TAI) = TAI + 32.184&nbsp;s.{{sfn|McCarthy|Seidelmann|2009|p=218&ndash;219}} The continued existence of TAI was questioned in a 2007 letter from the BIPM to the ITU-R which stated "In the case of a redefinition of UTC without leap seconds, the CCTF would consider discussing the possibility of suppressing TAI, as it would remain parallel to the continuous UTC."<ref>*{{cite web |title=CCTF 09-27 |url=http://www.bipm.org/cc/CCTF/Allowed/18/CCTF_09-27_note_on_UTC-ITU-R.pdf |date=3 September 2007 |publisher=International Bureau of Weights and Measures |access-date=24 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316100907/http://www.bipm.org/cc/CCTF/Allowed/18/CCTF_09-27_note_on_UTC-ITU-R.pdf |archive-date=16 March 2012 |deadurl=no |df=dmy-all }}</ref> ==Relation to UTC== UTC is a [[discontinuous]] (i.e. regularly adjusted by leap seconds) time scale composed from segments that are linear transformations of atomic time. From its beginning in 1961 through December 1971 the adjustments were made regularly in fractional leap seconds so that UTC approximated [[UT2]]. Afterwards these adjustments were made only in whole seconds to approximate [[UT1]]. This was a compromise arrangement in order to enable a publicly broadcast time scale; the post-1971 more linear transformation of the BIH's atomic time meant that the time scale would be more stable and easier to synchronize internationally. The fact that it continues to approximate UT1 means that tasks such as [[navigation]] which require a source of Universal Time continue to be well served by the public broadcast of UTC.{{sfn|McCarthy|Seidelmann|2009|p=227&ndash;229}} ==See also== * [[Clock synchronization]] * [[Network Time Protocol]] * [[Precision Time Protocol]] * [[Time and frequency transfer]] ==Notes== {{Reflist}} ==References== {{refbegin}} * {{cite web |title=History of TAI−UTC |url=ftp://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/tai-utc.dat |publisher=Time Service Dept., United States Naval Observatory |date=2009 |accessdate=4 January 2010 }} * {{cite web |title=International Atomic Time |url=http://www.bipm.org/en/scientific/tai/tai.html |publisher=[[International Bureau of Weights and Measures]] |accessdate=22 February 2013 }} {{refend}} == Bibliography == {{refbegin}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=Time: From Earth Rotation to Atomic Physics |url=https://books.google.es/books?id=7NdrK4e77CIC |authorlink=Dennis D. McCarthy |last=McCarthy |first=Dennis D. |last2=Seidelmann |first2=Kenneth P. |isbn=978-3-527-40780-4 |publisher=[[Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA]] |location=Weinheim |year=2009 |pages=368}} {{refend}} ==External links== * [http://www.bipm.fr/enus/5_Scientific/c_time/time_1.html Bureau International des Poids et Mesures: TAI] * [http://www.npl.co.uk/time/ Time and Frequency Section - National Physical Laboratory, UK] * [http://hpiers.obspm.fr IERS website] * [https://www.nist.gov/pml/time-and-frequency-division/popular-links/web-clock-faq NIST Web Clock FAQs] * [http://www.ucolick.org/~sla/leapsecs/timescales.html History of time scales] * [https://www.nist.gov/pml/div688/grp50/primary-frequency-standards.cfm NIST-F1 Cesium Fountain Atomic Clock] * {{cite web|url=http://inms-ienm.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/research/optical_frequency_projects_e.html#femtosecond|title=Optical frequency comb for metrology and timekeeping|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090125051853/http://inms-ienm.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/research/optical_frequency_projects_e.html#femtosecond |archivedate=25 January 2009}} * [http://jjy.nict.go.jp/index-e.html Japan Standard Time Project, NICT, Japan] * {{citation |url=ftp://ftp2.bipm.org/pub/tai/scale/timeservices09.pdf |publisher=Bureau International des Poids et Mesures |title=Time Dissemation Services}} * [http://www.ipses.com/eng/In-depth-analysis/Standard-of-time-definition Standard of time definition: UTC, GPS, LORAN and TAI] {{Time Topics}} {{Time measurement and standards}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2015}} [[Category:Time scales]] fzjimaweb3tx6lvzk4uxhcskx9odgqe 0 336 861488565 860834134 2018-09-27T19:57:28Z AeioWiki 34760142 An --> A wikitext text/x-wiki {{for|the concept in behavioral ecology|Altruism (biology)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} [[File:Belisaire demandant l'aumone Jacques-Louis David.jpg|thumb|Giving [[alms]] to the poor is often considered an altruistic action.]] '''Altruism''' is the [[moral principle|principle]] and [[moral courage|moral practice]] of concern for [[happiness]] of other [[human kind|human beings]], resulting in a [[quality of life]] both [[material]] and [[spirituality|spiritual]]. It is a traditional [[virtue]] in many cultures and a core aspect of various religious traditions and secular worldviews, though the concept of "others" toward whom concern should be directed can vary among cultures and religions. In an extreme case, altruism may become a synonym of selflessness which is the opposite of [[selfishness]]. In a common way of living, it doesn't deny the singular nature of the subject, but realizes the traits of the individual [[personality]] in relation to the others, with a true, direct and personal [[interaction]] with each of them. It is focusing both on a single person and the whole [[community]]. In a (not only) Christian practice, it is the law of love direct to the ego and his neighbour. The word "altruism" was coined by the French philosopher [[Auguste Comte]] in French, as ''altruisme'', for an [[antonym]] of [[egoism]].<ref>{{cite web|title=altruism (n .)|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=altruism|work=Online Etymology Dictionary|publisher=Douglas Harper|accessdate=19 September 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Teske|first1=Nathan|title=Political Activists in America: The Identity Construction Model of Political Participation|date=2009|publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press|location=University Park, Pa.|isbn=9780271035468|page=101|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7B38I2UEPa0C&dq}}</ref> He derived it from the Italian ''altrui'', which in turn was derived from Latin ''alteri'', meaning "[[alterity|other people]]" or "somebody else".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ciciloni|first1=Ferdinando|title=A Grammar of the Italian Language|date=1825|publisher=John Murray|location=London|page=64|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=neAGAAAAQAAJ&dq}}</ref> Altruism in biological observations in field populations of the day organisms is an individual performing an action which is at a cost to themselves (e.g., pleasure and quality of life, time, probability of survival or reproduction), but benefits, either directly or indirectly, another third-party individual, without the expectation of reciprocity or compensation for that action. Steinberg suggests a definition for altruism in the clinical setting, that is "intentional and voluntary actions that aim to enhance the welfare of another person in the absence of any quid pro quo external rewards".<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Altruism in medicine: its definition, nature, and dilemmas|last = Steinberg|first = David|date = 2010|journal = Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=249–57|doi = 10.1017/s0963180109990521|pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> Altruism can be distinguished from feelings of [[loyalty]], in that whilst the latter is predicated upon social relationships, altruism does not consider relationships. Much debate exists as to whether ''"true"'' altruism is possible in human psychology. The theory of [[psychological egoism]] suggests that no act of sharing, helping or sacrificing can be described as truly altruistic, as the actor may receive an intrinsic reward in the form of personal [[gratification]]. The validity of this argument depends on whether [[Motivation#Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation|intrinsic rewards]] qualify as "benefits". The term ''[[altruism (ethics)|altruism]]'' may also refer to an ethical doctrine that claims that individuals are morally obliged to benefit others. Used in this sense, it is usually contrasted with [[ethical egoism|egoism]], which claims individuals are morally obligated to serve themselves first. ==The notion of altruism== The concept has a long history in [[Philosophy|philosophical]] and [[Ethics|ethical]] thought. The term was originally coined in the 19th century by the founding [[sociologist]] and [[philosopher of science]], [[Auguste Comte]], and has become a major topic for [[psychologists]] (especially [[evolutionary psychology]] researchers), [[evolutionary biologists]], and [[ethology|ethologists]]. Whilst ideas about altruism from one field can affect the other fields, the different methods and focuses of these fields always lead to different perspectives on altruism. In simple terms, altruism is caring about the welfare of other people and acting to help them. ==Scientific viewpoints<!--linked from 'Evolution of morality'-->== ===Anthropology=== [[Marcel Mauss]]'s book ''The Gift'' contains a passage called "Note on alms". This note describes the evolution of the notion of alms (and by extension of altruism) from the notion of sacrifice. In it, he writes: <blockquote>Alms are the fruits of a moral notion of the gift and of fortune on the one hand, and of a notion of sacrifice, on the other. Generosity is an obligation, because Nemesis avenges the poor and the gods for the superabundance of happiness and wealth of certain people who should rid themselves of it. This is the ancient morality of the gift, which has become a principle of justice. The gods and the spirits accept that the share of wealth and happiness that has been offered to them and had been hitherto destroyed in useless sacrifices should serve the poor and children.</blockquote> * Compare [[altruism (ethics)|Altruism (ethics) – perception of altruism as self-sacrifice]]. * Compare [[alms|explanation of alms in various scriptures]]. ===Evolutionary explanations=== {{Main|Altruism in animals|Evolution of morality|Evolutionary ethics}} [[File:Manner of Francis Wheatley, Giving alms to beggar children.jpg|thumb|upright|Giving alms to beggar children]] In the science of [[ethology]] (the study of animal behaviour), and more generally in the study of [[social evolution]], altruism refers to behaviour by an individual that increases the [[fitness (biology)|fitness]] of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the actor.<ref name="Bell2008">{{cite book| last = Bell| first = Graham| title = Selection: the mechanism of evolution| year = 2008| publisher = Oxford University Press| location = Oxford| isbn = 0-19-856972-6| pages = 367–368 }}</ref> In [[evolutionary psychology]] this may be applied to a wide range of human behaviors such as charity, emergency aid, help to coalition partners, [[Tip (gratuity)|tipping]], courtship gifts, production of [[public good]]s, and [[environmentalism]].<ref name="AEP1">Pat Barcaly. The evolution of charitable behaviour and the power of reputation. In {{Cite journal | last1 = Roberts | first1 = S. C. | editor1-last = Roberts | doi = 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199586073.001.0001 | editor1-first = S. Craig | title = Applied Evolutionary Psychology | year = 2011 | publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 9780199586073 | pmid = | pmc = }}</ref> Theories of apparently altruistic behavior were accelerated by the need to produce theories compatible with evolutionary origins. Two related strands of research on altruism have emerged from traditional evolutionary analyses and from [[evolutionary game theory]] a mathematical model and analysis of behavioural strategies. Some of the proposed mechanisms are: * [[Kin selection]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Biological Altruism|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/altruism-biological/#2|work=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|last=Okasha|first=Samir|accessdate=13 May 2011}}</ref> That animals and humans are more altruistic towards close kin than to distant kin and non-kin has been confirmed in numerous studies across many different cultures. Even subtle cues indicating kinship may unconsciously increase altruistic behavior. One kinship cue is facial resemblance. One study found that slightly altering photographs so that they more closely resembled the faces of study participants increased the trust the participants expressed regarding depicted persons. Another cue is having the same family name, especially if rare, and this has been found to increase helpful behavior. Another study found more cooperative behavior the greater the number of perceived kin in a group. Using kinship terms in political speeches increased audience agreement with the speaker in one study. This effect was especially strong for firstborns, who are typically close to their families.<ref name=AEP1/> * Vested interests. People are likely to suffer if their friends, allies, and similar social [[ingroup]]s suffer or even disappear. Helping such group members may therefore eventually benefit the altruist. Making ingroup membership more noticeable increases cooperativeness. Extreme self-sacrifice towards the ingroup may be adaptive if a hostile [[Ingroups and outgroups|outgroup]] threatens to kill the entire ingroup.<ref name=AEP1/> * [[Reciprocal altruism]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1086/406755|last1=Trivers|first1=R.L.|year=1971|title=The evolution of reciprocal altruism|journal=Quarterly Review of Biology|volume=46|pages=35–57|url=https://www.academia.edu/1591793}}</ref> See also [[Reciprocity (evolution)]]. ** Direct [[Reciprocity (social psychology)|reciprocity]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.7466396 |author=R Axelrod and WD Hamilton |title=The evolution of cooperation |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=211 |issue=4489 |date=27 March 1981 |pages=1390–1396 |pmid=7466396 |bibcode = 1981Sci...211.1390A|citeseerx=10.1.1.147.9644 }}</ref> Research shows that it can be beneficial to help others if there is a chance that they can and will reciprocate the help. The effective [[tit for tat]] strategy is one [[game theory|game theoretic]] example. Many people seem to be following a similar strategy by cooperating if and only if others cooperate in return.<ref name=AEP1/> **:One consequence is that people are more cooperative if it is more likely that individuals will interact again in the future. People tend to be less cooperative if they perceive that the frequency of helpers in the population is lower. They tend to help less if they see non-cooperativeness by others and this effect tend to be stronger than the opposite effect of seeing cooperative behaviors. Simply changing the cooperative framing of a proposal may increase cooperativeness such as calling it a "Community Game" instead of a "Wall Street Game."<ref name=AEP1/> **:A tendency towards reciprocity implies that people will feel obligated to respond if someone helps them. This has been used by charities that give small gifts to potential donors hoping thereby to induce reciprocity. Another method is to announce publicly that someone has given a large donation. The tendency to reciprocate can even generalize so people become more helpful toward others in general after being helped. On the other hand, people will avoid or even retaliate against those perceived not to be cooperating. People sometimes mistakenly fail to help when they intended to, or their helping may not be noticed, which may cause unintended conflicts. As such, it may be an optimal strategy to be slightly forgiving of and have a slightly generous interpretation of non-cooperation.<ref name=AEP1/> **:People are more likely to cooperate on a task if they can communicate with one another first. This may be due to better assessments of cooperativeness or due to exchange of promises. They are more cooperative if they can gradually build trust, instead of being asked to give extensive help immediately. Direct reciprocity and cooperation in a group can be increased by changing the focus and incentives from intra-group competition to larger scale competitions such as between groups or against the general population. Thus, giving grades and promotions based only on an individual's performance relative to a small local group, as is common, may reduce cooperative behaviors in the group.<ref name=AEP1/> ** Indirect reciprocity.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1038/nature04131|author=Martin Nowak & Karl Sigmund|title=Evolution of indirect reciprocity|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=437|issue=27|date=October 2005|pages=1291–1298|pmid=16251955|bibcode = 2005Natur.437.1291N |url=https://www.academia.edu/17949833}}</ref> The avoidance of poor reciprocators and cheaters causes a person's [[reputation]] to become very important. A person with a good reputation for reciprocity have a higher chance of receiving help even from persons they have had no direct interactions with previously.<ref name=AEP1/> ** [[Strong reciprocity]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gintis |first=Herbert |author-link=Herbert Gintis|title=Strong Reciprocity and Human Sociality|journal=[[Journal of Theoretical Biology]]|volume=206|issue=2|date=September 2000|pmid=10966755|pages=169–179|doi=10.1006/jtbi.2000.2111|hdl=10419/105717|hdl-access=free}}</ref> A form of reciprocity where some individuals seem to spend more resources on cooperating and punishing than would be most beneficial as predicted by several established theories of altruism. A number of theories have been proposed as explanations as well as criticisms regarding its existence. ** Pseudo-reciprocity.<ref>{{cite journal|year=2003|title=Genetic and Cultural Evolution of Cooperation, Chapter 11|isbn=0-262-08326-4|publisher=Dahlem Workshop Reports|location=Berlin}}</ref> An organism behaves altruistically and the recipient does not reciprocate but has an increased chance of acting in a way that is selfish but also as a byproduct benefits the altruist. * [[Signalling theory|Costly signaling]] and the [[handicap principle]].<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.2307/3677205|last1=Zahavi|first1=A.|year=1995|title=Altruism as a handicap – The limitations of kin selection and reciprocity|jstor=3677205|journal=Avian Biol|volume=26|issue=1|pages=1–3|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/245271476}}</ref> Since altruism takes away resources from the altruist it can be an "honest signal" of resource availability and the abilities needed to gather resources. This may signal to others that the altruist is a valuable potential partner. It may also be a signal of interactive and cooperative intentions since those not interacting further in the future gain nothing from the costly signaling. It is unclear if costly signaling can indicate a long-term cooperative personality but people have increased trust for those who help. Costly signaling is pointless if everyone has the same traits, resources, and cooperative intentions but become a potentially more important signal if the population increasingly varies on these characteristics.<ref name=AEP1/> :Hunters widely sharing the meat has been seen as a costly signal of ability and research has found that good hunters have higher reproductive success and more adulterous relations even if they themselves receive no more of the hunted meat than anyone else. Similarly, holding large feasts and giving large donations has been seen as ways of demonstrating one's resources. Heroic risk-taking has also been interpreted as a costly signal of ability.<ref name=AEP1/> [[File:FEMA - 15337 - Photograph by Andrea Booher taken on 09-10-2005 in Texas.jpg|thumb|Volunteers assist Hurricane victims at the [[Houston Astrodome]], following Hurricane Katrina.]] :Both indirect reciprocity and costly signaling depend on the value of reputation and tend to make similar predictions. One is that people will be more helping when they know that their helping behavior will be communicated to people they will interact with later, is publicly announced, is discussed, or is simply being observed by someone else. This have been documented in many studies. The effect is sensitive to subtle cues such as people being more helpful when there were stylized eyespots instead of a logo on a computer screen. Weak reputational cues such as eyespots may become unimportant if there are stronger cues present and may lose their effect with continued exposure unless reinforced with real reputational effects.<ref name=AEP1/> Public displays such as public weeping for dead celebrities and participation in demonstrations may be influenced by a desire to be seen as altruistic. People who know that they are publicly monitored sometimes even wastefully donate money they know are not needed by recipient which may be because of reputational concerns.<ref name="AEP2">Wendy Iredal and Mark van Vugt. Altruism as showing off: a signaling perspective on promoting green behaviour and acts of kindness. In {{Cite journal | last1 = Roberts | first1 = S. C. | editor1-last = Roberts | doi = 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199586073.001.0001 | editor1-first = S. Craig | title = Applied Evolutionary Psychology | year = 2011 | publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 9780199586073 | pmid = | pmc = }}</ref> :Women have been found to find altruistic men to be attractive partners. When looking for a long-term partner, altruism may be a preferred trait as it may indicate that he is also willing to share resources with her and her children. It has been shown that men perform altruistic acts in the early stages of a romantic relationship or simply when in the presence of an attractive woman. While both sexes state that kindness is the most preferable trait in a partner there is some evidence that men place less value on this than women and that women may not be more altruistic in presence of an attractive man. Men may even avoid altruistic women in short-term relationships which may be because they expect less success.<ref name=AEP1/><ref name=AEP2/> :People may compete over getting the benefits of a high reputation which may cause [[competitive altruism]]. On the other hand, in some experiments a proportion of people do not seem to care about reputation and they do not help more even if this is conspicuous. This may possibly be due to reasons such as [[psychopathy]] or that they are so attractive that they need not be seen to be altruistic. The reputational benefits of altruism occur in the future as compared to the immediate costs of altruism in the present. While humans and other organisms generally place less value on future costs/benefits as compared to those in the present, some have shorter time horizons than others and these people tend to be less cooperative.<ref name=AEP1/> :Explicit [[extrinsic]] rewards and punishments have been found to sometimes actually have the opposite effect on behaviors compared to intrinsic rewards. This may be because such extrinsic, top-down incentives may replace (partially or in whole) intrinsic and reputational incentives, motivating the person to focus on obtaining the extrinsic rewards, which overall may make the behaviors less desirable. Another effect is that people would like altruism to be due to a personality characteristic rather than due to overt reputational concerns and simply pointing out that there are reputational benefits of an action may actually reduce them. This may possibly be used as derogatory tactic against altruists, especially by those who are non-cooperators. A counterargument is that doing good due to reputational concerns is better than doing no good at all.<ref name=AEP1/> * [[Group selection]]. It has controversially been argued by some evolutionary scientists such as [[David Sloan Wilson]] that natural selection can act at the level of non-kin groups to produce adaptations that benefit a non-kin group even if these adaptions are detrimental at the individual level. Thus, while altruistic persons may under some circumstances be outcompeted by less altruistic persons at the individual level, according to group selection theory the opposite may occur at the group level where groups consisting of the more altruistic persons may outcompete groups consisting of the less altruistic persons. Such altruism may only extend to ingroup members while there may instead prejudice and antagonism against outgroup members (See also [[in-group favoritism]]). Group selection theory has been criticized by many other evolutionary scientists.<ref>Leon Neyfakh Where does good come from?, 17 April 2011, http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/ideas/articles/2011/04/17/where_does_good_come_from/</ref><ref>E. O. Wilson. Biologist E.O. Wilson on Why Humans, Like Ants, Need a Tribe. 2 April 2012. The Daily Beast. http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2012/04/01/biologist-e-o-wilson-on-why-humans-like-ants-need-a-tribe.html</ref> [[File:Helping the homeless (cropped).jpg|right|thumb|Helping the [[Homelessness|homeless]] in New York City]] Such explanations do not imply that humans are always consciously calculating how to increase their [[inclusive fitness]] when they are doing altruistic acts. Instead, evolution has shaped psychological mechanisms, such as emotions, that promote altruistic behaviors.<ref name=AEP1/> Every single instance of altruistic behavior need not always increase inclusive fitness; altruistic behaviors would have been selected for if such behaviors on average increased inclusive fitness in the ancestral environment. This need not imply that on average 50% or more of altruistic acts were beneficial for the altruist in the ancestral environment; if the benefits from helping the right person were very high it would be beneficial to err on the side of caution and usually be altruistic even if in most cases there were no benefits.<ref name=AEP1/> The benefits for the altruist may be increased and the costs reduced by being more altruistic towards certain groups. Research has found that people are more altruistic to kin than to no-kin, to friends than to strangers, to those attractive than to those unattractive, to non-competitors than to competitors, and to members ingroups than to members of outgroup.<ref name=AEP1/> The study of altruism was the initial impetus behind [[George R. Price]]'s development of the [[Price equation]], which is a mathematical equation used to study genetic evolution. An interesting example of altruism is found in the cellular [[slime mould]]s, such as ''[[Dictyostelid|Dictyostelium]] mucoroides.'' These protists live as individual [[amoeba]]e until starved, at which point they aggregate and form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body. Selective investment theory proposes that close social bonds, and associated emotional, cognitive, and neurohormonal mechanisms, evolved in order to facilitate long-term, high-cost altruism between those closely depending on one another for survival and reproductive success.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1207/s15327965pli1701_01 |last1=Brown |first1=S.L. |last2=Brown |first2=R.M. |year=2006 |title=Selective investment theory: Recasting the functional significance of close relationships |url=http://icos.groups.si.umich.edu/Brown-Stephanie.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714230521/http://icos.groups.si.umich.edu/Brown-Stephanie.pdf |dead-url=yes |archive-date=2014-07-14 |format=PDF |journal=Psychological Inquiry |volume=17 |pages=1–29 }}</ref><ref>http://www.icts.res.in/media/uploads/Talk/Document/StLouis2011TelmoFIN.pdf{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Such cooperative behaviors have sometimes been seen as arguments for left-wing politics such by the Russian zoologist and anarchist [[Peter Kropotkin]] in his 1902 book ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution]]'' and [[Peter Singer]] in his book ''[[A Darwinian Left]].'' ===Neurobiology=== Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman, neuroscientists at the [[National Institutes of Health]] and LABS-D'Or Hospital Network (J.M.) provided the first evidence for the neural bases of altruistic giving in normal healthy volunteers, using [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]]. In their research, published in the [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] USA in October 2006,<ref>Human fronto–mesolimbic networks guide decisions about charitable donation, PNAS 2006:103(42);15623–15628</ref> they showed that both pure monetary rewards and charitable donations activated the [[Mesolimbic pathway|mesolimbic]] reward pathway, a primitive part of the brain that usually responds to food and sex. However, when volunteers generously placed the interests of others before their own by making charitable donations, another brain circuit was selectively activated: the subgenual cortex/[[septal region]]. These structures are intimately related to social attachment and bonding in other species. Altruism, the experiment suggested, was not a superior moral faculty that suppresses basic selfish urges but rather was basic to the brain, hard-wired and pleasurable.<ref name="brain">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/27/AR2007052701056.html |title=If It Feels Good to Be Good, It Might Be Only Natural |publisher=Washington Post |date=May 2007 |first=Shankar |last=Vedantam |accessdate=23 April 2010}}</ref> One brain region, the subgenual [[anterior cingulate]] cortex/[[basal forebrain]], contributes to learning altruistic behavior, especially in those with trait empathy.<ref name=PMID_27528669>{{ cite journal |last1 = Lockwood |first1 = Patricia L |last2 = Apps |first2 = Matthew A J |last3 = Valton |first3 = Vincent |last4 = Viding |first4 = Essi |last5 = Roiser |first5 = Jonathan P |year = 2016 |title = Neurocomputational mechanisms of prosocial learning and links to empathy. |journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |quote = . fMRI revealed that activity in a posterior portion of the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex/basal forebrain (sgACC) drives learning only when we are acting in a prosocial context |laysummary = http://neurosciencenews.com/generosity-empathy-neuroscience-4850/ |pmid = 27528669 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1603198113 |volume=113 |pages=9763–8|pmc = 5024617 }}</ref> The same study has shown a connection between giving to charity and the promotion of social bonding.<ref name="neurons">{{cite news |url=https://generosityresearch.nd.edu/news/hard-wired-for-giving/ |title=Scientists Are Finding That We Are Hard-Wired for Giving |publisher=University of Notre Dame |date=September 5, 2013 |first=Elizabeth |last=Svoboda |accessdate=7 August 2017}}</ref> In fact, in an experiment published in March 2007 at the [[University of Southern California]] neuroscientist [[Antonio R. Damasio]] and his colleagues showed that subjects with damage to the [[ventromedial prefrontal cortex]] lack the ability to empathically feel their way to moral answers, and that When confronted with moral dilemmas, these brain-damaged patients coldly came up with "end-justifies-the-means" answers, leading Damasio to conclude that the point was not that they reached immoral conclusions, but that when they were confronted by a difficult issue - in this case as whether to shoot down a passenger plane hijacked by terrorists before it hits a major city - these patients appear to reach decisions without the anguish that afflicts those with normally functioning brains. According to [[Adrian Raine]], a clinical neuroscientist also at the University of Southern California, one of this study's implications is that society may have to rethink how it judges immoral people: "Psychopaths often feel no empathy or remorse. Without that awareness, people relying exclusively on reasoning seem to find it harder to sort their way through moral thickets. Does that mean they should be held to different standards of accountability?"<ref name="brain"/> In another study, in the 1990s, Dr. Bill Harbaugh, a [[University of Oregon]] economist, concluded people are motivated to give for reasons of personal prestige and in a similar fMRI scanner test in 2007 with his psychologist colleague Dr. Ulrich Mayr, reached the same conclusions of Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman about giving to charity, although they were able to divide the study group into two groups: "egoists" and "altruists". One of their discoveries was that, though rarely, even some of the considered "egoists" sometimes gave more than expected because that would help others, leading to the conclusion that there are other factors in cause in charity, such as a person's environment and values.<ref name="neurons"/> ===Psychology=== The International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences defines ''psychological altruism'' as "a motivational state with the goal of increasing another’s welfare." Psychological altruism is contrasted with ''psychological egoism,'' which refers to the motivation to increase one’s own welfare.<ref name="encyclopedia">["Altruism." International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Ed. William A. Darity, Jr. 2nd ed. Vol. 1. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2008. 87-88. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 10 April 2012.]</ref> There has been some debate on whether or not humans are truly capable of psychological altruism.<ref name="batson3">[Batson, C. (2011). Altruism in humans. New York, NY US: Oxford University Press.]</ref> Some definitions specify a self-sacrificial nature to altruism and a lack of external rewards for altruistic behaviors.<ref name="prosocial">[Batson, C. (2012). A history of prosocial behavior research. In A. W. Kruglanski, [[Wolfgang Stroebe|W. Stroebe]], A. W. Kruglanski, (Eds.), Handbook of the history of social psychology (pp. 243–264). New York, NY US: Psychology Press.]</ref> However, because altruism ultimately benefits the self in many cases, the selflessness of altruistic acts is brought to question. The [[social exchange theory]] postulates that altruism only exists when benefits to the self outweigh costs to the self.<ref name="noaltruism">{{cite journal | last1 = Maner | first1 = J. K. | last2 = Luce | first2 = C. L. | last3 = Neuberg | first3 = S. L. | last4 = Cialdini | first4 = R. B. | last5 = Brown | first5 = S. | last6 = Sagarin | first6 = B. J. | year = 2002 | title = The effects of perspective taking on motivations for helping: Still no evidence for altruism | url = https://www.academia.edu/14932530| journal = Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin | volume = 28 | issue = 11| pages = 1601–1610 | doi = 10.1177/014616702237586 }}</ref> [[Daniel Batson]] is a psychologist who examined this question and argues against the social exchange theory. He identified four major motives for altruism: altruism to ultimately benefit the self (egoism), to ultimately benefit the other person (altruism), to benefit a group (collectivism), or to uphold a moral principle ([[principlism]]). Altruism that ultimately serves selfish gains is thus differentiated from selfless altruism, but the general conclusion has been that empathy-induced altruism can be genuinely selfless.<ref name=" baston2">[Batson, C., Ahmad, N., & Stocks, E. L. (2011). Four forms of prosocial motivation: Egoism, altruism, collectivism, and principlism. In D. Dunning, D. Dunning (Eds.), Social motivation (pp. 103–126). New York, NY US: Psychology Press.]</ref> The ''[[empathy-altruism]] hypothesis'' basically states that psychological altruism does exist and is evoked by the empathic desire to help someone who is suffering. Feelings of empathic concern are contrasted with feelings of personal distress, which compel people to reduce their own unpleasant emotions. People with empathic concern help others in distress even when exposure to the situation could be easily avoided, whereas those lacking in empathic concern avoid helping unless it is difficult or impossible to avoid exposure to another's suffering.<ref name="encyclopedia"/> Helping behavior is seen in humans at about two years old, when a toddler is capable of understanding subtle emotional cues.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Svetlova|first1=M.|last2=Nichols|first2=S. R.|last3=Brownell|first3=C. A.|year=2010|title=Toddlers prosocial behavior: From instrumental to empathic to altruistic helping|journal=Child Development|volume=81|issue=6|pages=1814–1827|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01512.x|pmid=21077866|pmc=3088085}}</ref> [[File:Peace Corps Volunteer swearing in Cambodia, 2007.jpg|thumb|[[Peace Corps]] trainees swearing in as volunteers in [[Cambodia]], 4 April 2007]] In psychological research on altruism, studies often observe altruism as demonstrated through prosocial behaviors such as helping, comforting, sharing, cooperation, philanthropy, and community service.<ref name="prosocial"/> Research has found that people are most likely to help if they recognize that a person is in need and feel personal responsibility for reducing the person's distress. Research also suggests that the number of bystanders witnessing distress or suffering affects the likelihood of helping (the ''[[Bystander effect]]''). Greater numbers of bystanders decrease individual feelings of responsibility.<ref name="encyclopedia"/><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hudson | first1 = James M. | last2 = Bruckman | first2 = Amy S. | year = 2004 | title = The Bystander Effect: A Lens for Understanding Patterns of Participation | url = | journal = Journal of the Learning Sciences | volume = 13 | issue = 2| pages = 165–195 | doi = 10.1207/s15327809jls1302_2 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.72.4881 }}</ref> However, a witness with a high level of empathic concern is likely to assume personal responsibility entirely regardless of the number of bystanders.<ref name="encyclopedia"/> Many studies have observed the effects of [[volunteering|volunteerism]] (as a form of altruism) on happiness and health and have consistently found a strong connection between volunteerism and current and future health and well-being.<ref name="volunteer1">{{cite journal|last1=Musick|first1=M. A.|last2=Wilson|first2=J.|year=2003|title=Volunteering and depression: The role of psychological and social resources in different age groups|journal=Social Science & Medicine|volume=56|issue=2|pages=259–269|doi=10.1016/S0277-9536(02)00025-4}}</ref><ref name="volunteer2">{{cite journal | last1 = Koenig | first1 = L. B. | last2 = McGue | first2 = M. | last3 = Krueger | first3 = R. F. | last4 = Bouchard | first4 = | year = 2007 | title = Religiousness, antisocial behavior, and altruism: Genetic and environmental mediation | url = | journal = Journal of Personality | volume = 75 | issue = 2| pages = 265–290 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2007.00439.x }}</ref> In a study of older adults, those who volunteered were higher on life satisfaction and will to live, and lower in [[Depression (mood)|depression]], [[anxiety (mood)|anxiety]], and [[somatization]].<ref name="elderly1">{{cite journal|last1=Hunter|first1=K. I.|last2=Hunter|first2=M. W.|year=1980|title=Psychosocial differences between elderly volunteers and non-volunteers|journal=The International Journal of Aging & Human Development|volume=12|issue=3|pages=205–213|doi=10.2190/0H6V-QPPP-7JK4-LR38}}</ref> Volunteerism and helping behavior have not only been shown to improve mental health, but physical health and longevity as well, attributable to the activity and social integration it encourages.<ref name="volunteer1"/><ref name="volunteer3">{{cite journal | last1 = Kayloe | first1 = J. C. | last2 = Krause | first2 = M. | year = 1985 | title = RARE FIND: or The value of volunteerism | url = | journal = Psychosocial Rehabilitation Journal | volume = 8 | issue = 4| pages = 49–56 | doi=10.1037/h0099659}}</ref><ref name="volunteer4">{{cite journal|last1=Brown|first1=S. L.|last2=Brown|first2=R.|last3=House|first3=J. S.|last4=Smith|first4=D. M.|year=2008|title=Coping with spousal loss: Potential buffering effects of self-reported helping behavior|journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin|volume=34|issue=6|pages=849–861|doi=10.1177/0146167208314972|pmid=18344495}}</ref><ref name="volunteer5">{{cite journal|last1=Post|first1=S. G.|year=2005|title=Altruism, Happiness, and Health: It's Good to Be Good|journal=International Journal of Behavioral Medicine|volume=12|issue=2|pages=66–77|doi=10.1207/s15327558ijbm1202_4|pmid=15901215|citeseerx=10.1.1.485.8406}}</ref> One study examined the physical health of mothers who volunteered over a 30-year period and found that 52% of those who did not belong to a volunteer organization experienced a major illness while only 36% of those who did volunteer experienced one.<ref name="volunteer6">{{cite journal |last1=Moen |first1=P. |last2=Dempster-Mcclain |first2=D. |last3=Williams |first3=R. M. |year=1992|title=Successful aging: A life-course perspective on women's multiple roles and health|journal=American Journal of Sociology|volume=97|issue=6|pages=1612–1638|doi=10.1086/229941}}</ref> A study on adults ages 55+ found that during the four-year study period, people who volunteered for two or more organizations had a 63% lower likelihood of dying. After controlling for prior health status, it was determined that volunteerism accounted for a 44% reduction in mortality.<ref name="volunteer7">{{cite journal|last1=Oman|first1=D.|last2=Thoresen|first2=C. E.|last3=McMahon|first3=K.|year=1999|title=Volunteerism and mortality among the community-dwelling elderly|journal=Journal of Health Psychology|volume=4|issue=3|pages=301–316|doi=10.1177/135910539900400301|pmid=22021599|doi-access=free}}</ref> Merely being aware of kindness in oneself and others is also associated with greater well-being. A study that asked participants to count each act of kindness they performed for one week significantly enhanced their subjective happiness.<ref name="countingkindness">{{cite journal|last1=Otake|first1=K.|last2=Shimai|first2=S.|last3=Tanaka-Matsumi|first3=J.|last4=Otsui|first4=K.|last5=Fredrickson|first5=B. L.|year=2006|title=Happy people become happier through kindness: A counting kindnesses intervention|journal=Journal of Happiness Studies|volume=7|issue=3|pages=361–375|doi=10.1007/s10902-005-3650-z|pmid=17356687|pmc=1820947}}</ref> It is important to note that, while research supports the idea that altruistic acts bring about happiness, it has also been found to work in the opposite direction—that happier people are also kinder. The relationship between altruistic behavior and happiness is bidirectional. Studies have found that generosity increases linearly from sad to happy affective states.<ref name="moodandgenerosity">{{cite journal|last1=Underwood|first1=B.|last2=Froming|first2=W. J.|last3=Moore|first3=B. S.|year=1977|title=Mood, attention, and altruism: A search for mediating variables|journal=Developmental Psychology|volume=13|issue=5|pages=541–542|doi=10.1037/0012-1649.13.5.541}}</ref> Studies have also been careful to note that feeling over-taxed by the needs of others has conversely negative effects on health and happiness.<ref name="volunteer5"/> For example, one study on volunteerism found that feeling overwhelmed by others' demands had an even stronger negative effect on mental health than helping had a positive one (although positive effects were still significant).<ref name="overwhelmed">{{cite journal|last1=Schwartz|first1=C.|last2=Meisenhelder|first2=J.|last3=Ma|first3=Y.|last4=Reed|first4=G.|year=2003|title=Altruistic Social Interest Behaviors Are Associated With Better Mental Health|journal=Psychosomatic Medicine|volume=65|issue=5|pages=778–785|doi=10.1097/01.PSY.0000079378.39062.D4|pmid=14508020|citeseerx=10.1.1.529.7780}}</ref> Additionally, while generous acts make people feel good about themselves, it is also important for people to appreciate the kindness they receive from others. Studies suggest that gratitude goes hand-in-hand with kindness and is also very important for our well-being. A study on the relationship happiness to various character strengths showed that "a conscious focus on gratitude led to reductions in negative affect and increases in optimistic appraisals, positive affect, offering emotional support, sleep quality, and well-being.".<ref name="gratitude">{{cite journal|last1=Shimai|first1=S.|last2=Otake|first2=K.|last3=Park|first3=N.|last4=Peterson|first4=C.|last5=Seligman|first5=M. P.|year=2006|title=Convergence of character strengths in American and Japanese young adults|journal=Journal of Happiness Studies|volume=7|issue=3|pages=311–322|doi=10.1007/s10902-005-3647-7|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23545572}}</ref> ===Sociology=== "Sociologists have long been concerned with how to build the good society" ("Altruism, Morality, and Social Solidarity". American Sociological Association.<ref>[http://www.asanet.org/sections/altruism.cfm American Sociological Association: Altruism, Morality and Social Solidarity<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120503051933/http://asanet.org/sections/altruism.cfm |date=3 May 2012 }}</ref>). The structure of our societies and how individuals come to exhibit charitable, philanthropic, and other pro-social, altruistic actions for the common good is a largely researched topic within the field. The American Sociology Association (ASA) acknowledges [[Public sociology]] saying, "The intrinsic scientific, policy, and public relevance of this field of investigation in helping to construct 'good societies' is unquestionable" ("Altruism, Morality, and Social Solidarity" ASA). This type of sociology seeks contributions that aid grassroots and theoretical understandings of what motivates altruism and how it is organized, and promotes an altruistic focus in order to benefit the world and people it studies. How altruism is framed, organized, carried out, and what motivates it at the group level is an area of focus that sociologists seek to investigate in order to contribute back to the groups it studies and "build the good society". The motivation of altruism is also the focus of study; some publications link the occurrence of moral outrage to the punishment of perpetrators and compensation of victims.<ref>Thulin EW, Bicchieri C. I’m so angry I could help you: Moral outrage as a driver of victim compensation. Social Philosophy & Policy, 2016, 32: 146-160</ref> {{See also|Public sociology}} ===Pathological altruism=== [[Pathology|Pathological]] altruism is when altruism is taken to an unhealthy extreme, and either harms the altruistic person, or well-intentioned actions cause more harm than good. The term "pathological altruism" was popularised by the book ''[[Pathological Altruism]]''. Examples include depression and burnout seen in healthcare professionals, an unhealthy focus on others to the detriment of one's own needs, hoarding of animals, and ineffective philanthropic and social programs that ultimately worsen the situations they are meant to aid.<ref>http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/product/9780199738571.do</ref> ==Religious viewpoints== {{See also|Evolutionary origin of religions}} Most, if not all, of the world's religions promote altruism as a very important moral value. [[Buddhism]], [[Christianity]], [[Hinduism]], [[Islam]], [[Jainism]], [[Judaism]], and [[Sikhism]], etc., place particular emphasis on altruistic morality. ===Buddhism=== [[File:Monks collecting alms - Bun Vat Phu.JPG|thumb|Monks collecting alms]] Altruism figures prominently in Buddhism. Love and compassion are components of all forms of Buddhism, and are focused on all beings equally: love is the wish that all beings be happy, and compassion is the wish that all beings be free from suffering. "Many illnesses can be cured by the one medicine of love and compassion. These qualities are the ultimate source of human happiness, and the need for them lies at the very core of our being" ([[Dalai Lama]]).<ref name="Speech by the Dalai Lama">[http://www.dalailama.com/page.65.htm Speech by the Dalai Lama] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091003223717/http://www.dalailama.com/page.65.htm |date=3 October 2009 }}<br>The phrase "core of our being" is [[Freudian]]; see {{Cite journal | author = Bettina Bock von Wülfingen | year = 2013 | title = Freud's 'Core of our Being' Between Cytology and Psychoanalysis | url = http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/bewi.201301604/pdf | journal = Berichte zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte | volume = 36 | pages = 226–244 | doi = 10.1002/bewi.201301604 | issue = 3 }}</ref> Still, the notion of altruism is modified in such a world-view, since the belief is that such a practice promotes our own happiness: "The more we care for the happiness of others, the greater our own sense of well-being becomes" (Dalai Lama<ref name="Speech by the Dalai Lama"/>). In the context of larger ethical discussions on moral action and judgment, Buddhism is characterized by the belief that negative (unhappy) consequences of our actions derive not from punishment or correction based on moral judgment, but from the law of karma, which functions like a natural law of cause and effect. A simple illustration of such cause and effect is the case of experiencing the effects of what one causes: if one causes suffering, then as a natural consequence one would experience suffering; if one causes happiness, then as a natural consequence one would experience happiness. ===Jainism=== {{see also|Ahimsa in Jainism}} [[File:Ahinsa.jpg|thumb|Sculpture depicting the Jain concept of ''ahimsa'' (non-injury)]] The fundamental principles of [[Jainism]] revolve around the concept of altruism, not only for humans but for all sentient beings. Jainism preaches the view of ''[[Ahimsa]]'' – to live and let live, thereby not harming sentient beings, i.e. uncompromising reverence for all life. It also considers all living things to be equal. The first [[Tirthankara]], [[Rishabhdev]], introduced the concept of altruism for all living beings, from extending knowledge and experience to others to donation, giving oneself up for others, non-violence and compassion for all living things. Jainism prescribes a path of non-violence to progress the soul to this ultimate goal. A major characteristic of Jain belief is the emphasis on the consequences of not only physical but also mental behaviors. One's unconquered mind with anger, pride (ego), deceit, greed and uncontrolled sense organs are the powerful enemies of humans. Anger spoils good relations, pride destroys humility, deceit destroys peace and greed destroys everything. Jainism recommends conquering anger by forgiveness, pride by humility, deceit by straightforwardness and greed by contentment. Jains believe that to attain enlightenment and ultimately liberation, one must practice the following ethical principles (major vows) in thought, speech and action. The degree to which these principles are practiced is different for householders and monks. They are: # Non-violence (Ahimsa); # Truthfulness (Satya); # Non-stealing (Asteya); # Celibacy ([[Brahmacharya]]); # [[Non-possession]] or non-materialism (Aparigraha); The "great vows" ([[Mahavrata]]) are prescribed for monks and "limited vows" ([[Anuvrata]]) are prescribed for householders. The house-holders are encouraged to practice the above-mentioned five vows. The monks have to observe them very strictly. With consistent practice, it will be possible to overcome the limitations gradually, accelerating the spiritual progress. The principle of non-violence seeks to minimize karmas which limit the capabilities of the soul. Jainism views every [[Soul (Jainism)|soul]] as worthy of respect because it has the potential to become ''Siddha'' ([[God in Jainism]]). Because all living beings possess a soul, great care and awareness is essential in one's actions. Jainism emphasizes the equality of all life, advocating harmlessness towards all, whether the creatures are great or small. This policy extends even to microscopic organisms. Jainism acknowledges that every person has different capabilities and capacities to practice and therefore accepts different levels of compliance for ascetics and householders. ===Christianity=== [[File:StThomasMount Theresa.JPG|thumb|Statue of [[Mother Teresa]] in India]] Altruism is central to the teachings of Jesus found in the [[Gospel]], especially in the [[Sermon on the Mount]] and the [[Sermon on the Plain]]. From biblical to medieval [[Christian traditions]], tensions between self-affirmation and other-regard were sometimes discussed under the heading of "disinterested love", as in the [[Paul the Apostle|Pauline]] phrase "love seeks not its own interests." In his book ''Indoctrination and Self-deception,'' Roderick Hindery tries to shed light on these tensions by contrasting them with impostors of authentic self-affirmation and altruism, by analysis of other-regard within creative individuation of the self, and by contrasting love for the few with love for the many. Love confirms others in their freedom, shuns propaganda and masks, assures others of its presence, and is ultimately confirmed not by mere declarations from others, but by each person's experience and practice from within. As in practical arts, the presence and meaning of love becomes validated and grasped not by words and reflections alone, but in the making of the connection. [[St Thomas Aquinas]] interprets 'You should love your neighbour as yourself'<ref>[[Leviticus]] 19 and Matthew 22</ref> as meaning that love for ourselves is the exemplar of love for others.<ref>''[[Summa Theologica]]'', II:II Quaestio 25, Article 4</ref> Considering that "the love with which a man loves himself is the form and root of friendship" and quotes Aristotle that "the origin of friendly relations with others lies in our relations to ourselves,"<ref>[[Nicomachean Ethics]] IX.4 1166a1</ref> he concluded that though we are not bound to love others more than ourselves, we naturally seek the common good, the good of the whole, more than any private good, the good of a part. However, he thinks we should love God more than ourselves and our neighbours, and more than our bodily life—since the ultimate purpose of loving our neighbour is to share in eternal beatitude: a more desirable thing than bodily well being. In coining the word Altruism, as stated above, [[Auguste Comte|Comte]] was probably opposing this Thomistic doctrine, which is present in some theological schools within Catholicism. Many biblical authors draw a strong connection between love of others and love of God. 1 John 4 states that for one to love God one must love his fellowman, and that hatred of one's fellowman is the same as hatred of God. [[Thomas Jay Oord]] has argued in several books that altruism is but one possible form of love. An altruistic action is not always a loving action. Oord defines altruism as acting for the other's good, and he agrees with feminists who note that sometimes love requires acting for one's own good when the other's demands undermine overall well-being. German philosopher [[Max Scheler]] distinguishes two ways in which the strong can help the weak. One way is a sincere expression of Christian love, "motivated by a powerful feeling of security, strength, and inner salvation, of the invincible fullness of one’s own life and existence".<ref>{{cite book|last=Scheler|first=Max|title=Ressentiment|year=1961|pages=88–89}}</ref> Another way is merely "one of the many modern substitutes for love, ... nothing but the urge to turn away from oneself and to lose oneself in other people’s business."<ref>{{cite book|last=Scheler|first=Max|title=Ressentiment|year=1961|pages=95–96}}</ref> At its worst, Scheler says, "love for the small, the poor, the weak, and the oppressed is really disguised hatred, repressed envy, an impulse to detract, etc., directed against the opposite phenomena: wealth, strength, power, largesse."<ref>{{cite book|last=Scheler|first=Max|title=Ressentiment|year=1961|pages=96–97}}</ref> ===Islam=== In [[Islam]], the concept 'ithaar' (إيثار) (altruism) is the notion of 'preferring others to oneself'. For Sufis, this means devotion to others through complete forgetfulness of one's own concerns, where concern for others is rooted to be a demand made by ALLAH on the human body, considered to be property of ALLAH alone. The importance lies in sacrifice for the sake of the greater good; [[Islam]] considers those practicing Eyaar as abiding by the highest degree of nobility.<ref>{{cite book| last = M| title = Key Concepts in the Practice of Sufism: Emerald Hills of the Heart| year = 2004| publisher = Fountain| location = Rutherford, N.J.| isbn = 1-932099-75-1| pages = 10–11 }}</ref> This is similar to the notion of chivalry, but unlike that European concept, in i'thar attention is focused on everything in existence. A constant concern for [[ALLAH]] (i.e. God) results in a careful attitude towards people, animals, and other things in this world.<ref name="Neusner2005">{{cite book| last = Neusner| first = Jacob Eds| title = Altruism in World Religions| year = 2005| publisher = Georgetown Univ. Press| location = Washington, D.C.| isbn = 1-58901-065-5| pages = 79–80 }}</ref> This concept was emphasized by Sufis of Islam like [[Rabia al-Adawiyya]] who paid attention to the difference between dedication to [[ALLAH]] (i.e. God) and dedication to people. Thirteenth-century Turkish Sufi poet [[Yunus Emre]] explained this philosophy as "Yaratılanı severiz, Yaratandan ötürü" or ''We love the creature, because of The Creator.'' For many Muslims, i'thar must be practiced as a religious obligation during specific Islamic holidays. However, i'thar is also still an Islamic ideal to which all Muslims should strive to adhere at all times. ===Judaism=== Judaism defines altruism as the desired goal of creation. The famous Rabbi [[Abraham Isaac Kook]] stated that love is the most important attribute in humanity.<ref>{{cite book |author2=Ben Zion Bokser |last1=Kook |first1=Abraham Isaac| title = Abraham Isaac Kook: The lights of penitence, The moral principles, Lights of holiness, essays, letters, and poems| year = 1978| publisher = Paulist Press| isbn = 978-0-8091-2159-5| pages = 135–136}}</ref> This is defined as [[Tzedakah|bestowal]], or giving, which is the intention of altruism. This can be altruism towards humanity that leads to altruism towards the creator or God. [[Kabbalah]] defines God as the force of giving in [[existence]]. Rabbi [[Moshe Chaim Luzzatto]] in particular focused on the 'purpose of creation' and how the will of God was to bring creation into perfection and adhesion with this upper force.<ref>{{cite book| last = Luzzatto| first = Moshe Ḥayyim| title = The way of God| year = 1997| publisher = Feldheim Publishers| isbn = 978-0-87306-769-0| pages = 37–38}}</ref> Modern Kabbalah developed by Rabbi [[Yehuda Ashlag]], in his writings about the future generation, focuses on how society could achieve an altruistic social framework.<ref>{{cite book| last = Ashlag| first = Yehuda| title = Building the Future Society| url = http://www.kabbalah.info/eng/content/view/frame/3811?/eng/content/view/full/3811&main| year = 2006| publisher = Laitman Kabbalah Publishers| location = Thornhill, Canada| isbn = 965-7065-34-8| pages = 120–130 }}</ref> Ashlag proposed that such a framework is the purpose of creation, and everything that happens is to raise humanity to the level of altruism, love for one another. Ashlag focused on society and its relation to [[divinity]].<ref>{{cite book| last = Ashlag| first = Yehuda| title = Building the Future Society| url = http://www.kabbalah.info/eng/content/view/frame/3811?/eng/content/view/full/3811&main| year = 2006| publisher = Laitman Kabbalah Publishers| location = Thornhill, Canada| isbn = 965-7065-34-8| pages = 175–180 }}</ref> ===Sikhism=== {{more citations needed|section|date=September 2017}} Altruism is essential to the Sikh religion. The central faith in Sikhism is that the greatest deed any one can do is to imbibe and live the godly qualities like love, affection, sacrifice, patience, harmony, truthfulness. The fifth Nanak, Guru Arjun Dev, sacrificed his life to uphold 22 carats of pure truth, the greatest gift to humanity, the Guru Granth. The ninth Guru, Tegh Bahadur, sacrificed his head to protect weak and defenseless people against atrocity. In the late seventeenth century, [[Guru Gobind Singh]] Ji (the tenth [[guru]] in Sikhism), was in war with the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] rulers to protect the people of different faiths when a fellow Sikh, [[Bhai Kanhaiya]], attended the troops of the enemy. He gave water to both friends and foes who were wounded on the battlefield. Some of the enemy began to fight again and some Sikh warriors were annoyed by Bhai Kanhaiya as he was helping their enemy. Sikh soldiers brought Bhai Kanhaiya before Guru Gobind Singh Ji, and complained of his action that they considered counter-productive to their struggle on the battlefield."What were you doing, and why?" asked the Guru. "I was giving water to the wounded because I saw your face in all of them," replied Bhai Kanhaiya. The Guru responded, "Then you should also give them ointment to heal their wounds. You were practicing what you were coached in the house of the Guru." It was under the tutelage of the Guru that Bhai Kanhaiya subsequently founded a volunteer corps for altruism. This volunteer corps still to date is engaged in doing good to others and trains new volunteering recruits for doing the same.<ref>{{cite book| author = O. P. Ralhan| title = The great gurus of the Sikhs| year = 1997| publisher = Anmol Publications Pvt Ltd.| location = New Delhi| isbn = 81-7488-479-3| page = 253 }}</ref> ===Hinduism=== In Hinduism Selflessness (Atmatyag), Love (Prema), Kindness (Daya) and Forgiveness (Kshama) are considered as the highest acts of humanity or "Manushattya".Giving alms to the beggers or poor people is considered as a divine act or "Punya" and Hindus believe it will free their souls from guilt or "Papa" and will led them to heaven or "Swarga" or "Jannat" in afterlife. Altruism is also the central act of various hindu mythology and religious poem and song. [[Swami Vivekananda]], the legendary hindu monk, has said -"Jive prem kare jeijon, Seijon sebiche Iswar" (Whoever loves any living being, is serving god.).Mass donation of clothes to poor people (Vastraseva), or blood donation camp or mass food donation (Annyaseva) for poor people is common in various hindu religious ceremony. [[Swami Sivananda]], an [[Advaita]] scholar, reiterates the views in his commentary synthesising Vedanta views on the [[Brahma Sutras]], a Vedantic text. In his commentary on Chapter 3 of the Brahma Sutras, Sivananda notes that karma is insentient and short-lived, and ceases to exist as soon as a deed is executed. Hence, karma cannot bestow the fruits of actions at a future date according to one's merit. Furthermore, one cannot argue that karma generates [[apurva]] or [[Merit (Buddhism)|punya]], which gives fruit. Since apurva is non-sentient, it cannot act unless moved by an intelligent being such as a god. It cannot independently bestow reward or punishment. However the very well known and popular text, the [[Bhagavad Gita]] supports the doctrine of karma yoga (selfless action) or action without desire for personal gain which can be said to encompass altruism. Altruistic acts are generally celebrated and very well received in Hindu literature and is central to Hindu morality.<ref>Sivananda, Swami. ''Phaladhikaranam, Topic 8'', Sutras 38–41.</ref> ==Philosophy== {{main|Altruism (ethics)}} There exists a wide range of philosophical views on humans' obligations or motivations to act altruistically. Proponents of [[Altruism (ethics)|ethical altruism]] maintain that individuals are morally obligated to act altruistically. The opposing view is [[ethical egoism]], which maintains that moral agents should always act in their own self-interest. Both ethical altruism and ethical egoism contrast with [[utilitarianism]], which maintains that each agent should act in order to maximise the efficacy of their function and the benefit to both themselves and their co-inhabitants. A related concept in [[descriptive ethics]] is [[psychological egoism]], the thesis that humans always act in their own self-interest and that true altruism is impossible. [[Rational egoism]] is the view that [[rationality]] consists in acting in one's self-interest (without specifying how this affects one's moral obligations). ==Genetics== The genes [[OXTR]], [[CD38]], [[COMT]], [[DRD4]], [[DRD5]], [[IGF2]], [[GABRB2]] have been found to be candidate genes for altruism.<ref>{{cite journal| pmc=3871336 | pmid=24132092 | doi=10.1098/rsbl.2013.0395 | volume=9 | title=Genes underlying altruism | year=2013 | journal=Biol Lett | page=20130395 | last1 = Thompson | first1 = GJ | last2 = Hurd | first2 = PL | last3 = Crespi | first3 = BJ}}</ref> ==See also== {{col div|colwidth=20em}} * [[Altruria, California|Altruria]] * [[Charity (practice)]] * [[Charitable organization]] * [[Comedy of the commons]] * [[Consideration]] * [[Earning to give]] * [[Effective altruism]] * [[Egotism]] * [[Empathy]] * [[Empathy-altruism]] * [[Family economics]] * [[Gene-centered view of evolution]] * [[Giving Pledge]], pledge by Gates, Buffett and others to donate to charity at least half of their wealth * [[Inclusive fitness]] * [[Group selection]] * [[Humanity (virtue)]] * [[Kin selection]] * [[Misanthropy]] * [[Mutual aid (organization)|Mutual aid]] * [[Non nobis solum]] * [[Philanthropy]] * [[Prisoner's dilemma]] * [[Prosocial behavior]] * [[Random act of kindness]] * [[Reciprocal altruism]] * [[Selfishness]] * [[Social psychology]] * [[Solidarity (sociology)]] * [[Tit for tat]] {{colend}} ==Notes== {{Reflist}} ==References== {{Refbegin|2}} * {{cite book| last = Oord| first = Thomas| title = The Altruism Reader| year = 2007| publisher = Templeton Foundation Press| location = Philadelphia| isbn = 978-1-59947-127-3 }} * {{cite book| last = Oord| first = Thomas| title = Defining Love| year = 2010| publisher = Brazos Press| location = Grand Rapids| isbn = 1-58743-257-9 }} * {{cite book| last = Batson| first = Charles| title = The Altruism Question| year = 1991| publisher = L. Erlbaum, Associates| location = Mahwah| isbn = 978-0-8058-0245-0 }} * {{Cite journal | pages = 1560–1563 | year = 2006 | pmid = 17158317 | pmc = 3279745 | doi = 10.1126/science.1133755 | issue = 5805 | volume = 314 | title = Five Rules for the Evolution of Cooperation | journal = Science | last1 = Nowak | first1 = M. A. |bibcode = 2006Sci...314.1560N }} * {{Cite journal | last1 = Fehr | first1 = E. | last2 = Fischbacher | first2 = U. | title = The nature of human altruism | journal = Nature | volume = 425 | issue = 6960 | pages = 785–791 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14574401 | doi = 10.1038/nature02043 |bibcode = 2003Natur.425..785F | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/9042569}} * [[Auguste Comte|Comte, Auguste]], ''Catechisme positiviste'' (1852) or ''Catechism of Positivism'', tr. R. Congreve, (London: Kegan Paul, 1891) * {{Cite journal | last1 = Knox | first1 = T. | title = The volunteer's folly and socio-economic man: some thoughts on altruism, rationality, and community | journal = Journal of Socio-Economics | volume = 28 | issue = 4 | pages = 475–967 | year = 1999 | doi = 10.1016/S1053-5357(99)00045-1 }} * [[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin, Peter]], ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution]]'' (1902) * {{cite book| last = Oord| first = Thomas| title = Science of Love| year = 2004| publisher = Templeton Foundation Press| location = Philadelphia| isbn = 978-1-932031-70-6 }} * [[Nietzsche, Friedrich]], ''[[Beyond Good and Evil]]'' * [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], ''The Philosophy of Poverty'' (1847) * [[Lysander Spooner]], ''Natural Law'' * [[Matt Ridley]], ''[[The Origins of Virtue]]'' * Oliner, Samuel P. and Pearl M. Towards a Caring Society: Ideas into Action. West Port, CT: Praeger, 1995. * {{cite book| last = Axelrod| first = Robert| title = The Evolution of Cooperation| year = 1984| publisher = Basic Books| location = New York| isbn = 0-465-02121-2 }} * {{cite book| last = Dawkins| first = Richard| title = The Selfish Gene| year = 1989| publisher = Oxford University Press| location = Oxford Oxfordshire| isbn = 0-19-286092-5 }} * {{cite book|last=Wright|first=Robert|title=The Moral Animal|publisher=Vintage Books|location=New York|year=1995|isbn=0-679-76399-6}} * {{Cite journal | last1 = Madsen | first1 = E. A. | last2 = Tunney | first2 = R. J. | last3 = Fieldman | first3 = G. | last4 = Plotkin | first4 = H. C. | last5 = Dunbar | first5 = R. I. M. | last6 = Richardson | first6 = J. M. | last7 = McFarland | first7 = D. | title = Kinship and altruism: A cross-cultural experimental study | journal = British Journal of Psychology | volume = 98 | issue = Pt 2 | pages = 339–359 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17456276 | doi = 10.1348/000712606X129213 | url = http://lup.lub.lu.se/record/4091558}} * {{cite journal | last1 = Wedekind | first1 = C. | last2 = Milinski | first2 = M. | year = 1996 | title = Human Cooperation in the simultaneous and the alternating Prisoner's Dilemma: Pavlov versus Generous Tit-for-tat | url = | journal = Evolution | volume = 93 | issue = | pages = 2686–2689 | doi=10.1073/pnas.93.7.2686|bibcode = 1996PNAS...93.2686W | doi-access = free | pmc = 39691 }} * {{Cite journal | last1 = Monk-Turner | first1 = E. | last2 = Blake | first2 = V. | last3 = Chniel | first3 = F. | last4 = Forbes | first4 = S. | last5 = Lensey | first5 = L. | last6 = Madzuma | first6 = J. | title = Helping hands: A study of altruistic behavior | journal = Gender Issues | volume = 20 | issue = 4 | pages = 65–70 | year = 2002 | doi = 10.1007/s12147-002-0024-2 | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226385420}} {{Refend}} ==External links== {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|about=yes|wikititle=altruism}} {{Wiktionary|altruism}} * {{cite SEP |url-id=altruism-biological |title=Biological Altruism}} * {{In Our Time|Altruism|p0038x9c|Altruism}} * {{cite episode|series=Radiolab |title=The Good Show|url=http://www.radiolab.org/2010/dec/14/|station=WNYC|location=New York|airdate=14 December 2011|season=9|number=1}} {{Navboxes |title=Articles and topics related to Altruism |state=collapsed |list1= {{Defence mechanisms}} {{Philosophy topics}} {{Charity}} {{Ethics}} }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Altruism| ]] [[Category:Auguste Comte]] [[Category:Defence mechanisms]] [[Category:Evolutionary psychology]] [[Category:Morality]] [[Category:Philanthropy]] [[Category:Social philosophy]] [[Category:Interpersonal relationships]] [[Category:Virtue]] 5y8dmoazlxpz8bltwrzn9hrfge3q1pa 0 338 783823580 160875429 2017-06-04T21:58:13Z Tom.Reding 9784415 +{{R category shell}} using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Auto racing]] {{Redirect category shell|1= {{R from CamelCase}} }} hhwr0txt4dnjja2ff0eae6j0olxsjn0 0 339 861920057 861654156 2018-10-01T00:12:00Z 71.38.55.232 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use mdy dates|date=October 2017}} {{Good article}} {{Infobox writer | name = Ayn Rand | image = Ayn Rand by Talbot 1943.jpg | alt = Black and white photo of a white woman facing the camera with her body turned to the side. | caption = Ayn Rand in 1943 | birth_name = {{nowrap|Alisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum}} | birth_date = {{birth date|mf=yes|1905|02|02}} | birth_place = [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]], [[Russian Empire]] | death_date = {{death date and age|mf=yes|1982|3|6|1905|2|2}} | death_place = [[Manhattan|Manhattan, New York]], United States | resting_place = [[Kensico Cemetery]]<br>[[Valhalla, New York]], United States | pseudonym = Ayn Rand | occupation = Writer | language = English | citizenship = 1905–1922 (Russia)<br>1922–1931 ([[Soviet Union]])<br>1931–1982 (United States) | alma_mater = [[Saint Petersburg State University#History|Petrograd State University]] ([[diploma]] in history, 1924) | period = 1934–1982 | subject = [[Philosophy]] | notableworks = ''[[The Fountainhead]]''<br>''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'' | awards = [[Prometheus Award]] Hall of Fame inductee in 1987 (for ''[[Anthem (novella)|Anthem]]'') and co-inaugural inductee in 1983 (for ''Atlas Shrugged'') | spouse = {{marriage|Frank O'Connor|1929|1979|end=his death}} | signature = Ayn Rand signature 1949.svg | signature_alt = Ayn Rand }} '''Ayn Rand''' ({{IPAc-en|aɪ|n}};<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|p=71}}; {{harvnb|Gladstein|1999|p=9}}.</ref> born '''Alisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum''';{{efn|{{lang-ru|Али́са Зино́вьевна Розенба́ум}}}} {{OldStyleDate|February 2|1905|January 20}}&nbsp;– March 6, 1982) was a Russian-American novelist, playwright, screenwriter, and philosopher.<!-- DO NOT REMOVE WITHOUT CONSENSUS. --><ref>{{harvnb|Den Uyl|Rasmussen|1986|p=x}}; {{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|pp=1–2}}; {{harvnb|Kukathas|1998|p=55}}; {{harvnb|Badhwar|Long|2010}}.</ref> She is known for her two best-selling novels, ''[[The Fountainhead]]'' and ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'', and for developing a philosophical system she named [[Objectivism (Ayn Rand)|Objectivism]]. Educated in Russia, she moved to the United States in 1926. She had a play produced on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] in 1935 and 1936. After two early novels that were initially unsuccessful, she achieved fame with her 1943 novel, ''The Fountainhead''. In 1957, Rand published her best-known work, the novel ''Atlas Shrugged''. Afterward, she turned to non-fiction to promote her philosophy, publishing her own [[Objectivist periodicals|periodicals]] and releasing several collections of essays until her death in 1982. Rand advocated [[reason]] as the only means of acquiring [[knowledge]] and rejected faith and religion. She supported [[Rational egoism|rational]] and [[ethical egoism]] and rejected [[Altruism (ethics)|altruism]]. In politics, she condemned the [[initiation of force]] as immoral<ref>{{harvnb|Barry|1987|p=122}}; {{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=309–314}}; {{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|p=298}}; {{harvnb|Gotthelf|2000|p=91}}; {{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=46}}.</ref> and opposed [[collectivism]] and [[statism]] as well as [[anarchism]], instead supporting ''[[laissez-faire]]'' [[capitalism]], which she defined as the system based on recognizing [[individual rights]], including property rights.<ref name="rights">{{harvnb|Gotthelf|2000|pp=91–92}}; {{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=379–380}}.</ref> In art, Rand promoted [[romantic realism]]. She was sharply critical of most philosophers and philosophical traditions known to her, except for [[Aristotle]], [[Thomas Aquinas]] and [[classical liberals]].<ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1977|pp=18–20}}; {{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|pp=12, 118}}.</ref> Literary critics received Rand's fiction with mixed reviews<ref name="Gladstein 117-119">{{harvnb|Gladstein|1999|pp=117–119}}</ref> and academia generally ignored or rejected her philosophy, though academic interest has increased in recent decades.<ref name="growing">{{harvnb|Cohen|2001}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Marcus|2009}}</ref><ref name="Badhwar 2010">{{harvnb|Badhwar|Long|2010}}.</ref> The [[Objectivist movement]] attempts to spread her ideas, both to the public and in academic settings.<ref name="reception">{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|pp=1–2}}.</ref> She has been a significant influence among [[Libertarianism|libertarians]] and [[Conservatism in the United States|American conservatives]].<ref name="politicalinfluence">{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=4}}; {{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|pp=107–108, 124}}.</ref> ==Life== ===Early life=== Rand was born Alisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum ({{lang-ru|Алиса Зиновьевна Розенбаум}}) on February 2, 1905, to a [[Russian-Jewish]] bourgeois family living in [[Saint Petersburg]].<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=xiii}}.</ref> She was the eldest of three daughters of Zinovy Zakharovich Rosenbaum and his wife, Anna Borisovna (née Kaplan). Her father was upwardly mobile and a pharmacist and her mother was socially ambitious and religiously observant.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=3–5}}; {{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=2–3}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=9}}.</ref> Rand later said she found school unchallenging and began writing screenplays at the age of eight and novels at the age of ten.<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|p=68}}.</ref> At the prestigious Stoiunina Gymnasium, her closest friend was [[Vladimir Nabokov]]'s younger sister, Olga. The two girls shared an intense interest in politics and would engage in debates at the [[Nabokov house|Nabokov mansion]]: while Nabokova defended [[constitutional monarchy]], Rand supported [[republicanism|republican ideals]].<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|pp=69, 367–368}}; {{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=2}}.</ref> She was twelve at the time of the [[February Revolution]] of 1917, during which she favored [[Alexander Kerensky]] over [[Tsar]] [[Nicholas II]]. The subsequent [[October Revolution]] and the rule of the [[Bolshevik]]s under [[Vladimir Lenin]] disrupted the life the family had previously enjoyed. Her father's business was confiscated, and the family fled to the [[Crimean Peninsula]], which was initially under control of the [[White Army]] during the [[Russian Civil War]]. While in high school, Rand realized that she was an [[atheist]] and valued [[reason]] above any other human virtue. After graduating from high school in the Crimea in June 1921, Rand returned with her family to Petrograd (as Saint Petersburg was renamed at that time), where they faced desperate conditions, on occasion nearly starving.<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=35–39}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=14–20}}.</ref> [[File:Spb 06-2012 University Embankment 06.jpg|thumb|left|alt=The Twelve Collegia of what was then Petrograd State University|Rand completed a three-year program at [[Petrograd State University]].]] After the Russian Revolution, universities were opened to women, allowing Rand to be in the first group of women to enroll at [[Petrograd State University]].<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=15}}.</ref> At the age of 16, she began her studies in the department of [[social pedagogy]], majoring in history.<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|p=77}}.</ref> At the university she was introduced to the writings of [[Aristotle]] and [[Plato]],<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1999|pp=5–8}}.</ref> who would be her greatest influence and counter-influence, respectively.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=41}}; {{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=451–460}}.</ref> She also studied the philosophical works of [[Friedrich Nietzsche]].<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=17–18, 22–24}}.</ref> Able to read French, German and Russian, Rand also discovered the writers [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]], [[Victor Hugo]], [[Edmond Rostand]], and [[Friedrich Schiller]], who became her perennial favorites.<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=17, 22}}.</ref> Along with many other bourgeois students, Rand was purged from the university shortly before graduating. After complaints from a group of visiting foreign scientists, however, many of the purged students were allowed to complete their work and graduate,<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=47}}; {{harvnb|Britting|2004|p=24}}.</ref> which Rand did in October 1924.<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1999|p=1}}.</ref> She then studied for a year at the State [[Tekhnikum|Technicum]] for Screen Arts in Leningrad. For an assignment she wrote an essay about the Polish actress [[Pola Negri]], which became her first published work.<ref name="Heller49-50">{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=49–50}}.</ref> By this time she had decided her professional surname for writing would be ''Rand'',<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|p=33}}.</ref> possibly because it is graphically similar to a vowelless excerpt {{lang|ru|Рзнб}} of her birth surname in [[Cyrillic]] handwriting,<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=55}}.</ref> and she adopted the first name ''Ayn'', either from a [[Finnish language|Finnish]] name ''[[Aino (given name)|Aino]]'' or from the [[Hebrew]] word {{lang|he| עין}} (''[[ayin]]'', meaning "eye").{{efn|Rand said the origin of ''Ayn'' was Finnish,<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1995b|p=40}}.</ref> but some biographical sources question this, suggesting it may come from a Hebrew nickname.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=55–57}}.</ref>}} ===Arrival in the United States=== [[File:Pola Negri by Ayn Rand cover.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=A brown book cover with black-and-white drawings and text in Russian. The drawing on the left is a portrait of a woman with dark hair; the drawing on the right is of skyscrapers.|Cover of Rand's first published work, a 2,500-word monograph on actress [[Pola Negri]] published in 1925<ref name="Heller49-50"/>]] In late 1925, Rand was granted a [[Visa (document)|visa]] to visit relatives in [[Chicago]].<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|p=32}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=18–19}}.</ref> She departed on January 17, 1926.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=50–51}}.</ref> When she arrived in New York City on February 19, 1926, she was so impressed with the skyline of [[Manhattan]] that she cried what she later called "tears of splendor".<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=53}}.</ref> Intent on staying in the United States to become a screenwriter, she lived for a few months with her relatives, one of whom owned a movie theater and allowed her to watch dozens of films for free. She then left for [[Hollywood|Hollywood, California]].<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=57–60}}.</ref> In Hollywood, a chance meeting with famed director [[Cecil B. DeMille]] led to work as an [[Extra (drama)|extra]] in his film ''[[The King of Kings (1927 film)|The King of Kings]]'' and a subsequent job as a junior screenwriter.<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=34–36}}.</ref> While working on ''The King of Kings'', she met an aspiring young actor, Frank O'Connor; the two were married on April 15, 1929. She became a [[Permanent residence (United States)|permanent American resident]] in July 1929 and [[United States nationality law#Naturalization|an American citizen]] on March 3, 1931.<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|p=39}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=71}}.</ref> Taking various jobs during the 1930s to support her writing, she worked for a time as the head of the costume department at [[RKO]] Studios.<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=35–40}}; {{harvnb|Paxton|1998|pp=74, 81, 84}}.</ref> She made several attempts to bring her parents and sisters to the United States, but they were unable to acquire permission to emigrate.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=96–98}}; {{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=43–44, 52}}.</ref> ===Early fiction=== {{see also|Night of January 16th|We the Living|Anthem (novella)}} Rand's first literary success came with the sale of her screenplay ''[[Red Pawn]]'' to [[Universal Studios]] in 1932, although it was never produced.<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=40, 42}}.</ref> This was followed by the courtroom drama ''[[Night of January 16th]]'', first produced by [[E. E. Clive]] in Hollywood in 1934 and then successfully reopened on [[Broadway theater|Broadway]] in 1935. Each night a jury was selected from members of the audience; based on the jury's vote, one of two different endings would be performed.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=76, 92}}.</ref> In 1941, [[Paramount Pictures]] produced a [[The Night of January 16th (film)|movie loosely based on the play]]. Rand did not participate in the production and was highly critical of the result.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=78}}; {{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=87}}.</ref> ''[[Ideal (novel)|Ideal]]'' is a novel and play written in 1934 which were first published in 2015 by her estate. The heroine is an actress who embodies Randian ideals.<ref name=NYT81015>{{harvnb|Kakutani|2015}}.</ref> Rand's first published novel, the semi-autobiographical ''[[We the Living]]'', was published in 1936. Set in [[Soviet Russia]], it focused on the struggle between the individual and the state. In a 1959 foreword to the novel, Rand stated that ''We the Living'' "is as near to an autobiography as I will ever write. It is not an autobiography in the literal, but only in the intellectual sense. The plot is invented, the background is not ..."<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1995a|p=xviii}}.</ref> Initial sales were slow and the American publisher let it go out of print,<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=13}}.</ref> although European editions continued to sell.<ref>Ralston, Richard E. "Publishing ''We the Living''". In {{harvnb|Mayhew|2004|p=141}}.</ref> After the success of her later novels, Rand was able to release a revised version in 1959 that has since sold over three million copies.<ref>Ralston, Richard E. "Publishing ''We the Living''". In {{harvnb|Mayhew|2004|p=143}}.</ref> In 1942, without Rand's knowledge or permission, the novel was made into a pair of Italian films, ''Noi vivi'' and ''Addio, Kira''. Rediscovered in the 1960s, these films were re-edited into a new version which was approved by Rand and re-released as ''[[We the Living (film)|We the Living]]'' in 1986.<ref>{{harvnb|Paxton|1998|p=104}}.</ref> Her novella ''[[Anthem (novella)|Anthem]]'' was written during a break from the writing of her next major novel, ''The Fountainhead''. It presents a vision of a [[dystopian]] future world in which [[totalitarian]] collectivism has triumphed to such an extent that even the word 'I' has been forgotten and replaced with 'we'.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=50}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=102}}.</ref> It was published in England in 1938, but Rand initially could not find an American publisher. As with ''We the Living'', Rand's later success allowed her to get a revised version published in 1946, which has sold more than 3.5&nbsp;million copies.<ref>Ralston, Richard E. "Publishing ''Anthem''". In {{harvnb|Mayhew|2005a|pp=24–27}}.</ref> ===''The Fountainhead'' and political activism=== {{see also|The Fountainhead|The Fountainhead (film)}} During the 1940s, Rand became politically active. She and her husband worked as full-time volunteers for the 1940 presidential campaign of Republican [[Wendell Willkie]]. This work led to Rand's first public speaking experiences; she enjoyed fielding sometimes hostile questions from New York City audiences who had viewed pro-Willkie [[newsreels]].<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|p=57}}.</ref> This activity brought her into contact with other intellectuals sympathetic to free-market capitalism. She became friends with journalist [[Henry Hazlitt]] and his wife, and Hazlitt introduced her to the [[Austrian School]] economist [[Ludwig von Mises]]. Despite her philosophical differences with them, Rand strongly endorsed the writings of both men throughout her career, and both of them expressed admiration for her. Mises once referred to Rand as "the most courageous man in America", a compliment that particularly pleased her because he said "man" instead of "woman".<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=114}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=249}}; {{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=188–189}}.</ref> Rand also became friends with libertarian writer [[Isabel Paterson]]. Rand questioned Paterson about American history and politics long into the night during their many meetings and gave Paterson ideas for her only [[non-fiction]] book, ''[[The God of the Machine]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=75–78}}.</ref> Rand's first major success as a writer came in 1943 with ''[[The Fountainhead]]'', a romantic and philosophical novel that she wrote over a period of seven years.<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=61–78}}.</ref> The novel centers on an uncompromising young architect named [[Howard Roark]] and his struggle against what Rand described as "second-handers"—those who attempt to live through others, placing others above themselves. It was rejected by twelve publishers before finally being accepted by the [[Bobbs-Merrill Company]] on the insistence of editor Archibald Ogden, who threatened to quit if his employer did not publish it.<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=58–61}}.</ref> While completing the novel, Rand was prescribed the [[amphetamine]] [[Benzedrine]] to fight fatigue.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=85}}.</ref> The drug helped her to work long hours to meet her deadline for delivering the novel, but afterwards she was so exhausted that her doctor ordered two weeks' rest.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=89}}.</ref> Her use of the drug for approximately three decades may have contributed to what some of her later associates described as volatile mood swings.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=304–305}}.</ref> ''The Fountainhead'' became a worldwide success, bringing Rand fame and financial security.<ref>{{harvnb|Doherty|2007|p=149}}; {{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=180–181}}</ref> In 1943, Rand sold the rights for a [[The Fountainhead (film)|film version]] to [[Warner Bros.]] and she returned to Hollywood to write the screenplay. Finishing her work on that screenplay, she was hired by producer [[Hal B. Wallis]] as a screenwriter and script-doctor. Her work for Wallis included the screenplays for the [[Academy Awards|Oscar]]-nominated ''[[Love Letters (1945 film)|Love Letters]]'' and ''[[You Came Along]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=68–80}}; {{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=183–198}}.</ref> Rand also worked on other projects, including a planned nonfiction treatment of her philosophy to be called ''The Moral Basis of Individualism''. Although the planned book was never completed, a condensed version was published as an essay titled "The Only Path to Tomorrow" in the January 1944 edition of ''[[Reader's Digest]]'' magazine.<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|p=112}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=171}}.</ref> {{Wikisource|Ayn Rand's testimony before the House of Representatives Committee on Un-American Activities}} Rand extended her involvement with free-market and [[anti-communist]] activism while working in Hollywood. She became involved with the [[Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals]], a Hollywood anti-Communist group, and wrote articles on the group's behalf. She also joined the anti-Communist [[American Writers Association]].<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=100–101, 123}}.</ref> A visit by Isabel Paterson to meet with Rand's California associates led to a final falling out between the two when Paterson made comments, which Rand considered rude, to valued political allies.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=130–131}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=214–215}}.</ref> In 1947, during the [[Second Red Scare]], Rand testified as a "friendly witness" before the United States [[House Un-American Activities Committee]]. Her testimony described the disparity between her personal experiences in the [[Soviet Union]] and the portrayal of it in the 1944 film ''[[Song of Russia]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Mayhew|2005b|pp=91–93}}.</ref> Rand argued that the film grossly misrepresented conditions in the Soviet Union, portraying life there as much better and happier than it actually was.<ref>{{harvnb|Mayhew|2005b|pp=188–189}}.</ref> She wanted to also criticize the lauded 1946 film ''[[The Best Years of Our Lives]]'' for what she interpreted as its negative presentation of the business world, but she was not allowed to testify about it.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=125}}.</ref> When asked after the hearings about her feelings on the effectiveness of the investigations, Rand described the process as "futile".<ref>{{harvnb|Mayhew|2005b|p=83}}.</ref> After several delays, the film version of ''The Fountainhead'' was released in 1949. Although it used Rand's screenplay with minimal alterations, she "disliked the movie from beginning to end", and complained about its editing, acting, and other elements.<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|p=71}}.</ref> ===''Atlas Shrugged'' and Objectivism=== {{see also|Atlas Shrugged|Objectivism (Ayn Rand)|Objectivist movement}} [[File:Famous fantastic mysteries 195306.jpg|thumb|Rand's novella ''Anthem'' was reprinted in the June 1953 issue of the pulp magazine ''[[Famous Fantastic Mysteries]]''.]] In the years following the publication of ''The Fountainhead'', Rand received numerous letters from readers, some of whom the book profoundly influenced. In 1951 Rand moved from Los Angeles to New York City, where she gathered a group of these admirers around her. This group (jokingly designated "The Collective") included future [[Federal Reserve Chairman]] [[Alan Greenspan]], a young psychology student named Nathan Blumenthal (later [[Nathaniel Branden]]) and his wife [[Barbara Branden|Barbara]] and Barbara's cousin [[Leonard Peikoff]]. Initially the group was an informal gathering of friends who met with Rand on weekends at her apartment to discuss philosophy. She later began allowing them to read the drafts of her new novel, ''Atlas Shrugged'', as the manuscript pages were written. In 1954 Rand's close relationship with the younger Nathaniel Branden turned into a romantic affair, with the consent of their spouses.<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=256–264, 331–343}}.</ref> ''Atlas Shrugged'', published in 1957, was considered Rand's ''[[magnum opus]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|p=113}}; {{harvnb|Mayhew|2005b|p=78}}.</ref> Rand described the theme of the novel as "the role of the mind in man's existence—and, as a corollary, the demonstration of a new moral philosophy: the morality of rational self-interest".<ref>Salmieri, Gregory. "''Atlas Shrugged'' on the Role of the Mind in Man's Existence". In {{harvnb|Mayhew|2009|p=248}}.</ref> It advocates the core tenets of Rand's philosophy of [[Objectivism (Ayn Rand)|Objectivism]] and expresses her concept of human achievement. The plot involves a [[dystopia]]n United States in which the most creative industrialists, scientists, and artists respond to a [[welfare state]] government by going on [[Strike action|strike]] and retreating to a mountainous hideaway where they build an independent free economy. The novel's hero and leader of the strike, [[John Galt]], describes the strike as "stopping the motor of the world" by withdrawing the minds of the individuals most contributing to the nation's wealth and achievement. With this fictional strike, Rand intended to illustrate that without the efforts of the rational and productive, the economy would collapse and society would fall apart. The novel includes elements of [[Mystery (fiction)|mystery]], [[Romance novel|romance]], and [[science fiction]],<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|1999|p=42}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|McConnell|2010|p=507}}.</ref> and it contains an extended exposition of Objectivism in the form of a lengthy monologue delivered by Galt.<ref>Stolyarov II, G. "The Role and Essence of John Galt's Speech in Ayn Rand's ''Atlas Shrugged''". In {{harvnb|Younkins|2007|p=99}}.</ref> Despite many negative reviews, ''Atlas Shrugged'' became an international bestseller. In an interview with [[Mike Wallace]], Rand declared herself "the most creative thinker alive".<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=2}}</ref> However, Rand was discouraged and depressed by the reaction of intellectuals to the novel.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=303–306}}.</ref> ''Atlas Shrugged'' was Rand's last completed work of fiction; it marked the end of her career as a novelist and the beginning of her role as a popular philosopher.<ref name="ASturningpoint">{{harvnb|Gladstein|2000|p=28}}; {{harvnb|Younkins|2007|p=1}}; {{harvnb|Baker|1987|p=17}}.</ref> In 1958, Nathaniel Branden established Nathaniel Branden Lectures, later incorporated as the [[Nathaniel Branden Institute]] (NBI), to promote Rand's philosophy. Collective members gave lectures for NBI and wrote articles for [[Objectivist periodicals]] that she edited. Rand later published some of these articles in book form. Critics, including some former NBI students and Branden himself, later described the culture of NBI as one of intellectual conformity and excessive reverence for Rand, with some describing NBI or the [[Objectivist movement]] itself as a [[cult]] or religion.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|pp=105–106}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=232–233}}.</ref> Rand expressed opinions on a wide range of topics, from literature and music to sexuality and facial hair, and some of her followers mimicked her preferences, wearing clothes to match characters from her novels and buying furniture like hers.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=236–237}}.</ref> However, some former NBI students believed the extent of these behaviors was exaggerated, and the problem was concentrated among Rand's closest followers in New York.<ref>{{harvnb|Doherty|2007|p=235}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=235}}.</ref> Rand was unimpressed with many of the NBI students<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=303}}.</ref> and held them to strict standards, sometimes reacting coldly or angrily to those who disagreed with her.<ref>{{harvnb|Doherty|2007|pp=237–238}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=329}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=235}}.</ref> ===Later years=== Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through her nonfiction works and by giving talks to students at institutions such as [[Yale]], [[Princeton University|Princeton]], [[Columbia University|Columbia]],<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=315–316}}</ref> [[Harvard]], and the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|1999|p=14}}.</ref> She received an [[Honorary degree|honorary]] [[Doctor of Humane Letters|Doctorate of Humane Letters]] from [[Lewis & Clark College]] on 2 October 1963.<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|p=318}}.</ref> She also began delivering annual lectures at the [[Ford Hall Forum]], responding afterward to questions from the audience.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|1999|p=16}}.</ref> During these speeches and Q&A sessions, she often took controversial stances on political and social issues of the day. These included supporting abortion rights,<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=320–321}}.</ref> opposing the [[Vietnam War]] and the [[military draft]] (but condemning many [[draft dodgers]] as "bums"),<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=228–229, 265}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=352}}.</ref> supporting [[Israel]] in the [[Yom Kippur War]] of 1973 against a coalition of Arab nations as "civilized men fighting savages",<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|2005|p=96}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=266}}.</ref> saying [[European colonization of the Americas|European colonists]] had the right to develop land taken from [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|American Indians]],<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=266}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=391}}.</ref> and calling [[homosexuality]] "immoral" and "disgusting", while also advocating the repeal of all laws about it.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=362, 519}}.</ref> She also endorsed several [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] candidates for President of the United States, most strongly [[Barry Goldwater]] in [[United States presidential election, 1964|1964]], whose candidacy she promoted in several articles for ''The Objectivist Newsletter''.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=204–206}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=322–323}}.</ref> [[File:Ayn Rand Marker.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Twin gravestone bearing the names "Frank O'Connor" and "Ayn Rand O'Connor"|Grave marker for Rand and her husband at [[Kensico Cemetery]] in [[Valhalla, New York]]]] In 1964, Nathaniel Branden began an affair with the young actress Patrecia Scott,<!-- Note: spelling is correct. --> whom he later married. Nathaniel and Barbara Branden kept the affair hidden from Rand. When she learned of it in 1968, though her romantic relationship with Branden had already ended,<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|p=101}}</ref> Rand terminated her relationship with both Brandens, which led to the closure of NBI.<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=344–358}}.</ref> Rand published an article in ''The Objectivist'' repudiating Nathaniel Branden for dishonesty and other "irrational behavior in his private life".<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=378–379}}.</ref> Branden later apologized in an interview to "every student of Objectivism" for "perpetuating the Ayn Rand mystique" and for "contributing to that dreadful atmosphere of intellectual repressiveness that pervades the Objectivist movement".<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=411}}.</ref> In subsequent years, Rand and several more of her closest associates parted company.<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=386–389}}.</ref> Rand underwent surgery for [[lung cancer]] in 1974 after decades of heavy smoking.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=391–393}}.</ref> In 1976, she retired from writing her newsletter and, despite her initial objections, she allowed social worker Evva Pryor, an employee of her attorney, to enroll her in [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] and [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]].<ref>{{harvnb|McConnell|2010|pp=520–521}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Weiss|2012|p=62}}</ref> During the late 1970s her activities within the Objectivist movement declined, especially after the death of her husband on November 9, 1979.<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=392–395}}.</ref> One of her final projects was work on a never-completed television adaptation of ''Atlas Shrugged''.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=406}}.</ref> Rand died of [[heart failure]] on March 6, 1982, at her home in New York City,<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=410}}.</ref> and was interred in the [[Kensico Cemetery]], [[Valhalla, New York]].<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=405, 410}}.</ref> Rand's funeral was attended by some of her prominent followers, including [[Alan Greenspan]]. A {{convert|6|ft|m|adj=on}} floral arrangement in the shape of a dollar sign was placed near her casket.<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|p=403}}.</ref> In her will, Rand named Leonard Peikoff to inherit her estate.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=400}}.</ref> ==Philosophy== {{Objectivist movement}} {{main|Objectivism (Ayn Rand)}} Rand called her philosophy "Objectivism", describing its essence as "the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute".<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1992|pp=1170–1171}}</ref> She considered Objectivism a [[systematic philosophy]] and laid out positions on [[metaphysics]], [[epistemology]], [[ethics]], [[political philosophy]], and [[aesthetics]].<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=2–3}}; {{harvnb|Den Uyl|Rasmussen|1986|p=224}}; {{harvnb|Gladstein|Sciabarra|1999|p=2}}.</ref> In metaphysics, Rand supported [[philosophical realism]], and opposed anything she regarded as mysticism or supernaturalism, including all forms of religion.<ref>Den Uyl, Douglas J. & Rasmussen, Douglas B. "Ayn Rand's Realism". In {{harvnb|Den Uyl|Rasmussen|1986|pp=3–20}}.</ref> In [[epistemology]], she considered all knowledge to be based on sense perception, the validity of which she considered [[axiom]]atic,<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=38–39}}; {{harvnb|Gotthelf|2000|p=54}}.</ref> and [[reason]], which she described as "the faculty that identifies and integrates the material provided by man's senses".<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1964|p=22}}.</ref> She rejected all claims of non-perceptual or ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'' knowledge, including {{" '}}instinct,' 'intuition,' 'revelation,' or any form of 'just knowing{{' "}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1982|pp=62–63}}.</ref> In her ''[[Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology]]'', Rand presented a theory of concept formation and rejected the [[analytic–synthetic dichotomy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Salmieri|Gotthelf|2005|p=1997}}; {{harvnb|Gladstein|1999|pp=85–86}}.</ref> In ethics, Rand argued for [[Rational egoism|rational]] and [[ethical egoism]] (rational self-interest), as the guiding moral principle. She said the individual should "exist for his own sake, neither sacrificing himself to others nor sacrificing others to himself".<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1989|p=3}}.</ref> She referred to egoism as "the virtue of selfishness" in her [[The Virtue of Selfishness|book of that title]],<ref name="Kukathas">{{harvnb|Kukathas|1998|p=55}}.</ref> in which she presented her solution to the [[is-ought problem]] by describing a [[meta-ethical]] theory that based morality in the needs of "man's survival ''qua'' man".<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1964|p=25}}; {{harvnb|Badhwar|Long|2010}}; {{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=207, 219}}.</ref> She condemned ethical altruism as incompatible with the requirements of human life and happiness,<ref name="Badhwar 2010"/> and held that the [[initiation of force]] was evil and irrational, writing in ''Atlas Shrugged'' that "Force and mind are opposites."<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1992|p=1023}}; {{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=313–320}}.</ref> Rand's political philosophy emphasized [[individual rights]] (including [[Private property|property rights]]),<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=350–352}}.</ref> and she considered ''[[laissez-faire]]'' [[capitalism]] the only moral social system because in her view it was the only system based on the protection of those rights.<ref name="rights"/> She opposed [[statism]], which she understood to include [[theocracy]], [[absolute monarchy]], [[Nazism]], [[fascism]], [[communism]], [[democratic socialism]], and [[dictatorship]].<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=369}}.</ref> Rand believed that natural rights should be enforced by a constitutionally limited government.<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|p=367}}.</ref> Although her political views are often classified as [[Conservatism in the United States|conservative]] or [[libertarian]], she preferred the term "radical for capitalism". She worked with conservatives on political projects, but disagreed with them over issues such as religion and ethics.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=174–177, 209, 230–231}}; {{harvnb|Den Uyl|Rasmussen|1986|pp=225–226}}; {{harvnb|Doherty|2007|pp=189–190}}; {{harvnb|Branden|1986|p=252}}.</ref> She denounced libertarianism, which she associated with [[anarchism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|pp=266–267}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=268–269}}.</ref> She rejected anarchism as a naïve theory based in [[subjectivism]] that could only lead to collectivism in practice.<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|pp=280–281}}; {{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=371–372}}; {{harvnb|Merrill|1991|p=139}}.</ref> In aesthetics, Rand defined art as a "selective re-creation of reality according to an artist's metaphysical value-judgments". According to her, art allows philosophical concepts to be presented in a concrete form that can be easily grasped, thereby fulfilling a need of human consciousness.<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|pp=204–205}}.</ref> As a writer, the art form Rand focused on most closely was literature, where she considered [[romanticism]] to be the approach that most accurately reflected the existence of human [[free will]].<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|p=428}}.</ref> She described her own approach to literature as "[[romantic realism]]".<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|p=207}}; {{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|p=437}}.</ref> Rand acknowledged [[Aristotle]] as her greatest influence<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1992|p=1171}}</ref> and remarked that in the [[history of philosophy]] she could only recommend "three A's"—Aristotle, [[Thomas Aquinas|Aquinas]], and Ayn Rand.<ref name="Sciabarra1995p12">{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|p=12}}.</ref> In a 1959 interview with [[Mike Wallace]], when asked where her philosophy came from she responded: "Out of my own mind, with the sole acknowledgement of a debt to Aristotle, the only philosopher who ever influenced me. I devised the rest of my philosophy myself."<ref>{{harvnb|Podritske|Schwartz|2009|pp=174–175}}.</ref> However, she also found early inspiration in [[Friedrich Nietzsche]],<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=42}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=16, 22}}; {{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|pp=100–106}}.</ref> and scholars have found indications of his influence in early notes from Rand's journals,<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1997|p=21}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=24–25}}; {{harvnb|Sciabarra|1998|pp=136, 138–139}}.</ref> in passages from the first edition of ''We the Living'' (which Rand later revised),<ref>{{harvnb|Merrill|1991|pp=38–39}}; {{harvnb|Sciabarra|1998|p=135}}; Loiret-Prunet, Valerie. "Ayn Rand and Feminist Synthesis: Rereading ''We the Living''". In {{harvnb|Gladstein|Sciabarra|1999|p=97}}.</ref> and in her overall writing style.<ref>{{harvnb|Badhwar|Long|2010}}; Sheaffer, Robert. "Rereading Rand on Gender in the Light of Paglia". In {{harvnb|Gladstein|Sciabarra|1999|p=313}}.</ref> However, by the time she wrote ''The Fountainhead'', Rand had turned against Nietzsche's ideas,<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=41, 68}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=42}}; {{harvnb|Merrill|1991|pp=47–49}}.</ref> and the extent of his influence on her even during her early years is disputed.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=303–304}}; {{harvnb|Sciabarra|1998|pp=135, 137–138}}; Mayhew, Robert. "''We the Living'' '36 and '59". In {{harvnb|Mayhew|2004|p=205}}.</ref> Among the philosophers Rand held in particular disdain was [[Immanuel Kant]], whom she referred to as a "monster",<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1971|p=4}}.</ref> although philosophers George Walsh<ref name="Walsh">{{harvnb|Walsh|2000}}.</ref> and Fred Seddon<ref>{{harvnb|Seddon|2003|pp=63–81}}.</ref> have argued that she misinterpreted Kant and exaggerated their differences. Rand said her most important contributions to philosophy were her "theory of concepts, [her] ethics, and [her] discovery in politics that evil—the violation of rights—consists of the initiation of force".<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|2005|p=166}}.</ref> She believed epistemology was a foundational branch of philosophy and considered the advocacy of reason to be the single most significant aspect of her philosophy,<ref>{{cite book|title=Return of the Primitive: The Anti-Industrial Revolution|chapter=The Left: Old and New|page=62|isbn=978-0-452-01184-7|oclc=39281836|year=1999|location=New York|publisher=Meridian|last=Rand|first=Ayn|others=Edited by Peter Schwartz|title-link=Return of the Primitive: The Anti-Industrial Revolution}}.</ref> stating: "I am not ''primarily'' an advocate of capitalism, but of egoism; and I am not ''primarily'' an advocate of egoism, but of reason. If one recognizes the supremacy of reason and applies it consistently, all the rest follows."<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1971|p=1}}.</ref> ==Reception and legacy== {{see also|List of people influenced by Ayn Rand}} ===Critical reception=== During Rand's lifetime, her work evoked both extreme praise and condemnation. Rand's first novel, ''We the Living'', was admired by the literary critic [[H. L. Mencken]],<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=33}}; Ralston, Richard E. "Publishing ''We the Living''". In {{harvnb|Mayhew|2004|p=161}}.</ref> her Broadway play ''Night of January 16th'' was both a critical and popular success,<ref name="Branden 122-124">{{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=122–124}}.</ref> and ''The Fountainhead'' was hailed by a reviewer in ''[[The New York Times]]'' as "masterful".<ref name="Pruette">{{cite news|first=Lorine|last=Pruette|author-link=Lorine Livingston Pruette|work=The New York Times|date=May 16, 1943|title=Battle Against Evil|page=BR7|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1943/05/16/archives/battle-against-evil-the-fountainhead-by-ayn-rand-754-pp.html|accessdate=April 15, 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511114039/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20610FD3D5C167B93C4A8178ED85F478485F9|archivedate=May 11, 2011|deadurl=no}} Reprinted in {{cite book|title=Books of the Century|editor-first=Charles|editor-last=McGrath|year=1998|location=New York|publisher=Times Books|isbn=978-0-8129-2965-2|oclc=38439024|pages=135–136}}</ref> Rand's novels were derided by some critics when they were first published as being long and melodramatic.<ref name="Gladstein 117-119"/> However, they became [[bestseller]]s largely through word of mouth.<ref>{{harvnb|Paxton|1998|p=120}}; {{harvnb|Britting|2004|p=87}}.</ref> The first reviews Rand received were for ''Night of January 16th''. Reviews of the production were largely positive, but Rand considered even positive reviews to be embarrassing because of significant changes made to her script by the producer.<ref name="Branden 122-124"/> Rand believed that her first novel, ''We the Living'', was not widely reviewed, but Rand scholar Michael S. Berliner says "it was the most reviewed of any of her works", with approximately 125 different reviews being published in more than 200 publications. Overall these reviews were more positive than the reviews she received for her later work.<ref>Berliner, Michael S. "Reviews of ''We the Living''". In {{harvnb|Mayhew|2004|pp=147–151}}.</ref> Her 1938 novella ''Anthem'' received little attention from reviewers, both for its first publication in England and for subsequent re-issues.<ref>Berliner, Michael S. "Reviews of ''Anthem''". In {{harvnb|Mayhew|2005a|pp=55–60}}.</ref> Rand's first bestseller, ''The Fountainhead'', received far fewer reviews than ''We the Living'', and reviewers' opinions were mixed.<ref name="tfreviews">Berliner, Michael S. "''The Fountainhead'' Reviews". In {{harvnb|Mayhew|2006|pp=77–82}}.</ref> There was a positive review in ''The New York Times'' that Rand greatly appreciated.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=152}}.</ref> The reviewer called Rand "a writer of great power" who wrote "brilliantly, beautifully and bitterly", and stated that "you will not be able to read this masterful book without thinking through some of the basic concepts of our time".<ref name="Pruette"/> There were other positive reviews, but Rand dismissed most of them as either not understanding her message or as being from unimportant publications.<ref name="tfreviews"/> Some negative reviews focused on the length of the novel,<ref name="Gladstein 117-119"/> such as one that called it "a whale of a book" and another that said "anyone who is taken in by it deserves a stern lecture on paper-rationing". Other negative reviews called the characters unsympathetic and Rand's style "offensively pedestrian".<ref name="tfreviews"/> Rand's 1957 novel ''Atlas Shrugged'' was widely reviewed and many of the reviews were strongly negative.<ref name="Gladstein 117-119"/><ref name="asreviews">Berliner, Michael S. "The ''Atlas Shrugged'' Reviews". In {{harvnb|Mayhew|2009|pp=133–137}}.</ref> In ''[[National Review]]'', conservative author [[Whittaker Chambers]] called the book "sophomoric" and "remarkably silly". He described the tone of the book as "shrillness without reprieve" and accused Rand of supporting a godless system (which he related to that of the [[Religion in the Soviet Union|Soviets]]), claiming "From almost any page of ''Atlas Shrugged'', a voice can be heard, from painful necessity, commanding: 'To a gas chamber—go!{{' "}}.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Chambers|first=Whittaker|authorlink=Whittaker Chambers|title=Big Sister is Watching You|magazine=[[National Review]]|pages=594–596|url=http://www.nationalreview.com/articles/222482/big-sister-watching-you/flashback|date=December 8, 1957|accessdate=April 15, 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511214136/http://www.nationalreview.com/articles/222482/big-sister-watching-you/flashback|archivedate=May 11, 2011|deadurl=no}}</ref> ''Atlas Shrugged'' received positive reviews from a few publications, including praise from the noted book reviewer [[John Chamberlain (journalist)|John Chamberlain]],<ref name="asreviews"/> but Rand scholar [[Mimi Reisel Gladstein]] later wrote that "reviewers seemed to vie with each other in a contest to devise the cleverest put-downs", calling it "execrable claptrap" and "a nightmare"—they also said it was "written out of hate" and showed "remorseless hectoring and prolixity".<ref name="Gladstein 117-119"/> Rand's nonfiction received far fewer reviews than her novels had. The tenor of the criticism for her first nonfiction book, ''[[For the New Intellectual]]'', was similar to that for ''Atlas Shrugged'',<ref name="Gladstein119">{{harvnb|Gladstein|1999|p=119}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=193–194}}.</ref> with philosopher [[Sidney Hook]] likening her certainty to "the way philosophy is written in the Soviet Union",<ref>{{cite news|first=Sidney|last=Hook|authorlink=Sidney Hook|title=Each Man for Himself|work=[[The New York Times Book Review]]|date=April 9, 1961|page=28|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1961/04/09/archives/each-man-for-himself-for-the-new-intellectual-the-philosophy-of-ayn.html|accessdate=April 15, 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511114045/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70914F83B5B147A93CBA9178FD85F458685F9|archivedate=May 11, 2011|deadurl=no}}</ref> and author [[Gore Vidal]] calling her viewpoint "nearly perfect in its immorality".<ref>{{cite book|first=Gore|last=Vidal|authorlink=Gore Vidal|title=Rocking the Boat|chapter=Two Immoralists: Orville Prescott and Ayn Rand|publisher=Little, Brown|location=Boston|year=1962|oclc=291123|page=234}} Reprinted from ''[[Esquire (magazine)|Esquire]]'', July 1961.</ref> Her subsequent books got progressively less attention from reviewers.<ref name="Gladstein119"/> On the 100th anniversary of Rand's birth in 2005, [[Edward Rothstein]], writing for ''[[The New York Times]]'', referred to her fictional writing as quaint [[utopian]] "retro fantasy" and programmatic [[neo-Romanticism]] of the misunderstood artist while criticizing her characters' "isolated rejection of democratic society".<ref name="NYT100">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/02/books/02rand.html?pagewanted=all|work=The New York Times|title=Considering the Last Romantic, Ayn Rand, at 100|first=Edward|last=Rothstein|date=February 2, 2005|accessdate=April 15, 2011}}</ref> In 2007, book critic Leslie Clark described her fiction as "romance novels with a patina of [[pseudo-philosophy]]".<ref>{{cite news|first=Leslie|last=Clark|title=The philosophical art of looking out number one|url=http://www.heraldscotland.com/the-philosophical-art-of-looking-out-number-one-1.835066|work=[[The Herald (Glasgow)|The Herald]]|date=February 17, 2007|accessdate=April 2, 2010}}</ref> In 2009, ''[[GQ]]''{{'}}s critic columnist Tom Carson described her books as "capitalism's version of middlebrow religious novels" such as ''[[Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ|Ben-Hur]]'' and the ''[[Left Behind]]'' series.<ref name="GQB">{{cite magazine|url=https://www.gq.com/entertainment/books/200911/ayn-rand-dick-books-fountainhead?printable=true|title=The Bitch is Back|first=Andrew|last=Corsello|magazine=[[GQ]]|publisher=Condé Nast Publications|date=October 27, 2009|accessdate=April 9, 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514133528/http://www.gq.com/entertainment/books/200911/ayn-rand-dick-books-fountainhead?printable=true|archivedate=May 14, 2011|deadurl=no}}</ref> ===Popular interest=== [[File:Ayn Rand quote, American Adventure, Epcot Center, Walt Disney World.jpg.jpg|thumb|alt=Engraving in capital letters that reads: "Throughout the centuries there were men who took first steps down new roads armed with nothing but their own vision. Ayn Rand"|A quote from ''The Fountainhead'' on the wall across from the entrance to [[The American Adventure (Epcot)|The American Adventure]] rotunda at [[Walt Disney World Resort|Walt Disney World's]] [[Epcot]]]] In 1991, a survey conducted for the [[Library of Congress]] and the [[Book-of-the-Month Club]] asked club members what the most influential book in the respondent's life was. Rand's ''Atlas Shrugged'' was the second most popular choice, after the [[Bible]].<ref name="Doherty11">{{harvnb|Doherty|2007|p=11}}.</ref> Rand's books continue to be widely sold and read, with over 29&nbsp;million copies sold {{as of|2013|lc=y}} (with about 10% of that total purchased for free distribution to schools by the [[Ayn Rand Institute]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ari.aynrand.org/media-center/press-releases/2013/05/14/ayn-rand-hits-a-million-again|title=Ayn Rand Hits a Million...Again!|publisher=Ayn Rand Institute|date=May 14, 2013|accessdate=April 21, 2014}}</ref> In 1998, [[Modern Library]] readers voted ''Atlas Shrugged'' the 20th century's finest work of fiction, followed by ''The Fountainhead'' in second place, ''Anthem'' in seventh, and ''We the Living'' eighth; none of the four appeared on the critics' list.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.modernlibrary.com/top-100/100-best-novels/|title=100 Best Novels|publisher=Modern Library|accessdate=November 23, 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123233204/http://www.modernlibrary.com/top-100/100-best-novels/|archivedate=November 23, 2015}}</ref> Although Rand's influence has been greatest in the United States, there has been international interest in her work.<ref name="growing"/><ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2003|pp=384–386}}; {{cite book|last=Delbroy|first=Bibek|authorlink=Bibek Debroy|chapter=Ayn Rand—The Indian Connection|title=Ayn Rand at 100|editor-last=Machan|editor-first=Tibor R|editorlink=Tibor R. Machan|location=New Delhi, India|publisher=Pragun Publications|year=2006|isbn=978-81-89645-57-1|oclc=76829742|pages=2–4}}</ref> Rand's work continues to be among the top sellers among books in India.<ref>{{cite news|agency=[[Agence France-Presse]]/[[Jiji Press]]|title=In India, Ayn Rand never out of style|work=[[Japan Times]]|date=June 2, 2012|page=4}}</ref> Rand's contemporary admirers included fellow novelists, such as [[Ira Levin]], [[Kay Nolte Smith]] and [[L. Neil Smith]]; and later writers such as [[Erika Holzer]] and [[Terry Goodkind]] have been influenced by her.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Riggenbach|first=Jeff|journal=[[The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]]|title=Ayn Rand's Influence on American Popular Fiction|volume=6|issue=1|date=Fall 2004|pages=91–144|url=http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars6-1/jars6_1jriggenbach.pdf|accessdate=April 20, 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514042655/http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars6-1/jars6_1jriggenbach.pdf|archivedate=May 14, 2011|deadurl=yes|jstor=41560271|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Other artists who have cited Rand as an important influence on their lives and thought include [[comic book]] artist [[Steve Ditko]]<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|2004|pp=8–11}}.</ref> and musician [[Neil Peart]] of [[Rush (band)|Rush]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sciabarra|first=Chris Matthew|authorlink=Chris Matthew Sciabarra|journal=[[The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]]|title=Rand, Rush, and Rock|volume=4|issue=1|date=Fall 2002|pages=161–185|url=http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sciabarra/essays/rush.htm|accessdate=April 20, 2011}}</ref> Rand provided a positive view of business and in response business executives and entrepreneurs have admired and promoted her work.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=168–171}}.</ref> [[John A. Allison IV|John Allison]] of [[BB&T]] and [[Ed Snider]] of [[Comcast Spectacor]] have funded the promotion of Rand's ideas,<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=298}}; {{harvnb|Branden|1986|p=419}}.</ref> while [[Mark Cuban]] (owner of the [[Dallas Mavericks]]) as well as [[John P. Mackey]] (CEO of [[Whole Foods]]) among others have said they consider Rand crucial to their success.<ref name="NYTimes07">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/15/business/15atlas.html?_r=3&oref=slogin&pagewanted=print|work=The New York Times|title=Ayn Rand's Literature of Capitalism|first=Harriet|last=Rubin|date=September 15, 2007|accessdate=April 15, 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512144741/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/15/business/15atlas.html?_r=3&oref=slogin&pagewanted=print|archivedate=May 12, 2011|deadurl=no}}</ref> Rand and her works have been referred to in a variety of media: on television shows including animated sitcoms, live-action comedies, dramas, and game shows,<ref name="illustrated4-5">{{harvnb|Sciabarra|2004|pp=4–5}}</ref> as well as in movies and video games.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=282}}.</ref> She, or a character based on her, figures prominently (in positive and negative lights) in literary and science fiction novels by prominent American authors.<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|2004|p=3}}.</ref> [[Nick Gillespie]], editor in chief of ''[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]]'', has remarked that "Rand's is a tortured immortality, one in which she's as likely to be a punch line as a protagonist..." and that "jibes at Rand as cold and inhuman, run through the popular culture".<ref>{{cite episode|title=Book Bag: Marking the Ayn Rand Centennial|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4475441|series=Day to Day|serieslink=Day to Day|network=National Public Radio|airdate=February 2, 2005|credits=[[Alex Chadwick]] (host), Nick Gillespie (contributor)}}</ref> Two movies have been made about Rand's life. A 1997 documentary film, ''[[Ayn Rand: A Sense of Life]]'', was nominated for the [[Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|1999|p=128}}.</ref> ''[[The Passion of Ayn Rand (film)|The Passion of Ayn Rand]]'', a 1999 television adaptation of the [[The Passion of Ayn Rand (book)|book of the same name]], won several awards.<ref name="Gladstein122">{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=122}}.</ref> Rand's image also appears on a [[List of people on stamps of the United States#R|1999]] [[Postage stamps and postal history of the United States|U.S. postage stamp]] illustrated by artist [[Nick Gaetano]].<ref>{{harvnb|Wozniak|2001|p=380}}.</ref> ===Political influence=== {{see also|Objectivism and libertarianism}} Although she rejected the labels "[[conservative]]" and "[[libertarian]]",<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=258}}; {{harvnb|Rand|2005|p=73}}.</ref> Rand has had continuing influence on [[right-wing politics]] and libertarianism.<ref name="politicalinfluence"/> [[Jim Powell (historian)|Jim Powell]], a senior fellow at the [[Cato Institute]], considers Rand one of the three most important women (along with [[Rose Wilder Lane]] and [[Isabel Paterson]]) of modern [[American libertarianism]],<ref>{{harvnb|Powell|1996|p=322}}.</ref> and [[David Nolan (libertarian)|David Nolan]], one of the founders of the [[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian Party]], stated that "without Ayn Rand, the libertarian movement would not exist".<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|p=414}}.</ref> In his history of the libertarian movement, journalist [[Brian Doherty (journalist)|Brian Doherty]] described her as "the most influential libertarian of the twentieth century to the public at large"<ref name="Doherty11"/> and biographer Jennifer Burns referred to her as "the ultimate gateway drug to life on the right".<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=4}}.</ref> Economist and Ayn Rand student [[George Reisman]] wrote: "Ayn Rand...in particular, must be cited as providing a philosophical foundation for the case of capitalism, and as being responsible probably more than anyone else for the current spread of pro-capitalist ideas."<ref>{{cite book|title=Capitalism: A complete understanding of the nature and value of human economic life|last=Reisman|first=George|year=1998|isbn=978-0-915463-73-2|publisher=Jameson Books|page=2}}</ref> [[File:TDTP08.JPG|thumb|left|alt=In a large outdoor crowd, a man holds a poster with the words "I am John Galt"|A protester at a 2009 [[Tea Party protests|Tea Party rally]] carries a sign referring to [[John Galt]], the hero of Rand's novel ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]''.]] She faced intense opposition from [[William F. Buckley, Jr.]] and other contributors for the ''[[National Review]]'' magazine. They published numerous criticisms in the 1950s and 1960s by [[Whittaker Chambers]], [[Garry Wills]], and [[M. Stanton Evans]]. Nevertheless, her influence among conservatives forced Buckley and other ''National Review'' contributors to reconsider how traditional notions of virtue and Christianity could be integrated with support for capitalism.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2004}}.</ref> The political figures who cite Rand as an influence are usually conservatives (often members of the Republican Party),<ref>{{harvnb|Doherty|2009|pp=54}}.</ref> despite Rand taking some positions that are atypical for conservatives, such as being [[pro-choice]] and an atheist.<ref name="MJones">{{cite magazine|url=http://motherjones.com/media/2009/07/and-rand-played|title=And the Rand Played On|first=Amy|last=Benfer|magazine=[[Mother Jones (magazine)|Mother Jones]]|date=July–August 2009|accessdate=April 15, 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503215311/http://motherjones.com/media/2009/07/and-rand-played|archivedate=May 3, 2011|deadurl=no}}</ref> A 1987 article in ''[[The New York Times]]'' referred to her as the [[Presidency of Ronald Reagan|Reagan administration]]'s "novelist laureate".<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=279}}.</ref> Republican [[United States Congress|Congressmen]] and conservative [[pundits]] have acknowledged her influence on their lives and have recommended her novels.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=124}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=xi}}; {{harvnb|Doherty|2009|p=51}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=283}}.</ref> The [[financial crisis of 2007–2008]] spurred renewed interest in her works, especially ''Atlas Shrugged'', which some saw as foreshadowing the crisis.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=283–284}}; {{harvnb|Doherty|2009|pp=51–52}}; {{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=125}}.</ref> Opinion articles compared real-world events with the plot of the novel.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=125}}; {{harvnb|Doherty|2009|pp=54}}.</ref> During this time, signs mentioning Rand and her fictional hero [[John Galt]] appeared at [[Tea Party protests]].<ref>{{harvnb|Doherty|2009|pp=51–52}}.</ref> There was also increased criticism of her ideas, especially from the [[political left]], with critics blaming the economic crisis on her support of [[Rational egoism#Ayn Rand|selfishness]] and [[free markets]], particularly through her influence on [[Alan Greenspan]].<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=283}}.</ref> For example, ''[[Mother Jones (magazine)|Mother Jones]]'' remarked that "Rand's particular genius has always been her ability to turn upside down traditional hierarchies and recast the wealthy, the talented, and the powerful as the oppressed"<ref name="MJones"/> while equating Randian individual well-being with that of the ''Volk'' according to Goebbels. Corey Robin of ''[[The Nation]]'' alleged similarities between the "moral syntax of Randianism" and fascism.<ref>{{cite magazine|first=Corey|last=Robin|title=Garbage and Gravitas|url=http://www.thenation.com/article/garbage-and-gravitas|magazine=[[The Nation]]|date=June 7, 2010|accessdate=April 15, 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514200011/http://www.thenation.com/article/garbage-and-gravitas|archivedate=May 14, 2011|deadurl=no}}</ref> ===Academic reaction=== During Rand's lifetime her work received little attention from academic scholars.<ref name="reception"/> When the first academic book about Rand's philosophy appeared in 1971, its author declared writing about Rand "a treacherous undertaking" that could lead to "guilt by association" for taking her seriously.<ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1977|p=3}}.</ref> A few articles about Rand's ideas appeared in academic journals before her death in 1982, many of them in ''[[The Personalist]]''.<ref name="Gladstein115">{{harvnb|Gladstein|1999|p=115}}.</ref> One of these was "On the Randian Argument" by libertarian philosopher [[Robert Nozick]], who argued that her [[meta-ethical]] argument is unsound and fails to solve the [[is–ought problem]] posed by [[David Hume]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=On the Randian Argument|last=Nozick|first=Robert|authorlink=Robert Nozick|journal=[[The Personalist]]|date=Spring 1971|volume=52|pages=282–304}}</ref> Some responses to Nozick by other academic philosophers were also published in ''The Personalist'' arguing that Nozick misstated Rand's case.<ref name="Gladstein115"/> Academic consideration of Rand as a literary figure during her life was even more limited. Academic Mimi Gladstein was unable to find any scholarly articles about Rand's novels when she began researching her in 1973, and only three such articles appeared during the rest of the 1970s.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2003|pp=373–374, 379–381}}</ref> Since Rand's death, interest in her work has gradually increased.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|pp=114–122}}; {{harvnb|Salmieri|Gotthelf|2005|p=1995}}; {{cite magazine|last=McLemee|first=Scott|url=http://linguafranca.mirror.theinfo.org/9909/rand.html|title=The Heirs Of Ayn Rand: Has Objectivism Gone Subjective?|magazine=[[Lingua Franca (magazine)|Lingua Franca]]|date=September 1999|volume=9|issue=6|pages=45–55|accessdate=April 15, 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515004459/http://linguafranca.mirror.theinfo.org/9909/rand.html|archivedate=May 15, 2011|deadurl=no}}</ref> Historian Jennifer Burns has identified "three overlapping waves" of scholarly interest in Rand, the most recent of which is "an explosion of scholarship" since the year 2000.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=295–296}}.</ref> However, few universities currently include Rand or Objectivism as a philosophical specialty or research area, with many literature and philosophy departments dismissing her as a pop culture phenomenon rather than a subject for serious study.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=116}}.</ref> Gladstein, [[Harry Binswanger]], [[Allan Gotthelf]], [[John Hospers]], [[Edwin A. Locke]], Wallace Matson, [[Leonard Peikoff]], [[Chris Matthew Sciabarra]], and [[Tara Smith (philosopher)|Tara Smith]] have taught her work in academic institutions. Sciabarra co-edits the ''[[Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]]'', a nonpartisan [[peer-reviewed journal]] dedicated to the study of Rand's philosophical and literary work.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=118}}.</ref> In 1987 Gotthelf, George Walsh and [[David Kelley]] co-founded the Ayn Rand Society, a group affiliated with the [[American Philosophical Association]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gotthelf|2000|pp=2, 25}}; {{cite journal|first=William|last=Thomas|title=Ayn Rand Through Two Lenses|journal=Navigator|date=April 2000|volume=3|issue=4|pages=15–19|url=http://www.atlassociety.org/on-ayn-rand-gotthelf}}</ref> In 2012, the [[University of Pittsburgh Press]] launched an "Ayn Rand Society Philosophical Studies" series based on the proceedings of the Society.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Seddon|first=Fred|title=Ayn Rand Society Philosophical Studies|journal=Journal of Ayn Rand Studies|volume=14|issue=1|date=July 2014|pages=75–79}}</ref> Smith has written several academic books and papers on Rand's ideas, including ''Ayn Rand's Normative Ethics: The Virtuous Egoist'', a volume on Rand's ethical theory published by [[Cambridge University Press]]. Rand's ideas have also been made subjects of study at [[Clemson University|Clemson]] and [[Duke University|Duke]] universities.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.rutlandherald.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20050515/NEWS/505150346/1014|title=Ayn Rand at 100: An 'ism' struts its stuff|first=Benjamin|last=Harvey|work=[[Rutland Herald]]|agency=Columbia News Service|date=May 15, 2005|accessdate=June 4, 2009}}</ref> Scholars of English and American literature have largely ignored her work,<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2003|p=375}}.</ref> although attention to her literary work has increased since the 1990s.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2003|pp=384–391}}.</ref> Rand scholars Douglas Den Uyl and [[Douglas B. Rasmussen]], while stressing the importance and originality of her thought, describe her style as "literary, hyperbolic and emotional".<ref>{{harvnb|Den Uyl|Rasmussen|1978|p=203}}.</ref> Philosopher Jack Wheeler says that despite "the incessant bombast and continuous venting of Randian rage", Rand's ethics are "a most immense achievement, the study of which is vastly more fruitful than any other in contemporary thought".<ref>Wheeler, Jack. "Rand and Aristotle". In {{harvnb|Den Uyl|Rasmussen|1986|p=96}}.</ref> In the ''[[The Literary Encyclopedia (English)|Literary Encyclopedia]]'' entry for Rand written in 2001, [[John David Lewis]] declared that "Rand wrote the most intellectually challenging fiction of her generation".<ref>{{cite web|last=Lewis|first=John David|authorlink=John David Lewis|url=http://www.litencyc.com/php/speople.php?rec=true&UID=3705|website=[[The Literary Encyclopedia (English)|The Literary Encyclopedia]]|title=Ayn Rand|accessdate=August 2, 2009|date=October 20, 2001}}</ref> In a 1999 interview in the ''[[Chronicle of Higher Education]]'', Sciabarra commented, "I know they laugh at Rand", while forecasting a growth of interest in her work in the academic community.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sharlet|first=Jeff|authorlink=Jeff Sharlet (writer)|journal=[[The Chronicle of Higher Education]]|url=http://chronicle.com/article/Ayn-Rand-Has-Finally-Caught/20237/|title=Ayn Rand Has Finally Caught the Attention of Scholars|date=April 9, 1999|volume=45|issue=31|pages=A17–A18|accessdate=April 15, 2011}}</ref> Libertarian philosopher [[Michael Huemer]] argues that very few people find Rand's ideas convincing, especially her ethics,<ref name="whyrand">{{cite web|first=Michael|last=Huemer|url=http://www.cato-unbound.org/2010/01/22/michael-huemer/why-ayn-rand-some-alternate-answers|title=Why Ayn Rand? Some Alternate Answers|website=[[Cato Unbound]]|date=January 22, 2010|accessdate=August 18, 2012}}</ref> which he believes are difficult to interpret and may lack logical coherence.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Michael|last=Humer|title=Is Benevolent Egoism Coherent?|journal=[[The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]]|volume=3|issue=2|date=Spring 2002|pages=259–288|url=http://aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars3-2/jars3_2mhuemer.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110915095043/http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars3-2/jars3_2mhuemer.pdf|archivedate=September 15, 2011}}</ref> He attributes the attention she receives to her being a "compelling writer", especially as a novelist. ''Atlas Shrugged'' thus outsells Rand's non-fiction works as well as the works of other philosophers of [[classical liberalism]] such as [[Ludwig von Mises]], [[Friedrich Hayek]], or [[Frederic Bastiat]].<ref name="whyrand"/> Political scientist [[Charles Murray (political scientist)|Charles Murray]], while praising Rand's literary accomplishments, criticizes her claim that her only "philosophical debt" was to Aristotle, instead asserting that her ideas were derivative of previous thinkers such as [[John Locke]] and [[Friedrich Nietzsche]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.1708/article_detail.asp|publisher=The Claremont Institute|title=Who is Ayn Rand?|first=Charles|last=Murray|year=2010|accessdate=December 7, 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100604055034/http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.1708/article_detail.asp|archivedate=June 4, 2010|deadurl=yes|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Although Rand maintained that Objectivism was an integrated philosophical system, philosopher Robert H. Bass argues that her central ethical ideas are inconsistent and contradictory to her central political ideas.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Robert H.|last=Bass|title=Egoism versus Rights|journal=[[The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]]|volume=7|issue=2|date=Spring 2006|pages=329–349|url=http://aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars7-2/jars7_2rbass1.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105111109/http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars7-2/jars7_2rbass1.pdf|archivedate=November 5, 2012}}</ref> ===Objectivist movement=== {{main|Objectivist movement}} In 1985, Rand's intellectual heir Leonard Peikoff established the [[Ayn Rand Institute]], a nonprofit organization dedicated to promoting Rand's ideas and works. In 1990, after an ideological disagreement with Peikoff, philosopher [[David Kelley]] founded the Institute for Objectivist Studies, now known as [[The Atlas Society]].<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=280–281}}; {{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|pp=19, 114}}.</ref> In 2001, historian John McCaskey organized the Anthem Foundation for Objectivist Scholarship, which provides grants for scholarly work on Objectivism in academia.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=117}}.</ref> The charitable foundation of [[BB&T Corporation]] has also given grants for teaching Rand's ideas or works. The [[University of Texas at Austin]], the [[University of Pittsburgh]], and [[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]] are among the schools that have received grants. In some cases, these grants have been controversial due to their requiring research or teaching related to Rand.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|pp=116–117}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=297}}.</ref> ==Selected works== {{main|Bibliography of Ayn Rand and Objectivism}} <!-- NOTE: This is a selected bibliography and not meant to be comprehensive. Only major works published in her lifetime are included. Please start a discussion on the talkpage if you think the selection ought to be altered. Thank you. --> '''Novels:''' * 1936 ''[[We the Living]]'' * 1943 ''[[The Fountainhead]]'' * 1957 ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'' '''Other fiction:''' * 1934 ''[[Night of January 16th]]'' * 1938 ''[[Anthem (novella)|Anthem]]'' * 2015 ''[[Ideal (novel)|Ideal]]'' '''Non-fiction:''' * 1961 ''[[For the New Intellectual]]'' * 1964 ''[[The Virtue of Selfishness]]'' * 1966 ''[[Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal]]'' * 1969 ''[[The Romantic Manifesto]]'' * 1971 ''[[The New Left: The Anti-Industrial Revolution]]'' * 1979 ''[[Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology]]'' * 1982 ''[[Philosophy: Who Needs It]]'' ==See also== * ''[[Letters of Ayn Rand]]'' * ''[[Journals of Ayn Rand]]'' * [[Murder of Marion Parker]] ==Notes== {{notelist}} ==References== {{reflist}} ===Works cited=== {{refbegin|40em}} * {{cite web|ref=harv|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ayn-rand/|title=Ayn Rand|last1=Badhwar|first1=Neera|last2=Long|first2=Roderick T.|authorlink2=Roderick Long|editor-first=Edward N.|editor-last=Zalta|editor-link=Edward N. Zalta|date=June 8, 2010|website=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]|accessdate=June 16, 2010}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=Ayn Rand|series=Twayne's United States Authors Series|last=Baker|first=James T.|location=Boston, Massachusetts|publisher=Twayne Publishers|year=1987|oclc=14933003|isbn=978-0-8057-7497-9}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=On Classical Liberalism and Libertarianism|last=Barry|first=Norman P.|authorlink=Norman P. Barry|location=New York|publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]]|year=1987|isbn=978-0-312-00243-5|oclc=14134854}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=The Passion of Ayn Rand|last=Branden|first=Barbara|authorlink=Barbara Branden|location=Garden City, New York|publisher=Doubleday & Company|year=1986|isbn=978-0-385-19171-5|oclc=12614728|title-link=The Passion of Ayn Rand}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=Ayn Rand|last=Britting|first=Jeff|authorlink=Jeff Britting|location=New York|publisher=Overlook Duckworth|year=2004|isbn=978-1-58567-406-0|oclc=56413971|series=Overlook Illustrated Lives series}} * {{cite journal|ref=harv|last=Burns|first=Jennifer|date=November 2004|title=Godless Capitalism: Ayn Rand and the Conservative Movement|journal=Modern Intellectual History|volume=1|issue=3|pages=359–385|doi=10.1017/S1479244304000216}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=Goddess of the Market: Ayn Rand and the American Right|last=Burns|first=Jennifer|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-19-532487-7|oclc=313665028|title-link=Goddess of the Market: Ayn Rand and the American Right}} * {{cite news|ref=harv|last=Cohen|first=David|url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2001/dec/07/internationaleducationnews.highereducation|title=A Growing Concern|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=December 7, 2001|location=London|accessdate=April 15, 2011}} * {{cite journal|ref=harv|title=Nozick On the Randian Argument|last1=Den Uyl|first1=Douglas|last2=Rasmussen|first2=Douglas|journal=[[The Personalist]]|date=April 1978|volume=59|pages=184–205|lastauthoramp=y}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=The Philosophic Thought of Ayn Rand|editor1-last=Den Uyl|editor1-first=Douglas|editor1-link=Douglas Den Uyl|editor2-last=Rasmussen|editor2-first=Douglas|editor2-link=Douglas B. Rasmussen|location=Chicago|publisher=University of Illinois Press|year=1986|origyear=1984|isbn=978-0-252-01407-9|edition=paperback|lastauthoramp=y|oclc=15669115}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=Radicals for Capitalism: A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement|last=Doherty|first=Brian|authorlink=Brian Doherty (journalist)|location=New York|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2007|isbn=978-1-58648-350-0|oclc=76141517|title-link=Radicals for Capitalism: A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement}} * {{cite magazine|ref=harv|first=Brian|last=Doherty|title=She's Back!|url=http://reason.com/archives/2009/11/09/ayn-rand-is-back/singlepage|magazine=[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]]|date=December 2009|volume=41|issue=7|pages=51–58|accessdate=April 15, 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511102914/http://reason.com/archives/2009/11/09/ayn-rand-is-back/singlepage|archivedate=May 11, 2011|deadurl=no}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=The New Ayn Rand Companion|last=Gladstein|first=Mimi Reisel|authorlink=Mimi Reisel Gladstein|location=Westport, Connecticut|publisher=Greenwood Press|year=1999|isbn=978-0-313-30321-0|oclc=40359365}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=Atlas Shrugged: Manifesto of the Mind|last=Gladstein|first=Mimi Reisel|location=New York|publisher=Twayne Publishers|year=2000|isbn=978-0-8057-1638-2|oclc=43569158|series=Twayne's Masterwork Studies series}} * {{cite journal|ref=harv|title=Ayn Rand Literary Criticism|last=Gladstein|first=Mimi Reisel|journal=[[The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]]|volume=4|issue=2|date=Spring 2003|pages=373–394|url=http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars4-2/jars4_2mgladstein.pdf|accessdate=April 20, 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514042510/http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars4-2/jars4_2mgladstein.pdf|archivedate=May 14, 2011|deadurl=yes|jstor=41560226}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=Ayn Rand|last=Gladstein|first=Mimi Reisel|location=New York|publisher=Continuum|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8264-4513-1|oclc=319595162|series=Major Conservative and Libertarian Thinkers series}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=Feminist Interpretations of Ayn Rand|editor1-last=Gladstein|editor1-first=Mimi Reisel|editor2-last=Sciabarra|editor2-first=Chris Matthew|editor1-link=Mimi Reisel Gladstein|editor2-link=Chris Matthew Sciabarra|location=University Park, Pennsylvania|publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press|year=1999|isbn=978-0-271-01830-0|oclc=38885754|series=Re-reading the Canon series|lastauthoramp=y}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=On Ayn Rand|last=Gotthelf|first=Allan|authorlink=Allan Gotthelf|location=Belmont, California|publisher=Wadsworth Publishing|year=2000|isbn=978-0-534-57625-7|oclc=43668181|series=Wadsworth Philosophers Series|title-link=On Ayn Rand}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=Ayn Rand and the World She Made|last=Heller|first=Anne C.|location=New York|publisher=Doubleday|year=2009|isbn=978-0-385-51399-9|oclc=229027437|title-link=Ayn Rand and the World She Made}} * {{cite news|ref=harv|first=Michiko|last=Kakutani|title=Review: Ayn Rand's 'Ideal' Presents a Protagonist Familiar in Her Superiority|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/11/books/review-ayn-rands-ideal-presents-a-protagonist-familiar-in-her-superiority.html|accessdate=August 11, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=August 10, 2015}} * {{cite encyclopedia|ref=harv|last=Kukathas|first=Chandran|authorlink=Chandran Kukathas|year=1998|title=Rand, Ayn (1905–82)|editor-last=Craig|editor-first=Edward|encyclopedia=[[Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]|location=New York|publisher=Routledge|volume=8|pages=55–56|isbn=978-0-415-07310-3|oclc=318280731}} * {{cite news|ref=harv|last=Marcus|first=Jon|url=http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/407357.article|title=Ayn Rand Revival Gathers Pace in US Universities, Despite Detractors|work=Times Higher Education|date=July 16, 2009|accessdate=April 4, 2014}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=Essays on Ayn Rand's We the Living|editor-last=Mayhew|editor-first=Robert|location=Lanham, Maryland|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2004|isbn=978-0-7391-0697-6|oclc=52979186}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=Essays on Ayn Rand's Anthem|editor-last=Mayhew|editor-first=Robert|location=Lanham, Maryland|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2005a|isbn=978-0-7391-1031-7|oclc=57577415}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=Ayn Rand and Song of Russia|last=Mayhew|first=Robert|location=Lanham, Maryland|publisher=Scarecrow Press|year=2005b|isbn=978-0-8108-5276-1|oclc=55474309}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=Essays on Ayn Rand's The Fountainhead|editor-last=Mayhew|editor-first=Robert|location=Lanham, Maryland|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2006|isbn=978-0-7391-1578-7|oclc=70707828}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=Essays on Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged|editor-last=Mayhew|editor-first=Robert|location=Lanham, Maryland|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2009|isbn=978-0-7391-2780-3|oclc=315237945}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=100 Voices: An Oral History of Ayn Rand|last=McConnell|first=Scott|location=New York|publisher=[[New American Library]]|year=2010|isbn=978-0-451-23130-7|oclc=555642813}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=The Ideas of Ayn Rand|last=Merrill|first=Ronald E.|location=La Salle, Illinois|publisher=Open Court Publishing|year=1991|isbn=978-0-8126-9157-3|oclc=23254190}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=With Charity Toward None: An Analysis of Ayn Rand's Philosophy|last=O'Neill|first=William F.|location=New York|publisher=Littlefield, Adams & Company|year=1977|origyear=1971|isbn=978-0-8226-0179-1|oclc=133489}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=Ayn Rand: A Sense of Life (The Companion Book)|last=Paxton|first=Michael|authorlink=Michael Paxton|location=Layton, Utah|publisher=Gibbs Smith|year=1998|isbn=978-0-87905-845-6|oclc=38048196|title-link=Ayn Rand: A Sense of Life}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=Objectivism: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand|last=Peikoff|first=Leonard|authorlink=Leonard Peikoff|location=New York|publisher=[[E. P. Dutton]]|year=1991|isbn=978-0-452-01101-4|oclc=28423965|title-link=Objectivism: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=Objectively Speaking: Ayn Rand Interviewed|editor1-last=Podritske|editor1-first=Marlene|editor2-last=Schwartz|editor2-first=Peter|editor2-link=Peter Schwartz (writer)|location=Lanham, Maryland|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2009|isbn=978-0-7391-3195-4|oclc=267048088|lastauthoramp=y}} * {{cite magazine|ref=harv|last=Powell|first=Jim|authorlink=Jim Powell (historian)|title=Rose Wilder Lane, Isabel Paterson, and Ayn Rand: Three Women Who Inspired the Modern Libertarian Movement|url=https://fee.org/media/16426/1996-05.pdf|magazine=[[The Freeman: Ideas on Liberty]]|date=May 1996|volume=46|issue=5|accessdate=October 16, 2017}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|last=Rand|first=Ayn|title=The Virtue of Selfishness|isbn=978-0-451-16393-6|oclc=28103453|year=1964|publisher=Penguin|location=New York|title-link=The Virtue of Selfishness}} * {{cite magazine|ref=harv|last=Rand|first=Ayn|title=Brief Summary|magazine=[[The Objectivist]]|date=September 1971|volume=10|issue=9|pages=1–4}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|last=Rand|first=Ayn|title=Philosophy: Who Needs It|editor-last=Peikoff|editor-first=Leonard|year=1982|location=New York|publisher=Signet|edition=paperback|isbn=978-0-451-13249-9|title-link=Philosophy: Who Needs It}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=The Voice of Reason|first=Ayn|last=Rand|editor-first=Leonard|editor-last=Peikoff|location=New York|publisher=New American Library|year=1989|isbn=978-0-453-00634-7|oclc=18048955|title-link=The Voice of Reason (book)}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|last=Rand|first=Ayn|title=Atlas Shrugged|location=New York|publisher=Dutton|year=1992|origyear=1957|edition=35th anniversary|isbn=978-0-525-94892-6|oclc=60339555|title-link=Atlas Shrugged}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|last=Rand|first=Ayn|chapter=Foreword|title=We the Living|location=New York|publisher=Dutton|isbn=978-0-525-94054-8|oclc=32780458|edition=60th Anniversary|year=1995a|origyear=1936}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=Letters of Ayn Rand|last=Rand|first=Ayn|editor-first=Michael S|editor-last=Berliner|location=New York|publisher=Dutton|year=1995b|isbn=978-0-525-93946-7|oclc=31412028|title-link=Letters of Ayn Rand}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|last=Rand|first=Ayn|editor-last=Harriman|editor-first=David|title=Journals of Ayn Rand|location=New York|publisher=Dutton|year=1997|isbn=978-0-525-94370-9|oclc=36566117|title-link=Journals of Ayn Rand}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|last=Rand|first=Ayn|editor-last=Mayhew|editor-first=Robert|year=2005|title=Ayn Rand Answers, the Best of Her Q&A|isbn=978-0-451-21665-6|oclc=59148253|publisher=New American Library|location=New York}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|editor-first=John R.|editor-last=Shook|first1=Gregory|last1=Salmieri|first2=Allan|last2=Gotthelf|author2-link=Allan Gotthelf|chapter=Rand, Ayn (1905–82)|title=The Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers|publisher=Thoemmes Continuum|location=London|year=2005|isbn=978-1-84371-037-0|oclc=53388453|lastauthoramp=y|volume=4|pages=1995–1999}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical|last=Sciabarra|first=Chris Matthew|authorlink=Chris Matthew Sciabarra|location=University Park, Pennsylvania|publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press|year=1995|isbn=978-0-271-01440-1|oclc=31133644|title-link=Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical}} * {{cite journal|ref=harv|title=A Renaissance in Rand Scholarship|last=Sciabarra|first=Chris Matthew|journal=Reason Papers|volume=23|date=Fall 1998|pages=132–159|url=http://www.reasonpapers.com/pdf/23/rp_23_16.pdf|accessdate=April 15, 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513120014/http://www.reasonpapers.com/pdf/23/rp_23_16.pdf|archivedate=May 13, 2011|deadurl=no}} * {{cite journal|ref=harv|last=Sciabarra|first=Chris Matthew|url=http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars1-1/jars1_1csciabarra.pdf|title=The Rand Transcript|journal=[[The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]]|volume=1|issue=1|date=Fall 1999|pages=1–26|accessdate=April 15, 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514042557/http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars1-1/jars1_1csciabarra.pdf|archivedate=May 14, 2011|deadurl=yes|jstor=41560109}} * {{cite journal|ref=harv|last=Sciabarra|first=Chris Matthew|title=The Illustrated Rand|journal=[[The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]]|volume=6|issue=1|date=Fall 2004|url=http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sciabarra/essays/illustratedrand.pdf|pages=1–20|accessdate=April 15, 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012191607/http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sciabarra/essays/illustratedrand.pdf|archivedate=October 12, 2012|deadurl=no|jstor=41560268}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|last=Seddon|first=Fred|title=Ayn Rand, Objectivists, and the History of Philosophy|publisher=University Press of America|location=Lanham, Maryland|year=2003|pages=63–81|isbn=978-0-7618-2308-7|oclc=51969016}} * {{cite journal|ref=harv|last=Walsh|first=George V.|title=Ayn Rand and the Metaphysics of Kant|journal=[[The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]]|date=Fall 2000|volume=2|issue=1|pages=69–103|url=http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars2-1/jars2_1gwalsh.pdf|accessdate=April 15, 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514042532/http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars2-1/jars2_1gwalsh.pdf|archivedate=May 14, 2011|deadurl=yes|jstor=41560132}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=Ayn Rand Nation: The Hidden Struggle for America's Soul|last=Weiss|first=Gary|authorlink=Gary Weiss|location=New York|publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]]|year=2012|isbn=978-0-312-59073-4|oclc=740628885}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=Krause-Minkus Standard Catalog of U.S. Stamps|editor-first=Maurice D.|editor-last=Wozniak|publisher=[[Krause Publications]]|year=2001|edition=5th|isbn=978-0-87349-321-5|oclc=48663542}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|title=Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged: A Philosophical and Literary Companion|editor-last=Younkins|editor-first=Edward W.|location=Burlington, Vermont|publisher=Ashgate Publishing|year=2007|isbn=978-0-7546-5533-6|oclc=69792104}} {{refend}} ==External links== {{Sister project links|voy=no|Ayn Rand|n=no|v=no|wikt=no|b=no|author=yes}} {{Spoken Wikipedia-2|{{Start date|2007|06|02}}|Ayn_Rand1.ogg|Ayn_Rand2.ogg|...}} * {{Britannica|490984}} * [http://ari.aynrand.org/faq Frequently Asked Questions About Ayn Rand] from the [[Ayn Rand Institute]] * {{Gutenberg author|id=Rand,+Ayn|name=Ayn Rand}} * {{Internet Archive author|sname=Ayn Rand}} * {{Librivox author|id=4301}} * [http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms002006 Rand's papers at The Library of Congress] * [http://www.aynrandlexicon.com Ayn Rand Lexicon] – searchable database * {{cite IEP|url-id=rand|title=Ayn Alissa Rand (1905–1982)|first=Stephen R. C.|last=Hicks}} * {{cite SEP|url-id=ayn-rand|title=Ayn Rand|last=Badhwar|first=Neera K.|last2=Long|first2=Roderick T.|date=October 4, 2010}} * {{IMDb name|0709446}} * {{OL author}} * {{Dmoz|Society/Philosophy/Movements/Objectivism/People/Rand%2C_Ayn/}} * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?169959-1/writings-ayn-rand "Writings of Ayn Rand"] – from [[C-SPAN]]'s ''[[American Writers: A Journey Through History]]'' * {{Goodreads author}} {{Ayn Rand|state=expanded}} {{Liberalism}} {{Social and political philosophy}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Rand, Ayn}} [[Category:Ayn Rand| ]] [[Category:1905 births]] [[Category:1982 deaths]] [[Category:20th-century American dramatists and playwrights]] [[Category:20th-century American novelists]] [[Category:20th-century American philosophers]] [[Category:20th-century American women writers]] [[Category:20th-century American writers]] [[Category:20th-century atheists]] [[Category:Activists from New York (state)]] [[Category:American anti-communists]] [[Category:American anti-fascists]] [[Category:American anti-socialists]] [[Category:American atheists]] [[Category:American essayists]] [[Category:American ethicists]] [[Category:American people of Russian-Jewish descent]] [[Category:American political activists]] [[Category:American political theorists]] [[Category:American science fiction writers]] [[Category:American screenwriters]] [[Category:American women activists]] [[Category:American women dramatists and playwrights]] [[Category:American women novelists]] [[Category:American women philosophers]] [[Category:American women screenwriters]] [[Category:American secularists]] [[Category:American writers of Russian descent]] [[Category:Aristotelian philosophers]] [[Category:Atheism activists]] [[Category:Atheist philosophers]] [[Category:Burials at Kensico Cemetery]] [[Category:Critics of religions]] [[Category:Critics of Marxism]] [[Category:Epistemologists]] [[Category:Exophonic writers]] [[Category:Female critics of feminism]] [[Category:Imperial Russian atheists]] [[Category:Imperial Russian emigrants to the United States]] [[Category:Imperial Russian Jews]] [[Category:Jewish American dramatists and playwrights]] [[Category:Jewish American novelists]] [[Category:Jewish atheists]] [[Category:Jewish philosophers]] [[Category:Jewish women writers]] [[Category:Metaphysicians]] [[Category:Objectivists]] [[Category:People of the New Deal arts projects]] [[Category:People with acquired American citizenship]] [[Category:Political philosophers]] [[Category:Prometheus Award winners]] [[Category:Pseudonymous women writers]] [[Category:Russian anti-communists]] [[Category:Russian dramatists and playwrights]] [[Category:Russian women essayists]] [[Category:Russian women novelists]] [[Category:Russian women philosophers]] [[Category:Russian science fiction writers]] [[Category:Russian screenwriters]] [[Category:Russian women writers]] [[Category:Saint Petersburg State University alumni]] [[Category:Soviet emigrants to the United States]] [[Category:American women essayists]] [[Category:Women science fiction and fantasy writers]] [[Category:Writers from New York City]] [[Category:Writers from Saint Petersburg]] [[Category:American pro-choice activists]] [[Category:Atheist writers]] [[Category:Russian atheism activists]] [[Category:Philosophers from New York (state)]] [[Category:Novelists from New York (state)]] [[Category:20th-century Russian philosophers]] [[Category:Lung cancer survivors]] [[Category:Old Right (United States)]] erosntk9qsn23n1so7g25zhexygjw8r 0 340 857358130 855842775 2018-08-31T05:15:13Z Ser Amantio di Nicolao 753665 Removing from [[Category:French mathematicians]] using [[c:Help:Cat-a-lot|Cat-a-lot]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{More footnotes|date=February 2012}} {{Infobox scientist |name = Alain Connes |image = Alain_Connes.jpg |alt = Photo of the upper body of Alain Connes with vegetation, blue sky, and clouds in the background |caption = Alain Connes in 2004 |birth_date = {{birth date and age|1947|04|01|df=y}} |birth_place = [[Draguignan]], France |death_date = |death_place = |nationality = French |field = [[Mathematics]] |work_institutions = [[IHÉS]], France |alma_mater = [[École Normale Supérieure]] <br> [[Pierre and Marie Curie University]] |doctoral_advisor = [[Jacques Dixmier]] |doctoral_students = [[Georges Skandalis]] |known_for = [[Baum–Connes conjecture]]<br>[[Noncommutative geometry]]<br>[[Operator algebra]]s<br>[[Thermal time hypothesis]] |prizes = [[CNRS]] Silver Medal (1977)<br/> [[Prize Ampère]] (1980)<br/> [[Fields Medal]] (1982)<br/> [[Clay Research Award]] (2000)<br/> [[Crafoord Prize]] (2001)<br/> [[CNRS Gold medal]] (2004) |footnotes = }} '''Alain Connes''' ({{IPA-fr|alɛ̃ kɔn|lang}}; born 1 April 1947) is a French mathematician, currently Professor at the [[Collège de France]], [[IHÉS]], [[Ohio State University]] and [[Vanderbilt University]]. He was an Invited Professor at the [[Conservatoire national des arts et métiers]] (2000).<ref>Alain Connes, « Géométrie non-commutative », ''Université de tous les savoirs'', '''4''', 175-190, Editions Odile Jacob, 2001.</ref> ==Work== Alain Connes studies [[operator algebra]]s. In his early work on [[von Neumann algebra]]s in the 1970s, he succeeded in obtaining the almost complete classification of injective [[Von Neumann algebra#Factors|factor]]s. He also formulated the [[Connes embedding problem]]. Following this, he made contributions in [[K-theory|operator K-theory]] and [[index theory]], which culminated in the [[Baum–Connes conjecture]]. He also introduced [[cyclic homology|cyclic cohomology]] in the early 1980s as a first step in the study of [[noncommutative geometry|noncommutative differential geometry]]. He was a member of [[Nicolas Bourbaki|Bourbaki]].<ref>{{citation|title=Bourbaki: a secret society of mathematicians|first=Maurice|last=Mashaal|publisher=[[American Mathematical Society]]|year=2006|page=18|isbn=978-0-8218-3967-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-CXn6y_1nJ8C&pg=PA18}}.</ref> Connes has applied his work in areas of mathematics and [[theoretical physics]], including [[number theory]], [[differential geometry]] and [[particle physics]].<ref>[http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=the-geometer-of-particle "The Geometer of Particle Physics"] '' Scientific American'', 24 July 2006</ref> ==Awards and honours== Connes was awarded the [[Fields Medal]] in 1982, the [[Crafoord Prize]] in 2001 and the gold medal of the [[CNRS]] in 2004. He was an [[invited speaker at the International Congress of Mathematicians|invited speaker at the ICM]] in 1974 at Vancouver and in 1986 at Berkeley and a [[plenary speaker at the International Congress of Mathematicians|plenary speaker at the ICM]] in 1978 at Helsinki. He is a member of the [[French Academy of Sciences]] and several foreign academies and societies, including the [[Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters|Danish Academy of Sciences]], [[Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters|Norwegian Academy of Sciences]], [[Russian Academy of Sciences]], and [[National Academy of Sciences|US National Academy of Sciences]]. ==Books== * Alain Connes and [[Matilde Marcolli]], ''Noncommutative Geometry, Quantum Fields and Motives'', Colloquium Publications, American Mathematical Society, 2007, {{isbn|978-0821842102}} [http://www.alainconnes.org/docs/bookwebfinal.pdf] * Alain Connes, Andre Lichnerowicz, and Marcel Paul Schutzenberger, ''Triangle of Thought'', translated by Jennifer Gage, American Mathematical Society, 2001, {{isbn|978-0821826140}} * [[Jean-Pierre Changeux]], and Alain Connes, ''Conversations on Mind, Matter, and Mathematics'', translated by M. B. DeBevoise, Princeton University Press, 1998, {{isbn|978-0691004051}} * Alain Connes, ''Noncommutative Geometry'', Academic Press, 1994, {{isbn|978-0121858605}}<ref>{{cite journal|author=Segal, Irving|authorlink=Irving Segal|title=Review: ''Noncommutative geometry'', by Alain Connes|journal=Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. (N.S.)|year=1996|volume=33|issue=4|pages=459–465|url=http://www.ams.org/journals/bull/1996-33-04/S0273-0979-96-00687-8/S0273-0979-96-00687-8.pdf|doi=10.1090/s0273-0979-96-00687-8}}</ref> ==See also== * [[Cyclic homology]] * [[Factor (functional analysis)]] * [[Higgs boson]] * [[C*-algebra]] * [[M-theory]] * [[Groupoid]] *[[Criticism of non-standard analysis]] ==References== {{reflist}} ==External links== * [http://www.alainconnes.org/ Alain Connes Official Web Site] containing [http://www.alainconnes.org/en/downloads.php downloadable papers], and his book [http://www.alainconnes.org/docs/book94bigpdf.pdf ''Non-commutative geometry''], {{isbn|0-12-185860-X}}. * {{nlab|id=Alain+Connes|title=Alain Connes}} * [http://resonaances.blogspot.com/2007/02/alain-connes-standard-model.html Alain Connes' Standard Model] * An [http://www.ipm.ac.ir/ViewNewsInfo.jsp?NTID=227 interview with Alain Connes] and a [http://www.math.columbia.edu/~woit/wordpress/?p=313 discussion about it] * {{MacTutor|id=Connes}} * {{MathGenealogy|id=34220}} {{Fields medalists}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Connes, Alain}} [[Category:1947 births]] [[Category:Living people]] [[Category:20th-century French mathematicians]] [[Category:Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences]] [[Category:21st-century mathematicians]] [[Category:Collège de France faculty]] [[Category:Institute for Advanced Study visiting scholars]] [[Category:Fields Medalists]] [[Category:Mathematical analysts]] [[Category:Differential geometers]] [[Category:École Normale Supérieure alumni]] [[Category:Vanderbilt University faculty]] [[Category:Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences]] [[Category:Members of the French Academy of Sciences]] [[Category:Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters]] [[Category:Members of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters]] [[Category:Clay Research Award recipients]] [[Category:Participants in the Les Houches Physics Summer School]] 9ipal9cwmij0xln5icsi9t4a27kswt7 0 344 843069110 839018861 2018-05-26T17:09:34Z 87.122.142.163 /* Partial filmography as director */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2013}} {{Infobox person | name = Allan Dwan | image = Allan Dwan 1920.jpg | alt = Yellowish monochrome photo of the upper body of Allan Dwan | caption = Dwan in 1920 | birth_name = Joseph Aloysius Dwan | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1885|4|3}} | birth_place = [[Toronto|Toronto, Ontario]], Canada | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1981|12|28|1885|4|3}} | death_place = Los Angeles, United States | death_cause = [[Stroke]] and [[heart failure]]<ref>https://www.nytimes.com/1981/12/23/obituaries/allan-dwan-director-dead-began-movie-career-in-1909.html</ref> | spouse = [[Pauline Bush (actress)|Pauline Bush]] (1915–1919)<br/>Marie Shelton (1927–1949) | occupation = Film director<br />Film producer<br />Screenwriter | years_active = 1911–1961 }} '''Allan Dwan''' (3 April 1885 – 28 December 1981) was a pioneering Canadian-born American motion picture director, producer and screenwriter. ==Early life== Born '''Joseph Aloysius Dwan''' in [[Toronto|Toronto, Ontario]], Canada, Dwan, was the younger son of commercial traveller of woolen clothing Joseph Michael Dwan (1857–1917) and his wife Mary Jane Dwan, ''née'' Hunt. The family moved to the United States when he was seven years old, on 4 December 1892, by ferry from Windsor to Detroit, according to his naturalization petition of August 1939. His elder brother, Leo Garnet Dwan (1883–1964), became a physician. At the [[University of Notre Dame]], Allan Dwan studied engineering and began working for a lighting company in Chicago. However, he had a strong interest in the fledgling motion picture industry and when [[Essanay Studios]] offered him the opportunity to become a scriptwriter, he took the job.<ref name="Kevin Brownlow 1968">{{cite book|author=Brownlow, Kevin|authorlink=Kevin Brownlow|title=The Parade's Gone By...|publisher=[[Ballantine Books|Ballantine Books, Inc.]]|location=New York|year=1969|page=111}}</ref> At that time, some of the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] movie makers began to spend winters in California where the climate allowed them to continue productions requiring warm weather. Soon, a number of movie companies worked there year-round and, in 1911, Dwan began working part-time in Hollywood. While still in New York, in 1917 he was the founding president of the East Coast chapter of the [[Motion Picture Directors Association]].<ref name="frankenstein">{{cite news|last=Fournier|first=Pierre|url=http://io9.gizmodo.com/5706057/the-first-frankenstein-of-the-movies|title=The first Frankenstein of the movies|work=[[io9]]|date=4 December 2010|accessdate=28 April 2016}}</ref> ==Career== Dwan operated [[Flying A Studios]] in [[La Mesa, California]] from August 1911 to July 1912.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eastcountymagazine.org/node/6833|title=La mesa to honor its tinseltown roots aug. 12–13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://lamesa.patch.com/articles/100-simple-melodramas-were-made-in-la-mesa-100-years-ago|title=Proto-Hollywood: 100 Melodramas Were Made In La Mesa 100 Years Ago}}</ref> Flying A was one of the first motion pictures studios in California history. On 12 August 2011, a plaque was unveiled on the Wolff building at Third Avenue and La Mesa Boulevard commemorating Dwan and the [[Flying A Studios]] origins in [[La Mesa, California]]. After making a series of westerns and comedies, Dwan directed fellow Canadian-American [[Mary Pickford]] in several very successful movies as well as her husband, [[Douglas Fairbanks]], notably in the acclaimed 1922 ''[[Robin Hood (1922 film)|Robin Hood]]''. Dwan directed [[Gloria Swanson]] in eight feature films, and one short film made in the short-lived sound-on-film process [[Phonofilm]]. This short, also featuring [[Thomas Meighan]] and [[Henri de la Falaise]], was produced as a joke, for the 26 April 1925 "Lambs' Gambol" for [[The Lambs]], with the film showing Swanson crashing the all-male club. Following the introduction of the [[sound film|talkies]], Dwan directed child-star [[Shirley Temple]] in ''[[Heidi (1937 film)|Heidi]]'' (1937) and ''[[Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm (1938 film)|Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm]]'' (1938). Dwan helped launch the career of two other successful Hollywood directors, [[Victor Fleming]], who went on to direct ''[[The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)|The Wizard of Oz]]'' and ''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone With the Wind]]'', and [[Marshall Neilan]], who became an actor, director, writer and producer. Over a long career spanning almost 50 years, Dwan directed 125 motion pictures, some of which were highly acclaimed, such as the 1949 box office hit, ''[[Sands of Iwo Jima]]''. He directed his last movie in 1961.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.afi.com/members/catalog/SearchResult.aspx?s=&retailCheck=&Type=PN&CatID=DATABIN_DIRECTOR&ID=11207&AN_ID=&searchedFor=Allan_Dwan_|publisher=[[American Film Institute]]|title=Allan Dwan, Filmography|accessdate=27 December 2015}}</ref> He died in Los Angeles at the age of ninety-six, and is interred in the [[San Fernando Mission Cemetery]], [[Mission Hills, California]]. Dwan has a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] at 6263 [[Hollywood Boulevard]]. Daniel Eagan of ''[[Film Journal International]]'' described Dwan as one of the early pioneers of cinema, stating that his style "is so basic as to seem invisible, but he treats his characters with uncommon sympathy and compassion."<ref>{{cite web|last1=Eagan|first1=Daniel|title=MoMA's Republic Pictures series offers B-movie rediscoveries and restorations|url=http://www.filmjournal.com/momas-republic-pictures-series-offers-b-movie-rediscoveries-and-restorations|website=[[Film Journal International]]|publisher=[[Prometheus Global Media|Prometheus Global Media, LLC]]|accessdate=1 February 2018|date=31 January 2018}}</ref> ==Partial filmography as director== {{div col|colwidth=25em}} *''[[The Gold Lust]]'' (1911) *''[[The Picket Guard]]'' (1913) *''[[The Restless Spirit]]'' (1913) *''[[Back to Life (1913 film)|Back to Life]]'' (1913) *''[[Bloodhounds of the North]]'' (1913) *''[[The Lie (1914 film)|The Lie]]'' (1914) *''[[The Honor of the Mounted]]'' (1914) *''[[Remember Mary Magdalen]]'' (1914) *''[[Discord and Harmony]]'' (1914) *''[[The Embezzler (1914 film)|The Embezzler]]'' (1914) *''[[The Lamb, the Woman, the Wolf]]'' (1914) *''[[The End of the Feud]]'' (1914) *''[[The Tragedy of Whispering Creek]]'' (1914) *''[[The Unlawful Trade]]'' (1914) *''[[The Forbidden Room (1914 film)|The Forbidden Room]]'' (1914) *''[[The Hopes of Blind Alley]]'' (1914) *''[[Richelieu (film)|Richelieu]]'' (1914) * ''[[Wildflower (1914 film)|Wildflower]]'' (1914) *''[[A Small Town Girl]]'' (1915) *''[[David Harum (1915 film)|David Harum]]'' (1915) *''[[A Girl of Yesterday]]'' (1915) *''[[The Pretty Sister of Jose (1915 film)|The Pretty Sister of Jose]]'' (1915) *''{{ill|Jordan Is a Hard Road|fr}}'' (1915) *''[[Betty of Graystone]]'' (1916) *''[[The Habit of Happiness]]'' (1916) *''[[The Good Bad Man]]'' (1916) *''[[An Innocent Magdalene]]'' (1916) *''[[The Half-Breed (1916 film)|The Half-Breed]]'' (1916) *''[[Manhattan Madness]]'' (1916) *''[[Accusing Evidence]]'' (1916) *''[[Panthea (1917 film)|Panthea]]'' (1917) *''[[A Modern Musketeer]]'' (1917) *''[[Bound in Morocco]]'' (1918) *''[[Headin' South]]'' (1918) *''[[Mr. Fix-It (1918 film)|Mr. Fix-It]]'' (1918) *''[[He Comes Up Smiling]]'' (1918) *''[[Cheating Cheaters (1919 film)|Cheating Cheaters]]'' (1919) *''[[The Dark Star (1919 film)|The Dark Star]]'' (1919) *''[[Getting Mary Married]]'' (1919) *''[[Soldiers of Fortune (1919 film)|Soldiers of Fortune]]'' (1919) *''[[In The Heart of a Fool]]'' (1920) also producer *''[[The Forbidden Thing]]'' (1920) also producer *''[[A Splendid Hazard (1920)|A Splendid Hazard]]'' (1920) *''[[A Perfect Crime]]'' (1921) *''[[Robin Hood (1922 film)|Robin Hood]]'' (1922) *''[[Zaza (1923 film)|Zaza]]'' (1923) *''[[Big Brother (1923 film)|Big Brother]]'' (1923) *''[[Manhandled (1924 film)|Manhandled]]'' (1924) *''[[Argentine Love]]'' (1924) *''[[The Coast of Folly]]'' (1925) *''[[Night Life of New York]]'' (1925) *''[[Stage Struck (1925 film)|Stage Struck]]'' (1925) *''[[Gloria Swanson Dialogue]]'' (1925) short film made in [[Phonofilm]] for [[The Lambs]] annual "Gambol" held at [[Metropolitan Opera House (39th Street)|Metropolitan Opera House]] *''[[Padlocked]]'' (1926) *''[[Sea Horses]]'' (1926) *''[[Summer Bachelors]]'' (1926) *''[[Tin Gods]]'' (1926) *''[[French Dressing (1927 film)|French Dressing]]'' (1927) *''[[The Joy Girl]]'' (1927) *''[[East Side, West Side (1927 film)|East Side, West Side]]'' (1927) *''[[The Big Noise (1928 film)|The Big Noise]]'' (1928) *''[[Frozen Justice]]'' (1929) *''[[The Iron Mask]]'' (1929) *''[[Tide of Empire]]'' (1929) *''[[The Far Call]]'' (1929) *''[[What a Widow!]]'' (1930) *''[[Man to Man (1930 film)|Man to Man]]'' (1930) *''[[Chances (1931 film)|Chances]]'' (1931) *''[[Wicked (1931 film)|Wicked]]'' (1931) *''[[While Paris Sleeps (1932 film)|While Paris Sleeps]]'' (1932) *''[[Counsel's Opinion]]'' (1933) *''[[Black Sheep (1935 film)|Black Sheep]]'' (1935) *''[[Navy Wife (1935 film)|Navy Wife]]'' (1935) *''[[High Tension (1936 film)|High Tension]]'' (1936) *''[[15 Maiden Lane]]'' (1936) *''[[One Mile from Heaven]]'' (1937) *''[[Heidi (1937 film)|Heidi]]'' (1937) *''[[Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm (1938 film)|Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm]]'' (1938) *''[[Suez (film)|Suez]]'' (1938) * ''[[Josette (1938 film)|Josette]]'' (1938) *''[[The Three Musketeers (1939 film)|The Three Musketeers]]'' (1939) *''[[The Gorilla (1939 film)|The Gorilla]]'' (1939) *''[[Frontier Marshal (1939 film)|Frontier Marshal]]'' (1939) *''[[Sailor's Lady]]'' (1940) *''[[Young People (1940 film)|Young People]]'' (1940) *''[[Trail of the Vigilantes]]'' (1940) *''[[Look Who's Laughing]]'' (1941) also producer *''[[Rise and Shine (film)|Rise and Shine]]'' (1941) *''[[Friendly Enemies]]'' (1942) *''[[Around the World (1943 film)|Around the World]]'' (1943) also producer *''[[Up in Mabel's Room (1944 film)|Up in Mabel's Room]]'' (1944) *''[[Abroad with Two Yanks]]'' (1944) *''[[Getting Gertie's Garter]]'' (1945) also screenwriter *''[[Brewster's Millions (1945 film)|Brewster's Millions]]'' (1945) *''[[Rendezvous with Annie]]'' (1946) *''[[Driftwood (1947 film)|Driftwood]]'' (1947) *''[[Calendar Girl (1947 film)|Calendar Girl]]'' (1947) *''[[Northwest Outpost]]'' (1947) also associate producer *''[[The Inside Story (film)|The Inside Story]]'' (1948) *''[[Angel in Exile]]'' (1948) (with [[Philip Ford (film director)|Philip Ford]]) *''[[Sands of Iwo Jima]]'' (1949) *''[[Surrender (1950 film)|Surrender]]'' (1950) *''[[Belle Le Grand]]'' (1951) *''[[Wild Blue Yonder (film)|Wild Blue Yonder]]'' (1951) *''[[I Dream of Jeanie (film)|I Dream of Jeanie]]'' (1952) *''[[Montana Belle]]'' (1952) *''[[Woman They Almost Lynched]]'' (1953) * ''[[Sweethearts on Parade]]'' (1953) *''[[Silver Lode (1954 film)|Silver Lode]]'' (1954) *''[[Passion (1954 film)|Passion]]'' (1954) *''[[Cattle Queen of Montana]]'' (1954) *''[[Tennessee's Partner]]'' (1955) *''[[Pearl of the South Pacific]]'' (1955) *''[[Escape to Burma]]'' (1955) *''[[Slightly Scarlet (1956 film)|Slightly Scarlet]]'' (1956) *''[[Hold Back the Night (film)|Hold Back the Night]]'' (1956) *''[[The Restless Breed]]'' (1957) *''[[The River's Edge]]'' (1957) *''[[Enchanted Island (film)|Enchanted Island]]'' (1958) *''[[Most Dangerous Man Alive]]'' (1961) {{div col end}} ==See also== *[[Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood]] ==References== {{reflist}} ==Further reading== *[[Kevin Brownlow|Brownlow, Kevin]], ''The Parade's Gone By...'' (1968) {{ISBN|0520030680}} {{ISBN|978-0520030688}} *[[Peter Bogdanovich|Bogdanovich, Peter]], ''Allan Dwan: The Last Pioneer'' (1971) {{ISBN|0289701228}} {{ISBN|978-0289701225}} *[[Charles Foster (writer)|Foster, Charles]], ''Stardust and Shadows: Canadians in Early Hollywood'' (2000) {{ISBN|1-55002-348-9}} *Lombardi, Frederic, ''Allan Dwan and the Rise and Decline of the Hollywood Studios'' (2013) Print {{ISBN|978-0-7864-3485-5}} E-book {{ISBN|978-0-7864-9040-0}} ==External links== {{Commons category|Allan Dwan}} *{{IMDb name|0245385|Allan Dwan}} *[http://www.virtual-history.com/movie/person/2643/allan-dwan Allan Dwan profile], virtual-history.com; accessed 16 June 2014 {{Allan Dwan}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Dwan, Allan}} [[Category:1885 births]] [[Category:1981 deaths]] [[Category:American film directors]] [[Category:American film producers]] [[Category:American male screenwriters]] [[Category:Western (genre) film directors]] [[Category:Canadian emigrants to the United States]] [[Category:Film directors from Toronto]] [[Category:Writers from Toronto]] [[Category:Disease-related deaths in California]] [[Category:Burials at San Fernando Mission Cemetery]] 9b512a83uwtuymyyiz66fxv9bvf5k5b 0 347 783824609 629644125 2017-06-04T22:06:05Z Tom.Reding 9784415 +{{R category shell}} using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Demographics of Algeria]] {{Redirect category shell|1= {{R from subpage}} }} 828dem2m12g6c5uropomnj08ga2y56h 0 353 783824627 629644210 2017-06-04T22:06:14Z Tom.Reding 9784415 +{{R category shell}} using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Algeria]] {{Redirect category shell|1= {{R from subpage}} }} 7pzlvg41fsgb7ylu6qjg6qboi7q1w58 0 358 861778581 861644875 2018-09-29T23:27:26Z M.Bitton 24134703 The standardisation and transcription of the Amazigh language are still being debated wikitext text/x-wiki {{pp-move|small=yes}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2016}} {{coord|28|N|2|E|scale:10000000_type:country_region:DZ|format=dms|display=title}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = People's Democratic Republic of Algeria | common_name = Algeria | native_name = {{small|{{native name|ar|الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية|italics=no}}}}<br/>{{small|{{native name|fr|République Algerienne Démocratique et Populaire|italics=no}}}} | image_flag = Flag of Algeria.svg | image_coat = Algeria emb (1976).svg | symbol_type = Emblem | national_motto = {{small|بالشّعب وللشّعب}}<br/>By the people and for the people<ref name="CONST-AR">{{cite web|url=http://www.el-mouradia.dz/arabe/symbole/textes/constitution96.htm |title=Constitution of Algeria, Art. 11 |id= language: English and Arabic (government language); people of Algeria speak Arabic and Berber |publisher=El-mouradia.dz |accessdate=17 January 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120718124116/http://www.el-mouradia.dz/arabe/symbole/textes/constitution96.htm |archivedate=18 July 2012 |df=dmy }}</ref><ref name="CONST-EN">{{cite web |url= http://www.apn-dz.org/apn/english/constitution96/titre_01.htm |title=Constitution of Algeria; Art. 11 |publisher=Apn-dz.org |date=28 November 1996 |accessdate=17 January 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725130249/http://www.apn-dz.org/apn/english/constitution96/titre_01.htm |archivedate=25 July 2013 }}</ref> | national_anthem = ''[[Kassaman]]''<br />({{lang-en|"We Pledge"}})<br /><center>[[File:National anthem of Algeria, by the U.S. Navy Band.oga]]</center> | image_map = Algeria_(orthographic_projection).svg | map_caption = {{map caption |location_color=dark green || | |}} | image_map2 = Algeria - Location Map (2013) - DZA - UNOCHA.svg | capital = [[Algiers]] | coordinates = {{Coord|36|42|N|3|13|E|type:city}} | largest_city = capital | religion = [[Islam in Algeria|Islam]] | official_languages = {{hlist |'''[[Arabic]]'''<ref name="constitution">{{cite web|url=http://www.apn-dz.org/apn/english/constitution96/titre_01.htm |title=Constitution of Algeria; Art. 3 |publisher=Apn-dz.org |date=28 November 1996 |accessdate=17 January 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725130249/http://www.apn-dz.org/apn/english/constitution96/titre_01.htm |archivedate=25 July 2013 }}</ref> |[[Berber languages|Berber]]<ref name="APS">{{cite web |url=http://www.aps.dz/images/doc/PROJET-DE%20REVISION-DE-LA-CONSTITUTION-28-DECEMBRE-2015.pdf |title=APS |publisher=[[Algeria Press Service]] |date=6 January 2016 |accessdate=6 January 2016 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522160159/http://www.aps.dz/images/doc/PROJET-DE%20REVISION-DE-LA-CONSTITUTION-28-DECEMBRE-2015.pdf |archivedate=22 May 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>}} | languages_type = Other languages | languages = [[French language|French]] {{small|(administration, business and education)}}<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ag.html |title=The World Factbook – Algeria |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |date=4 December 2013 |accessdate=24 December 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6BNNjndve?url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ag.html |archivedate=13 October 2012 |df=dmy }}</ref> [[Algerian Arabic|Algerian Arabic (Darja)]] {{small|(lingua franca)}} | ethnic_groups = {{vunblist |{{nowrap|[[Arab-Berber]] 99%<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/>{{efn|The ''[[The World Factbook|CIA World Factbook]]'' states that about 15% of Algerians, a minority, identify as Berber even though many Algerians have Berber origins. The Factbook explains that of the approximately 15% who identify as Berber, most live in the [[Kabylie]] region, more closely identify with Berber heritage instead of Arab heritage, and are Muslim.}}<!--end nowrap:-->}} | 1% others<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/>}} | demonym = Algerian | government_type = {{nowrap|[[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]]}} [[people's republic]] | leader_title1 = [[President of Algeria|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]] | leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Algeria|Prime Minister]] | leader_name2 = [[Ahmed Ouyahia]] | legislature = [[Parliament of Algeria|Parliament]] | upper_house = [[Council of the Nation]] | lower_house = [[People's National Assembly]] | sovereignty_type = [[History of Algeria|Formation]] | established_event1 = [[Ottoman Algeria|Al Jazâ'ir]] | established_date1 = 1515 | established_event2 = [[French Algeria]] | established_date2 = [[Invasion of Algiers in 1830|5 July 1830]] | established_event3 = [[Algerian War|Independence]] from [[France]] | established_date3 = 3 July 1962 | established_event4 = Recognised | established_date4 = 5 July 1962 | established_event5 = [[Constitution of Algeria|Current constitution]] | established_date5 = 10 September 1963 | area_km2 = 2381741 | area_rank = 10th | area_sq_mi = 919595 | percent_water = negligible | population_estimate = 42,200,000<ref name="ONS">{{cite web|url=http://www.ons.dz/-Demographie-.html|title=Démographie (ONS) |publisher=ONS |date= 1 January 2018 |accessdate=19 January 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306220607/http://www.ons.dz/-Demographie-.html |archivedate=6 March 2012 }}</ref> | population_census = 37,900,000<ref name="ONS"/> | population_estimate_year = 2018 | population_estimate_rank = 32nd | population_census_year = 2013 | population_density_km2 = 15.9 | population_density_sq_mi = 37.9 | population_density_rank = 208th | GDP_PPP = $666.960 billion<ref name=imf2>[http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2018/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=52&pr.y=14&sy=2017&ey=2021&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=612&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a= Algeria]. [[International Monetary Fund]] </ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2018 | GDP_PPP_rank = | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $18,757<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal = $197.629 billion<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_year = 2018 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = $7,669<ref name=imf2/> | Gini = 27.6 | Gini_year = 2011 | Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web|author=Staff |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html |title=Distribution of Family Income&nbsp;– Gini Index |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |accessdate=1 September 2009 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5rRcwIiYs?url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html |archivedate=23 July 2010 |deadurl=no |df=dmy }}</ref> | HDI = 0.754<!-- number only --> | HDI_year = 2018<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year --> | HDI_change = increase<!-- increase/decrease/steady --> | HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web |url=http://www.hdr.undp.org/en/2018-update |title=2018 Human Development Report |year=2018 |accessdate=14 September 2018 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme }}</ref> | HDI_rank = 85th | currency = [[Algerian dinar|Dinar]] | currency_code = DZD | time_zone = [[Central European Time|CET]] | utc_offset = +1 | date_format = dd/mm/yyyy | drives_on = right<ref>{{cite news |last=Geoghegan |first=Tom |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8239048.stm |title=Could the UK drive on the right? |publisher=BBC News |date=7 September 2009 |accessdate=14 January 2013}}</ref> | calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Algeria|+213]] | cctld = [[.dz]]<br/>الجزائر. }} {{Contains Arabic text}} '''Algeria''' ({{IPAc-en||audio=En-Algeria-pronunciation.ogg|æ|l|ˈ|dʒ|ɪər|i|ə}}; {{lang-ar|الجزائر}} ''{{transl|ar|al-Jazā'ir}}'', familary [[Algerian Arabic]] {{lang|ar|الدزاير}} ''{{transl|ar|al-dzāyīr}}''; {{lang-fr|Algérie}}), officially the '''People's Democratic Republic of Algeria''', is a country in [[North Africa]] on the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean coast]]. The capital and most populous city is [[Algiers]], located in the far north of the country. With an area of {{convert|2381741|km2|sqmi|0}}, Algeria is the [[list of countries and dependencies by area|tenth-largest country in the world]], and the largest in Africa since [[South Sudan]] became independent from [[Sudan]] in 2011.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html|title=Country Comparison: Area |publisher=CIA World Factbook |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> Algeria is bordered to the northeast by [[Tunisia]], to the east by [[Libya]], to the west by [[Morocco]], to the southwest by the [[Western Sahara]]n territory, [[Mauritania]], and [[Mali]], to the southeast by [[Niger]], and to the north by the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. The country is a [[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential republic]] consisting of 48 provinces and 1,541 communes (counties). Ancient Algeria has known many empires and dynasties, including ancient [[Numidia]]ns, [[Phoenicia]]ns, [[Punic|Carthaginians]], [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], [[Vandals]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]], [[Umayyad]]s, [[Abbasid]]s, [[Idrisid]], [[Aghlabid]], [[Rustamid]], [[Fatimid]]s, [[Zirid]], [[Hammadids]], [[Almoravids]], [[Almohads]], [[Spaniards]], [[Ottomans]] and the [[French Algeria|French colonial empire]]. [[Berbers]] are the indigenous inhabitants of Algeria. Algeria is a [[regional power|regional]] and [[middle power]]. The North African country supplies large amounts of [[natural gas]] to Europe, and energy exports are the backbone of the economy. According to [[OPEC]] Algeria has the [[List of countries by proven oil reserves|16th largest]] oil reserves in the world and the second largest in [[Africa]], while it has the [[List of countries by natural gas proven reserves|9th largest reserves]] of [[natural gas]]. [[Sonatrach]], the national oil company, is the largest company in Africa. Algeria has one of the largest militaries in Africa and the largest defence budget on the continent; most of Algeria's weapons are imported from [[Russia]], with whom they are a close ally.<ref name="AlgeriaSpending">{{cite web|url=http://www.upi.com/Business_News/Security-Industry/2013/03/11/Algerias-military-goes-on-an-arms-spree/UPI-89581363031700/ |title=Algeria buying military equipment |publisher=UPI.com |accessdate=24 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb228/index.htm |title=The Nuclear Vault: The Algerian Nuclear Problem |publisher=Gwu.edu |accessdate=14 March 2013}}</ref> Algeria is a member of the [[African Union]], the [[Arab League]], [[OPEC]], the [[United Nations]] and is a founding member of the [[Arab Maghreb Union]]. ==Etymology== The country's name derives from the city of [[Algiers]]. The city's name in turn derives from the Arabic ''{{lang|ar-Latn|al-Jazā'ir}}'' ({{lang|ar|الجزائر}}, "The Islands"),<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=JA7tcmEx5lsC&pg=PT14&lpg=PT14&dq=origin+of+the+word+algeria+island#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=iAfrica - Ancient History UNTOLD|last=LLC|first=Forbidden Fruits|date=2013-01-30|publisher=Forbidden Fruit Books LLC|language=en}}</ref> a truncated form of the older ''{{lang|ar-Latn|Jazā'ir Banī Mazghanna}}'' ({{lang|ar|جزائر بني مزغنة}}, "Islands of the Mazghanna Tribe"),<ref name="بازينة2010">{{cite book|author=عبد الله سالم بازينة|title=إنتشار الإسلام في إفريقيا جنوب الصحراء|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EpvHCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA23|year=2010|publisher=Al Manhal|isbn=9796500027951|page=23}} (in Arabic)</ref><ref name=idrisi>al-Idrisi, Muhammad (12th century) ''Nuzhat al-Mushtaq''</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2013}}<ref name=khaldun>{{cite book|last=Abderahman|first=Abderrahman|title=History of Ibn Khaldun&nbsp;– Volume 6|year=1377}}</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2013}} employed by medieval geographers such as [[Muhammad al-Idrisi|al-Idrisi]]. ==History== {{Main|History of Algeria}} ===Ancient history=== {{refimprove section|date=July 2017}}<!--4 consecutive paragraphs without citations--> {{main|Prehistoric North Africa|North Africa during Antiquity}} In the region of Ain Hanech ([[Saïda Province]]), early remnants (200,000 BC) of hominid occupation in [[North Africa]] were found. Neanderthal tool makers produced hand axes in the [[Levallois technique|Levalloisian]] and [[Mousterian]] styles (43,000 BC) similar to those in the [[Levant]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gi.ulpgc.es/tarha/Ain_Hanech.pdf |title=The Site of Ain Hanech Revisited: New Investigations at this Lower Pleistocene Site in Northern Algeria |publisher=Journal of Archaeological Science |author1=Sahnouni, Mohamed |author2=de Heinzelin, Jean |accessdate=14 January 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stoneageinstitute.org/ain-hanech.html |title=Research at Ain Hanech, Algeria |publisher=Stoneageinstitute.org |accessdate=14 January 2013}}</ref> Algeria was the site of the highest state of development of [[Middle Paleolithic]] [[Flake tool]] techniques. Tools of this era, starting about 30,000 BC, are called [[Aterian]] (after the archeological site of [[Bir el Ater]], south of [[Tébessa|Tebessa]]). The earliest blade industries in North Africa are called [[Iberomaurusian]] (located mainly in the [[Oran]] region). This industry appears to have spread throughout the coastal regions of the [[Maghreb]] between 15,000 and 10,000 BC. Neolithic civilization (animal domestication and agriculture) developed in the Saharan and Mediterranean Maghreb perhaps as early as 11,000 BC<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.plosgenetics.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.1002397 |title=Genomic Ancestry of North Africans Supports Back-to-Africa Migrations |publisher=PLOS Genetics |date=12 January 2012 |accessdate=18 July 2014}}</ref> or as late as between 6000 and 2000 BC. This life, richly depicted in the [[Tassili n'Ajjer]] paintings, predominated in Algeria until the classical period. The mixture of peoples of North Africa coalesced eventually into a distinct native population that came to be called [[Berber people|Berbers]], who are the indigenous peoples of northern Africa.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Berbers|publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]]|year=1997|chapter=Berbers in Antiquity|isbn=978-0-631-20767-2|url=https://books.google.com/?id=8Zcz91t29ukC|author1=Brett, Michael |author2=Fentress, Elizabeth }}</ref> [[File:Djémila-109038.jpg|thumb|left|Roman ruins at [[Djémila]]]] [[File:Timgad rue.jpg|thumb|right|Ancient [[Roman Empire|Roman]] ruins of [[Timgad]]on the street leading to the local [[Arch of Trajan (Timgad)|Arch of Trajan]]]] From their principal center of power at [[Carthage]], the [[Carthaginians]] expanded and established small settlements along the North African coast; by 600 BC, a [[Phoenicia]]n presence existed at [[Tipasa]], east of [[Cherchell]], [[Hippo Regius]] (modern [[Annaba]]) and [[Rusicade]] (modern [[Skikda]]). These settlements served as market towns as well as anchorages. As Carthaginian power grew, its impact on the indigenous population increased dramatically. Berber civilization was already at a stage in which agriculture, manufacturing, trade, and political organization supported several states. Trade links between Carthage and the Berbers in the interior grew, but territorial expansion also resulted in the enslavement or military recruitment of some Berbers and in the extraction of tribute from others. [[File:Egypt, Rome, Carthage and Numidia.jpg|thumb|right|Numidia along with Egypt, Rome, and Carthage 200 BC]] [[File:Tombeau de la Chrétienne.JPG|thumb|left|[[Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania]], where the [[Berbers|Berber]] King [[Juba II]] and Queen [[Cleopatra Selene II]], sovereigns of [[Numidia]] and [[Mauretania]], are buried]] By the early 4th century BC, Berbers formed the single largest element of the Carthaginian army. In the [[Mercenary War|Revolt of the Mercenaries]], Berber soldiers rebelled from 241 to 238 BC after being unpaid following the defeat of Carthage in the [[First Punic War]]. They succeeded in obtaining control of much of Carthage's North African territory, and they minted coins bearing the name Libyan, used in Greek to describe natives of North Africa. The Carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the Romans in the [[Punic Wars]]. [[File:GM Massinissa.png|upright=0.8|thumb|left|[[Masinissa]] (c.&nbsp;238–148&nbsp;BC), first king of Numidia]] [[File:Jugurtha.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Jugurtha]] (c.&nbsp;160–104&nbsp;BC), king of Numidia]] In 146 BC the city of [[Carthage]] was destroyed. As Carthaginian power waned, the influence of Berber leaders in the hinterland grew. By the 2nd century BC, several large but loosely administered Berber kingdoms had emerged. Two of them were established in [[Numidia]], behind the coastal areas controlled by Carthage. West of Numidia lay [[Mauretania]], which extended across the [[Moulouya River]] in modern-day [[Morocco]] to the Atlantic Ocean. The high point of Berber civilization, unequaled until the coming of the [[Almohads]] and [[Almoravids]] more than a millennium later, was reached during the reign of [[Masinissa]] in the 2nd century BC. After Masinissa's death in 148 BC, the Berber kingdoms were divided and reunited several times. Masinissa's line survived until 24 AD, when the remaining Berber territory was annexed to the [[Roman Empire]]. For several centuries Algeria was ruled by the Romans, who founded many colonies in the region. Like the rest of North Africa, Algeria was one of the breadbaskets of the empire, exporting cereals and other agricultural products. [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]] was the bishop of [[Hippo Regius]] (modern-day Algeria), located in the Roman province of [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]]. The Germanic [[Vandals]] of [[Geiseric]] moved into North Africa in 429, and by 435 controlled coastal Numidia.<ref name="vandaf">{{cite book|last1=Cameron|first1=Averil|last2=Ward-Perkins|first2=Bryan|title=The Cambridge Ancient History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qf8mrHjfZRoC&pg=RA1-PA124|volume=14|year=2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-32591-2|pages=124–126|chapter=Vandal Africa, 429–533}}</ref> They did not make any significant settlement on the land, as they were harassed by local tribes. In fact, by the time the Byzantines arrived Lepcis Magna was abandoned and the Msellata region was occupied by the indigenous [[Amazigh|Laguatan]] who had been busy facilitating an [[Amazigh]] political, military and cultural revival.<ref name="vandaf"/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mattingly|first1=D.J.|title=The Laguatan: A Libyan Tribal Confederation in the late Roman Empire.|journal=Libyan Studies|date=1983|volume=14}}</ref> ===Middle Ages=== {{main|Medieval Muslim Algeria}} [[File:Mansourah-1.jpg|thumb|right|Mansourah mosque, Tlemcen]] After negligible resistance from the locals, [[Muslims|Muslim]] [[Arabs]] of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] conquered Algeria in the mid-7th century and a large number of the indigenous people converted to the newly founded faith of Islam. After the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate, numerous local dynasties emerged, including the [[Aghlabids]], [[Almohads]], [[Abdalwadid]], [[Zirids]], [[Rustamids]], [[Hammadids]], [[Almoravids]] and the [[Fatimids]]. During the [[Middle Ages]], North Africa was home to many great scholars, saints and sovereigns including [[Judah ibn Kuraish|Judah Ibn Quraysh]], the first grammarian to suggest the [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] language family, the great Sufi masters [[Abu Madyan|Sidi Boumediene (Abu Madyan)]] and [[Sidi El Houari]], and the Emirs [[Abd al-Mu'min|Abd Al Mu'min]] and [[Yaghmurasen Ibn Zyan|Yāghmūrasen]]. It was during this time that the [[Fatimids]] or children of Fatima, daughter of Muhammad, came to the Maghreb. These "Fatimids" went on to found a long lasting dynasty stretching across the Maghreb, Hejaz and the Levant, boasting a secular inner government, as well as a powerful army and navy, made up primarily of [[Arabs]] and [[Levant]]ines extending from Algeria to their capital state of [[Cairo]]. The [[Fatimid caliphate]] began to collapse when its governors the [[Zirids]] seceded. In order to punish them the Fatimids sent the Arab [[Banu Hilal]] and [[Banu Sulaym]] against them. The resultant war is recounted in the epic [[Taghribat Bani Hilal|Tāghribāt]]. In Al-Tāghrībāt the Amazigh Zirid Hero [[Khalifa al-Zanati|Khālīfā Al-Zānatī]] asks daily, for duels, to defeat the Hilalan hero [[Abu Zayd al-Hilali|Ābu Zayd al-Hilalī]] and many other Arab knights in a string of victories. The [[Zirid]]s, however, were ultimately defeated ushering in an adoption of Arab customs and culture. The indigenous [[Berber people|Amazigh]] tribes, however, remained largely independent, and depending on tribe, location and time controlled varying parts of the Maghreb, at times unifying it (as under the Fatimids). The Fatimid Islamic state, also known as [[Fatimid Caliphate]] made an Islamic empire that included North Africa, Sicily, [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Jordan]], [[Lebanon]], [[Syria]], [[Egypt]], the [[Red Sea]] coast of Africa, Tihamah, [[Hejaz]] and [[Yemen]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/202580/Fatimid-Dynasty/2238/Conquest-of-Egypt|title=Fatimid Dynasty (Islamic dynasty)|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=29 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.qantara-med.org/qantara4/public/show_carte.php?carte=carte-05 |title=Qantara |publisher=Qantara-med.org |accessdate=13 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131009220925/http://www.qantara-med.org/qantara4/public/show_carte.php?carte=carte-05 |archive-date=9 October 2013 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.qantara-med.org/qantara4/public/show_document.php?do_id=595 |title=Qantara – Les Almoravides (1056–1147) |publisher=Qantara-med.org |accessdate=13 September 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921185314/http://www.qantara-med.org/qantara4/public/show_document.php?do_id=595 |archivedate=21 September 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Caliphates from Northern Africa traded with the other empires of their time, as well as forming part of a confederated support and trade network with other Islamic states during the Islamic Era. [[File:Fatimid Caliphate.PNG|thumb|left|Fatimid Caliphate, c. 960–1100]] The [[Berber people|Amazighs]] historically consisted of several tribes. The two main branches were the Botr and Barnès tribes, who were divided into tribes, and again into sub-tribes. Each region of the Maghreb contained several tribes (for example, [[Sanhadja]], [[Houara]], [[Zenata]], [[Masmuda|Masmouda]], [[Kutama]], Awarba, and [[Berghwata]]). All these tribes made independent territorial decisions.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=H3RBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR2|title=Histoire des Berbères et des dynasties musulmanes de l'Afrique Septentrionale Par Ibn Khaldūn, William MacGuckin Slane| trans-title =History of the Berbers and the Muslim dynasties of northern Africa | language= French |page=XV|author =Khaldūn, Ibn|year=1852}}</ref> Several [[Berber people|Amazigh]] dynasties emerged during the Middle Ages in the Maghreb and other nearby lands. [[Ibn Khaldun]] provides a table summarising the Amazigh dynasties of the Maghreb region, the [[Zirid dynasty|Zirid]], [[Banu Ifran]], [[Maghrawa]], [[Almoravid]], [[Hammadid]], [[Almohad]], [[Merinid]], [[Zayyanid dynasty|Abdalwadid]], [[Wattasid]], [[Meknassa]] and [[Hafsid]] dynasties.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=H3RBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR115|title=Histoire des Berbères et des dynasties musulmanes de l'Afrique Septentrionale Par Ibn Khaldūn, William MacGuckin Slane |trans-title =History of the Berbers and the Muslim dynasties of northern Africa | language= French |pages=X |author =Khaldūn, Ibn|year=1852}}</ref> In the early 16th century, [[Spain]] constructed fortified outposts ([[presidio]]s) on or near the Algerian coast. [[Spain]] took control of few coastal towns like [[Mers el Kebir]] in 1505; [[Oran]] in 1509; and [[Tlemcen]], [[Mostaganem]] and [[Ténès]] in 1510. In the same year, a few merchants of Algiers ceded one of the rocky islets in their harbour to Spain, which built a fort on it. The presidios in North Africa turned out to be a costly and largely ineffective military endeavour that did not guarantee access for Spain's merchant fleet.<ref>{{cite web|title=European Offensive|url=http://countrystudies.us/algeria/14.htm|publisher=Country Studies}}</ref> {{Main|Banu Hilal}} [[File:Empire almohade.PNG|thumb|The [[Almohad Caliphate]] at its greatest extent, c.&nbsp;1212]] There reigned in [[Ifriqiya]], current Tunisia, a [[Berbers|Berber]] family, [[Zirid dynasty|Zirid]], somehow recognising the suzerainty of the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] caliph of [[Cairo]]. Probably in 1048, the Zirid ruler or viceroy, el-Mu'izz, decided to end this suzerainty. The [[Fatimid]] state was too weak to attempt a punitive expedition; The Viceroy, el-Mu'izz, also found another means of revenge. Between the [[Nile]] and the [[Red Sea]] were living [[Bedouin]] tribes expelled from [[Arabia]] for their disruption and turbulent influence, both [[Banu Hilal]] and [[Banu Sulaym]] among others, whose presence disrupted farmers in the [[Nile Valley]] since the nomads would often loot. The then [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] vizier devised to relinquish control of the [[Maghreb]] and obtained the agreement of his sovereign. This not only prompted the Bedouins to leave, but the [[Fatimid]] treasury even gave them a light expatriation cash allowance. Whole tribes set off with women, children, ancestors, animals and camping equipment. Some stopped on the way, especially in [[Cyrenaica]], where they are still one of the essential elements of the settlement but most arrived in [[Ifriqiya]] by the [[Gabès Governorate|Gabe]]s region. The [[Zirid]] ruler tried to stop this rising tide, but each meeting, the last under the walls of [[Kairouan]], his troops were defeated and Arabs remained masters of the field. The flood was still rising, and in 1057 the Arabs spread on the high plains of [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]] where they gradually choked [[Beni Hammad Fort|Qalaa of Banu Hammad]], as they had done Kairouan few decades ago. From there they gradually gained the upper [[Algiers]] and [[Oran]] plains. Some were forcibly taken by the [[Almohads]] in the second half of the 12th century. We can say that in the 13th century there were in all of [[North Africa]], with the exception of the main mountain ranges and certain coastal regions remained entirely Berber. ===Ottoman era=== {{main|Ottoman Algeria}} [[File:Magrèb sègle XV-es.svg|thumb|The Zayyanid kingdom of Tlemcen in the fifteenth century and its neighbors]] The region of Algeria was partially ruled by [[Ottomans]] for three centuries from 1516 to 1830. In 1516 the [[Turkish people|Turkish]] privateer brothers [[Aruj]] and [[Hayreddin Barbarossa]], who operated successfully under the [[Hafsids]], moved their base of operations to Algiers. They succeeded in conquering Jijel and Algiers from the [[Spaniards]] but eventually assumed control over the city and the surrounding region, forcing the previous ruler, Abu Hamo Musa III of the ''Bani Ziyad'' dynasty, to flee.<ref>[[Hayreddin Barbarossa#Rulers of Algiers]]</ref> When Aruj was killed in 1518 during his invasion of [[Kingdom of Tlemcen|Tlemcen]], Hayreddin succeeded him as military commander of Algiers. The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] sultan gave him the title of [[beylerbey]] and a contingent of some 2,000 [[janissaries]]. With the aid of this force, Hayreddin conquered the whole area between Constantine and Oran (although the city of Oran remained in Spanish hands until 1791).<ref name="csa16" /> [[File:Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha.jpg|thumb|left|Hayreddin Barbarossa]] The next beylerbey was Hayreddin's son [[Hasan Pasha (son of Barbarossa)|Hasan]], who assumed the position in 1544. Until 1587 the area was governed by officers who served terms with no fixed limits. Subsequently, with the institution of a regular Ottoman administration, governors with the title of pasha ruled for three-year terms. The pasha was assisted by janissaries, known in Algeria as the ojaq and led by an [[Agha (Ottoman Empire)|agha]]. Discontent among the ojaq rose in the mid-1600s because they were not paid regularly, and they repeatedly revolted against the pasha. As a result, the agha charged the pasha with corruption and incompetence and seized power in 1659.<ref name="csa16" /> [[Plague (disease)|Plague]] had repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa. Algiers lost from 30,000 to 50,000 inhabitants to the plague in 1620–21, and suffered high fatalities in 1654–57, 1665, 1691 and 1740–42.<ref name="Davis" /> In 1671, the [[taifa]] rebelled, killed the agha, and placed one of its own in power. The new leader received the title of [[dey]]. After 1689, the right to select the dey passed to the [[divan]], a council of some sixty nobles. It was at first dominated by the ''[[ojaq]]''; but by the 18th century, it had become the dey's instrument. In 1710, the dey persuaded the sultan to recognise him and his successors as regent, replacing the [[pasha]] in that role, although Algiers remained a part of the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="csa16" /> The dey was in effect a constitutional autocrat. The dey was elected for a life term, but in the 159 years (1671–1830) that the system survived, fourteen of the twenty-nine deys were assassinated. Despite usurpation, military coups and occasional mob rule, the day-to-day operation of Ottoman government was remarkably orderly. Although the regency patronised the tribal chieftains, it never had the unanimous allegiance of the countryside, where heavy taxation frequently provoked unrest. Autonomous tribal states were tolerated, and the regency's authority was seldom applied in the [[Kabylie]].<ref name="csa16">{{cite web|title=Algeria&nbsp;– Ottoman Rule|url=http://countrystudies.us/algeria/16.htm|publisher=Country Studies}}</ref> [[File:Debarquement et maltraitement de prisonniers a alger.JPG|thumb|[[Slavery in the Ottoman Empire|Christian slaves]] in Algiers, 1706]] The [[Barbary pirates]] preyed on Christian and other non-Islamic shipping in the western Mediterranean Sea.<ref name="Davis">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800 |author =Robert Davis |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year= 2003|isbn=978-0-333-71966-4}}</ref> The pirates often took the passengers and crew on the ships and sold them or used them as [[slavery|slaves]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Topics/history/American_and_Military/Barbary_Pirates/Britannica_1911*.html |title=Barbary Pirates—Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911 |publisher=Penelope.uchicago.edu |accessdate=23 April 2010}}</ref> They also did a brisk business in ransoming some of the captives. According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th century, pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves.<ref name="barbary">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml |title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=17 February 2011 |author =Robert Davis}}</ref> They often made raids, called [[Ghazi (warrior)|Razzias]], on European coastal towns to capture Christian slaves to sell at [[Arab slave trade|slave markets]] in North Africa and the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_02.shtml |title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | author=[[Christopher Hitchens|Hitchens, Christopher]] | date = Spring 2007 | url=http://www.city-journal.org/html/17_2_urbanities-thomas_jefferson.html |title=Jefferson Versus the Muslim Pirates | work=[[City Journal (New York)|City Journal]] | accessdate =15 September 2011}}</ref> In 1544, Hayreddin captured the island of [[Ischia]], taking 4,000 prisoners, and enslaved some 9,000 inhabitants of [[Lipari]], almost the entire population.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/26/style/26iht-trsic_ed3_.html |title=The Mysteries and Majesties of the Aeolian Islands |work=International Herald Tribune | first=Elisabetta |last=Povoledo |date=26 September 2003}}</ref> In 1551, [[Turgut Reis]] enslaved the entire population of the [[Malta|Maltese]] island of [[Gozo]], between 5,000 and 6,000, sending the captives to Libya. In 1554, pirates sacked [[Vieste]] in southern Italy and took an estimated 7,000 captives as slaves.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.centrovacanzeoriente.it/cvoriente/en/dintorni.jsp|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722025813/http://www.centrovacanzeoriente.it/cvoriente/en/dintorni.jsp |archivedate=22 July 2011 |title=Monte Sant'Angelo |publisher=centrovacanzeoriente.it |date=22 July 2011 |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> In 1558, Barbary corsairs captured the town of [[Ciutadella]] (Minorca), destroyed it, slaughtered the inhabitants and took 3,000 survivors as slaves to [[Istanbul]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.holidays2menorca.com/history.php |title=History of Menorca |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207215521/http://www.holidays2menorca.com/history.php |archivedate=7 February 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Barbary pirates often attacked the [[Balearic Islands]], and in response, the residents built many coastal watchtowers and fortified churches. The threat was so severe that residents abandoned the island of [[Formentera]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm |archivedate=25 July 2011 |title=When Europeans were slaves: Research suggests white slavery was much more common than previously believed|work=Ohio State Research COmmunications}}</ref> Between 1609 and 1616, England lost 466 merchant ships to Barbary pirates.<ref name="barbary"/> [[File:De Engels-Nederlandse vloot in de Baai van Algiers ter ondersteuning van het ultimatum tot vrijlating van blanke slaven, 26 augustus 1816. Rijksmuseum SK-A-1377.jpeg|thumb|[[Bombardment of Algiers (1816)|Bombardment of Algiers]] by the Anglo-Dutch fleet, to support the ultimatum to release European slaves, August 1816]] In July 1627 two pirate ships from Algiers sailed as far as [[Iceland]],<ref>[http://www.visindavefur.is/svar.php?id=5770 "Vísindavefurinn: Hverjir stóðu raunverulega að Tyrkjaráninu?"]. ''Vísindavefurinn''.</ref> [[Turkish Abductions|raiding and capturing slaves]].<ref>[http://www.visindavefur.is/svar.php?id=5743 "Vísindavefurinn: Hvað gerðist í Tyrkjaráninu?"]. ''Vísindavefurinn''.</ref><ref>[http://www.heimaslod.is/index.php/Turkish_invasion_walk "Turkish invasion walk"]. ''heimaslod.is''.</ref><ref>Etravel Travel service. [http://www.visitwestmanislands.com/sidur/turkish-invasion "Turkish Invasion – Visit Westman Islands .com"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206083010/http://www.visitwestmanislands.com/sidur/turkish-invasion |date=6 February 2015 }}. ''visitwestmanislands.com''.</ref> Two weeks earlier another pirate ship from [[Sale, Morocco|Salé]] in [[Saadi dynasty|Morocco]] had also raided in Iceland. Some of the slaves brought to Algiers were later ransomed back to Iceland, but some chose to stay in Algeria. In 1629 pirate ships from Algeria raided the [[Faroe Islands]].<ref>[http://www.visindavefur.is/svar.php?id=66655 "Vísindavefurinn: Voru Tyrkjarán framin í öðrum löndum?"]. ''Vísindavefurinn''.</ref> Barbary raids in the Mediterranean continued to attack Spanish merchant shipping, and as a result, the Spanish navy bombarded Algiers in 1783 and 1784.<ref name=Mikaberidze>{{cite book|last1=Mikaberidze|first1=Alexander|title=Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1|date=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|page=847}}</ref> In 1792, [[Spain]] abandoned Oran, selling it to the Ottoman Empire, and it became the site for a new bey in Algiers, though French influence in the region increased over the 19th century.<ref name=Mikaberidze/> In the 19th century, the pirates forged affiliations with Caribbean powers, paying a "licence tax" in exchange for safe harbour of their vessels.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mackie|first=Erin Skye|title=Welcome the Outlaw: Pirates, Maroons, and Caribbean Countercultures|journal=Cultural Critique|date=1 January 2005|volume=59|issue=1|pages=24–62|doi=10.1353/cul.2005.0008}}</ref> One American slave reported that the Algerians had enslaved 130 American seamen in the Mediterranean and Atlantic from 1785 to 1793.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Topics/history/American_and_Military/Barbary_Pirates/Britannica_1911*.html |title=Barbary Pirates&nbsp;– Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Piracy on American vessels in the Mediterranean resulted in the United States initiating the [[First Barbary War|First]] (1801–1805) and [[Second Barbary War]]s (1815). Following those wars, Algeria was weaker and Europeans, with an Anglo-Dutch fleet commanded by the British [[Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth|Lord Exmouth]], [[Bombardment of Algiers (1816)|attacked Algiers]]. After a nine-hour bombardment, they obtained a treaty from the Dey that reaffirmed the conditions imposed by Captain (later Commodore) [[Stephen Decatur]] (U.S. Navy) concerning the demands of tributes. In addition, the Dey agreed to end the practice of enslaving [[Christian]]s.<ref>{{cite book|author =Littell, Eliakim |title=The Museum of foreign literature, science and art |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=48L1w21XYI4C&pg=PA231 |year=1836 |publisher=E. Littell |page=231}}</ref> Despite being removed from Algeria in the 19th century, Spain retained a presence in [[Morocco]]. Algeria consistently opposed Spanish fortresses and control in nearby Morocco through the 20th century.<ref name=Mikaberidze/> ===French colonization (1830–1962)=== {{main|French Algeria|Algerian War}} [[File:Vernet-Combat de Somah.jpg|thumb|Battle of Somah in 1836]] Under the pretext of a slight to their consul, the French invaded and [[Invasion of Algiers in 1830|captured Algiers]] in 1830.<ref>{{cite web|title=Background Note: Algeria|url=https://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/8005.htm|work=U.S. Department of State}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author =Horne, Alistair |title=A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962 |publisher=NYRB Classics |location=1755 Broadway, New York, NY 10019 |year=2006 |pages=29–30 |isbn=978-1-59017-218-6}}</ref> Algerian slave trade and piracy ceased when the French conquered Algiers.<ref>Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Barbary_Pirates Barbary Pirates]". [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.</ref> The [[French conquest of Algeria|conquest of Algeria]] by the French took some time and resulted in considerable bloodshed. A combination of violence and disease epidemics caused the [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] Algerian population to decline by nearly one-third from 1830 to 1872.<ref name="Ricoux1880">{{cite book|last=Ricoux|first=René|title=La démographie figurée de l'Algérie: étude statistique des... |url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k103772b/f299.image|accessdate=14 February 2013|year=1880|publisher=G. Masson|pages=260–261|trans-title=The figurative demographics of Algeria}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=February 2013}} Historian [[Ben Kiernan]] wrote on the French conquest of Algeria: "By 1875, the French conquest was complete. The war had killed approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians since 1830."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kiernan|first1=Ben|title=Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur|page=374|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XR91bs70jukC|isbn=0-300-10098-1|year=2007}}</ref> French losses from 1831–51 were 3,336 killed in action and 92,329 dead in the hospital.<ref>"Had planning been better (barracks, hospitals, medical services), the drain on men would have been miniscule: it has been calculated that between 1831 and 1851, 92,329 died in hospital, and only 3,336 in battle." The Military and Colonial Destruction of the Roman Landscape of North Africa ... - Michael Greenhalgh, p366 [https://books.google.com/books?id=5pCfAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA366]</ref> The population of Algeria, which stood at about 1.5 million in 1830, reached nearly 11 million in 1960.<ref>{{cite web|title=Algeria (Djazaïria) historical demographic data of the whole country|url=http://www.populstat.info/Africa/algeriac.htm|work=Population Statistics|publisher=populstat.info|accessdate=9 June 2012|author =Lahmeyer, Jan |date=11 October 2003}}</ref> French policy was predicated on "civilising" the country.<ref>{{cite book|author =Ruedy, John Douglas |title=Modern Algeria: The Origins And Development of a Nation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WIRWgrbE_fEC&pg=PA103 |year=2005 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-21782-0 |page=103}}</ref> During this period, a small but influential French-speaking indigenous elite was formed, made up of Berbers, mostly [[Kabyle People|Kabyles]]. As a consequence, French government favored the Kabyles.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Hargreaves, Alec G. |author2=McKinney, Mark |title=Post-Colonial Cultures in France |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0xk6235fcNcC&pg=PA104 |year=1997 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-14487-2 |page=104}}</ref> About 80% of Indigenous schools were constructed for Kabyles. [[File:Abd al-Qadir.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|left|[[Abdelkader El Djezairi|Emir Abdelkader]], Algerian leader insurgent against French colonial rule, 1865]] From 1848 until independence, France administered the whole Mediterranean region of Algeria as an integral part and ''département'' of the nation. One of France's longest-held overseas territories, Algeria became a destination for hundreds of thousands of [[European ethnic groups|European]] [[immigrants]], who became known as ''colons'' and later, as ''[[Pied-Noir]]s.'' Between 1825 and 1847, 50,000 French people emigrated to Algeria.<ref>{{cite book|last=Randell|first=Keith|title=France: Monarchy, Republic and Empire, 1814–70|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AvyGHAAACAAJ|year=1986|publisher=Hodder & Stoughton|isbn=978-0-340-51805-2}}</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2013}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fisher|first1=Michael H.|title=Migration: A World History|date=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=0199764344|page=80}}</ref> These settlers benefited from the French government's confiscation of communal land from tribal peoples, and the application of modern agricultural techniques that increased the amount of arable land.<ref>{{cite book |author =Horne, Alistair |title=A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962 (New York Review Books Classics) |publisher=NYRB Classics |location=1755 Broadway, New York, NY 10019 |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-59017-218-6 |page=32}}</ref> Many Europeans settled in [[Oran]] and [[Algiers]], and by the early 20th century they formed a majority of the population in both cities.<ref>Albert Habib Hourani, Malise Ruthven (2002). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=egbOb0mewz4C&pg=PA323 A history of the Arab peoples]''". Harvard University Press. p.323. {{ISBN|0-674-01017-5}}</ref> [[File:Six chefs FLN - 1954.jpg|thumb|The six historical Leaders of the FLN: [[Rabah Bitat]], [[Mustapha Benboulaïd|Mostefa Ben Boulaïd]], [[Didouche Mourad]], [[Mohammed Boudiaf]], [[Krim Belkacem]] and [[Larbi Ben M'Hidi]].]] During the late 19th and early 20th century; the European share was almost a fifth of the population. The French government aimed at making Algeria an assimilated part of France, and this included substantial educational investments especially after 1900. The indigenous cultural and religious resistance heavily opposed this tendency, but in contrast to the other colonised countries' path in central Asia and Caucasus, Algeria kept its individual skills and a relatively human-capital intensive agriculture.<ref>{{cite book|author=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present.|date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=220|isbn=9781107507180}}</ref> Gradually, dissatisfaction among the Muslim population, which lacked political and economic status in the colonial system, gave rise to demands for greater political autonomy and eventually independence from France. In May 1945, the uprising against the occupying French forces was suppressed through what is now known as the [[Sétif and Guelma massacre]]. Tensions between the two population groups came to a head in 1954, when the first violent events of what was later called the [[Algerian War]] began. Historians have estimated that between 30,000 and 150,000 [[Harki]]s and their dependents were killed by the [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|Front de Libération Nationale]] (FLN) or by [[lynching|lynch]] mobs in Algeria.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7130307.stm |publisher=BBC News | title=French 'Reparation' for Algerians | date=6 December 2007}}</ref> The FLN used hit and run attacks in Algeria and France as part of its war, and the French conducted [[Torture during the Algerian War of Independence|severe reprisals]]. The war led to the death of hundreds of thousands of Algerians and hundreds of thousands of injuries. Historians, like [[Alistair Horne]] and [[Raymond Aron]], state that the actual number of Algerian Muslim war dead was far greater than the original FLN and official French estimates but was less than the 1&nbsp;million deaths claimed by the Algerian government after independence. Horne estimated Algerian casualties during the span of eight years to be around 700,000.<ref>{{cite book|first=Alistair|last=Horne|page=538|title=A Savage War of Peace|isbn=0-670-61964-7}}</ref> The war uprooted more than 2&nbsp;million Algerians.<ref>{{cite book|first=Martin|last=Windrow|page=13|title=The Algerian War 1954–62|isbn=1 85532 658 2}}</ref> The war against French rule concluded in 1962, when Algeria gained complete independence following the March 1962 [[Evian agreements]] and the July 1962 [[Algerian self-determination referendum, 1962|self-determination referendum]]. ===The first three decades of independence (1962–1991)=== {{main|History of Algeria (1962–99)}} The number of European ''Pied-Noirs'' who fled Algeria totaled more than 900,000 between 1962 and 1964.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Ussama Samir Makdisi|author2=Paul A. Silverstein|title=Memory and Violence in the Middle East and North Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2VlR9Uh22EgC&pg=PA160|year=2006|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=0-253-34655-X|page=160}}</ref> The exodus to mainland France accelerated after the [[Oran massacre of 1962]], in which hundreds of militants entered European sections of the city, and began attacking civilians. [[File:Houari Boumediene's Portrait.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|[[Houari Boumediene]]]] Algeria's first president was the Front de Libération Nationale ([[FLN (Algeria)|FLN]]) leader [[Ahmed Ben Bella]]. Morocco's claim to [[Greater Morocco|portions of western Algeria]] led to the [[Sand War]] in 1963. Ben Bella was overthrown in 1965 by [[Houari Boumédiène]], his former ally and defence minister. Under Ben Bella, the government had become increasingly socialist and [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]]; Boumédienne continued this trend. But, he relied much more on the army for his support, and reduced the sole legal party to a symbolic role. He [[collective farming|collectivised]] agriculture and launched a massive industrialization drive. [[Extraction of petroleum|Oil extraction]] facilities were nationalised. This was especially beneficial to the leadership after the international [[1973 oil crisis]]. In the 1960s and 1970s under President Houari Boumediene, Algeria pursued a program of industrialization within a state-controlled socialist economy. Boumediene's successor, [[Chadli Bendjedid]], introduced some liberal economic reforms. He promoted a policy of [[Arabisation]] in Algerian society and public life. Teachers of Arabic, brought in from other Muslim countries, spread conventional Islamic thought in schools and sowed the seeds of a return to Orthodox Islam.<ref name="faco" /> The Algerian economy became increasingly dependent on oil, leading to hardship when the price collapsed during the [[1980s oil glut]].<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|last=Prochaska|first=David|title=That Was Then, This Is Now: The Battle of Algiers and After.|url=http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/rhr/summary/v085/85.1prochaska.html|page=141|accessdate=10 March 2012}}</ref> Economic recession caused by the crash in world oil prices resulted in Algerian social unrest during the 1980s; by the end of the decade, Bendjedid introduced a multi-party system. Political parties developed, such as the [[Islamic Salvation Front]] (FIS), a broad coalition of Muslim groups.<ref name="faco" /> ===Civil War (1991–2002) and aftermath=== {{main|Algerian Civil War}} [[File:Algerian massacres 1997-1998.png|thumb|[[List of massacres during the Algerian Civil War|Massacres]] of over 50 people in 1997–1998. The [[Armed Islamic Group|Armed Islamic Group (GIA)]] claimed responsibility for many of them.]] In December 1991 the [[Islamic Salvation Front]] dominated the first of two rounds of [[Algerian legislative election, 1991|legislative elections]]. Fearing the election of an Islamist government, the authorities intervened on 11 January 1992, cancelling the elections. Bendjedid resigned and a [[High Council of State (Algeria)|High Council of State]] was installed to act as Presidency. It banned the FIS, triggering a civil [[insurgency]] between the Front's armed wing, the [[Armed Islamic Group of Algeria|Armed Islamic Group]], and the national armed forces, in which more than 100,000 people are thought to have died. The Islamist militants conducted a violent campaign of [[List of massacres during the Algerian Civil War|civilian massacres]].<ref>"[https://www.nytimes.com/1997/08/30/world/98-die-in-one-of-algerian-civil-war-s-worst-massacres.html 98 Die in One of Algerian Civil War's Worst Massacres ]". ''The New York Times''. 30 August 1997.</ref> At several points in the conflict, the situation in Algeria became a point of international concern, most notably during the crisis surrounding [[Air France Flight 8969]], a hijacking perpetrated by the Armed Islamic Group. The Armed Islamic Group declared a ceasefire in October 1997.<ref name="faco" /> Algeria held [[Algerian presidential election, 1999|elections in 1999]], considered biased by international observers and most opposition groups<ref>{{cite web| url = http://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2013/algeria#.Ut_5Aig4m2w |title = Freedom in the World 2013: Algeria|publisher = Freedom House| author = "Freedom House"}}</ref> which were won by President [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]]. He worked to restore political stability to the country and announced a "Civil Concord" initiative, approved in a [[Algerian Civil Concord referendum, 1999|referendum]], under which many political prisoners were pardoned, and several thousand members of armed groups were granted exemption from prosecution under a limited amnesty, in force until 13 January 2000. The AIS disbanded and levels of insurgent violence fell rapidly. The [[Groupe Salafiste pour la Prédication et le Combat]] (GSPC), a splinter group of the Group Islamic Army, continued a terrorist campaign against the Government.<ref name="faco" /> Bouteflika was re-elected in the [[Algerian presidential election, 2004|April 2004 presidential election]] after campaigning on a programme of national reconciliation. The programme comprised economic, institutional, political and social reform to modernise the country, raise living standards, and tackle the causes of alienation. It also included a second amnesty initiative, the [[Charter for Peace and National Reconciliation]], which was approved in a [[Algerian national reconciliation referendum, 2005|referendum in September 2005]]. It offered amnesty to most guerrillas and Government security forces.<ref name="faco" /> In November 2008, the [[Algerian Constitution]] was amended following a vote in Parliament, removing the two-term limit on Presidential incumbents. This change enabled Bouteflika to stand for re-election in the [[Algerian presidential election, 2009|2009 presidential elections]], and he was re-elected in April 2009. During his election campaign and following his re-election, Bouteflika promised to extend the programme of national reconciliation and a $150-billion spending programme to create three million new jobs, the construction of one million new housing units, and to continue public sector and infrastructure modernisation programmes.<ref name="faco" /> A continuing series of protests throughout the country started on 28 December 2010, inspired by similar [[Arab Spring|protests across the Middle East and North Africa]]. On 24 February 2011, the government lifted Algeria's 19-year-old [[state of emergency]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://articles.cnn.com/2011-02-24/world/algeria.emergency_1_islamist-party-algerian-press-service-emergency-declaration?_s=PM:WORLD |title=Algeria Officially Lifts State of Emergency |publisher=CNN |date=24 February 2011 |accessdate=27 February 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110301134330/http://articles.cnn.com/2011-02-24/world/algeria.emergency_1_islamist-party-algerian-press-service-emergency-declaration?_s=PM%3AWORLD |archivedate=1 March 2011 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The government enacted legislation dealing with political parties, the electoral code, and the representation of women in elected bodies.<ref name="aaeo" /> In April 2011, Bouteflika promised further constitutional and political reform.<ref name="faco">{{cite web|title=Country Profile: Algeria |url=http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/country-profile/middle-east-north-africa/algeria/?profile=all |publisher=Foreign and Commonwealth Office |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101213054455/http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/country-profile/middle-east-north-africa/algeria/?profile=all |archivedate=13 December 2010 }}</ref> However, elections are routinely criticized by opposition groups as unfair and international human rights groups say that media censorship and harassment of political opponents continue. ==Geography== {{Main|Geography of Algeria}} <gallery> File:Kabylie-neige.jpg|The [[Djurdjura]] Range in snow File:Tadrart Rouge.jpg|The [[Tadrart Rouge]] near [[Djanet]]. File:Ouarsenis 2012, Wilaya de Tissemsilt (Algérie).jpg|[[Ouarsenis]], range of mountains in North-Western (1985m) File:Les Aiguades.jpg|Maritime front of [[Bejaïa]] |The [[Tassili n'Ajjer]]. File:Lagh-Algeria-SM.jpg|Bakhdache valley [[laghouat]]. </gallery> Algeria is the largest country in Africa, and the [[Mediterranean Basin]]. Its southern part includes a significant portion of the [[Sahara]]. To the north, the [[Tell Atlas]] form with the [[Saharan Atlas]], further south, two parallel sets of reliefs in approaching eastbound, and between which are inserted vast plains and highlands. Both Atlas tend to merge in eastern Algeria. The vast mountain ranges of [[Aures]] and [[Tébessa|Nememcha]] occupy the entire northeastern Algeria and are delineated by the Tunisian border. The highest point is [[Mount Tahat]] ({{formatnum: 3003}} m). [[File:Algeria relief.png|thumb|The [[Sahara]], the [[Ahaggar Mountains|Ahaggar]] and the [[Atlas Mountains|Atlas mountains]] compose the Algerian relief.]] Algeria lies mostly between latitudes [[19th parallel north|19°]] and [[37th parallel north|37°N]] (a small area is north of 37°N and south of 19°N), and longitudes [[9th meridian west|9°W]] and [[12th meridian east|12°E]]. Most of the coastal area is hilly, sometimes even mountainous, and there are a few natural [[harbour]]s. The area from the coast to the Tell Atlas is fertile. South of the Tell Atlas is a [[steppe]] landscape ending with the [[Saharan Atlas]]; farther south, there is the Sahara desert.<ref name=LOC>{{cite web|last=Metz |first=Helen Chapin |title=Algeria : a country study |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/dztoc.html |publisher=United States Library of Congress |accessdate=18 May 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115052428/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/dztoc.html |archivedate=15 January 2013 }}</ref> The [[Ahaggar Mountains]] ({{lang-ar|جبال هقار}}), also known as the Hoggar, are a highland region in central Sahara, southern Algeria. They are located about {{convert|1500|km|0|abbr=on}} south of the capital, Algiers, and just east of [[Tamanghasset]]. Algiers, [[Oran]], [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]], and [[Annaba]] are Algeria's main cities.<ref name=LOC /> ===Climate and hydrology=== {{Main|Climate of Algeria}} [[File:Algeria map of Köppen climate classification.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Algeria map of Köppen climate classification.]] [[File:Vue de Taghit.jpg|thumb|Saharan [[oasis]] town of [[Taghit]]]] [[File:Agoulmime.jpg|thumb|left|Lake Agoulmime, [[Tikjda]].]] In this region, midday desert temperatures can be hot year round. After sunset, however, the clear, dry air permits rapid loss of heat, and the nights are cool to chilly. Enormous daily ranges in temperature are recorded. Rainfall is fairly plentiful along the coastal part of the Tell Atlas, ranging from {{convert|400|to|670|mm|1|abbr=on}} annually, the amount of precipitation increasing from west to east. [[Precipitation (meteorology)|Precipitation]] is heaviest in the northern part of eastern Algeria, where it reaches as much as {{convert|1000|mm|1|abbr=on}} in some years. Farther inland, the rainfall is less plentiful. Algeria also has [[erg (landform)|ergs]], or sand dunes, between mountains. Among these, in the summer time when winds are heavy and gusty, temperatures can get up to {{convert|110|°F|°C|1|abbr=on|order=flip}}. ===Fauna and flora=== {{Main|Wildlife of Algeria}} [[File:Cèdre du Chélia 13 (Algeria).jpg|thumb|left|[[Cedrus]] of Chélia in the [[Aures]]]] The varied vegetation of Algeria includes [[coastal]], [[mountainous]] and grassy [[desert]]-like regions which all support a wide range of wildlife. Many of the creatures comprising the Algerian wildlife live in close proximity to civilization. The most commonly seen animals include the wild [[boar]]s, [[jackal]]s, and [[gazelle]]s, although it is not uncommon to spot [[fennecs]] (foxes), and [[jerboas]]. Algeria also has a small [[African leopard]] and [[Saharan cheetah]] population, but these are seldom seen. A species of deer, the [[Barbary stag]], inhabits the dense humid forests in the north-eastern areas. A variety of bird species makes the country an attraction for bird watchers. The forests are inhabited by boars and jackals. [[Barbary macaque]]s are the sole native monkey. Snakes, [[monitor lizard]]s, and numerous other reptiles can be found living among an array of [[rodent]]s throughout the [[semi arid]] regions of Algeria. Many animals are now extinct, including the [[Barbary lion]]s, [[Atlas bear]]s and [[West African crocodile|crocodile]]s.<ref>"[http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0014734 Crocodiles in the Sahara Desert: An Update of Distribution, Habitats and Population Status for Conservation Planning in Mauritania]". ''[[PLOS ONE]]''. 25 February 2011.</ref> In the north, some of the native flora includes [[Macchia]] scrub, [[Olive|olive trees]], [[oak]]s, [[cedrus|cedars]] and other [[Pinophyta|conifers]]. The mountain regions contain large forests of evergreens ([[Aleppo pine]], [[juniper]], and [[evergreen oak]]) and some deciduous trees. [[Ficus|Fig]], [[eucalyptus]], [[agave]], and various [[Arecaceae|palm trees]] grow in the warmer areas. The [[grape vine]] is indigenous to the coast. In the Sahara region, some oases have palm trees. [[Acacia]]s with wild [[olive]]s are the predominant flora in the remainder of the [[Sahara]]. [[Camel]]s are used extensively; the desert also abounds with venomous and nonvenomous snakes, [[scorpion]]s, and numerous insects. ==Politics== {{Main|Politics of Algeria}} [[File:Hémicycle de l'assemblée populaire nationale (Algérie).jpg|thumb|The [[People's National Assembly]]]] [[File:President-abdelaziz-bouteflika.JPG|thumb|left|upright=.67|[[Algerian President]] Abdelaziz Bouteflika]] Elected politicians are considered to have relatively little sway over Algeria. Instead, a group of unelected civilian and military "décideurs", known as "le pouvoir" ("the power"), actually rule the country, even deciding who should be president. The most powerful man may be [[Mohamed Mediène]], head of the military intelligence.<ref>{{cite news|title=Still waiting for real democracy|url=http://www.economist.com/node/21554565|publisher=The Economist|date=12 May 2012}}</ref> In recent years, many of these generals have died or retired. After the death of General [[Larbi Belkheir]], Bouteflika put loyalists in key posts, notably at [[Sonatrach]], and secured constitutional amendments that make him re-electable indefinitely.<ref>{{cite news|title=The president and the police|url=http://www.economist.com/node/15612455|publisher=The Economist|date=4 May 2010}}</ref> The head of state is the president of Algeria, who is elected for a five-year term. The president was formerly limited to two five-year terms, but a constitutional amendment passed by the Parliament on 11 November 2008 removed this limitation.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7724635.stm |title= Algeria Deputies Scrap Term Limit |publisher=BBC News |date=12 November 2008 |accessdate=24 November 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081114015503/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7724635.stm| archivedate= 14 November 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Algeria has universal [[suffrage]] at 18 years of age.<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> The President is the head of the [[Algerian Army|army]], the [[Council of Ministers of Algeria|Council of Ministers]] and the [[High Security Council]]. He appoints the [[Prime Minister of Algeria|Prime Minister]] who is also the head of government.<ref name="president">Articles: 85, 87, 77, 78 and 79 of the Algerian constitution {{cite web|last=Algerian government|title=Constitution|url=http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.dz/Constitution08_6.htm|accessdate=25 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120422193224/http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.dz/Constitution08_6.htm|archive-date=22 April 2012|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The Algerian parliament is [[bicameral]]; the lower house, the [[People's National Assembly]], has 462 members who are directly elected for five-year terms, while the upper house, the [[Council of the Nation]], has 144 members serving six-year terms, of which 96 members are chosen by local assemblies and 48 are appointed by the president.<ref name=fitw13 /> According to the [[Constitution of Algeria|constitution]], no political association may be formed if it is "based on differences in religion, language, race, gender, profession, or region". In addition, political campaigns must be exempt from the aforementioned subjects.<ref>Article 42 of the Algerian constitution – {{cite web|last=Algerian Government|title=Algerian constitution الحـقــوق والحــرّيـات|url=http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.dz/Constitution08_4-1.htm|accessdate=25 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120914044119/http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.dz/Constitution08_4-1.htm|archive-date=14 September 2012|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Parliamentary elections were last held in [[Algerian legislative election, 2012|May 2012]], and were judged to be largely free by international monitors, though local groups alleged fraud and irregularities.<ref name=fitw13>{{cite web|title=Algeria|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2013/algeria|work=Freedom in the World 2013|publisher=Freedom House|accessdate=8 March 2013}}</ref> In the elections, the [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|FLN]] won 221 seats, the military-backed [[National Rally for Democracy (Algeria)|National Rally for Democracy]] won 70, and the Islamist [[Green Algeria Alliance]] won 47.<ref name=fitw13/> ===Foreign relations=== {{Main|Foreign relations of Algeria}} [[File:Abdelaziz Bouteflika and George W Bush 20080707.jpg|thumb|President [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]] and [[George W. Bush]] exchange handshakes at the Windsor Hotel Toya Resort and Spa in Tōyako Town, Abuta District, Hokkaidō in 2008. With them are [[Dmitriy Medvedev]], left, and [[Yasuo Fukuda]], right.]] Algeria is included in the European Union's [[European Neighbourhood Policy]] (ENP) which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer. Giving incentives and rewarding best performers, as well as offering funds in a faster and more flexible manner, are the two main principles underlying the European Neighbourhood Instrument (ENI) that came into force in 2014. It has a budget of €15.4 billion and provides the bulk of funding through a number of programmes. In 2009, the French government agreed to compensate victims of nuclear tests in Algeria. Defense Minister Herve Morin stated that "It's time for our country to be at peace with itself, at peace thanks to a system of compensation and reparations," when presenting the draft law on the payouts. Algerian officials and activists believe that this is a good first step and hope that this move would encourage broader reparation.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/france-offers-compensation-to-victims-sickened-by-nuclear-tests-1.797730|title=France offers compensation to victims sickened by nuclear tests|publisher=}}</ref> Tensions between Algeria and Morocco in relation to the [[Western Sahara]] have been an obstacle to tightening the [[Arab Maghreb Union]], nominally established in 1989, but which has carried little practical weight.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arabicnews.com/ansub/Daily/Day/990219/1999021906.html |publisher=ArabicNews.com |title=Bin Ali calls for reactivating Arab Maghreb Union, Tunisia-Maghreb, Politics |date=19 February 1999 |accessdate=4 April 2006 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20011125202857/http%3A//www%2Earabicnews%2Ecom/ansub/daily/day/990219/1999021906%2Ehtml |archivedate= 25 November 2001 }}</ref> ===Military=== {{Main|Military of Algeria}} The military of Algeria consists of the [[People's National Army]] (ANP), the [[Algerian National Navy]] (MRA), and the [[Algerian Air Force]] (QJJ), plus the [[Territorial Air Defence Forces]].<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> It is the direct successor of the [[National Liberation Army (Algeria)|National Liberation Army]] (Armée de Libération Nationale or ALN), the armed wing of the nationalist National Liberation Front which fought French colonial [[military occupation|occupation]] during the Algerian War of Independence (1954–62). Total military personnel include 147,000 active, 150,000 reserve, and 187,000 paramilitary staff (2008 estimate).<ref name=IISS_TMB>{{cite book |title=The Military Balance 2008 |author =Hackett, James (ed.)|others= [[International Institute for Strategic Studies]] |date=5 February 2008|publisher=Europa |isbn=978-1-85743-461-3| url=http://www.zawya.com/printstory.cfm?storyid=v51n20-1TS05&l=134200080519|accessdate=16 July 2008}}</ref> Service in the military is compulsory for men aged 19–30, for a total of 12 months.<ref>"Loi 14-06 relative au service national", JORADP 48, August, 10th 2014</ref> The military expenditure was 4.3% of the [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) in 2012.<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> Algeria has the [[List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel|second largest military]] in North Africa with the largest defence budget in Africa ($10 billion).<ref name="AlgeriaSpending"/> In 2007, the Algerian Air Force signed a deal with Russia to purchase 49 [[MiG-29]]SMT and 6 MiG-29UBT at an estimated cost of $1.9&nbsp;billion. Russia is also building two [[Kilo class submarine|636-type]] diesel [[submarines]] for Algeria.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.warandpeace.ru/en/news/view/12214/| title=Venezuela's Chavez To Finalise Russian Submarines Deal|agency=[[Agence France-Presse]]|date=14 June 2007| accessdate=31 August 2011}}</ref> ===Human rights=== {{Main|Human rights in Algeria}} Algeria has been categorized by [[Freedom House]] as "not free" since it began publishing such ratings in 1972, with the exception of 1989, 1990, and 1991, when the country was labeled "partly free."<ref>{{cite web|title=Freedom in the World|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/report-types/freedom-world|work=Freedom House|accessdate=19 January 2013}}</ref> In December 2016, the ''Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor'' issued a report regarding violation of [[media freedom]] in Algeria. It clarified that the Algerian government imposed restriction on [[freedom of the press]]; expression; and right to peaceful demonstration, protest and assembly as well as intensified censorship of the [[Broadcast media|media]] and websites. Due to the fact that the journalists and activists criticize the ruling government, some media organizations' licenses are canceled.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://euromedmonitor.org/en/article/1629/Algeria-must-stop-crushing-dissent-by-imprisoning-journalists-and-activists|title=Algeria must stop crushing dissent by imprisoning journalists and activists|last=Monitor|first=Euro-Med|newspaper=Euro-Mediterranean|language=en|date=December 2016}}</ref> Independent and autonomous trade unions face routine harassment from the government, with many leaders imprisoned and protests suppressed. In 2016 a number of unions, many of which were involved in the 2010–2012 Algerian Protests, have been deregistered by the government.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.maghrebemergent.info/actualite/maghrebine/82657-algerie-dissolution-du-snateg-le-secretaire-general-conteste.html|title=Algérie : Dissolution du Snateg, le secrétaire général conteste – Maghreb Emergent|last=Izouaouen|first=Noreddine|website=www.maghrebemergent.info|language=fr-fr|access-date=2018-03-15}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.lematindalgerie.com/le-snategs-denonce-et-decide-de-porter-plainte|title=Le Snategs dénonce et décide de porter plainte {{!}} Le Matin d'Algérie|work=Le Matin d'Algérie|access-date=2018-03-15|language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hrw.org/fr/news/2014/05/27/algerie-les-droits-des-travailleurs-bafoues|title=Algérie : Les droits des travailleurs bafoués|date=2014-05-27|work=Human Rights Watch|access-date=2018-03-15|language=fr}}</ref> [[LGBT rights in Algeria|Homosexuality]] is illegal in Algeria.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/06/13/here-are-the-10-countries-where-homosexuality-may-be-punished-by-death-2/ |title= Here are the 10 countries where homosexuality may be punished by death | work = The Washington Post | date= 16 June 2016}}</ref> Public homosexual behavior is punishable by up to two years in prison.<ref>{{cite web|title=2010 Human Rights Report: Algeria|url=https://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2010/nea/154458.htm|work=US Department of State}}</ref> ==Administrative divisions== {{Main|Provinces of Algeria|Districts of Algeria|Municipalities of Algeria}} Algeria is divided into 48 [[provinces of Algeria|provinces]] (''[[wilaya]]s''), 553 [[districts of Algeria|districts]] (''[[daïra]]s'') and 1,541 [[Municipalities of Algeria|municipalities]] (''[[baladiyah]]s''). Each province, district, and municipality is named after its [[Capital city|seat]], which is usually the largest city. The administrative divisions have changed several times since independence. When introducing new provinces, the numbers of old provinces are kept, hence the non-alphabetical order. With their official numbers, currently (since 1983) they are<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> {{Algeria Wilayas}} ==Economy== {{Main|Economy of Algeria}} [[File:Algeria Export Treemap.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Graphical depiction of the country's exports in 28 colour-coded categories.]] Algeria is classified as an upper middle income country by the [[World Bank Group|World Bank]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/CLASS.XLS |title=World Bank list of economies |date= January 2011 |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=27 May 2011}}</ref> Algeria's currency is the [[Algerian dinar|dinar]] (DZD). The economy remains dominated by the state, a legacy of the country's socialist post-independence development model. In recent years, the Algerian government has halted the privatization of state-owned industries and imposed restrictions on imports and foreign involvement in its economy.<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> These restrictions are just started to be lifted off recently although questions about Algeria's slow diversifying economy remains. Algeria has struggled to develop industries outside hydrocarbons in part because of high costs and an inert state bureaucracy. The government's efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector have done little to reduce high youth unemployment rates or to address housing shortages.<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> The country is facing a number of short-term and medium-term problems, including the need to diversify the economy, strengthen political, economic and financial reforms, improve the business climate and reduce inequalities amongst regions.<ref name=aaeo/> A wave of economic protests in February and March 2011 prompted the Algerian government to offer more than $23 billion in public grants and retroactive salary and benefit increases. Public spending has increased by 27% annually during the past 5 years. The 2010–14 public-investment programme will cost US$286 billion, 40% of which will go to human development.<ref name=aaeo/> [[File:Theatre d'oran.jpg|thumb|left|The port city of Oran]] The Algerian economy grew by 2.6% in 2011, driven by public spending, in particular in the construction and public-works sector, and by growing internal demand. If hydrocarbons are excluded, growth has been estimated at 4.8%. Growth of 3% is expected in 2012, rising to 4.2% in 2013. The rate of inflation was 4% and the budget deficit 3% of GDP. The current-account surplus is estimated at 9.3% of GDP and at the end of December 2011, official reserves were put at US$182 billion.<ref name=aaeo/> Inflation, the lowest in the region, has remained stable at 4% on average between 2003 and 2007.<ref name="MFW4A">{{cite web|url=http://www.mfw4a.org/algeria/algeria-financial-sector-profile.html |title=Algeria: Financial Sector Profile |publisher=Making Finance Work for Africa |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> [[File:Algeria, Trends in the Human Development Index 1970-2010.png|thumb|upright=1.15|Algeria, trends in the [[Human Development Index]] 1970–2010]] In 2011 Algeria announced a budgetary surplus of $26.9 billion, 62% increase in comparison to 2010 surplus. In general, the country exported $73 billion worth of commodities while it imported $46 billion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.nuqudy.com/General_Overview/North_Africa/Algeria_Non-Oil_Exp-676 |title=Algeria Non-Oil Exports Surge 41% |publisher=nuqudy.com |date=25 January 2012 |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> Thanks to strong hydrocarbon revenues, Algeria has a cushion of $173 billion in [[foreign currency reserves]] and a large hydrocarbon stabilization fund. In addition, Algeria's [[List of countries by external debt|external debt]] is extremely low at about 2% of GDP.<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> The economy remains very dependent on hydrocarbon wealth, and, despite high foreign exchange reserves (US$178 billion, equivalent to three years of imports), current expenditure growth makes Algeria's budget more vulnerable to the risk of prolonged lower hydrocarbon revenues.<ref name=imfart4/> In 2011, the agricultural sector and services recorded growth of 10% and 5.3%, respectively.<ref name=aaeo/> About 14% of the labor force are employed in the [[Agriculture in Algeria|agricultural sector]].<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> Fiscal policy in 2011 remained expansionist and made it possible to maintain the pace of public investment and to contain the strong demand for jobs and housing.<ref name=aaeo/> Algeria has not joined the [[WTO]], despite several years of negotiations.<ref>{{cite web|title=Doing Business in Algeria|url=http://algiers.usembassy.gov/doing_business_algeria.html|publisher=Embassy of the United States Algiers, Algeria|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121228091321/http://algiers.usembassy.gov/doing_business_algeria.html|archivedate=28 December 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In March 2006, Russia agreed to erase $4.74&nbsp;billion of Algeria's [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]-era debt<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.brtsis.com/ |title=Brtsis, Brief on Russian Defence, Trade, Security and Energy |publisher=Brtsis.com |accessdate=24 November 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219035941/http://www.brtsis.com/ |archivedate=19 February 2008}}</ref> during a visit by [[President of Russia|Russian President]] [[Vladimir Putin]] to the country, the first by a Russian leader in half a century. In return, [[President of Algeria|Algerian President]] [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]] agreed to buy $7.5&nbsp;billion worth of combat planes, air-defence systems and other arms from Russia, according to the head of Russia's state arms exporter [[Rosoboronexport]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Russia Agrees Algeria Arms Deal, Writes Off Debt |agency=Reuters |date=11 March 2006 |url=http://www.sauress.com/en/spaen/338083}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author =Marsaud, Olivia | title=La Russie efface la dette algérienne| language = French | publisher=[[Radio France Internationale]] |date=10 March 2006 |url=http://www.rfi.fr/actufr/articles/075/article_42379.asp | accessdate =31 August 2011| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110721020655/http://www.rfi.fr/actufr/articles/075/article_42379.asp| archivedate= 21 July 2011 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Dubai-based conglomerate Emarat Dzayer Group said it had signed a joint venture agreement to develop a $1.6 billion steel factory in Algeria.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-algeria-steel-idUSKBN13J1RV|title=Dubai-based firm forms $1.6 billion steel plant joint venture in Algeria|publisher=Reuters|first=Tom|last=Arnold|date=24 November 2016|work=|access-date=11 June 2018|via=}}</ref> ===Hydrocarbons=== {{see also|Mining industry of Algeria}} [[File:Algeria pipelines map.jpg|thumb|left|Pipelines across Algeria]] Algeria, whose economy is reliant on petroleum, has been an [[OPEC]] member since 1969. Its crude oil production stands at around 1.1 million barrels/day, but it is also a major gas producer and exporter, with important links to Europe.<ref name=opb15>{{cite web|title=OPEC Bulletin 8-9/12|url=http://www.opec.org/opec_web/flipbook/OB08092012/OB08092012/assets/basic-html/page17.html|page=15}}</ref> Hydrocarbons have long been the backbone of the economy, accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues, 30% of GDP, and over 95% of export earnings. Algeria has the [[List of countries by natural gas proven reserves|10th-largest reserves of natural gas]] in the world and is the [[List of countries by natural gas exports|sixth-largest gas exporter]]. The U.S. [[Energy Information Administration]] reported that in 2005, Algeria had {{convert|160|Tcuft}} of proven [[natural gas reserves|natural-gas reserves]].<ref name="ciawfb">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2253rank.html|title=Country Comparison: Natural Gas – Proved Reserves|publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> It also ranks [[List of countries by proven oil reserves|16th in oil reserves]].<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> Non-hydrocarbon growth for 2011 was projected at 5%. To cope with social demands, the authorities raised expenditure, especially on basic food support, employment creation, support for SMEs, and higher salaries. High hydrocarbon prices have improved the current account and the already large international reserves position.<ref name=imfart4/> Income from oil and gas rose in 2011 as a result of continuing high oil prices, though the trend in production volume is downwards.<ref name=aaeo/> Production from the oil and gas sector in terms of volume, continues to decline, dropping from 43.2 million tonnes to 32 million tonnes between 2007 and 2011. Nevertheless, the sector accounted for 98% of the total volume of exports in 2011, against 48% in 1962,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tsa-algerie.com/actualite/item/622-le-temps-des-crapules |title=Le temps des crapules&nbsp;– Tout sur l'Algérie |publisher=Tsa-algerie.com |date=27 May 2013 |author =Benchicou, Mohamed |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311022328/http://www.tsa-algerie.com/actualite/item/622-le-temps-des-crapules |archivedate=11 March 2014 }}</ref> and 70% of budgetary receipts, or USD 71.4 billion.<ref name=aaeo/> The Algerian national oil company is [[Sonatrach]], which plays a key role in all aspects of the oil and natural gas sectors in Algeria. All foreign operators must work in partnership with Sonatrach, which usually has majority ownership in production-sharing agreements.<ref>{{cite web|title=Country Analysis Briefs&nbsp;– Algeria |url=http://www.eia.gov/cabs/Algeria/pdf.pdf |publisher=Energy Information Administration |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130531053812/http://www.eia.gov/cabs/Algeria/pdf.pdf |archivedate=31 May 2013 }}</ref> ===Research and alternative energy sources=== Algeria has invested an estimated 100 billion dinars towards developing research facilities and paying researchers. This development program is meant to advance alternative energy production, especially solar and wind power.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://portail.cder.dz/spip.php?article1571 |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2016-10-31 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161101101749/http://portail.cder.dz/spip.php?article1571 |archivedate=1 November 2016 }}</ref> Algeria is estimated to have the largest solar energy potential in the Mediterranean, so the government has funded the creation of a solar science park in Hassi R'Mel. Currently, Algeria has 20,000 research professors at various universities and over 780 research labs, with state-set goals to expand to 1,000. Besides solar energy, areas of research in Algeria include space and satellite telecommunications, nuclear power and medical research. ===Labour market=== Despite a decline in total [[unemployment]], youth and women unemployment is high.<ref name=imfart4>{{cite web|title=Algeria: 2011 Article IV Consultation|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2012/cr1220.pdf|publisher=IMF}}</ref> Unemployment particularly affects the young, with a jobless rate of 21.5% among the 15–24 age group.<ref name=aaeo/> The overall rate of unemployment was 10% in 2011, but remained higher among young people, with a rate of 21.5% for those aged between 15 and 24. The government strengthened in 2011 the job programmes introduced in 1988, in particular in the framework of the programme to aid those seeking work (Dispositif d'Aide à l'Insertion Professionnelle).<ref name=aaeo>{{cite web|title=Algeria|url=http://www.africaneconomicoutlook.org/en/countries/north-africa/algeria/|publisher=African Economic Outlook}}</ref> ===Tourism=== {{Main|Tourism in Algeria}} [[File:Giants - Rock towers in the Algerian Sahara.jpg|thumb|[[Djanet]]]] The development of the tourism sector in Algeria had previously been hampered by a lack of facilities, but since 2004 a broad tourism development strategy has been implemented resulting in many hotels of a high modern standard being built. There are several [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites]] in Algeria<ref>{{cite web|last=UNESCO|title=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/dz|accessdate=25 September 2011}}</ref> including [[Al Qal'a of Beni Hammad]], the first capital of the [[Hammadid]] empire; [[Tipasa]], a Phoenician and later Roman town; and [[Djémila]] and [[Timgad]], both [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] ruins; [[M'Zab Valley]], a limestone valley containing a large urbanized [[oasis]]; and the [[Casbah]] of Algiers, an important citadel. The only natural [[World Heritage Site]] is the [[Tassili n'Ajjer]], a mountain range. ===Transport=== {{Main|Transport in Algeria}} [[File:Autoroute est ouest ghomri2.JPG|thumb|The main highway connecting the Moroccan to the Tunisian border was a part of the [[Cairo–Dakar Highway]] project]] The Algerian road network is the densest in Africa; its length is estimated at 180,000&nbsp;km of highways, with more than 3,756 structures and a paving rate of 85%. This network will be complemented by the [[Algeria East–West Highway|East-West Highway]], a major infrastructure project currently under construction. It is a 3-way, {{convert|1,216|km|mi|adj=mid|-long}} highway, linking [[Annaba]] in the extreme east to the [[Tlemcen]] in the far west. Algeria is also crossed by the [[Trans-Sahara Highway]], which is now completely paved. This road is supported by the Algerian government to increase trade between the six countries crossed: Algeria, [[Mali]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], [[Chad]] and [[Tunisia]]. ==Demographics== {{Main|Demographics of Algeria}} {{Historical populations |title = Historical populations (in thousands) |width = 170px |percentages = pagr |source = (1856–1872)<ref name="Kateb2001">{{cite book|author =Kamel Kateb|title=Européens, "indigènes" et juifs en Algérie (1830–1962)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yEvQZ7bdybgC&pg=PA30|year=2001|publisher=INED|isbn=978-2-7332-0145-9|page=30}}</ref> (1886–2008)<ref name=rgp08p82>{{cite web|title=Armature Urbaine |url=http://www.ons.dz/IMG/armature2008-%20FINAL%281%29.pdf |work=V° Recensement Général de la Population et de l'Habitat – 2008 |publisher=Office National des Statistiques |page=82 |date=September 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927232532/http://www.ons.dz/IMG/armature2008-%20FINAL%281%29.pdf |archivedate=27 September 2013 }}</ref> |1856 |2496 |1872 |2416 |1886 |3752 |1906 |4721 |1926 |5444 |1931 |5902 |1936 |6510 |1948 |7787 |1954 |8615 |1966 |12022 |1977 |16948 |1987 |23051 |1998 |29113 |2008 |34080 |2013 |37900 }} [[File:Bevölkerungspyramide Algerien 2016.png|thumb|left|Population pyramid 2016]] In January 2016 Algeria's population was an estimated 40.4&nbsp;million, who are mainly [[Arab-Berber]] ethnically.<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/><ref name="ons">{{cite web |url=http://www.ons.dz/-Demographie-.html/ |title=Algérie a atteint 40,4 millions d'habitants (ONS) |publisher=ons |date=17 April 2013 |accessdate=24 December 2013}}</ref><ref name="ber_evidance">{{cite journal|last1=Arredi|first1=Barbara|first2=Estella S.|last2=Poloni|first3=Silvia|last3=Paracchini|first4=Tatiana |last4=Zerjal|last5=Dahmani |first5=M. Fathallah|first6=Mohamed |last6=Makrelouf|last7=Vincenzo |first7=L. Pascali|first8=Andrea |last8=Novelletto|first9=Chris |last9=Tyler-Smith|title=A Predominantly Neolithic Origin for Y-Chromosomal DNA Variation in North Africa|date=7 June 2004 |pmc=1216069 |pmid=15202071 |doi=10.1086/423147 |volume=75 |issue=2 |journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet. |pages=338–45}}</ref> At the outset of the 20th century, its population was approximately four million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/algeria/48.htm |title=Algeria&nbsp;– Population |publisher=Library of Congress Country Studies |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> About 90% of Algerians live in the northern, coastal area; the inhabitants of the Sahara desert are mainly concentrated in [[oasis|oases]], although some 1.5&nbsp;million remain [[nomad]]ic or partly nomadic. 28.1% of Algerians are under the age of 15.<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> Women make up 70% of the country's lawyers and 60% of its judges and also dominate the field of medicine. Increasingly, women are contributing more to household income than men. 60% of university students are women, according to university researchers.<ref>{{cite news| author=Slackman, Michael |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/26/world/africa/26algeria.html |title=A Quiet Revolution in Algeria: Gains by Women |work=The New York Times |date=26 May 2007 |accessdate=29 August 2011}}</ref> Between 90,000 and 165,000 [[Sahrawi people|Sahrawis]] from Western Sahara live in the [[Sahrawi refugee camps]],<ref name="UNHCRAlgeria">{{cite web |url=http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e485e16.html |title=2013 UNHCR country operations profile – Algeria |publisher=[[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]] |year=2013 |accessdate=9 December 2013}}</ref><ref name="USCRIAlgeria">{{cite web|url=http://www.refugees.org/resources/refugee-warehousing/archived-world-refugee-surveys/2009-wrs-country-updates/algeria.html |title=World Refugee Survey 2009: Algeria |publisher=[[U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants]] |year=2009 |accessdate=9 December 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812185303/http://www.refugees.org/resources/refugee-warehousing/archived-world-refugee-surveys/2009-wrs-country-updates/algeria.html |archivedate=12 August 2014 }}</ref> in the western Algerian Sahara desert.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irinnews.org/report/74134/western-sahara-lack-of-donor-funds-threatens-humanitarian-projects |title=Western Sahara: Lack of Donor Funds Threatens Humanitarian Projects |publisher=[[IRIN]] |date=5 September 2007 |accessdate=9 December 2013}}</ref> There are also more than 4,000 [[Palestinian refugee]]s, who are well integrated and have not asked for assistance from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR).<ref name="UNHCRAlgeria"/><ref name="USCRIAlgeria"/> In 2009, 35,000 [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]] migrant workers lived in Algeria.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8184499.stm |title=Chinese Migrants in Algiers Clash |publisher=BBC News |date=4 August 2009 |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> The largest concentration of Algerian migrants outside Algeria is in France, which has reportedly over 1.7 million Algerians of up to the second generation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/document.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=IMMFRA12_g_Flot1_pop |title=Fiches thématiques – Population immigrée&nbsp;– Immigrés 2012 |publisher=Insee |accessdate=18 January 2013}}</ref> ===Ethnic groups=== {{Main|Ethnic groups in Algeria}} Indigenous [[Berbers]] as well as [[Phoenicians]], [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], [[Byzantine Greeks|Byzantines]], [[Arab people|Arabs]], [[Turkish people|Turks]], various [[Sub-Saharan Africans]], and [[French people|French]] have contributed to the history of Algeria.<ref>{{cite web|author =UNESCO |year=2009 |title=Diversité et interculturalité en Algérie |url=http://rabat.unesco.org/IMG/pdf/Diversite_InterculturalitAlgerie.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725111743/http://rabat.unesco.org/IMG/pdf/Diversite_InterculturalitAlgerie.pdf|dead-url=yes|archive-date=2013-07-25|publisher=UNESCO |page=9 }}</ref> Descendants of [[Al-Andalus|Andalusian]] refugees are also present in the population of Algiers and other cities.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WIRWgrbE_fEC&pg=PA22 |title=Modern Algeria&nbsp;– The Origins and Development of a Nation |page=22 |author =Ruedy, John Douglas |publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=9780253217820|year=2005}}</ref> Moreover, [[Spanish language|Spanish]] was spoken by these [[Aragon]]ese and [[Castilian people|Castillian]] [[Moriscos|Morisco]] descendants deep into the 18th century, and even [[Catalan language|Catalan]] was spoken at the same time by [[Catalonia|Catalan]] [[Moriscos|Morisco]] descendants in the small town of Grish El-Oued.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Epalza|first=Mikel|title=El español hablado en Túnez por los moriscos (siglos XVII-XVIII)|year=2011|publisher=Universitat de València|pages=32–38–39–444|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D7_VKzdSIzwC|isbn=978-84-370-8415-2}}</ref> [[File:Tenus traditionnelles algériennes 27.png|left|thumb|Some of Algeria's traditional clothes]] Despite the dominance of the Berber culture and ethnicity in Algeria, the majority of Algerians identify with an Arabic-based identity, especially after the Arab nationalism rising in the 20th century.<ref>{{cite book|last=Stokes|first=Jamie|title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East: L to Z|year=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|page=21|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=stl97FdyRswC&pg=PA21|isbn=978-1-4381-2676-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Oxford Business Group|title=The Report: Algeria 2011|year=2011|publisher=Oxford Business Group|page=9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uSGzIPz8cYIC|isbn=978-1-907065-37-8}}</ref> Berbers and Berber-speaking Algerians are divided into many groups with varying languages. The largest of these are the Kabyles, who live in the [[Kabylie]] region east of Algiers, the Chaoui of Northeast Algeria, the Tuaregs in the southern desert and the [[Chenouas|Shenwa people]] of North Algeria.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marion Mill Preminger|title=The sands of Tamanrasset: the story of Charles de Foucauld|year=1961|publisher=Hawthorn Books|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xfCfAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2013}} During the colonial period, there was a large (10% in 1960)<ref name="Cook">{{Cite book | author=Cook, Bernard A. | title=Europe since 1945: an encyclopedia | year=2001 | publisher=Garland | location=New York | isbn=0-8153-4057-5 | page=398}}</ref> [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European]] population who became known as ''[[Pied-Noir]]s''. They were primarily of French, [[Spanish people|Spanish]] and [[Italian people|Italian]] origin. Almost all of this population left during the war of independence or immediately after its end.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N8VHizsqaH0C&pg=PA25 |title=Migration and Development Co-Operation |page=25 |author1=De Azevedo |author2=Raimond Cagiano |publisher=Council of Europe|isbn=9789287126115|year=1994}}</ref> ===Languages=== {{Main|Languages of Algeria}} {{see also|French language in Algeria}} [[File:Tizi Ouzou Tasdawit.jpg|thumb|Signs in the [[University of Tizi Ouzou]] in three languages: [[Arabic]], [[Berber languages|Berber]], and French]] [[Berber language|Berber]] and [[Modern Standard Arabic]] are the official languages.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/pays-zones-geo_833/algerie_406/presentation-algerie_922/index.html |title=Présentation de l'Algérie |publisher=French Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs |date=23 October 2012 |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> [[Algerian Arabic]] (Darja) is the language used by the majority of the population. Colloquial Algerian Arabic is heavily infused with borrowings from French and Berber. [[Berber language|Berber]] has been recognized as a "national language" by the constitutional amendment of 8 May 2002.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/xhtml1/fr/features/awi/features/2007/06/21/feature-01 |title=L'Algérie crée une académie de la langue amazigh |publisher=Magharebia.com |date=2 June 2006 |dead-url=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110216045948/http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/xhtml1/fr/features/awi/features/2007/06/21/feature-01 |archivedate=16 February 2011 }}</ref> [[Kabyle language|Kabyle]], the predominant Berber language, is taught and is partially co-official (with a few restrictions) in parts of [[Kabylie]]. In February 2016, the Algerian constitution passed a resolution that would make Berber an official language alongside Arabic. Although [[French language|French]] has no official status, Algeria is the second-largest Francophone country in the world in terms of speakers,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.senat.fr/colloques/actes_mondialisation_francophonie/actes_mondialisation_francophonie10.html |title=La mondialisation, une chance pour la francophonie |publisher=Senat.fr |accessdate=17 January 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6FhBDeanP?url=http://www.senat.fr/colloques/actes_mondialisation_francophonie/actes_mondialisation_francophonie10.html |archivedate=7 April 2013 |df=dmy }} () "L'Algérie, non-membre de l'Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, comptabilise la seconde communauté francophone au monde, avec environ 16 millions de locuteurs, suivie par la Côte d'Ivoire avec près de 12 millions de locuteurs francophones, le Québec avec 6 millions et la Belgique avec plus de 4 millions de francophones."</ref> and French is widely used in government, media (newspapers, radio, local television), and both the education system (from primary school onwards) and academia due to [[French rule in Algeria|Algeria's colonial history]]. It can be regarded as a [[lingua franca]] of Algeria. In 2008, 11.2 million Algerians could read and write in French.<ref>{{cite web|title=Le dénombrement des francophones |url=http://www.francophonie.org/IMG/pdf/1e.pdf |publisher=Organisation internationale de la Francophonie |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6FhBO8XsN?url=http://www.francophonie.org/IMG/pdf/1e.pdf |archivedate=7 April 2013 |df=dmy }} () p. 9 "Nous y agrégeons néanmoins quelques données disponibles pour des pays n'appartenant pas à l'OIF mais dont nous savons, comme pour l'Algérie (11,2 millions en 2008¹)," and "1. Nombre de personnes âgées de cinq ans et plus déclarant savoir lire et écrire le français, d'après les données du recensement de 2008 communiquées par l'[[Office national des statistiques d'Algérie]]."</ref> An Abassa Institute study in April 2000 found that 60% of households could speak and understand French or 18 million in a population of 30 million then. After an earlier period during which the Algerian government tried to phase out French (which is why it has no official status), in recent decades the government has backtracked and reinforced the study of French and TV programs have reinforced use of the language. Algeria emerged as a bilingual state after 1962.<ref>{{cite news|last=New |first=The |url=http://topics.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/11/19/algerias-liberation-terrorism-and-arabization/ |title=Algeria's liberation terrorism and Arabization |publisher=blogs.nytimes.com |date= 19 November 2008|accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> Colloquial [[Algerian Arabic]] is spoken by about 72% of the population and Berber by 27–30%.<ref name="leclerc">{{cite web |author=Leclerc, Jacques |title=''Algérie: Situation géographique et démolinguistique'' |work=L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde |language=French |publisher=[[Université Laval]] |date=5 April 2009 |url=http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/AXL/AFRIQUE/algerie-1demo.htm |accessdate=8 January 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124150058/http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/afrique/algerie-1demo.htm |archivedate=24 January 2010 |deadurl=yes }}</ref> ===Religion=== {{Main|Religion in Algeria}} {{See also|Early African Church}} {{See also|History of the Jews in Algeria}} {{bar box | title=Religion in Algeria, 2010 ([[Pew Research Center|Pew Research]])<ref name=pew>[http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/algeria/religious_demography#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2010 Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project: Algeria]. [[Pew Research Center]]. 2010.</ref> | titlebar=#ddd | left1=Religion | right1=Percent | float=right | bars= {{bar percent|[[Islam in Algeria|Islam]]|green|97.9}} {{bar percent|Unaffiliated|gray|1.8}} {{bar percent|[[Christianity in Algeria|Christianity]]|blue|0.2}} {{bar percent|[[History of the Jews in Algeria|Judaism]]|black|0.1}} }} [[File:Djamaâ el Kebir.jpg|thumb|[[Great Mosque of Algiers]].]] Islam is the predominant religion in Algeria, with its adherents, mostly Sunnis, accounting for 99% of the population according to a 2012 CIA World Factbook estimate,<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> and 97.9% according to Pew Research in 2010.<ref name=pew/> There are about 150,000 [[Ibadi]]s in the M'zab Valley in the region of [[Ghardaia]]. Algeria has given the Muslim world a number of prominent thinkers, including [[Emir Abdelkader]], [[Abdelhamid Ben Badis]], [[Mouloud Kacem Naît Belkacem]], [[Malek Bennabi]] and [[Mohamed Arkoun]]. ===Cities=== {{main|List of cities in Algeria}} Below is a list of the most important Algerian cities: {{Largest cities of Algeria}} ==Culture== {{Main|Culture of Algeria}} [[File:Bensari2.jpg|thumb|Algerian musicians in Tlemcen. Painting by [[Bachir Yellès]]]] Modern Algerian literature, split between Arabic, [[Berber languages|Tamazight]] and French, has been strongly influenced by the country's recent history. [[List of Algerian writers|Famous novelists]] of the 20th century include [[Mohammed Dib]], [[Albert Camus]], [[Kateb Yacine]] and [[Ahlam Mosteghanemi]] while [[Assia Djebar]] is widely translated. Among the important novelists of the 1980s were [[Rachid Mimouni]], later vice-president of [[Amnesty International]], and [[Tahar Djaout]], murdered by an [[Islamist]] group in 1993 for his secularist views.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tahar Djaout |publisher=French Publishers' Agency |url=http://www.frenchpubagency.com/?fuseaction=people.main&pid=517 |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> [[Malek Bennabi]] and [[Frantz Fanon]] are noted for their thoughts on [[decolonization]]; [[Augustine of Hippo]] was born in [[Tagaste]] (modern-day [[Souk Ahras]]); and [[Ibn Khaldun]], though born in [[Tunis]], wrote the [[Muqaddima]] while staying in Algeria. The works of the [[Senussi|Sanusi]] family in pre-colonial times, and of [[Emir Abdelkader]] and Sheikh [[Ben Badis]] in colonial times, are widely noted. The Latin author [[Apuleius]] was born in [[Madaurus]] (Mdaourouch), in what later became Algeria. Contemporary [[Algerian cinema]] is various in terms of genre, exploring a wider range of themes and issues. There has been a transition from cinema which focused on the war of independence to films more concerned with the everyday lives of Algerians.<ref>{{cite web |title=Short guide to contemporary Algerian cinema |publisher=Mapping Contemporary Cinema |url=http://www.mcc.sllf.qmul.ac.uk/?p=550}}</ref> ===Media=== {{main|Media of Algeria}} ===Art=== [[File:Portrait-racim.jpg|thumb|Mohammed Racim was a Painter and founder of the Algerian school of miniature painting]] Algerian painters, like [[:fr:Mohamed Racim|Mohamed Racim]] or Baya, attempted to revive the prestigious Algerian past prior to French colonization, at the same time that they have contributed to the preservation of the authentic values of Algeria. In this line, [[Mohamed Temam]], [[Abdelkhader Houamel]] have also returned through this art, scenes from the history of the country, the habits and customs of the past and the country life. Other new artistic currents including the one of [[M'hamed Issiakhem]], [[Mohammed Khadda]] and [[Bachir Yelles]], appeared on the scene of Algerian painting, abandoning figurative classical painting to find new pictorial ways, in order to adapt Algerian paintings to the new realities of the country through its struggle and its aspirations. [[Mohammed Khadda]]<ref name=art>{{cite web|url=http://www.khadda.com/ |title=Mohammed Khadda |publisher=Khadda.com |accessdate=18 January 2013}}</ref> and [[M'hamed Issiakhem]] have been notable in recent years.<ref name=art/> ===Literature=== {{Main|Algerian literature|List of Algerian writers}} [[File:Ahlem Mosteghanemi at Beirut Book Fair 2012.JPG|thumb|left|[[Ahlam Mosteghanemi]], the most widely read woman writer in the Arab world.<ref>{{cite web|author=Source: Honorary and Goodwill Ambassadors |url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/media-services/single-view/news/algerian_novelist_ahlam_mosteghanemi_designated_unesco_artis/ |title=Algerian novelist Ahlem Mosteghanemi designated UNESCO artist for peace. &#124; United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization |publisher=Unesco.org |date=2017-01-20 |accessdate=2017-06-05}}</ref>]] The historic roots of Algerian literature go back to the [[Numidia]]n and [[Africa (Roman province)|Roman Africa]]n era, when [[Apuleius]] wrote ''[[The Golden Ass]]'', the only Latin novel to survive in its entirety. This period had also known [[Augustine of Hippo]], [[Nonius Marcellus]] and [[Martianus Capella]], among many others. The Middle Ages have known many Arabic writers who revolutionized the Arab world literature, with authors like [[Ahmad al-Buni]], [[Ibn Manzur]] and [[Ibn Khaldoun]], who wrote the [[Muqaddimah]] while staying in Algeria, and many others. [[Albert Camus]] was an Algerian-born French Pied-Noir author. In 1957 he was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in literature]]. {{double image|right|Lucius Apuleius Platonicus, from 'Crabbes Historical Dictionary', published in 1825 (C19).jpg|120|Kateb Yacine Nedjma authograph.jpg|120|[[Apuleius]]|[[Kateb Yacine]]}} Today Algeria contains, in its literary landscape, big names having not only marked the Algerian literature, but also the universal literary heritage in Arabic and French. As a first step, Algerian literature was marked by works whose main concern was the assertion of the Algerian national entity, there is the publication of novels as the ''Algerian trilogy'' of [[Mohammed Dib]], or even ''Nedjma'' of [[Kateb Yacine]] novel which is often regarded as a monumental and major work. Other known writers will contribute to the emergence of Algerian literature whom include [[Mouloud Feraoun]], [[Malek Bennabi]], [[Malek Haddad]], [[Moufdi Zakaria]], Abdelhamid Ben Badis, Mohamed Laïd Al-Khalifa, [[Mouloud Mammeri]], [[Frantz Fanon]], and [[Assia Djebar]]. In the aftermath of the independence, several new authors emerged on the Algerian literary scene, they will attempt through their works to expose a number of social problems, among them there are [[Rachid Boudjedra]], [[Rachid Mimouni]], [[Leila Sebbar]], [[Tahar Djaout]] and [[Tahir Wattar]]. Currently, a part of Algerian writers tends to be defined in a literature of shocking expression, due to the terrorism that occurred during the 1990s, the other party is defined in a different style of literature who staged an individualistic conception of the human adventure. Among the most noted recent works, there is the writer, ''the swallows of Kabul'' and ''the attack'' of [[Yasmina Khadra]], ''the oath of barbarians'' of [[Boualem Sansal]], ''memory of the flesh'' of [[Ahlam Mosteghanemi]] and the last novel by Assia Djebar ''nowhere in my father's House''. ===Music=== {{Main| Music of Algeria}} [[Chaabi (Algeria)|Chaâbi music]] is a typically Algerian musical genre characterized by specific rhythms and of Qacidate (Popular poems) in Arabic dialect. The undisputed master of this music is [[El Hadj M'Hamed El Anka]]. The Constantinois [[Andalusian classical music|Malouf]] style is saved by musician from whom [[Mohamed Tahar Fergani]] is a performer. [[File:Anka.jpg|thumb|upright|[[El Hadj M'Hamed El Anka]]]] [[File:Cheb Khaled performed in Oran on July 5th 2011.jpg|thumb|[[Khaled (musician)|Cheb Khaled]] King [[raï]]]] Folk music styles include [[Bedouin music]], characterized by the poetic songs based on long kacida (poems); Kabyle music, based on a rich repertoire that is poetry and old tales passed through generations; Shawiya music, a folklore from diverse areas of the [[Aurès Mountains]]. Rahaba music style is unique to the Aures. [[Souad Massi]] is a rising Algerian folk singer. Other Algerian singers of the diaspora include [[Manel Filali]] in [[Germany]] and [[Kenza Farah]] in France. Tergui music is sung in [[Tuareg languages]] generally, [[Tinariwen]] had a worldwide success. Finally, the staïfi music is born in [[Sétif]] and remains a unique style of its kind. Modern music is available in several facets, [[Raï]] music is a style typical of Western Algeria. [[Algeria Rap|Rap]], relatively recent style in Algeria, is experiencing significant growth. ===Cinema=== {{Main|Cinema of Algeria}} [[File:Chronique des annees de braise.jpg|thumb|[[Chronicle of the Years of Fire]], the film won the [[Palme d'Or]] prize at the [[1975 Cannes Film Festival]].<ref name="festival-cannes.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.festival-cannes.com/en/archives/ficheFilm/id/2162/year/1975.html |title=Festival de Cannes: Chronicle of the Years of Fire |accessdate=27 April 2009 |work=festival-cannes.com |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120926154323/http://www.festival-cannes.com/en/archives/ficheFilm/id/2162/year/1975.html |archivedate=26 September 2012 |df=dmy }}</ref>]] The Algerian state's interest in film-industry activities can be seen in the annual budget of DZD 200 million (EUR 1.8) allocated to production, specific measures and an ambitious programme plan implemented by the Ministry of Culture in order to promote national production, renovate the cinema stock and remedy the weak links in distribution and exploitation. The financial support provided by the state, through the Fund for the Development of the Arts, Techniques and the Film Industry (FDATIC) and the Algerian Agency for Cultural Influence (AARC), plays a key role in the promotion of national production. Between 2007 and 2013, FDATIC subsidised 98 films (feature films, documentaries and short films). In mid-2013, AARC had already supported a total of 78 films, including 42 feature films, 6 short films and 30 documentaries. According to the European Audiovisual Observatory's LUMIERE database, 41 Algerian films were distributed in Europe between 1996 and 2013; 21 films in this repertoire were Algerian-French co-productions. [[Days of Glory (2006 film)|''Days of Glory'' (2006)]] and [[Outside the Law (2010 film)|''Outside the Law'' (2010)]] recorded the highest number of admissions in the European Union, 3,172,612 and 474,722, respectively.<ref>Ali, Sahar (25 March 2014) [http://www.obs.coe.int/documents/205595/412951/Rapport_Alg%C3%A9rie_FR_21-05-2014.pdf ALGÉRIE]. European Audiovisual Observatory</ref> Algeria won the [[Palme d'Or]] for ''[[Chronicle of the Years of Fire]]'' (1975), two Oscars for [[Z (1969 film)|''Z'' (1969)]], and other awards for ''[[The Battle of Algiers]]''. ===Sports=== {{Main|Sport in Algeria}} Various games have existed in Algeria since antiquity. In the [[Aurès Mountains|Aures]], people played several games such as El Kherba or El khergueba ([[chess]] variant). Playing cards, [[checkers]] and chess games are part of Algerian culture. Racing ([[Fantasia (culture)|fantasia]]) and [[rifle shooting]] are part of cultural recreation of the Algerians.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/15001/Algeria/220546/Sports-and-recreation | title=Sports and recreation | accessdate=9 December 2012}}</ref> The first Algerian and African gold medalist is [[Boughera El Ouafi]] in [[1928 Summer Olympics|1928 Olympics of Amsterdam]] in the [[Marathon]]. The second Algerian Medalist was [[Alain Mimoun]] in [[1956 Summer Olympics]] in Melbourne. Several men and women were champions in athletics in the 1990s including [[Noureddine Morceli]], [[Hassiba Boulmerka]], [[Nouria Mérah-Benida|Nouria Merah-Benida]], and [[Taoufik Makhloufi]], all specialized in [[middle-distance running]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/olympics/2012/countries/algeria/athletes | title=Algeria | accessdate=9 December 2012}}</ref> [[Football in Algeria|Football]] is the most popular sport in Algeria. Several names are engraved in the history of the sport, including [[Lakhdar Belloumi]], [[Rachid Mekhloufi]], [[Hacène Lalmas|Hassen Lalmas]], [[Rabah Madjer]], [[Salah Assad]] and [[Djamel Zidane]]. The [[Algeria national football team]] qualified for the [[1982 FIFA World Cup]], [[1986 FIFA World Cup]], [[2010 FIFA World Cup]] and [[2014 FIFA World Cup]]. In addition, several football clubs have won continental and international trophies as the club [[ES Sétif]] or [[JS Kabylia]]. The [[Algerian Football Federation]] is an association of Algeria football clubs organizing national competitions and international matches of the selection of Algeria national football team.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www1.skysports.com/football/teams/algeria | title=Algeria national football team | accessdate=9 December 2012 | work=Sky Sports}}</ref> ===Cuisine=== {{Main|Algerian cuisine}} [[File:Bulgur wheat salad.jpg|thumb|A [[Couscous]]-based salad]] Algerian cuisine is rich and diverse. The country was considered as the "granary of Rome". It offers a component of dishes and varied dishes, depending on the region and according to the seasons. The cuisine uses cereals as the main products, since they are always produced with abundance in the country. There is not a dish where cereals are not present. Algerian cuisine varies from one region to another, according to seasonal vegetables. It can be prepared using meat, fish and vegetables. Among the dishes known, [[couscous]],<ref name="WDL">{{cite web |url = http://www.wdl.org/en/item/8804/ |title = Luce Ben Aben, Moorish Women Preparing Couscous, Algiers, Algeria |website = [[World Digital Library]] |year = 1899 |accessdate = 26 September 2013 }}</ref> [[chorba]], Couscous, Rechta, Chakhchoukha, Berkoukes, Shakshouka, Mthewem, Chtitha, Mderbel, Dolma, Brik or Bourek, Garantita, Lham'hlou, etc. [[Merguez]] sausage is widely used in Algeria, but it differs, depending on the region and on the added spices. Cakes are marketed and can be found in cities either in Algeria, in Europe or North America. However, traditional cakes are also made at home, following the habits and customs of each family. Among these cakes, there are Tamina, Baklawa, Chrik, Garn logzelles, Griouech, Kalb el-louz, Makroud, Mbardja, Mchewek, Samsa, Tcharak, Baghrir, Khfaf, Zlabia, Aarayech, Ghroubiya and Mghergchette. Algerian pastry also contains Tunisian or French cakes. Marketed and home-made bread products include varieties such as Kessra or Khmira or Harchaya, chopsticks and so-called washers Khoubz dar or Matloue. Other traditional meals sold often as street food include Mhadjeb, Karantika, Doubara.(Chakhchokha-Hassoua-T'chicha-Mahjouba and Doubara)are famous in Biskra. ==Health== {{Main|Health in Algeria}} In 2002, Algeria had inadequate numbers of physicians (1.13 per 1,000 people), nurses (2.23 per 1,000 people), and dentists (0.31 per 1,000 people). Access to "improved water sources" was limited to 92% of the population in urban areas and 80% of the population in the rural areas. Some 99% of Algerians living in urban areas, but only 82% of those living in rural areas, had access to "improved sanitation". According to the World Bank, Algeria is making progress toward its goal of "reducing by half the number of people without sustainable access to improved drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015". Given Algeria's young population, policy favors preventive health care and clinics over hospitals. In keeping with this policy, the government maintains an immunization program. However, poor sanitation and unclean water still cause [[tuberculosis]], [[hepatitis]], [[measles]], [[typhoid fever]], [[cholera]] and [[dysentery]]. The poor generally receive health care free of charge.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Algeria.pdf |title=Library of Congress Country Studies – Algeria |format=PDF }}</ref> Health records have been maintained in Algeria since 1882 and began adding Muslims living in the South to their Vital record database in 1905 during French rule.<ref>{{cite book|author =Kemp, Thomas Jay |title=International Vital Records Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=afnc6_o5AqoC&pg=PA347|year=2009|publisher=Genealogical Publishing Com|isbn=978-0-8063-1793-9|page=347}}</ref> ==Education== {{Main|Education in Algeria|List of universities in Algeria}} [[File:Nouria Benghabrit-Remaoun in Blida.JPG|thumb|[[Nouria Benghabrit-Remaoun]], Minister of National education]] [[File:Des élevesen Algérie.jpg|thumb|left|Algerian school children]] Since the 1970s, in a centralized system that was designed to significantly reduce the rate of illiteracy, the Algerian government introduced a decree by which school attendance became compulsory for all children aged between 6 and 15 years who have the ability to track their learning through the 20 facilities built since independence, now the literacy rate is around 78.7%.<ref name="illit"/> [[File:UIS Literacy Rate Algeria population plus15 1980 2015.png|thumb|[[UNESCO Institute for Statistics|UIS]] literacy rate Algeria population plus 15 1985–2015]] Since 1972, Arabic is used as the language of instruction during the first nine years of schooling. From the third year, French is taught and it is also the language of instruction for science classes. The students can also learn English, Italian, Spanish and German. In 2008, new programs at the elementary appeared, therefore the compulsory schooling does not start at the age of six anymore, but at the age of five.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.presse-dz.com/revue-de-presse/version-imprimable/1045-les-verites-de-benbouzid.html |title=Ecoles privées, Tamazight, enseignement du Français, syndicats&nbsp;... – Les vérités de Benbouzid |publisher=Presse-dz.com |accessdate=18 January 2013}}</ref> Apart from the 122 private, learning at school, the Universities of the State are free of charge. After nine years of primary school, students can go to the high school or to an educational institution. The school offers two programs: general or technical. At the end of the third year of secondary school, students pass the exam of the baccalaureate, which allows once it is successful to pursue graduate studies in universities and institutes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.algerie-dz.com/article10808.html |title=Le taux d'analphabétisme en Algérie est de 21,3% |publisher=Algerie-dz.com |accessdate=18 January 2013}}</ref> Education is officially compulsory for children between the ages of six and 15. In 2008, the illiteracy rate for people over 10 was 22.3%, 15.6% for men and 29.0% for women. The province with the lowest rate of illiteracy was [[Algiers Province]] at 11.6%, while the province with the highest rate was [[Djelfa Province]] at 35.5%.<ref name="illit">{{cite web|title=Taux d'Analphabétisme et taux d'Alphabétisation de la population âgée de 10 ans et plus selon le sexe et la wilaya de résidence|url=http://www.ons.dz/IMG/pdf/pop9_national.pdf|publisher=Office National des Statistiques}}</ref> Algeria has 26 universities and 67 institutions of higher education, which must accommodate a million Algerians and 80,000 foreign students in 2008. The [[University of Algiers]], founded in 1879, is the oldest, it offers education in various disciplines (law, medicine, science and letters). 25 of these universities and almost all of the institutions of higher education were founded after the independence of the country. Even if some of them offer instruction in [[Arabic]] like areas of law and the economy, most of the other sectors as science and medicine continue to be provided in French and English. Among the most important universities, there are the [[University of Sciences and Technology Houari Boumediene]], the [[University of Mentouri]] Constantine, and [[University of Oran]] Es-Senia. The [[University of Abou Bekr Belkaïd]] in Tlemcen and [[University of Batna]] Hadj Lakhdar occupy the 26th and 45th row in Africa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://webometrics.info/en/Africa/Algeria |title=Algeria &#124; Ranking Web of Universities |publisher=Webometrics.info |accessdate=18 January 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140208084507/http://webometrics.info/en/Africa/Algeria |archivedate=8 February 2014 }}</ref> ==See also== {{Portal|Algeria|Africa}} * [[Index of Algeria-related articles]] * [[Outline of Algeria]] * {{books-inline|Algeria}} ==Notes== {{notelist}} ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Bibliography== {{refbegin|30em}} * Ageron, Charles-Robert (1991). ''Modern Algeria&nbsp;– A History from 1830 to the Present''. Translated from French and edited by Michael Brett. London: [[C. Hurst & Co|Hurst]]. {{ISBN|978-0-86543-266-6}}. * Aghrout, Ahmed; Bougherira, Redha M. (2004). ''Algeria in Transition&nbsp;– Reforms and Development Prospects''. [[Routledge]]. {{ISBN|978-0-415-34848-5}}. * Bennoune, Mahfoud (1988). ''The Making of Contemporary Algeria&nbsp;– Colonial Upheavals and Post-Independence Development, 1830–1987''. Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-521-30150-3}}. * [[Frantz Fanon|Fanon, Frantz]] (1966; 2005 paperback). ''The Wretched of the Earth''. [[Grove Press]]. ASIN B0007FW4AW, {{ISBN|978-0-8021-4132-3}}. * [[Alistair Horne|Horne, Alistair]] (1977). ''A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962''. [[Viking Adult]]. {{ISBN|978-0-670-61964-1}}, {{ISBN|978-1-59017-218-6}} (2006 reprint) * Laouisset, Djamel (2009). ''A Retrospective Study of the Algerian Iron and Steel Industry''. New York City: [[Nova Publishers]]. {{ISBN|978-1-61761-190-2}}. * Roberts, Hugh (2003). ''The Battlefield&nbsp;– Algeria, 1988–2002. Studies in a Broken Polity''. London: [[Verso Books]]. {{ISBN|978-1-85984-684-1}}. * Ruedy, John (1992). ''Modern Algeria&nbsp;– The Origins and Development of a Nation''. Bloomington: [[Indiana University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-253-34998-9}}. * Stora, Benjamin (2001). ''Algeria, 1830–2000&nbsp;– A Short History''. Ithaca, New York: [[Cornell University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-8014-3715-1}}. * Sidaoui, Riadh (2009). "Islamic Politics and the Military&nbsp;– Algeria 1962–2008". [https://books.google.com/books?id=UouRFVxywIQC ''Religion and Politics&nbsp;– Islam and Muslim Civilisation'']. Farnham: [[Ashgate Publishing]]. {{ISBN|0-7546-7418-5}}. {{refend}} ==External links== {{Sister project links|voy=Algeria|Algeria}} {{Wikibooks|Wikijunior:Countries A–Z|Algeria}} {{Contains Tifinagh text|compact=yes}} * [http://www.el-mouradia.dz/ People's Democratic Republic of Algeria] ''Official government website'' {{ar icon}} / {{fr icon}} * {{CIA World Factbook link|ag|Algeria}} * {{GovPubs|algeria}} * {{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Algeria}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118852 Algeria profile] from the [[BBC News]] * {{Cite map|title=Algeria Atlas Map |date=April 2007 |publisher=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) |url=ftp://undp-pogar.org/LocalUser/pogarp/other/maps/algeria-apr07.pdf |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6mdDU9gLR?url=ftp://undp-pogar.org/LocalUser/pogarp/other/maps/algeria-apr07.pdf |archivedate=9 December 2016 |deadurl=no |df=dmy}} * {{Wikiatlas|Algeria}} * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=DZ Key Development Forecasts for Algeria] from [[International Futures]] * [http://www.enpi-info.eu/countrymed.php?country=1 EU Neighbourhood Info Centre: Algeria] {{Algeria topics}} {{Navboxes |title = Articles relating to Algeria |list = {{Countries and territories of Africa}} {{Countries and territories of North Africa}} {{Countries and territories of the Mediterranean Sea}} {{Middle East}} {{Arab League}} {{African Union}} {{Organisation of Islamic Cooperation|state=collapsed}} {{G-15 nations}} }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Algeria| ]] [[Category:North African countries]] [[Category:Maghrebi countries]] [[Category:Saharan countries]] [[Category:Arab republics]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:Arabic-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Berber-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:French-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:G15 nations]] [[Category:Member states of OPEC]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Arab League]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] [[Category:Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Requests for audio pronunciation (Arabic)]] [[Category:Requests for audio pronunciation (Berber)]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1962]] [[Category:1962 establishments in Algeria]] [[Category:1962 establishments in Africa]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] m4q1lgmphqhwuc9eih87jqlrwk50guy 0 359 858703294 837647758 2018-09-09T02:27:43Z Smasongarrison 16185737 /* John Galt */copy editing and applying [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser/General_fixes|General fixes]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:List of ''Atlas Shrugged'' characters}} This is a list of characters in [[Ayn Rand]]'s novel ''[[Atlas Shrugged]].'' ==Major characters== The following are major characters from the novel.<ref>Characters are listed as "major" if they meet one of the following criteria: *they are listed as "major" characters in a widely available study guide, such as [[CliffsNotes]], [[SparkNotes]], or [[Gale (Cengage)|Gale's]] ''Novels for Students''; *they are listed as "primary heroic" or "arch-villain" characters in Gladstein's ''The New Ayn Rand Companion''; *they are the focus of an essay in a scholarly book about the novel, such as ''Essays on Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged'' or ''Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged''.</ref> ===Protagonists=== ====Dagny Taggart==== Dagny Taggart is the [[protagonist]] of the novel. She is Vice-President in Charge of Operations for Taggart Transcontinental, under her brother, James Taggart. Given James' incompetence, Dagny is responsible for all the workings of the railroad. ====Francisco d'Anconia==== Francisco d'Anconia is one of the central characters in ''Atlas Shrugged'', an owner by inheritance of the world's largest [[copper]] mining operation. He is a childhood friend, and the first love, of Dagny Taggart. A child prodigy of exceptional talents, Francisco was dubbed the "climax" of the d'Anconia line, an already prestigious family of skilled industrialists. He was a classmate of John Galt and Ragnar Danneskjöld and student of both Hugh Akston and Robert Stadler. He began working while still in school, proving that he could have made a fortune without the aid of his family's wealth and power. Later, Francisco bankrupts the d'Anconia business to put it out of others' reach. His full name is given as "Francisco Domingo Carlos Andres Sebastián d'Anconia".<ref>The accent in the given name ''Sebastián'' is in accordance with [[Spanish orthography]]; however, the same rule would require writing ''Andrés''.</ref> ====John Galt==== {{Main|John Galt}} John Galt is the primary male hero of ''Atlas Shrugged''. He initially appears as an unnamed menial worker for Taggart Transcontinental, who often dines with Eddie Willers in the employees' cafeteria, and leads Eddie to reveal important information about Dagny Taggart and Taggart Transcontinental. Only Eddie's side of their conversations is given in the novel. Later in the novel, the reader discovers this worker's true identity. Before working for Taggart Transcontinental, Galt worked as an engineer for the Twentieth Century Motor Company, where he secretly invented a generator of usable electric energy from ambient static electricity, but abandoned his prototype, and his employment, when dissatisfied by an easily corrupted novel system of payment. This prototype was found by Dagny Taggart and Hank Rearden. Galt himself remains concealed throughout much of the novel, in a valley by himself, where he unites the most skillful inventors and business leaders under his leadership. Much of the book's third division is given to his broadcast speech, which presents the author's philosophy of [[Objectivism (Ayn Rand)|Objectivism]]. ====Henry "Hank" Rearden==== Henry (known as "Hank") Rearden is one of the central characters in ''Atlas Shrugged''. He owns the most important steel company in the United States, and invents Rearden Metal, an [[alloy]] stronger than steel (with similar properties to stainless steel). He lives in [[Philadelphia]] with his wife Lillian, his brother Philip, and his elderly mother. Rearden represents a type of [[self-made man]] or prototypical hero, and illustrates Rand's [[Atlas Shrugged#Theory of sex|theory of sex]] in so far as he accepts the traditional view of sexual congress as a subhuman instinct, but responds sexually to Dagny Taggart. ====Eddie Willers==== Edwin "Eddie" Willers is the Special Assistant to the Vice-President in Charge of Operations at Taggart Transcontinental. His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and himself likewise. He is completely loyal to Dagny and to Taggart Transcontinental. Willers does not possess the creative ability of Galt's associates, but matches them in moral courage and is capable of appreciating and making use of their creations. After Dagny shifts her attention and loyalty to saving the captive Galt, Willers maintains the railroad until its collapse. ====Ragnar Danneskjöld==== One of Galt's first followers, and world-famous as a [[pirate]], who seizes relief ships sent from the United States to the People's States of Europe. He works to ensure that once those espousing Galt's philosophy are restored to their rightful place in society, they have enough capital to rebuild the world. Kept in the background for much of the book, Danneskjöld makes a personal appearance to encourage Rearden to persevere in his increasingly difficult situation, and gives him a bar of gold as compensation for the income taxes he has paid over the last several years. Danneskjöld is married to the actress Kay Ludlow; their relationship is kept hidden from the outside world, which only knows of Ludlow as a retired [[film star]]. Considered a misfit by Galt's other adherents, he views his actions as a means to speed the world along in understanding Galt's perspective. According to [[Barbara Branden]], who was closely associated with Rand at the time the book was written, there were sections written describing Danneskjöld's adventures at sea, cut from the final published text.<ref>Reedstrom, Karen. [http://barbarabranden.com/interview4.html 1992 Interview with Full Context]. Barbara Branden interview in ''Full Context'', October 1992. Republished on barbarabranden.com. Retrieved 1 June 2007.</ref> In a 1974 comment at a lecture, Ayn Rand admitted that Danneskjöld's name was a tribute to Victor Hugo's novel, ''Hans of Iceland'', wherein the hero becomes the first of the Counts of Danneskjöld. In the published book, Danneskjöld is always seen through the eyes of others (Dagny Taggart or Hank Rearden), except for a brief paragraph in the very last chapter. ===Antagonists=== ====James Taggart==== The President of Taggart Transcontinental and the book's most important antagonist. Taggart is an expert influence peddler but incapable of making operational decisions on his own. He relies on his sister, Dagny Taggart, to actually run the railroad, but nonetheless opposes her in almost every endeavor because of his various anti-capitalist moral and political beliefs. In a sense, he is the antithesis of Dagny. This contradiction leads to the recurring absurdity of his life: the desire to overcome those on whom his life depends, and the horror that he will succeed at this. In the final chapters of the novel, he suffers a complete mental breakdown upon realizing that he can no longer deceive himself in this respect. ====Lillian Rearden==== The unsupportive wife of Hank Rearden, who dislikes his habits and (secretly at first) seeks to ruin Rearden to prove her own value. Lillian achieves this, when she passes information to James Taggart about her husband's affair with his sister. This information is used to persuade Rearden to sign a Gift Certificate which delivers all the property rights of Rearden Metal to others. Lillian thereafter uses James Taggart for sexual satisfaction, until Hank abandons her. ====Dr. Floyd Ferris==== Ferris is a biologist who works as "co-ordinator" at the State Science Institute. He uses his position there to deride reason and productive achievement, and publishes a book entitled ''Why Do You Think You Think?'' He clashes on several occasions with Hank Rearden, and twice attempts to blackmail Rearden into giving up Rearden Metal. He is also one of the group of looters who tries to get Rearden to agree to the Steel Unification Plan. Ferris hosts the demonstration of the Project X weapon, and is the creator of the Ferris Persuader, a torture machine. When John Galt is captured by the looters, Ferris uses the device on Galt, but it breaks down before extracting the information Ferris wants from Galt. Ferris represents the group which uses brute force on the heroes to achieve the ends of the looters. ====Dr. Robert Stadler==== A former professor at Patrick Henry University, and along with colleague Hugh Akston, mentor to Francisco d'Anconia, John Galt and Ragnar Danneskjöld. He has since become a sell-out, one who had great promise but squandered it for social approval, to the detriment of the free. He works at the State Science Institute where all his inventions are perverted for use by the military, including the instrument of his demise: Project X (Xylophone). The character was, in part, modeled on [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]], whom Rand had interviewed for an earlier project, and his part in the creation of [[nuclear weapon]]s.<ref>David Harriman, ''[[Journals of Ayn Rand]]'', pp. 311-344, esp. 330-331.</ref> To his former student Galt, Stadler represents the epitome of human evil, as the "man who knew better" but chose not to act for the good. ====Wesley Mouch==== The incompetent and treacherous lobbyist whom Hank Rearden reluctantly employs in [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]], who rises to prominence and authority throughout the novel through trading favours and disloyalty. In return for betraying Hank by helping broker the Equalization of Opportunity Bill (which, by restricting the number of businesses each person may own to one, forces Hank to divest most of his companies), he is given a senior position at the Bureau of Economic Planning and National Resources. Later in the novel he becomes its Top Co-ordinator, a position that eventually becomes Economic Dictator of the country. ==Secondary characters== The following secondary characters also appear in the novel.<ref>Secondary characters are listed if they appear in character lists from any of the works used to establish the list of major characters above, but do not meet the criteria for "major." Minor characters who are not listed in secondary works are not listed here.</ref> *'''Hugh Akston''' is identified as "One of the last great advocates of reason." He was a renowned philosopher and the head of the Department of Philosophy at Patrick Henry University, where he taught Francisco d'Anconia, John Galt, and Ragnar Danneskjöld. He was, along with Robert Stadler, a father figure to these three. Akston's name is so hallowed that a young lady, on hearing that Francisco had studied under him, is shocked. She thought he must have been one of those great names from an earlier century. He now works as a cook in a roadside diner, and proves extremely skillful at the job. When Dagny tracks him down, and before she discovers his true identity, he rejects her enthusiastic offer to manage the dining car services for Taggart Transcontinental. He is based on [[Aristotle]]. *'''Jeff Allen''' is a tramp who stows away on a Taggart train during one of Dagny's cross-country trips. Instead of throwing him out, she allows him to ride as her guest. It is from Allen that she learns the full story behind the collapse of the Twentieth Century Motor Company (Rand's extensive metaphor for the inherent flaws of communism), as well as a hint of John Galt's true background. *'''Calvin Atwood''' is owner of Atwood Light and Power Company and joins Galt's strike. *'''Mayor Bascom''' is the mayor of Rome, Wisconsin, who reveals part of the history of the Twentieth Century Motor Company. *'''Dr. Blodgett''' is the scientist who pulls the lever to demonstrate Project X. *'''Orren Boyle''' is the head of Associated Steel, antithesis of Hank Rearden and a friend of James Taggart. He is an investor in the San Sebastián Mines. He disappears from the story after having a nervous breakdown following the failed 'unification' of the steel industry. *'''Laura Bradford''' is an actress and Kip Chalmers's mistress. *'''Bill Brent''' is the chief dispatcher for the Colorado Division of Taggart Transcontinental, who tries to prevent the Taggart Tunnel disaster. *'''Cherryl Brooks''' is a dime store shopgirl who marries James Taggart after a chance encounter in her store the night the John Galt Line was falsely deemed his greatest success. She marries him thinking he is the heroic person behind Taggart Transcontinental. Cherryl is at first harsh towards Dagny, having believed Jim Taggart's descriptions of his sister, until she questions employees of the railroad. Upon learning that her scorn had been misdirected, Cherryl puts off apologizing to Dagny out of shame until the night before she commits suicide, when she confesses to Dagny that when she married Jim, she thought he had the heroic qualities that she had looked up to - she thought she was marrying someone like Dagny. She eventually commits suicide, unable to live with her worthless husband, and unable to escape. *'''Millie Bush''' was "a mean, ugly little eight-year-old" girl voted to receive gold braces to straighten her teeth by the Marxist "family" committee who determined how pay was allocated at The Twentieth Century Motor Company. Her teeth are later knocked out by a man denied an allowance by the committee to purchase the things he valued. *'''Emma Chalmers''', Kip Chalmers' mother, gains some influence after his death. Known as "Kip's Ma," she starts a soybean-growing project in Louisiana and commandeers thousands of railcars to move the harvest. As a result, the year's wheat crop from Minnesota never reaches the rest of the country, but instead rots in storage; also, the soybean crop is lost, having been reaped too early. *'''Kip Chalmers''' is a Washington man who has decided to run for election as Legislator from California. On the way to his campaign, the Taggart Transcontinental train that is carrying him encounters a split rail, resulting in the destruction of its diesel engine. His demands lead to a coal-burning steam engine being attached to his train in its stead and used to pull it through an eight-mile tunnel. The result is the suffocation of all passengers and the destruction of the Taggart Tunnel. *'''Dan Conway''' is the middle-aged president of the Phoenix-Durango railroad. Running a railroad is just about the only thing he knows. When the Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule is used to drive his business out of [[Colorado]], he loses the will to fight, and resigns himself to a quiet life of books and fishing. *'''Ken Danagger''' owns Danagger Coal in Pennsylvania. He helps Hank Rearden illegally make Rearden Metal, then later decides to quit and join Galt's strike moments before Dagny arrives to try to persuade him otherwise. *'''Quentin Daniels''' is an enterprising engineer hired by Dagny Taggart to reconstruct John Galt's motor. Partway through this process, Quentin withdraws his effort for the same reasons John Galt himself had. Dagny's pursuit of Quentin leads her to Galt's Gulch. *'''Sebastian d'Anconia''' was the 16th (or 17th) Century founder of the d'Anconia dynasty. Escaped from Spain because of expressing his opinions too freely and coming in conflict with the [[Inquisition]], leaving behind a palace and his beloved. Started a small mine in South America, which became the beginning of a mining empire and a new fortune (and a new palace). Eventually sent for his beloved who had waited for him many years. He is the role model which Francisco d'Anconia looks to, as Dagny Taggart looks to Nathaniel Taggart. Francisco remarks that their respective ancestors would have liked each other. *'''Balph Eubank''' is called "the literary leader of the age", despite the fact that no book he has written has sold more than 3,000 copies. He complains that it is disgraceful that artists are treated as peddlers, and that there should be a law limiting the sales of books to 10,000 copies. He is a [[misogynist]] who thinks it disgusting that Dagny Taggart is a railroad vice-president. *The '''Fishwife''' is one of the strikers, who earns her living by providing the fish for Hammond’s grocery market; she is described as having "dark, disheveled hair and large eyes", and is a writer. Galt says she "wouldn't be published outside. She believes that when one deals with words, one deals with the mind." According to Barbara Branden in her book ''[[The Passion of Ayn Rand]]'', "The [[Fishwife]] is Ayn's [[List of Hitchcock cameo appearances|Hitchcock-like]] appearance in ''Atlas Shrugged''."<ref name="Branden1986">{{cite book|author=Barbara Branden|title=The passion of Ayn Rand|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B-AEAQAAIAAJ|accessdate=24 October 2010|date=20 May 1986|publisher=Doubleday|page=229}}</ref> So says too Leonard Peikoff.<ref>{{cite web|author=Leonard Peikoff |url=http://www.peikoff.com/2012/09/10/in-atlas-shrugged-when-john-is-giving-dagny-the-tour |title=In Atlas Shrugged, when John is giving Dagny the tour of the valley, there is a character briefly introduced who is identified as a writer and who matches Ayn Rand’s physical description. Did Ayn Rand intend this character to be a representation of herself? « Podcast « Peikoff |publisher=Peikoff.com |date=10 September 2012 |accessdate=21 September 2012}}</ref> *'''Lawrence Hammond''' runs Hammond Cars in Colorado, one of the few companies in existence that still produces top-quality vehicles. He eventually quits and joins the strike. *'''Richard Halley''' is Dagny Taggart's favorite composer, who mysteriously disappeared after the evening of his greatest triumph. Halley spent years as a struggling and unappreciated composer. At age 24, his opera ''[[Phaethon]]'' was performed for the first time, to an audience who booed and heckled it. After 19 years, ''Phaethon'' was performed again, but this time it was received to the greatest ovation the opera house had ever heard. The following day, Halley retired, sold the rights to his music, and disappeared. It is later revealed that he has joined the strike and settled in Galt's Gulch. *'''Mrs. William Hastings''' is the widow of the chief engineer at the Twentieth Century Motor Company. Her husband quit shortly after Galt did and joined the strike some years later. Her lead allows Dagny to find Hugh Akston. *'''Dr. Thomas Hendricks''' is a famous brain surgeon who developed a new method of preventing strokes. He joined Galt's strike when the American medical system was put under government control. *'''Tinky Holloway''' is one of the "looters" and is frequently referred to and quoted by other characters in the story, but he has only one major appearance: during the Washington meeting with Hank Rearden. *'''Lee Hunsacker''' is in charge of a company called Amalgamated Service when takes over the Twentieth Century Motor Company. He files a lawsuit that eventually leads to Midas Mulligan and Judge Narragansett joining the strike. A failed businessman, he laments constantly that no-one ever gave him a chance. *'''Gwen Ives''' is Hank Rearden's secretary. *'''Owen Kellogg''' is Assistant to the Manager of the Taggart Terminal in New York. He catches Dagny Taggart's eye as one of the few competent men on staff. After seeing the sorry state of the Ohio Division, she decides to make him its new Superintendent. However, as soon as she returns to New York, Kellogg informs her that he is quitting his job. Owen Kellogg eventually reaches, and settles in, Galt's Gulch. *'''Gilbert Keith-Worthing''' is a British novelist of erstwhile fame, now neglected but still considered a "walking classic". Rand introduces him only for a few pages as a guest of Kip Chalmers ("for no reason that either of them could discover") to then implicitly have him asphyxiated in the Tunnel catastrophe, after giving some statements. *'''Fred Kinnan''' is a labor leader and member of the looter cabal. Unlike the others, however, Kinnan is straightforward and honest about his purpose. Kinnan is the only one to openly state the true motivations of himself and his fellow conspirators. At the end of Galt's three-hour speech, he expresses admiration for the man, as he says what he means. Despite this, Kinnan admits that he is one of the people Galt is out to destroy. *'''Paul Larkin''' is an unsuccessful, middle-aged businessman, a friend of the Rearden family. He meets with the other Looters to work out a plan to bring Rearden down. James Taggart knows he is friends with Hank Rearden and challenges his loyalty, and Larkin assures Taggart that he will go along with them. *'''Eugene Lawson''' heads the Community Bank of Madison, then gets a job with the government when it his bank goes bankrupt. One of the looter's cabal, he is a collectivist who abhors production and money-making. *'''Mort Liddy''' is a [[hack writer|hack]] composer who writes trite scores for movies and modern symphonies to which no one listens. He believes melody is a primitive vulgarity. He is one of Lillian Rearden's friends and a member of the cultural elite. *'''Clifton Locey''' is a friend of Jim Taggart who takes the position of vice-president of operation when Dagny Taggart quits. *'''Pat Logan''' is the engineer on the first run of the John Galt Line. He later strikes. *'''Kay Ludlow''' is a beautiful actress and the wife of Ragnar Danneskjöld. *'''Dick McNamara''' is a contractor who finished the San Sebastian Line. Dagny Taggart plans to hire him to lay the new Rearden Metal track for the Rio Norte Line, but before she does so, he mysteriously disappears. She later discovers that he has joined the strike and settled in Galt's Gulch. *'''Cuffy Meigs''' is the Director of Unification for the railroad business. He carries a pistol and a lucky rabbit's foot, and he dresses in a military uniform, and has been described as "impervious to thought". Meigs seizes control of Project X and accidentally destroys it, demolishing the country's last railroad bridge across the Mississippi River and killing himself, his men, and Dr. Stadler. *'''Dave Mitchum''' is a state-hired superintendent of the Colorado Division of Taggart Transcontinental. He is partially responsible for the Taggart Tunnel disaster. *'''Chick Morrison''' holds the position of "Morale Conditioner" in the government. He quits when society begins to collapse and flees to a stronghold in Tennessee. His fellow looters consider it unlikely that he will survive. *'''Horace Bussby Mowen''' is the president of the Amalgamated Switch and Signal Company, Inc. of Connecticut. He is a businessman who sees nothing wrong with the moral code that is destroying society and would never dream of saying he is in business for any reason other than the good of society. Dagny Taggart hires Mowen to produce switches made of Rearden Metal. He is reluctant to build anything with this unproven technology, and has to be cajoled into accepting the contract. When pressured by public opinion, he discontinues production of the switches, forcing Dagny to find an alternative source. *'''Midas Mulligan''' is a wealthy banker who mysteriously disappeared in protest after he was given a court order to lend money to an incompetent applicant. When the order came down, he liquidated his entire business, paid off his depositors, and joined Galt's strike. He is the legal owner of the land where Galt's Gulch is located. Mulligan's birth name was Michael, but he had it legally changed after a news article called him "[[Midas]]" in a derogatory fashion, which Mulligan took as a compliment. *'''Judge Narragansett''' is an American jurist who ruled in favor of Midas Mulligan during the case brought against him by the incompetent loan applicant. When Narragansett's ruling was reversed on appeal, he retired and joined the strike. At the end of the novel, he is seen editing the [[United States Constitution]], crossing out the contradicting amendments of it and adding an amendment to prohibit Congress from passing laws that restrain freedom of trade. *'''Ben Nealy''' is a railroad contractor whom Dagny Taggart hires to replace the track on the Rio Norte Line with Rearden Metal. Nealy is incompetent, but Dagny can find no one better in all the country. Nealy believes that anything can get done with enough muscle power. He sees no role for intelligence in human achievement. He relies on Dagny and Ellis Wyatt to run things, and resents them for doing it, because it appears to him like they are just bossing people around. *'''Ted Nielsen''' is the head of Nielsen Motors. He eventually goes on strike, along with most of the other industrialist "producer" types, by closing his motor factory. Dagny later finds him when she visits Galt's Gulch for the first time. *'''Betty Pope''' is a wealthy socialite who is having a meaningless sexual affair with James Taggart. She is deliberately crude in a way that casts ridicule on her high social position. *'''Dr. Potter''' holds some undefined position with the State Science Institute. He is sent to try to obtain the rights to Rearden Metal. *'''Dr. Simon Pritchett''' is the prestigious head of the Department of Philosophy at Patrick Henry University and is considered the leading philosopher of the age. He believes that man is nothing but a collection of chemicals, reason is a superstition, it is futile to seek meaning in life, and the duty of a philosopher is to show that nothing can be understood. *'''Rearden's mother''', whose name is not mentioned, lives with Rearden at his home in Philadelphia. She is involved in charity work, and berates Rearden whenever she can. She dotes on her weak son Philip Rearden. *'''Philip Rearden''' is the younger brother of Hank Rearden. He lives in his brother's home in Philadelphia and is completely dependent on him. He is resentful of his brother's charity. *'''Dwight Sanders''' owns Sanders Aircraft, a producer of high-quality airplanes, and joins the strike. *'''Bertram Scudder''' is an editorial writer for the magazine ''The Future''. He typically bashes business and businessmen, but he never says anything specific in his articles, relying on innuendo, sneers, and denunciation. He wrote a hatchet job on Hank Rearden called ''The Octopus''. He is also vocal in support of the Equalization of Opportunity Bill. Scudder claims that the most important thing in life is "brother love" but seems to have nothing but hatred for those around him. He loses his job after Dagny Taggart reveals her affair with Hank Rearden over air on his radio show. *'''Claude Slagenhop''' is president of political organization Friends of Global Progress and one of Lillian Rearden's friends. He believes that ideas are just air, that this is no time for talk, but for action. Global Progress is a sponsor of the Equalization of Opportunity Bill. *'''Gerald and Ivy Starnes''' are the two surviving children of Jed Starnes, the founder of the Twentieth Century Motor Company. Together with their since-deceased brother Eric, they instituted a communistic payment-and-benefits program that drove the company into bankruptcy. Gerald, a dying alcoholic, and Ivy, a [[New Age|pseudo-Buddhist]] ascetic, continue to insist that the plan was perfect and that the failure of their father's company was entirely due to the workers. Eric was a weak, attention-seeking man with a pathological desire to be loved. He committed suicide after the woman he loved married another man. Gerald claims that he always acted for the good of the employees, but he was vain and incompetent and often threw lavish parties using company funds. Ivy, on the other hand, is described as a sadist who relishes seeing others in poverty, but who has no desire for wealth of her own. *'''Andrew Stockton''' runs the Stockton Foundry in Stockton, Colorado. When he joins the strike, he opens a foundry in Galt's Gulch. *'''Nathaniel "Nat" Taggart''' was the founder of Taggart Transcontinental. He built his railroad without any government handouts, and ran the business for no other reason than to turn a profit. He began as a penniless adventurer and ended up as one of the wealthiest men in the country. He never earned money by force or fraud (except for bribing government officials and throwing an opponent down a flight of stairs), and never apologized for becoming wealthy and successful. He was one of the most hated men of his time. Dagny is often inspired by looking at a statue of Nat Taggart at the railroad headquarters, and draws a dollar sign on its base as a signal to Francisco when she is ready to join Galt's strike. It is suspected that he is modeled after James Jerome Hill, builder of the Great Northern Railroad. *'''Mr. Thompson''' is the "[[Head of State|Head of the State]]" for the United States. He is not particularly intelligent and has a very undistinguished look. He knows politics, however, and is a master of public relations and back-room deals. Rand's notes indicate that she modeled him on President [[Harry S. Truman]], and that she deliberately decided not to call him "President of the United States" as this title has "honorable connotations" which the character does not deserve. *'''Lester Tuck''' is the press agent for Kip Chalmers. *'''Clem Weatherby''' is a government representative on the board of directors of Taggart Transcontinental. Dagny considers him the least bad of the government representatives, since he does have some real knowledge on the running of trains. She notices, however, that he is the least appreciated by his own bosses. *The '''Wet Nurse (Tony)''' is a young bureaucrat sent by the government to watch over Rearden’s mills. Though he starts out as a cynical follower of the looters’ code, his experience at the mills transforms him, and he comes to respect and admire the producers. He is shot attempting to inform Hank Rearden about a government plot, but does succeed in warning Rearden just before he dies. *'''Ellis Wyatt''' is the head of Wyatt Oil. He has almost single-handedly revived the economy of Colorado by discovering a new process for extracting more oil from what were thought to be exhausted oil wells. When first introduced, he is aggressive towards Dagny, whom he does not yet know and whom he blames for what are, in fact, her brother's policies which directly threaten his business. When the government passes laws and decrees which make it impossible for him to continue, he sets all his oil wells on fire, leaving a jeering note: "I am leaving it as I found it. Take over. It's yours." One particular burning well that resists all efforts to extinguish it becomes known as "Wyatt's Torch". Later Dagny meets him in Galt's Gulch. ==Notes== {{Reflist}} ==References== *{{cite book |title=The New Ayn Rand Companion |last=Gladstein |first=Mimi Reisel |location=Westport, Connecticut |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=1999 |isbn=0-313-30321-5 |oclc=40359365}} *{{cite book |title=Essays on Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged |editor-last=Mayhew |editor-first=Robert |location=Lanham, Maryland |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7391-2779-7}} *{{cite book|title=Atlas Shrugged | last1=Rand | first1=Ayn | last2=Peikoff | first2=Leonard | location=University of Michigan | publisher=Dutton | year=1992 | isbn=0-525-93418-9}} *{{cite book |title=Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged: A Philosophical and Literary Companion |editor-last=Younkins |editor-first=Edward W. |location=Burlington, Vermont |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |year=2007 |isbn=0-7546-5533-4}} ==External links== *[https://web.archive.org/web/20141007220125/http://www.atlaslisted.com/ Website with comprehensive list of individuals mentioned in Atlas Shrugged] {{Ayn Rand|state=autocollapse}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Atlas Shrugged Characters, List of}} [[Category:Atlas Shrugged characters| ]] [[Category:Fictional socialites]] [[Category:Lists of literary characters]] [[Category:Fictional characters introduced in 1957]] rialt2bnoqqplx9mzyhdditjlt76dqg 0 369 47338120 46943215 2006-04-07T01:13:13Z IrishJew 1177728 Redirect to Atlas Shrugged, moved content. See talk page. wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged]] 8y6kuee175vma542zlu1xj89yrdvova 0 569 860182520 860182412 2018-09-18T21:49:36Z Nick Moyes 11378440 Reverted 1 edit by [[Special:Contributions/2601:246:5000:337:55DB:31B:D1B2:E941|2601:246:5000:337:55DB:31B:D1B2:E941]] ([[User talk:2601:246:5000:337:55DB:31B:D1B2:E941|talk]]): Irrelevant edit. ([[WP:TW|TW]]) wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|anthropology in the 20th and 21st centuries|earlier development|History of anthropology|other uses}} {{short description|The science of human behavior and societies}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Anthropology}} '''Anthropology''' is the study of [[human]]s and [[human behavior]] and [[society|societies]] in the past and present.<ref name=oed>{{cite web | title=anthropology | url=http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/anthropology?q=anthropology |work=Oxford Dictionaries | publisher=Oxford University Press | accessdate=10 August 2013}}</ref><ref name=eb>{{cite web | url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/27505/anthropology | title=anthropology | work=Encyclopædia Britannica | accessdate=23 March 2015}}</ref><ref name=aaa>{{cite web | title=What is Anthropology? | url=http://www.aaanet.org/about/whatisanthropology.cfm | publisher=[[American Anthropological Association]] | accessdate=10 August 2013}}</ref> [[Social anthropology]] and [[cultural anthropology]]<ref name=oed/><ref name=eb/><ref name=aaa/> study the norms and values of societies. [[Linguistic anthropology]] studies how language affects social life. [[Biological anthropology|Biological or physical anthropology]]<ref name=oed/><ref name=eb/><ref name=aaa/> studies the biological development of humans. [[Archaeology]], which studies past human cultures through investigation of physical evidence, is thought of as a branch of anthropology in the United States,<ref>{{citation| title=Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge |first1=William A. |last= Haviland |first2= Harald E. L. |last2= Prins |first3=Bunny |last3=McBride |first4=Dana |last4=Walrath |publisher=Cengage Learning |year= 2010 |edition=13th |isbn=0-495-81082-7}}</ref> while in Europe, it is viewed as a discipline in its own right or grouped under other related disciplines, such as history. ==Origin and development of the term== [[File:Sahagun.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Bernardino de Sahagún]] is considered to be the founder of modern anthropology<ref>https://muse.jhu.edu/article/43462</ref>]] {{main|History of anthropology}} The abstract noun ''[[wikt:anthropology|anthropology]]'' is first attested in reference to [[history]].<ref name=oed2/>{{refn|group=n|[[Richard Harvey (astrologer)|Richard Harvey]]'s 1593 ''Philadelphus'', a defense of the legend of [[Brutus of Britain|Brutus]] in [[History of Britain|British history]], includes the passage "Genealogy or issue which they had, Artes which they studied, Actes which they did. This part of History is named Anthropology."}} Its present use first appeared in [[German Renaissance|Renaissance]] [[Holy Roman Empire|Germany]] in the works of [[Magnus Hundt]] and [[Otto Casmann]].<ref name="Medicine">{{cite book|author=Israel Institute of the History of Medicine|title=Koroth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lev_H1Ie0zcC&pg=PA19|publisher=BRILL|page=19|id=GGKEY:34XGYHLZ7XY}}</ref> Their [[New Latin]] ''{{lang|la|anthropologia}}'' derived from the [[combining form]]s of the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] words ''ánthrōpos'' ({{lang|grc|{{linktext|ἄνθρωπος}}}}, "[[human]]") and ''lógos'' ({{lang|grc|{{linktext|λόγος}}}}, "[[science|study]]").<ref name=oed2>''Oxford English Dictionary'', 1st&nbsp;ed. "anthropology, ''n.''" Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1885.</ref> (Its adjectival form appeared in the works of [[Aristotle]].)<ref name=oed2/> It began to be used in English, possibly via [[French language|French]] ''{{lang|fr|Anthropologie}}'', by the early 18th century.<ref name=oed2/>{{refn|group=n|[[John Kersey]]'s 1706 edition of ''[[The New World of English Words]]'' includes the definition "''Anthropology'', a Discourse or Description of Man, or of a Man's Body."}} ===Through the 19th century=== In 1647, the Bartholins, founders of the [[University of Copenhagen]], defined ''{{lang|fr|l'anthropologie}}'' as follows:<ref name=frenchy>{{cite book | last1=Bartholin | first1=Caspar | last2=Bartholin | first2=Thomas | author-link1=Caspar Bartholin the Younger | author-link2=Thomas Bartholin | others=Translated from the Latin by Abr. Du Prat | year=1647 | title=Institutions anatomiques de Gaspar Bartholin, augmentées et enrichies pour la seconde fois tant des opinions et observations nouvelles des modernes | location=Paris | publisher=M. Hénault et J. Hénault | chapter=Preface }}</ref> <blockquote> Anthropology, that is to say the science that treats of man, is divided ordinarily and with reason into Anatomy, which considers the body and the parts, and Psychology, which speaks of the soul.{{refn|group=n|In French: ''L'Anthropologie, c'est à dire la science qui traite de l'homme, est divisée ordinairment & avec raison en l'Anatomie, qui considere le corps & les parties, et en la Psychologie, qui parle de l'Ame''.<ref name=frenchy/>}} </blockquote> Sporadic use of the term for some of the subject matter occurred subsequently, such as the use by [[Étienne Serres]] in 1839 to describe the natural history, or paleontology, of man, based on comparative anatomy, and the creation of a chair in anthropology and ethnography in 1850 at the [[National Museum of Natural History (France)]] by [[Jean Louis Armand de Quatrefages de Bréau]]. Various short-lived organizations of anthropologists had already been formed. The [[Société Ethnologique de Paris]], the first to use [[Ethnology]], was formed in 1839. Its members were primarily anti-slavery activists. When slavery was abolished in France in 1848 the Société was abandoned. Meanwhile, the Ethnological Society of New York, currently the [[American Ethnological Society]], was founded on its model in 1842, as well as the [[Ethnological Society of London]] in 1843, a break-away group of the [[Aborigines' Protection Society]].<ref name=Schiller131>{{harvnb|Schiller|1979|pp=130–132}}</ref> These anthropologists of the times were liberal, anti-slavery, and pro-[[Human rights|human-rights activists.]] They maintained international connections. Anthropology and many other current fields are the intellectual results of the comparative methods developed in the earlier 19th century. Theorists in such diverse fields as [[comparative anatomy|anatomy]], [[Comparative method (linguistics)|linguistics]], and [[Ethnology]], making feature-by-feature comparisons of their subject matters, were beginning to suspect that similarities between animals, languages, and folkways were the result of processes or laws unknown to them then.<ref>{{harvnb|Schiller|1979|p=221}}</ref> For them, the publication of [[Charles Darwin]]'s ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' was the epiphany of everything they had begun to suspect. Darwin himself arrived at his conclusions through comparison of species he had seen in [[agronomy]] and in the wild. Darwin and Wallace unveiled evolution in the late 1850s. There was an immediate rush to bring it into the social sciences. [[Paul Broca]] in Paris was in the process of breaking away from the [[Société de biologie]] to form the first of the explicitly anthropological societies, the [[Society of Anthropology of Paris|Société d'Anthropologie de Paris]], meeting for the first time in Paris in 1859.<ref name=Fletcher>{{cite book | first=Robert | last=Fletcher | chapter=Paul Broca and the French School of Anthropology | title=The Saturday Lectures, Delivered in the Lecture-room of the U. S. National Museum under the Auspices of the Anthropological and Biological Societies of Washington in March and April 1882 | year=1882 | location=Boston; Washington, D.C. | publisher=D. Lothrop & Co.; Judd & Detweiler | url={{Google books|9dEJAQAAIAAJ|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref>{{refn|group=n|As [[Robert Fletcher (anthropologist)|Fletcher]] points out, the French society was by no means the first to include anthropology or parts of it as its topic. Previous organizations used other names. The German Anthropological Association of St. Petersburg, however, in fact met first in 1861, but due to the death of its founder never met again.<ref name=Fletcher/>}} When he read Darwin, he became an immediate convert to ''Transformisme'', as the French called [[evolutionism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Schiller|1979|p=143}}</ref> His definition now became "the study of the human group, considered as a whole, in its details, and in relation to the rest of nature".<ref>{{harvnb|Schiller|1979|p=136}}</ref> Broca, being what today would be called a [[Neurosurgery|neurosurgeon]], had taken an interest in the pathology of speech. He wanted to localize the difference between man and the other animals, which appeared to reside in speech. He discovered the speech center of the human brain, today called [[Broca's area]] after him. His interest was mainly in [[Biological anthropology]], but a German philosopher specializing in psychology, [[Theodor Waitz]], took up the theme of general and social anthropology in his six-volume work, entitled ''Die Anthropologie der Naturvölker'', 1859–1864. The title was soon translated as "The Anthropology of Primitive Peoples". The last two volumes were published posthumously. Waitz defined anthropology as "the science of the nature of man". By nature he meant matter animated by "the Divine breath";<ref>{{harvnb|Waitz|1863|p=1}}</ref> i.e., he was an [[Animism|animist]]. Following Broca's lead, Waitz points out that anthropology is a new field, which would gather material from other fields, but would differ from them in the use of comparative anatomy, physiology, and psychology to differentiate man from "the animals nearest to him". He stresses that the data of comparison must be empirical, gathered by experimentation.<ref>{{harvnb|Waitz|1863|p=5}}</ref> The history of civilization, as well as ethnology, are to be brought into the comparison. It is to be presumed fundamentally that the species, man, is a unity, and that "the same laws of thought are applicable to all men".<ref>{{harvnb|Waitz|1863|pp=11–12}}</ref> Waitz was influential among the British ethnologists. In 1863 the explorer [[Richard Francis Burton]] and the speech therapist [[James Hunt (speech therapist)|James Hunt]] broke away from the [[Ethnological Society of London]] to form the [[Anthropological Society of London]], which henceforward would follow the path of the new anthropology rather than just ethnology. It was the 2nd society dedicated to general anthropology in existence. Representatives from the French ''Société'' were present, though not Broca. In his keynote address, printed in the first volume of its new publication, ''The Anthropological Review'', Hunt stressed the work of Waitz, adopting his definitions as a standard.<ref name=hunt>{{harvnb|Hunt|1863|loc=Introductory Address}}</ref>{{refn|group=n|Hunt's choice of theorists does not exclude the numerous other theorists that were beginning to publish a large volume of anthropological studies.<ref name=hunt/>}} Among the first associates were the young [[Edward Burnett Tylor]], inventor of [[cultural anthropology]], and his brother [[Alfred Tylor]], a geologist. Previously Edward had referred to himself as an ethnologist; subsequently, an anthropologist. Similar organizations in other countries followed: The Anthropological Society of Madrid (1865), the [[American Anthropological Association]] in 1902, the Anthropological Society of Vienna (1870), the Italian Society of Anthropology and Ethnology (1871), and many others subsequently. The majority of these were evolutionist. One notable exception was the [[Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte|Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology, and Prehistory]] (1869) founded by [[Rudolph Virchow]], known for his vituperative attacks on the evolutionists. Not religious himself, he insisted that Darwin's conclusions lacked empirical foundation. During the last three decades of the 19th century, a proliferation of anthropological societies and associations occurred, most independent, most publishing their own journals, and all international in membership and association. The major theorists belonged to these organizations. They supported the gradual osmosis of anthropology curricula into the major institutions of higher learning. By 1898 the American Association for the Advancement of Science was able to report that 48 educational institutions in 13 countries had some curriculum in anthropology. None of the 75 faculty members were under a department named anthropology.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Extent of Instruction in Anthropology in Europe and the United States | first=George Grant | last=Maccurdy | journal=Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science | year=1899 | pages=382–390 | url={{Google books|PA385&dq|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref> ===20th and 21st centuries=== This meagre statistic expanded in the 20th century to comprise anthropology departments in the majority of the world's higher educational institutions, many thousands in number. Anthropology has diversified from a few major subdivisions to dozens more. Practical Anthropology, the use of anthropological knowledge and technique to solve specific problems, has arrived; for example, the presence of buried victims might stimulate the use of a forensic archaeologist to recreate the final scene. The organization has reached global level. For example, the World Council of Anthropological Associations (WCAA), "a network of national, regional and international associations that aims to promote worldwide communication and cooperation in anthropology", currently contains members from about three dozen nations.<ref>{{cite web | title=Home | publisher=World Council of Anthropological Associations | accessdate=29 March 2015 | url= http://www.wcaanet.org/index.shtml}}</ref> Since the work of [[Franz Boas]] and [[Bronisław Malinowski]] in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, ''social'' anthropology in Great Britain and [[cultural anthropology|''cultural'' anthropology]] in the US have been distinguished from other social sciences by its emphasis on [[cross-cultural studies|cross-cultural comparisons]], long-term in-depth examination of context, and the importance it places on [[Participant observation|participant-observation]] or experiential immersion in the area of research. Cultural anthropology, in particular, has emphasized [[cultural relativism]], [[holism]], and the use of findings to frame cultural critiques.<ref name="Hylland Eriksen 2004 p. 79">Hylland Eriksen, Thomas. (2004) "What is Anthropology" Pluto. London. p. 79. {{ISBN|0745323200}}.</ref> This has been particularly prominent in the United States, from [[Boasian anthropology|Boas' arguments]] against 19th-century racial [[ideology]], through [[Margaret Mead]]'s advocacy for [[gender equality]] and sexual liberation, to current criticisms of [[post-colonialism|post-colonial]] oppression and promotion of [[multiculturalism]]. [[Ethnography]] is one of its primary [[research design]]s as well as the text that is generated from anthropological fieldwork.<ref name="Ingold1994p331"/><ref name="Spiro1987">On varieties of cultural relativism in anthropology, see Spiro, Melford E. (1987) "Some Reflections on Cultural Determinism and Relativism with Special Reference to Emotion and Reason," in ''Culture and Human Nature: Theoretical Papers of Melford E. Spiro''. Edited by B. Kilborne and L. L. Langness, pp.&nbsp;32–58. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</ref><ref name="Heyck1997">{{cite journal|last1=Heyck|first1=Thomas William|last2=Stocking|first2=George W.|last3=Goody|first3=Jack|title=After Tylor: British Social Anthropology 1888–1951.|journal=The American Historical Review|volume=102|issue=5|year=1997|pages=1486–1488|issn=0002-8762|doi=10.2307/2171126|jstor=2171126}}</ref> In Great Britain and the Commonwealth countries, the British tradition of [[social anthropology]] tends to dominate. In the United States, anthropology has traditionally been divided into the [[four field approach]] developed by [[Franz Boas]] in the early 20th century: [[Biological anthropology|''biological'' or ''physical'' anthropology]]; [[social anthropology|''social'']], [[cultural anthropology|''cultural'']], or [[sociocultural anthropology|''sociocultural'' anthropology]]; and [[archaeology]]; plus [[linguistic anthropology|anthropological linguistics]]. These fields frequently overlap but tend to use different methodologies and techniques. European countries with overseas colonies tended to practice more [[ethnology]] (a term coined and defined by [[Adam František Kollár|Adam F. Kollár]] in 1783). It is sometimes referred to as sociocultural anthropology in the parts of the world that were influenced by the European tradition.<ref>Layton, Robert (1998) ''An Introduction to Theory in Anthropology''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> ==Fields== {{further|American anthropology}} Anthropology is a global discipline involving humanities, social sciences and natural sciences. Anthropology builds upon knowledge from [[natural science]]s, including the discoveries about the origin and evolution of ''[[Human|Homo sapiens]]'', human physical traits, [[human behavior]], the variations among different groups of humans, how the evolutionary past of ''Homo sapiens'' has influenced its social organization and culture, and from [[social science]]s, including the organization of human social and cultural relations, institutions, social conflicts, etc.<ref>[http://www.aaanet.org/about/WhatisAnthropology.cfm What is Anthropology – American Anthropological Association]. Aaanet.org. Retrieved on 2016-11-02.</ref><ref>[https://www.livinganthropologically.com/introduction-to-anthropology/what-is-anthropology-2013/ What is Anthropology]. Living Anthropologically. Retrieved on 2017-17-01.</ref> Early anthropology originated in Classical Greece and Persia and studied and tried to understand observable cultural diversity.<ref>Harris, Marvin. ''The Rise of Anthropological Theory''. Alta Mira Press. 2000 (revised from 1968); Harris, Marvin. ''Theories of Culture in Postmodern Times. Altamira. 1998''</ref><ref name=Ahmed>{{Cite journal | last1 = Ahmed | first1 = Akbar S. | year = 1984 | title = Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist | journal = RAIN | volume = 60 | issue = 60| pages = 9–10 | doi = 10.2307/3033407 | jstor = 3033407 }}</ref> As such, anthropology has been central in the development of several new (late 20th century) interdisciplinary fields such as [[cognitive science]],<ref>{{cite journal |title=Language, Anthropology and Cognitive Science |author=Bloch, Maurice |authorlink=Maurice Bloch |jstor=2803828 |year=1991 |publisher=London School of Economics and Political Science |pages=183–198 |volume=26 |issue=2 |journal=Man |doi=10.2307/2803828 |ref=harv }}</ref> [[global studies]], and various [[ethnic studies]]. According to [[Clifford Geertz]], {{quotation|"anthropology is perhaps the last of the great nineteenth-century conglomerate disciplines still for the most part organizationally intact. Long after natural history, moral philosophy, philology, and political economy have dissolved into their specialized successors, it has remained a diffuse assemblage of ethnology, human biology, comparative linguistics, and prehistory, held together mainly by the vested interests, sunk costs, and administrative habits of academia, and by a romantic image of comprehensive scholarship."<ref>{{cite book|title=Unwrapping the Sacred Bundle|year=2005|publisher=Duke University Press|location=Durham and London|pages=Back Cover|editor1=Daniel A. Segal |editor2=Sylvia J. Yanagisako |isbn=0822386844}}</ref>}} [[Sociocultural anthropology]] has been heavily influenced by [[structuralism|structuralist]] and postmodern theories, as well as a shift toward the analysis of modern societies. During the 1970s and 1990s, there was an [[epistemological]] shift away from the [[positivist]] traditions that had largely informed the discipline.<ref>Geertz, Behar, Clifford & James</ref>{{Page needed|date=October 2012}} During this shift, enduring questions about the nature and production of knowledge came to occupy a central place in cultural and social anthropology. In contrast, archaeology and biological anthropology remained largely positivist. Due to this difference in epistemology, the four sub-fields of anthropology have lacked cohesion over the last several decades. ===Sociocultural=== {{main|Cultural anthropology|Social anthropology|Sociocultural anthropology}} Sociocultural anthropology draws together the principle axes of [[cultural anthropology]] and [[social anthropology]]. Cultural anthropology is the comparative study of the manifold ways in which people ''make sense'' of the world around them, while social anthropology is the study of the ''relationships'' among individuals and groups.<ref name="Ingold1994pxv">{{cite encyclopedia | title=GENERAL INTRODUCTION | encyclopedia=Companion Encyclopedia of Anthropology | author=Ingold, Tim |authorlink=Tim Ingold| year=1994 | pages=xv |publisher= Taylor & Francis|isbn=0415021375}}</ref> Cultural anthropology is more related to [[philosophy]], literature and [[the arts]] (how one's culture affects the experience for self and group, contributing to a more complete understanding of the people's knowledge, customs, and institutions), while social anthropology is more related to [[sociology]] and history.<ref name="Ingold1994pxv"/> In that, it helps develop an understanding of social structures, typically of others and other populations (such as minorities, subgroups, dissidents, etc.). There is no hard-and-fast distinction between them, and these categories overlap to a considerable degree. Inquiry in sociocultural anthropology is guided in part by [[cultural relativism]], the attempt to understand other societies in terms of their own cultural symbols and values.<ref name="Ingold1994p331">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Introduction to culture | encyclopedia=Companion Encyclopedia of Anthropology | author=Ingold, Tim |authorlink=Tim Ingold | year=1994 | page=331 |isbn=0415021375}}</ref> Accepting other cultures in their own terms moderates reductionism in cross-cultural comparison.<ref name="Ingold1996p18">{{cite book | title=Key Debates In Anthropology | author=[[Tim Ingold]] | year=1996| page=18|quote=the traditional anthropological project of cross-cultural or cross-societal comparison}}</ref> This project is often accommodated in the field of [[ethnography]]. Ethnography can refer to both a methodology and the product of ethnographic research, i.e. an ethnographic [[monograph]]. As a methodology, ethnography is based upon long-term fieldwork within a community or other research site. [[Participant observation]] is one of the foundational methods of social and cultural anthropology.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bernard |first=H. Russell |year=2002 |url=http://www.antropocaos.com.ar/Russel-Research-Method-in-Anthropology.pdf |title=Research Methods in Anthropology |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002847/http://www.antropocaos.com.ar/Russel-Research-Method-in-Anthropology.pdf |archive-date=4 November 2016 |publisher=[[Altamira Press]] |page=322 |isbn=0759108684 |format=PDF}}</ref> [[Ethnology]] involves the systematic comparison of different cultures. The process of participant-observation can be especially helpful to understanding a culture from an [[emic]] (conceptual, vs. [[etic]], or technical) point of view. The study of [[kinship]] and [[social organization]] is a central focus of sociocultural anthropology, as kinship is a [[human universal]]. Sociocultural anthropology also covers [[Economic anthropology|economic]] and [[Political anthropology|political organization]], law and conflict resolution, patterns of consumption and exchange, material culture, technology, infrastructure, gender relations, ethnicity, childrearing and socialization, religion, myth, symbols, values, etiquette, worldview, sports, music, nutrition, recreation, games, food, festivals, and language (which is also the object of study in linguistic anthropology). Comparison across cultures is a key element of method in sociocultural anthropology, including the industrialized (and de-industrialized) West. Cultures in the [[Standard Cross-Cultural Sample]] (SCCS)<ref name="MurdockWhite1969">{{cite journal | title=Standard Cross-Cultural Sample | journal=Ethnology | author=[[George Peter Murdock]] | author2=Douglas R. White | year=1969 | volume=9 | pages=329–369 | ref=harv | url=http://repositories.cdlib.org/imbs/socdyn/wp/Standard_Cross-Cultural_Sample | authorlink2=Douglas R. White}}</ref> of world societies are: {| class="wikitable" |- ! Africa [[File:African sccs cultures.jpg|border|30px]] | {{hlist| [[Nama people|Nama (Hottentot)]] | [[!Kung people|Kung (San)]] | [[Shangaan people|Thonga]] | [[Lozi people|Lozi]] | [[Southern Mbundu people|Mbundu]] | [[Suku people|Suku]] | [[Bemba people|Bemba]] | [[Nyakyusa people|Nyakyusa (Ngonde)]] | [[Hadza people|Hadza]] | [[Luguru people|Luguru]] | [[Kikuyu people|Kikuyu]] | [[Baganda|Ganda]] | [[Mbuti|Mbuti (Pygmies)]] | [[Mongo people|Nkundo (Mongo)]] | [[Banen]] | [[Tiv people|Tiv]] | [[Igbo people|Igbo]] | [[Fon people|Fon]] | [[Ashanti people|Ashanti (Twi)]] | [[Mende people|Mende]] | [[Bambara people|Bambara]] | [[Tallensi]] | [[Massa language|Massa]] | [[Azande]] | [[Otoro Nuba]] | [[Shilluk people|Shilluk]] | [[Mao languages|Mao]] | [[Maasai people|Maasai]] }} |- ! Circum-Mediterranean [[File:Circum-mediterannean sccs cultures.jpg|border|30px]] | {{hlist| [[Wolof people|Wolof]] | [[Songhai people|Songhai]] | [[Wodaabe|Wodaabe Fulani]] | [[Hausa people|Hausa]] | [[Fur people|Fur]] | [[Kingdom of Kaffa|Kaffa]] | [[Konso people|Konso]] | [[Somali people|Somali]] | [[Amhara people|Amhara]] | [[Bilen people|Bogo]] | [[Nubians|Kenuzi Nubian]] | [[Teda people|Teda]] | [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]] | [[Riffian people|Riffians]] | [[Fellah|Egyptians (Fellah)]] | [[Hebrews]] | [[Babylonia]]ns | [[Bedouin|Rwala Bedouin]] | [[Turkish people|Turks]] | [[Gheg Albanian|Gheg (Albanians)]] | [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] | [[Basque people|Basques]] | Irish | [[Sami people|Sami (Lapps)]] | [[Russians]] | [[Georgian people|Georgian (Iberian)]] |[[Abkhaz people|Abkhaz]] | [[Armenians]] | [[Kurdish people|Kurd]] }} |- ! East Eurasia [[File:East eurasian sccs cultures.jpg|border|30px]] | {{hlist| [[Nenets people|Yurak (Samoyed)]] | [[Basseri]] | [[Punjabi people|West Punjabi]] | [[Gondi people|Gond]] | [[Toda people|Toda]] | [[Santals|Santal]] | [[Uttar Pradesh]] | [[Burusho people|Burusho]] | [[Kazakhs|Kazak]] | [[Gujarati people|Gujarati]] | [[Bengalis|Bengali]] | [[Khalkha|Khalka Mongols]] | [[Yi people|Lolo]] | [[Lepcha people|Lepcha]] | [[Garo (tribe)|Garo]] | [[Mara people|Lakher]] | [[Bamar|Burmese]] | [[List of ethnic groups in Laos|Lamet]] | [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]] | [[List of ethnic groups in Vietnam|Rhade]] | [[Khmer people|Khmer]] | [[Thai people|Siamese]] | [[Semang]] | [[Nicobarese languages|Nicobarese]] | [[Andamanese]] | [[Vedda people|Vedda]] | [[Malagasy people|Tanala]] | [[Negeri Sembilan]] | [[Atayal people|Atayal]] | [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] | [[Manchu]] | [[Koreans]] | [[Japanese people|Japanese]] | [[Ainu people|Ainu]] | [[Nivkhs|Gilyak]] | [[Yukaghir]] }} |- ! Insular Pacific [[File:Insular pacific.jpg|border|30px]] | {{hlist| [[Javanese people|Javanese (Miao)]] | [[Balinese people|Balinese]] | [[Iban people|Iban]] | [[Badjau]] | [[Toraja]] | [[Tobelo language|Tobelorese]] | [[Alor Archipelago|Alorese]] | [[Tiwi people|Tiwi]] | [[Arrernte people|Aranda]] | [[Orokaiva people|Orokaiva]] | [[Kimam]] | [[Ekari language|Kapauku]] | [[Kwoma people|Kwoma]] | [[Manus Province|Manus]] | [[New Ireland Province|New Ireland]] | [[Trobriand Islands|Trobrianders]] | [[Bougainville Island|Siuai]] | [[Tikopia]] | [[Pentecost Island|Pentecost]] | [[Fijians|Mbau Fijians]] | [[Ajië language|Ajie]] | [[Māori people|Maori]] | [[Culture of the Marquesas Islands|Marquesans]] | [[Samoans|Western Samoans]] | [[Culture of Kiribati|Gilbertese]] | [[Marshall Islands|Marshallese]] | [[Chuuk State|Trukese]] | [[Yap]]ese | [[Palauan language|Palauans]] | [[Ifugao]] | [[Chukchi people|Chukchi]] }} |- ! North America [[File:North american sccs cultures.jpg|border|30px]] | {{hlist| [[Deg Hit'an|Ingalik]] | [[Aleut people|Aleut]] | [[Inuit|Copper Eskimo]] | [[Innu|Montagnais]] | [[Mi'kmaq people|Mi'kmaq]] | [[Saulteaux|Saulteaux (Ojibwa)]] | [[Slavey people|Slave]] | [[Kaska|Kaska (Nahane)]] | [[Eyak language|Eyak]] | [[Haida people|Haida]] | [[Nuxalk Nation|Bellacoola]] | [[Skokomish (tribe)|Twana]] | [[Yurok (tribe)|Yurok]] | [[Pomo people|Pomo]] | [[Yokut people|Yokuts]] | [[Northern Paiute]] | [[Klamath people|Klamath]] | [[Ktunaxa|Kutenai]] | [[Gros Ventres]] | [[Hidatsa]] | [[Pawnee people|Pawnee]] | [[Omaha (tribe)|Omaha (Dhegiha)]] | [[Wyandot people|Huron]] | [[Muscogee (Creek)|Creek]] | [[Natchez people|Natchez]] | [[Comanche]] | [[Chiricahua]] | [[Zuni language|Zuni]] | [[Havasupai]] | [[Tohono O'odham people|Tohono O'odham]] | [[Huichol people|Huichol]] | [[Aztec]] | [[Popoluca]] }} |- ! South America [[File:South america SCCS cultures.jpg|border|30px]] | {{hlist| [[K'iche' people|Quiché]] | [[Miskito people|Miskito (Mosquito)]] | [[Bribri people|Bribri (Talamanca)]] | [[Guna people|Cuna]] | [[Wayuu|Goajiro]] | [[Culture of Haiti|Haitians]] | [[Calinago]] | [[Warao people|Warrau (Warao)]] | [[Ya̧nomamö|Yanomamo]] | [[Kalina people|Carib]] | [[Saramaka|Saramacca]] | [[Munduruku]] | [[Tucano language|Cubeo (Tucano)]] | [[Cha'palaachi language|Cayapa]] | [[Jivaroan peoples|Jivaro]] | [[Amahuaca]] | [[Inca society|Inca]] | [[Aymara ethnic group|Aymara]] | [[Sirionó language|Siriono]] | [[Nambikwara|Nambicuara]] | [[Trumai people|Trumai]] | [[Gê peoples|Timbira]] | [[Tupi people|Tupinamba]] | [[Botocudo]] | [[Xavante people|Shavante]] | [[Kaingang people|Aweikoma]] | [[Guarani people|Cayua (Guarani)]] | [[Lengua people|Lengua]] | [[Abipón people|Abipon]] | [[Mapuche]] | [[Tehuelche people|Tehuelche]] | [[Yaghan]] }} |} {{see also|List of indigenous peoples}} ===Biological=== {{main|Biological anthropology}} [[File:Human remains.jpg|thumb|left|Forensic anthropologists can help identify skeletonized human remains, such as these found lying in scrub in Western Australia, c. 1900–1910.]] Biological Anthropology and Physical Anthropology are synonymous terms to describe anthropological research focused on the study of humans and non-human primates in their biological, evolutionary, and demographic dimensions. It examines the biological and social factors that have affected the evolution of humans and other primates, and that generate, maintain or change contemporary genetic and physiological variation.<ref>{{cite web |work=[[University of Toronto]] |title=Research Subfields: Physical or Biological |access-date=14 March 2012 |url=http://anthropology.utoronto.ca/about/research/physical-or-biological |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120422203737/http://www.anthropology.utoronto.ca/about/research/physical-or-biological |archive-date=22 April 2012}}</ref> ===Archaeological=== {{main|Archaeology}} [[File:Iowa archaeology edgewater.JPG|thumb|Excavations at the 3800-year-old [[Edgewater Park Site]], [[Iowa]]]] [[Archaeology]] is the study of the human past through its material remains. Artifacts, faunal remains, and human altered landscapes are evidence of the cultural and material lives of past societies. Archaeologists examine this material remains in order to deduce patterns of past human behavior and cultural practices. Ethnoarchaeology is a type of archaeology that studies the practices and material remain of living human groups in order to gain a better understanding of the evidence left behind by past human groups, who are presumed to have lived in similar ways.<ref>Robbins, R. H. & Larkin, S. N. (2007). Cultural Anthropology: A problem based approach. Toronto, ON: Nelson Education Ltd.</ref> [[File:Rosetta Stone.svg|thumb|Rosetta Stone was an example of ancient communication]] ===Linguistic=== {{main|Linguistic anthropology}} [[Linguistic anthropology]] (not to be confused with [[anthropological linguistics]]) seeks to understand the processes of human communications, verbal and non-verbal, variation in [[language]] across time and space, the social uses of language, and the relationship between language and culture.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.americananthro.org/AdvanceYourCareer/Content.aspx?ItemNumber=2150|title=What is Anthropology? - Advance Your Career|website=www.americananthro.org|language=en|access-date=2017-08-25}}</ref> It is the branch of anthropology that brings linguistic methods to bear on anthropological problems, linking the analysis of linguistic forms and processes to the interpretation of sociocultural processes. Linguistic anthropologists often draw on related fields including [[sociolinguistics]], [[pragmatics]], [[cognitive linguistics]], [[semiotics]], [[discourse analysis]], and [[narrative]] analysis.<ref>Salzmann, Zdeněk. (1993) ''Language, culture, and society: an introduction to linguistic anthropology''. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.</ref> == Key topics by field: sociocultural == ===Art, media, music, dance and film=== {{Anthropology of art}} ==== Art ==== {{main|Anthropology of art}} One of the central problems in the anthropology of art concerns the universality of 'art' as a cultural phenomenon. Several anthropologists have noted that the Western categories of 'painting', 'sculpture', or 'literature', conceived as independent artistic activities, do not exist, or exist in a significantly different form, in most non-Western contexts.<ref>Layton, Robert. (1981) ''The Anthropology of Art''.</ref> To surmount this difficulty, anthropologists of art have focused on formal features in objects which, without exclusively being 'artistic', have certain evident 'aesthetic' qualities. Boas' ''Primitive Art'', Claude Lévi-Strauss' ''The Way of the Masks'' (1982) or Geertz's 'Art as Cultural System' (1983) are some examples in this trend to transform the anthropology of 'art' into an anthropology of culturally specific 'aesthetics'. ==== Media ==== {{main|Media anthropology}} [[File:Punu mask Gabon.JPG|thumb|upright|left|A Punu tribe mask. Gabon Central Africa]] Media anthropology (also known as the anthropology of media or mass media) emphasizes [[ethnography|ethnographic studies]] as a means of understanding producers, audiences, and other cultural and social aspects of mass media. The types of ethnographic contexts explored range from contexts of media production (e.g., ethnographies of newsrooms in newspapers, journalists in the field, film production) to contexts of media reception, following audiences in their everyday responses to media. Other types include [[cyber anthropology]], a relatively new area of [[internet research]], as well as ethnographies of other areas of research which happen to involve media, such as development work, [[social movement]]s, or health education. This is in addition to many classic ethnographic contexts, where media such as radio, [[newspaper|the press]], [[new media]], and television have started to make their presences felt since the early 1990s.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Spitulnik, Deborah |title=Anthropology and Mass Media|journal=Annual Review of Anthropology|volume=22|page=293|doi=10.1146/annurev.an.22.100193.001453|url=http://www.philbu.net/media-anthropology/Spitulnik_MediaAnthro.pdf|year=1993}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Abu-Lughod, Lila |year=1997|title=The Interpretation of Cultures after Television|journal=Representations|volume= 59|pages= 109–133|url=https://direitosehumanos.files.wordpress.com/2009/10/a-interpretac3a7c3a3o-das-culturas-depois-da-televisc3a3o.pdf|jstor=2928817}}</ref> ==== Music ==== {{main|Ethnomusicology}} Ethnomusicology is an academic field encompassing various approaches to the study of music (broadly defined), that emphasize its cultural, social, material, cognitive, biological, and other dimensions or contexts instead of or in addition to its isolated sound component or any particular repertoire. ==== Visual ==== {{main|Visual anthropology}} Visual anthropology is concerned, in part, with the study and production of [[ethnography|ethnographic]] photography, film and, since the mid-1990s, [[new media]]. While the term is sometimes used interchangeably with [[ethnographic film]], visual anthropology also encompasses the anthropological study of visual representation, including areas such as performance, museums, art, and the production and [[reception theory|reception]] of [[anthropology of media|mass media]]. Visual representations from all cultures, such as sandpaintings, tattoos, sculptures and reliefs, cave paintings, scrimshaw, jewelry, hieroglyphics, paintings, and photographs are included in the focus of visual anthropology. === Economic, political economic, applied and development === {{Economic anthropology}} ==== Economic ==== {{main|Economic anthropology}} Economic anthropology attempts to explain human economic behavior in its widest historic, geographic and cultural scope. It has a complex relationship with the discipline of economics, of which it is highly critical. Its origins as a sub-field of anthropology begin with the Polish-British founder of Anthropology, [[Bronisław Malinowski]], and his French compatriot, [[Marcel Mauss]], on the nature of gift-giving exchange (or [[Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)|reciprocity]]) as an alternative to market exchange. Economic Anthropology remains, for the most part, focused upon exchange. The school of thought derived from Marx and known as Political Economy focuses on production, in contrast.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hann|first=Chris|title=Economic Anthropology|year=2011|publisher=Polity Press|location=Cambridge|pages=55–71|author2=Hart, Keith |isbn=9780745644820}}</ref> Economic Anthropologists have abandoned the primitivist niche they were relegated to by economists, and have now turned to examine corporations, banks, and the [[global financial system]] from an anthropological perspective. ====Political economy==== {{main|Political economy in anthropology}} Political economy in anthropology is the application of the theories and methods of [[Historical Materialism]] to the traditional concerns of anthropology, including, but not limited to, non-capitalist societies. Political Economy introduced questions of history and colonialism to ahistorical anthropological theories of social structure and culture. Three main areas of interest rapidly developed. The first of these areas was concerned with the "pre-capitalist" societies that were subject to evolutionary "tribal" stereotypes. Sahlin's work on hunter-gatherers as the 'original affluent society' did much to dissipate that image. The second area was concerned with the vast majority of the world's population at the time, the peasantry, many of whom were involved in complex revolutionary wars such as in Vietnam. The third area was on colonialism, imperialism, and the creation of the capitalist world-system.<ref name="Roseberry 1988 161–85">{{cite journal|last=Roseberry|first=William|title=Political Economy|journal=Annual Review of Anthropology|year=1988|volume=17|pages=161–85|doi=10.1146/annurev.an.17.100188.001113}}</ref> More recently, these Political Economists have more directly addressed issues of industrial (and post-industrial) capitalism around the world. ==== Applied ==== {{main|Applied anthropology}} Applied Anthropology refers to the application of the method and theory of anthropology to the analysis and solution of practical problems. It is a "complex of related, research-based, instrumental methods which produce change or stability in specific cultural systems through the provision of data, initiation of direct action, and/or the formulation of policy".<ref>{{cite book|last=Kedia, Satish|first=and Willigen J. Van|title=Applied Anthropology: Domains of Application|isbn=0275978419|year=2005|publisher=Praeger|location=Westport, Conn|pages=16, 150}}</ref> More simply, applied anthropology is the practical side of anthropological research; it includes researcher involvement and activism within the participating community. It is closely related to [[Development anthropology]] (distinct from the more critical [[Anthropology of development]]). ====Development==== {{main|anthropology of development}} Anthropology of development tends to view development from a ''critical'' perspective. The kind of issues addressed and implications for the approach simply involve pondering why, if a key development goal is to alleviate poverty, is poverty increasing? Why is there such a gap between plans and outcomes? Why are those working in development so willing to disregard history and the lessons it might offer? Why is development so externally driven rather than having an internal basis? In short, why does so much planned development fail? ===Kinship, feminism, gender and sexuality=== {{Anthropology of kinship}} ==== Kinship ==== {{main|Kinship}} ''Kinship'' can refer both to ''the study of'' the patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures, or it can refer to ''the patterns of social relationships'' themselves. Over its history, anthropology has developed a number of related concepts and terms, such as "[[kinship|descent]]", "[[descent group]]s", "[[lineage (anthropology)|lineages]]", "[[affinity (law)|affines]]", "[[cognatic kinship|cognates]]", and even "[[fictive kinship]]". Broadly, kinship patterns may be considered to include people related both by descent (one's social relations during development), and also relatives by marriage. ==== Feminist ==== {{main|Feminist anthropology}} Feminist anthropology is a four field approach to anthropology ([[archaeology|archeological]], [[biological anthropology|biological]], [[cultural anthropology|cultural]], [[linguistic anthropology|linguistic]]) that seeks to reduce male bias in research findings, anthropological hiring practices, and the scholarly production of knowledge. Anthropology engages often with feminists from non-Western traditions, whose perspectives and experiences can differ from those of white European and American feminists. Historically, such 'peripheral' perspectives have sometimes been marginalized and regarded as less valid or important than knowledge from the [[western world]]. Feminist anthropologists have claimed that their research helps to correct this systematic bias in mainstream [[feminist theory]]. Feminist anthropologists are centrally concerned with the construction of gender across societies. Feminist anthropology is inclusive of [http://www.springerreference.com/docs/html/chapterdbid/2940.html birth anthropology] as a specialization. The first [[African-American]] female [[anthropologist]] and [[Caribbeanist]] are said to be [[Vera Mae Green]] who studied ethnic and family relations in the [[Caribbean]] as well as the United States, and thereby tried to improve the way black life, experiences, and culture were studied.<ref>Cole, Johnnetta B. (September 1982). "Vera Mae Green, 1928-1982". American Anthropologist. 84 (3): 633–635. {{doi|10.1525/aa.1982.84.3.02a00080}}.</ref> ===Medical, nutritional, psychological, cognitive and transpersonal=== {{Medical anthropology}} ==== Medical ==== {{main|Medical anthropology}} Medical anthropology is an interdisciplinary field which studies "human health and disease, health care systems, and biocultural adaptation".<ref name=McElroy1996>{{Cite book |year=1996 |author=McElroy, A |chapter=Medical Anthropology |editor1=D. Levinson |editor2=M. Ember |title=Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology |url=http://www.univie.ac.at/ethnomedicine/PDF/Medical%20Anthropologie.pdf |isbn= |ref=harv |access-date=2 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121001162708/http://www.univie.ac.at/ethnomedicine/PDF/Medical%20Anthropologie.pdf |archive-date=1 October 2012 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref> It is believed that William Caudell was the first to discover the field of medical anthropology. Currently, research in medical anthropology is one of the main growth areas in the field of anthropology as a whole. It focuses on the following six basic fields:<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Campbell|first=Dave|date=2016-10-24|title=Anthropology's Contribution to Public Health Policy Development|journal=McGill Journal of Medicine : MJM|volume=13|issue=1|page=76|issn=1201-026X|pmc=3277334|pmid=22363184}}</ref> <blockquote> * the development of systems of medical knowledge and medical care * the patient-physician relationship * the integration of alternative medical systems in culturally diverse environments * the interaction of social, environmental and biological factors which influence health and illness both in the individual and the community as a whole * the critical analysis of interaction between psychiatric services and migrant populations ("critical ethnopsychiatry": Beneduce 2004, 2007) * the impact of biomedicine and biomedical technologies in non-Western settings </blockquote> Other subjects that have become central to medical anthropology worldwide are violence and social suffering (Farmer, 1999, 2003; Beneduce, 2010) as well as other issues that involve physical and psychological harm and suffering that are not a result of illness. On the other hand, there are fields that intersect with medical anthropology in terms of research methodology and theoretical production, such as ''cultural psychiatry'' and ''transcultural psychiatry'' or ''ethnopsychiatry''. ==== Nutritional ==== {{main|Nutritional anthropology}} Nutritional anthropology is a synthetic concept that deals with the interplay between [[economic systems]], [[nutrition|nutritional status]] and [[food security]], and how changes in the former affect the latter. If economic and environmental changes in a community affect access to food, food security, and dietary health, then this interplay between culture and biology is in turn connected to broader historical and economic trends associated with globalization. Nutritional status affects overall health status, work performance potential, and the overall potential for economic development (either in terms of human development or traditional western models) for any given group of people. ==== Psychological ==== {{main|Psychological anthropology}} Psychological anthropology is an interdisciplinary subfield of anthropology that studies the interaction of [[cultural anthropology|cultural]] and [[psychology|mental processes]]. This subfield tends to focus on ways in which humans' development and [[enculturation]] within a particular cultural group—with its own history, language, practices, and conceptual categories—shape processes of human [[cognition]], [[emotion]], [[perception]], [[motivation]], and [[mental health]]. It also examines how the understanding of cognition, emotion, motivation, and similar psychological processes inform or constrain our models of cultural and social processes.<ref name="D'Andrade">{{cite book | last=D'Andrade | first=R. | chapter=The Sad Story of Anthropology: 1950–1999 | editor-first=E. L. | editor-last=Cerroni-Long | title=Anthropological Theory in North America |isbn=0897896858| location=Westport | publisher=Berin & Garvey | year=1999}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | editor = Schwartz, T. |editor2=G. M. White |display-editors=etal | date = 1992 | title = New Directions in Psychological Anthropology | location = Cambridge, UK | publisher = Cambridge University Press}}</ref> ==== Cognitive ==== {{main|Cognitive anthropology}} Cognitive anthropology seeks to explain patterns of shared knowledge, cultural [[innovation]], and transmission over time and space using the methods and [[theories]] of the [[cognitive sciences]] (especially [[experimental psychology]] and [[evolutionary biology]]) often through close collaboration with historians, ethnographers, archaeologists, linguists, musicologists and other specialists engaged in the description and [[interpretation (logic)|interpretation]] of cultural forms. Cognitive anthropology is concerned with what people from different groups know and how that implicit knowledge changes the way people perceive and relate to the world around them.<ref name="D'Andrade"/> ==== Transpersonal ==== {{main|Transpersonal anthropology}} Transpersonal anthropology studies the relationship between [[altered states of consciousness]] and culture. As with [[transpersonal psychology]], the field is much concerned with altered states of consciousness (ASC) and [[transpersonal experience]]. However, the field differs from mainstream transpersonal psychology in taking more cognizance of cross-cultural issues—for instance, the roles of [[Mythology|myth]], [[ritual]], [[diet (nutrition)|diet]], and [[Literature|texts]] in evoking and interpreting extraordinary experiences.<ref>{{Cite book | last1=Young | first1=David E. | first2=J.G. | last2=Goulet | date=1994 | title=Being Changed by Cross-cultural Encounters: The Anthropology of Extraordinary Experiences | publisher=Peterborough: Broadview Press}}</ref> ===Political and legal=== {{Political anthropology}} ==== Political ==== {{main|Political anthropology}} Political anthropology concerns the structure of [[Form of government|political systems]], looked at from the basis of the structure of societies. Political anthropology developed as a discipline concerned primarily with politics in stateless societies, a new development started from the 1960s, and is still unfolding: anthropologists started increasingly to study more "complex" social settings in which the presence of states, bureaucracies and markets entered both ethnographic accounts and analysis of local phenomena. The turn towards complex societies meant that political themes were taken up at two main levels. First of all, anthropologists continued to study [[political organization]] and political phenomena that lay outside the state-regulated sphere (as in patron-client relations or tribal political organization). Second of all, anthropologists slowly started to develop a disciplinary concern with states and their institutions (and on the relationship between formal and informal political institutions). An anthropology of the state developed, and it is a most thriving field today. Geertz' comparative work on "Negara", the Balinese state is an early, famous example. ====Legal==== {{main|Legal anthropology}} Legal anthropology or anthropology of law specializes in "the cross-cultural study of social ordering".<ref>{{cite book | author = Greenhouse, Carol J. | title = Praying for Justice: Faith, Order, and Community in an American Town |isbn=0801419719| location = Ithaca | publisher = Cornell UP | year = 1986 | page = 28}}</ref> Earlier legal anthropological research often focused more narrowly on conflict management, crime, sanctions, or formal regulation. More recent applications include issues such as [[human rights]], [[legal pluralism]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Political theologies: public religions in a post-secular world|year=2006|publisher=Fordham University Press|location=New York|editor1=Hent de Vries |editor2=Lawrence E. Sullivan }}</ref> and political uprisings. ====Public==== {{main|Public anthropology}} Public Anthropology was created by Robert Borofsky, a professor at Hawaii Pacific University, to "demonstrate the ability of anthropology and anthropologists to effectively address problems beyond the discipline – illuminating larger social issues of our times as well as encouraging broad, public conversations about them with the explicit goal of fostering social change" ([http://www.publicanthropology.org Borofsky 2004]). === Nature, science and technology === {{Cyber anthropology}} ====Cyborg==== {{main|Cyborg anthropology}} Cyborg anthropology originated as a sub-focus group within the [[American Anthropological Association]]'s annual meeting in 1993. The sub-group was very closely related to [[science and technology studies|STS]] and the [[Society for the Social Studies of Science]].<ref>Dumit, Joseph. Davis-Floyd, Robbie (2001). "Cyborg Anthropology". in ''Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women''. Routledge. {{ISBN|0415920922}}.</ref> [[Donna Haraway]]'s 1985 ''[[Cyborg Manifesto]]'' could be considered the founding document of cyborg anthropology by first exploring the philosophical and sociological ramifications of the term. Cyborg anthropology studies humankind and its relations with the technological systems it has built, specifically modern technological systems that have reflexively shaped notions of what it means to be human beings. ==== Digital ==== {{main|Digital anthropology}} Digital anthropology is the study of the relationship between humans and digital-era technology, and extends to various areas where anthropology and [[technology]] intersect. It is sometimes grouped with [[cultural anthropology|sociocultural anthropology]], and sometimes considered part of [[material culture]]. The field is new, and thus has a variety of names with a variety of emphases. These include techno-anthropology,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.studyguide.aau.dk/programmes/postgraduate/53203/ | title=Techno-Anthropology course guide | publisher=Aalborg University | accessdate=14 March 2013}}</ref> digital ethnography, cyberanthropology,<ref>{{cite book | url=http://xirdalium.net/category/anthropology/cyberanthropology/ | title=Cyberanthropology | publisher=Peter Hammer Verlag Gmbh | date=August 2011 | accessdate=14 March 2013 | author=Knorr, Alexander | isbn=978-3-7795-0359-0}}</ref> and virtual anthropology.<ref>{{cite book | title=Virtual Anthropology: A guide to a new interdisciplinary field | publisher=Springer |author1=Weber, Gerhard |author2=Bookstein, Fred | year=2011 | isbn=978-3-211-48647-4}}</ref> ==== Ecological ==== {{main|Ecological anthropology}} Ecological anthropology is defined as the "study of [[cultural adaptation]]s to environments".<ref name="Kottak">{{cite book|last=Kottak|first=Conrad Phillip|title=Anthropology : appreciating human diversity|year=2010|publisher=McGraw-Hill|location=New York|isbn=978-0-07-811699-5|pages=579–584|edition=14th}}</ref> The sub-field is also defined as, "the study of relationships between a population of humans and their [[biophysical environment]]".<ref name="Townsend">{{cite book|last=Townsend|first=Patricia K.|title=Environmental anthropology : from pigs to policies|year=2009|publisher=Waveland Press|location=Prospect Heights, Ill.|isbn=978-1-57766-581-6|page=104|edition=2nd}}</ref> The focus of its research concerns "how cultural [[beliefs]] and practices helped human populations adapt to their environments, and how their environment across space and time.<ref name="Kottak CP 1999">{{cite journal|last1=Kottak|first1=Conrad P.|jstor=683339|title=The New Ecological Anthropology|journal=American Anthropologist|volume=101|page=23|year=1999|doi=10.1525/aa.1999.101.1.23|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227632647}}</ref> The contemporary perspective of environmental anthropology, and arguably at least the backdrop, if not the focus of most of the ethnographies and cultural fieldworks of today, is [[political ecology]]. Many characterize this new perspective as more informed with culture, politics and power, globalization, localized issues, century anthropology and more.<ref name="Pyke G 1984">{{cite journal|last1=Pyke|first1=G H|title=Optimal Foraging Theory: A Critical Review|journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|volume=15|page=523|year=1984|doi=10.1146/annurev.es.15.110184.002515|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/243636746}}</ref> The focus and data interpretation is often used for arguments for/against or creation of policy, and to prevent corporate exploitation and damage of land. Often, the observer has become an active part of the struggle either directly (organizing, participation) or indirectly (articles, documentaries, books, ethnographies). Such is the case with environmental justice advocate Melissa Checker and her relationship with the people of Hyde Park.<ref name="Checker M 2005">{{cite book|author=Melissa Checker|title=Polluted promises: environmental racism and the search for justice in a southern town|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9GCcgMi40WkC|date=August 2005|publisher=NYU Press|isbn=978-0-8147-1657-1}}</ref> ===Historical=== {{main|Ethnohistory}} {{see also|Historical anthropology}} Ethnohistory is the study of [[Ethnography|ethnographic]] cultures and [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]] customs by examining [[History|historical records]]. It is also the study of the history of various [[ethnic group]]s that may or may not exist today. Ethnohistory uses both historical and ethnographic data as its foundation. Its historical methods and materials go beyond the standard use of documents and manuscripts. Practitioners recognize the utility of such source material as maps, music, paintings, photography, folklore, oral tradition, site exploration, archaeological materials, museum collections, enduring customs, language, and place names.<ref name="Axtell1979">{{cite journal | last1 = Axtell | first1 = J. | year = 1979 | title = Ethnohistory: An Historian's Viewpoint | journal = Ethnohistory | volume = 26 | issue = 1| pages = 3–4 | doi = 10.2307/481465 | jstor = 481465 }}</ref> === Religion === {{Anthropology of religion}} {{main|Anthropology of religion}} The anthropology of religion involves the study of religious institutions in relation to other social institutions, and the comparison of religious beliefs and practices across cultures. Modern anthropology assumes that there is complete continuity between [[magical thinking]] and religion,<ref name="Cassirer1944">[[Ernst Cassirer|Cassirer, Ernst]] (1944) [https://books.google.com/books?id=pe9fWSv-iLsC&pg=PA102 ''An Essay On Man''], pt.II, ch.7 ''Myth and Religion'', pp.&nbsp;122–3.</ref>{{refn|group=n|"It seems to be one of the postulates of modern anthropology that there is complete continuity between magic and religion. [note 35: See, for instance, RR Marett, Faith, Hope, and Charity in Primitive Religion, the Gifford Lectures (Macmillan, 1932), Lecture II, pp. 21 ff.]&nbsp;... We have no empirical evidence at all that there ever was an age of magic that has been followed and superseded by an age of religion."<ref name="Cassirer1944"/>}} and that every religion is a cultural product, created by the human [[community]] that worships it.<ref name="Guthrie2000p225">Guthrie (2000) ''Guide to the Study of Religion''. Bloomsbury Academic. [https://books.google.com/books?id=wlNJQoZlGC4C&pg=PA225 pp.&nbsp;225–6]. {{ISBN|0304701769}}.</ref> === Urban === {{main|Urban anthropology}} Urban anthropology is concerned with issues of [[urbanization]], poverty, and [[neoliberalism]]. [[Ulf Hannerz]] quotes a 1960s remark that traditional anthropologists were "a notoriously [[agoraphobic]] lot, anti-urban by definition". Various social processes in the [[Western World]] as well as in the "[[Third World]]" (the latter being the habitual focus of attention of anthropologists) brought the attention of "[[Anthropology#Focus on the "other cultures"|specialists in 'other cultures']]" closer to their homes.<ref name=Hannerz/> There are two main approaches to urban anthropology: examining the types of cities or examining the social issues within the cities. These two methods are overlapping and dependent of each other. By defining different types of cities, one would use social factors as well as economic and political factors to categorize the cities. By directly looking at the different social issues, one would also be studying how they affect the dynamic of the city.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1177/1466138110370412 |jstor=24047982|title=Chinese consumers: The Romantic reappraisal|journal=Ethnography|volume=11|issue=3|page=331|year=2010|last1=Griffiths|first1=M. B.|last2=Chapman|first2=M.|last3=Christiansen|first3=F.|url=https://www.academia.edu/7368130}}</ref> == Key topics by field: archaeological and biological == {{main|Archaeological|Biological anthropology}} === Anthrozoology === {{main|Anthrozoology}} [[Anthrozoology]] (also known as "human–animal studies") is the study of interaction between living things. It is an [[interdisciplinary]] field that overlaps with a number of other disciplines, including anthropology, [[ethology]], medicine, [[psychology]], [[veterinary medicine]] and [[zoology]]. A major focus of anthrozoologic research is the quantifying of the positive effects of human-animal relationships on either party and the study of their interactions.<ref>Mills, Daniel S (2010). [https://books.google.com/books?id=vrueZDfPUzoC&pg=PA28 "Anthrozoology"], ''The Encyclopedia of Applied Animal Behaviour and Welfare''. CABI, pp. 28–30. {{ISBN|0851997244}}.</ref> It includes scholars from a diverse range of fields, including anthropology, sociology, biology, and philosophy.<ref>DeMello, Margo (2010). ''Teaching the Animal: Human–Animal Studies Across the Disciplines''. Lantern Books. p. xi. {{ISBN|1590561686}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.animalsandsociety.org/content/index.php?pid=41 |title=Animals & Society Institute |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130625044717/http://www.animalsandsociety.org/content/index.php?pid=41 |archive-date=25 June 2013 |access-date=23 February 2011}}</ref>{{refn|group=n|Note that anthrozoology should not be confused with "[[animal studies]]", which often refers to [[animal testing]].}} === Biocultural === {{main|Biocultural anthropology}} Biocultural anthropology is the [[scientific]] exploration of the relationships between [[human biology]] and culture. [[Biological anthropology|Physical anthropologists]] throughout the first half of the 20th century viewed this relationship from a [[Race (classification of human beings)|racial]] perspective; that is, from the assumption that [[Typology (anthropology)|typological]] human biological differences lead to cultural differences.<ref name=Biocult_syn>{{cite book |last= Goodman |first=Alan H. |author2= Thomas L. Leatherman (eds.) |title=Building A New Biocultural Synthesis |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year= 1998 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=T8ZhpG_B_6MC |isbn= 978-0-472-06606-3}}</ref> After World War II the emphasis began to shift toward an effort to explore the role culture plays in shaping human biology. === Evolutionary === {{main|Evolutionary anthropology}} Evolutionary anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of the [[human evolution|evolution]] of [[human physiology]] and [[human behaviour]] and the relation between [[hominins]] and non-hominin [[primate]]s. Evolutionary anthropology is based in [[natural science]] and [[social science]], combining the [[Human development (biology)|human development]] with socioeconomic factors. Evolutionary anthropology is concerned with both biological and cultural evolution of humans, past and present. It is based on a [[scientific]] approach, and brings together fields such as [[archaeology]], [[behavioral ecology]], [[psychology]], [[primatology]], and [[genetics]]. It is a dynamic and [[interdisciplinary]] field, drawing on many lines of evidence to understand the human experience, past and present. === Forensic === {{main|Forensic anthropology}} Forensic anthropology is the application of the science of [[physical anthropology]] and human [[osteology]] in a legal setting, most often in criminal cases where the victim's remains are in the advanced stages of [[decomposition]]. A forensic anthropologist can assist in the identification of deceased individuals whose remains are decomposed, burned, mutilated or otherwise unrecognizable. The adjective "forensic" refers to the application of this subfield of science to a court of law. === Palaeoanthropology === {{main|Palaeoanthropology}} Paleoanthropology combines the disciplines of [[paleontology]] and [[physical anthropology]]. It is the study of ancient humans, as found in [[fossil]] [[Hominidae|hominid]] evidence such as [[Petrifaction|petrifacted]] bones and footprints. == Organizations == Contemporary anthropology is an established science with academic departments at most universities and colleges. The single largest organization of Anthropologists is the [[American Anthropological Association]] (AAA), which was founded in 1903.<ref>[http://www.aaanet.org/about/ AAAnet.org]. AAAnet.org. Retrieved on 2016-11-02.</ref> Membership is made up of anthropologists from around the globe.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100613021448/http://aaanet.org/membership/upload/MAY-08-AAA.pdf AAAnet.org]</ref> In 1989, a group of European and American scholars in the field of anthropology established the [[European Association of Social Anthropologists]] (EASA) which serves as a major professional organization for anthropologists working in Europe. The EASA seeks to advance the status of anthropology in Europe and to increase visibility of marginalized anthropological traditions and thereby contribute to the project of a global anthropology or world anthropology. Hundreds of other organizations exist in the various sub-fields of anthropology, sometimes divided up by nation or region, and many anthropologists work with collaborators in other disciplines, such as [[geology]], [[physics]], [[zoology]], [[paleontology]], [[anatomy]], [[music theory]], [[art history]], [[sociology]] and so on, belonging to professional societies in those disciplines as well.<ref>Johanson, Donald and Wong, Kate (2007). ''Lucy's Legacy''. Kindle Books.</ref><ref>Netti, Bruno (2005). ''The Study of Ethnomusicology.'' Ch. 1. University of Illinois Press. {{ISBN|0252030338}}.</ref> ===List of major organizations=== {{Main category|Anthropology organizations}} {{Colbegin|colwidth=30em}} * [[American Anthropological Association]] * [[American Ethnological Society]] * [[AIBR. Asociación de Antropólogos Iberoamericanos en Red|Asociación de Antropólogos Iberoamericanos en Red, AIBR]] * [[Moving Anthropology Student Network]] * [[Anthropological Society of London]] * [[Center for World Indigenous Studies]] * [[Ethnological Society of London]] * [[Institute of Anthropology and Ethnography]] * [[Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology]] * [[Network of Concerned Anthropologists]] * [[N. N. Miklukho-Maklai Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology]] * [http://www.radicalanthropologygroup.org/ Radical Anthropology Group] * [[Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland]] * [[Society for anthropological sciences]] * [[Society for Applied Anthropology]] * [[USC Center for Visual Anthropology]] {{Colend}} ==Ethics== As the field has matured it has debated and arrived at ethical principles aimed at protecting both the subjects of anthropological research as well as the researchers themselves, and professional societies have generated codes of ethics.<ref>{{cite web|title=Final Report of the Commission to Review the AAA Statements on Ethics - Participate & Advocate|url=http://www.americananthro.org/ParticipateAndAdvocate/Content.aspx?ItemNumber=1911&RDtoken=3371&userID=6944|publisher=American Anthropological Association|accessdate=18 June 2017|language=en}}</ref> Anthropologists, like other researchers (especially historians and scientists engaged in field research), have over time assisted state policies and projects, especially colonialism.<ref name = "pbuteh">Asad, Talal, ed. (1973) ''Anthropology & the Colonial Encounter.'' Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press.</ref><ref>van Breman, Jan, and Akitoshi Shimizu (1999) ''Anthropology and Colonialism in Asia and Oceania''. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press.</ref> Some commentators have contended: * That the discipline grew out of colonialism, perhaps was in league with it, and derives some of its key notions from it, consciously or not. (See, for example, Gough, Pels and Salemink, but cf. Lewis 2004).<ref name=Gellner>Gellner, Ernest (1992) [http://okhovvat.com/files/en/content/2011/6/4/351_379.pdf ''Postmodernism, Reason, and Religion'']. London/New York: Routledge. pp. 26–29. {{ISBN|041508024X}}.</ref> * That ethnographic work is often [[Ahistoricism|ahistorical]], writing about people as if they were "out of time" in an "ethnographic present" (Johannes Fabian, ''Time and Its Other''). === Cultural relativism === As part of their quest for [[scientific objectivity]], present-day anthropologists typically urge [[cultural relativism]], which has an influence on all the sub-fields of anthropology.<ref name="Ingold1994p331"/> This is the notion that cultures should not be judged by another's values or viewpoints, but be examined dispassionately on their own terms. There should be no notions, in good anthropology, of one culture being better or worse than another culture.<ref>Levi-Strauss, Claude (1962). ''The Savage Mind''</ref><ref>Womack, Mari (2001). ''Being Human.''.{{Page needed|date=October 2012}}</ref> Ethical commitments in anthropology include noticing and documenting [[genocide]], [[infanticide]], [[racism]], [[mutilation]] (including [[circumcision]] and [[subincision]]), and [[torture]]. Topics like racism, slavery, and human sacrifice attract anthropological attention and theories ranging from nutritional deficiencies<ref>Harris, Marvin. ''Cows, Pigs, Wars, and Witches''.</ref> to genes<ref>[http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=209831&sectioncode=26 Is there a gene for racism? | Times Higher Education (THE)]. Times Higher Education (2016-10-27). Retrieved on 2016-11-02.</ref> to [[acculturation]] have been proposed, not to mention theories of [[colonialism]] and many others as root causes of [[Man's inhumanity to man]]. To illustrate the depth of an anthropological approach, one can take just one of these topics, such as "racism" and find thousands of anthropological references, stretching across all the major and minor sub-fields.<ref>{{cite web|title=Statement on "Race"|url=http://www.aaanet.org/stmts/racepp.htm|publisher=American Anthropological Association|date=May 1998}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.282.5389.654 |pmid=9841421 |title=CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY:DNA Studies Challenge the Meaning of Race |journal=Science |volume=282 |issue=5389 |pages=654–5 |year=1998 |last1=Marshall |first1=E. }}</ref><ref>Goodman, Allan (1995). "The Problematics of "Race" in Contemporary Biological Anthropology." In ''Biological Anthropology: The State of the Science''. International Institute for Human Evolutionary Research. {{ISBN|0964424800}}.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330360604|title=Melanin, afrocentricity, and pseudoscience|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|volume=36|pages=33|year=1993|last1=De Montellano|first1=Bernard R. Ortiz|url=https://www.academia.edu/199944}}</ref> ===Military involvement=== Anthropologists' involvement with the U.S. government, in particular, has caused bitter controversy within the discipline. Franz Boas publicly objected to US participation in World War I, and after the war he published a brief expose and condemnation of the participation of several American archaeologists in espionage in Mexico under their cover as scientists.{{citation needed|date=August 2018}} But by the 1940s, many of Boas' anthropologist contemporaries were active in the allied war effort against the [[Axis Powers]] (Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan). Many served in the armed forces, while others worked in intelligence (for example, [[Office of Strategic Services]] and the [[Office of War Information]]). At the same time, [[David Price (anthropologist)|David H. Price]]'s work on American anthropology during the Cold War provides detailed accounts of the pursuit and dismissal of several anthropologists from their jobs for communist sympathies.{{citation needed|date=August 2018}} Attempts to accuse anthropologists of complicity with the CIA and government intelligence activities during the Vietnam War years have turned up surprisingly little. Many anthropologists (students and teachers) were active in the antiwar movement. Numerous resolutions condemning the war in all its aspects were passed overwhelmingly at the annual meetings of the [[American Anthropological Association]] (AAA).{{citation needed|date=August 2018}} Professional anthropological bodies often object to the use of anthropology for the benefit of the [[State (polity)|state]]. Their codes of ethics or statements may proscribe anthropologists from giving secret briefings. The [[Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth]] (ASA) has called certain scholarship ethically dangerous. The AAA's current 'Statement of Professional Responsibility' clearly states that "in relation with their own government and with host governments&nbsp;... no secret research, no secret reports or debriefings of any kind should be agreed to or given."{{citation needed|date=August 2018}} Anthropologists, along with other social scientists, are working with the US military as part of the US Army's strategy in Afghanistan.<ref>[http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0907/p01s08-wosc.htm US Army's strategy in Afghanistan: better anthropology]. CSMonitor.com (2007-09-07). Retrieved on 2016-11-02.</ref> The ''[[Christian Science Monitor]]'' reports that "Counterinsurgency efforts focus on better grasping and meeting local needs" [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|in Afghanistan]], under the ''[[Human Terrain System]]'' (HTS) program; in addition, HTS teams are working with the [[US military in Iraq]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Human Terrain System: A CORDS for the 21st Century |url=http://www.army.mil/professionalWriting/volumes/volume4/december_2006/12_06_2.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140121225645/http://www.army.mil/professionalWriting/volumes/volume4/december_2006/12_06_2.html |archivedate=21 January 2014 |deadurl=no |df=dmy }}</ref> In 2009, the American Anthropological Association's Commission on the Engagement of Anthropology with the US Security and Intelligence Communities released its final report concluding, in part, that, "When ethnographic investigation is determined by military missions, not subject to external review, where data collection occurs in the context of war, integrated into the goals of counterinsurgency, and in a potentially coercive environment – all characteristic factors of the HTS concept and its application – it can no longer be considered a legitimate professional exercise of anthropology. In summary, while we stress that constructive engagement between anthropology and the military is possible, CEAUSSIC suggests that the AAA emphasize the incompatibility of HTS with disciplinary ethics and practice for job seekers and that it further recognize the problem of allowing HTS to define the meaning of "anthropology" within DoD."<ref>[http://blog.aaanet.org/2009/12/08/aaa-commission-releases-final-report-on-army-human-terrain-system/ "AAA Commission Releases Final Report on Army Human Terrain System"]. American Anthropological Association (2009-12-08)</ref> ==Post–World War II developments== Before WWII British 'social anthropology' and American 'cultural anthropology' were still distinct traditions. After the war, enough British and American anthropologists borrowed ideas and methodological approaches from one another that some began to speak of them collectively as 'sociocultural' anthropology. ===Basic trends=== There are several characteristics that tend to unite anthropological work. One of the central characteristics is that anthropology tends to provide a comparatively more [[Holism|holistic]] account of phenomena and tends to be highly empirical.<ref name="Hylland Eriksen 2004 p. 79"/> The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a particular place, problem or phenomenon in detail, using a variety of methods, over a more extensive period than normal in many parts of academia. In the 1990s and 2000s (decade), calls for clarification of what constitutes a culture, of how an observer knows where his or her own culture ends and another begins, and other crucial topics in writing anthropology were heard. These dynamic relationships, between what can be observed on the ground, as opposed to what can be observed by compiling many local observations remain fundamental in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological.<ref>Rosaldo, Renato (1993). ''Culture and Truth: The remaking of social analysis''. Beacon Press. Inda</ref><ref>Xavier, John and Rosaldo, Renato (2007). ''The Anthropology of Globalization''. Wiley-Blackwell.</ref> Biological anthropologists are interested in both human variation<ref>Jurmain, Robert; Kilgore, Lynn; Trevathan, Wenda and Ciochon, Russell L. (2007). ''Introduction to Physical Anthropology''. 11th Edition. Wadsworth. chapters I, III and IV. {{ISBN|0495187798}}.</ref><ref>Wompack, Mari (2001). ''Being Human''. Prentice Hall. pp.&nbsp;11–20. {{ISBN|0136440711}}</ref> and in the possibility of human universals (behaviors, ideas or concepts shared by virtually all human cultures).<ref>Brown, Donald (1991). ''Human Universals''. McGraw Hill.</ref><ref>Roughley, Neil (2000). ''Being Humans: Anthropological Universality and Particularity in Transciplinary Perspectives''. Walter de Gruyter Publishing.</ref> They use many different methods of study, but modern population [[genetics]], [[participant observation]] and other techniques often take anthropologists "into the field," which means traveling to a community in its own setting, to do something called "fieldwork." On the biological or physical side, human measurements, genetic samples, nutritional data may be gathered and published as articles or monographs. Along with dividing up their project by theoretical emphasis, anthropologists typically divide the world up into relevant time periods and geographic regions. Human time on Earth is divided up into relevant cultural traditions based on material, such as the [[Paleolithic]] and the [[Neolithic]], of particular use in archaeology.{{Citation needed|date=November 2012}} Further cultural subdivisions according to tool types, such as [[Olduwan]] or [[Mousterian]] or [[Levallois technique|Levalloisian]] help archaeologists and other anthropologists in understanding major trends in the human past.{{Citation needed|date=November 2012}} Anthropologists and geographers share approaches to [[Culture regions]] as well, since mapping cultures is central to both sciences. By making comparisons across cultural traditions (time-based) and cultural regions (space-based), anthropologists have developed various kinds of [[comparative method]], a central part of their science. ===Commonalities between fields=== Because anthropology developed from so many different enterprises (see [[History of Anthropology]]), including but not limited to [[Fossil collecting|fossil-hunting]], [[Exploration|exploring]], documentary film-making, [[paleontology]], [[primatology]], antiquity dealings and curatorship, [[philology]], [[etymology]], [[genetics]], regional analysis, [[ethnology]], history, [[philosophy]], and [[religious studies]],<ref>Erickson, Paul A. and Liam D. Murphy (2003). ''A History of Anthropological Theory''. Broadview Press. pp.&nbsp;11–12. {{ISBN|1442601108}}.</ref><ref>Stocking, George (1992) "Paradigmatic Traditions in the History of Anthropology", pp. 342–361 in George Stocking, ''The Ethnographer's Magic and Other Essays in the History of Anthropology''. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. {{ISBN|0299134148}}.</ref> it is difficult to characterize the entire field in a brief article, although attempts to write histories of the entire field have been made.<ref>Leaf, Murray (1979). ''Man, Mind and Science: A History of Anthropology.'' Columbia University Press.</ref> Some authors argue that anthropology originated and developed as the study of "other cultures", both in terms of time (past societies) and space (non-European/non-Western societies).<ref>See the many essays relating to this in Prem Poddar and David Johnson, Historical Companion to Postcolonial Thought in English, Edinburgh University Press, 2004. See also Prem Poddar et al., Historical Companion to Postcolonial Literatures—Continental Europe and its Empires, Edinburgh University Press, 2008</ref> For example, the classic of [[urban anthropology]], [[Ulf Hannerz]] in the introduction to his seminal ''Exploring the City: Inquiries Toward an Urban Anthropology'' mentions that the "[[Third World]]" had habitually received most of attention; anthropologists who traditionally specialized in "other cultures" looked for them far away and started to look "across the tracks" only in late 1960s.<ref name=Hannerz>[[Ulf Hannerz|Hannerz, Ulf]] (1980) ''Exploring the City: Inquiries Toward an Urban Anthropology'', {{ISBN|0-231-08376-9}}, p. 1. ISBN Columbia University Press.</ref> Now there exist many works focusing on peoples and topics very close to the author's "home".<ref name="Lewis">Lewis, Herbert S. (1998) ''[https://www.jstor.org/stable/682051 The Misrepresentation of Anthropology and its Consequences]'' ''[[American Anthropologist]]'' "100:" 716–731</ref> It is also argued that other fields of study, like History and [[Sociology]], on the contrary focus disproportionately on the West.<ref>[[Jack Goody|Goody, Jack]] (2007) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=jo1UVi48KywC The Theft of History]''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-87069-0}}</ref> In France, the study of Western societies has been traditionally left to [[sociologist]]s, but this is increasingly changing,<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Abélès | first1 = Marc | year = | title = How the Anthropology of France Has Changed Anthropology in France: Assessing New Directions in the Field |journal = [[Cultural Anthropology (journal)|Cultural Anthropology]] | volume = 1999 | issue = | page = 407 | jstor = 08867356 }}</ref> starting in the 1970s from scholars like Isac Chiva and journals like ''[[Terrain (journal)|Terrain]]'' ("fieldwork"), and developing with the center founded by [[Marc Augé]] (''[[École des hautes études en sciences sociales|Le Centre d'anthropologie des mondes contemporains]]'', the Anthropological Research Center of Contemporary Societies). Since the 1980s it has become common for social and cultural anthropologists to set ethnographic research in the North Atlantic region, frequently examining the connections between locations rather than limiting research to a single locale. There has also been a related shift toward broadening the focus beyond the daily life of ordinary people; increasingly, research is set in settings such as scientific laboratories, social movements, governmental and nongovernmental organizations and businesses.<ref>Fischer, Michael M. J. (2003) ''Emergent Forms of Life and the Anthropological Voice''. Duke University Press.</ref> ==See also== {{Portal|Anthropology}} {{Wikipedia books}} {{refbegin|20em}} * [[Outline of anthropology]] * [[Anthropological Index Online]] (AIO) * [[Anthropological science fiction]] * [[Christian anthropology]], a sub-field of theology * [[Engaged theory]] * [[Ethnology]] * [[Ethnobiology]] * [[Ethnomusicology]] * [[Ethology]] * [[Folklore]] * [[Human ethology]] * [[Human evolution]] * [[Human Relations Area Files]] * [[Intangible cultural heritage]] * [[List of anthropologists]] * [[Memetics]] * [[Origins of society]] * [[Prehistoric medicine]] * [[Qualitative research]] * [[Sociology]] * [[Philosophical anthropology]], a sub-field of philosophy * Anthropology in [[Tinbergen's four questions]] {{refend}} ==Notes== {{reflist|group=n}} ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Further reading== {{main|Bibliography of anthropology}} ===Dictionaries and encyclopedias=== {{refbegin|20em}} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor1-last=Barnard | editor1-first=Alan | editor2-last=Spencer | editor2-first=Jonathan | year=2010 | encyclopedia=The Routledge Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Anthropology | location=London | publisher=Routledge}} * {{cite encyclopedia | last=Barfield | first=Thomas | year=1997 | encyclopedia=The dictionary of anthropology | location=Hoboken | publisher=Wiley-Blackwell Publishing}} * {{cite encyclopedia | last=Jackson | first=John L.| year=2013 | encyclopedia=Oxford Bibliographies: Anthropology | location=Oxford | publisher=Oxford University Press}} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor1-last=Levinson | editor1-first=David | editor2-first=Melvin | editor2-last=Ember |year=1996 | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology | volume=Volumes 1–4 | location=New York | publisher=Henry Holt}} * {{cite book | last1=Rapport | first1=Nigel | last2=Overing | first2=Joanna | year=2007 | title=Social and Cultural Anthropology: The Key Concepts| location=New York | publisher=Routledge}} {{refend}} ===Fieldnotes and memoirs=== {{refbegin|20em}} * {{cite book | last=Barley | first=Nigel | year=1983 | title=The innocent anthropologist: notes from a mud hut | location=London | publisher=British Museum Publications}} * {{cite book | last=Geertz | first=Clifford | year=1995 | title=After the fact: two countries, four decades, one anthropologist | location=Cambridge, MA | publisher=Harvard University Press}} * {{cite book| last=Lévi-Strauss | first=Claude | year=1967 | title=Tristes tropiques | others=Translated from the French by John Russell | location=New York | publisher=Atheneum}} * {{cite book | last=Malinowski | first=Bronisław | year=1967 | title=A diary in the strict sense of the term | others=Translated by Norbert Guterman | location=New York | publisher=Harcourt, Brace & World}} * {{cite book | last=Mead | first=Margaret | year=1972 | title=Blackberry winter: my earlier years | location=New York | publisher=William Marrow}} * {{cite book | authormask=2 | last=Mead | first=Margaret | year=1977 | title=Letters from the field, 1925–1975 | location=New York | publisher=Harper & Row}} * {{cite book | last=Rabinow | first=Paul | year=1977 | title=Reflections on fieldwork in Morocco | location=Berkeley | publisher=University of California Press | series=Quantum Books}} {{refend}} ===Histories=== {{refbegin|20em}} * {{cite book | editor-last=Asad | editor-first=Talal | year=1973 | title=Anthropology & the Colonial Encounter | location=Atlantic Highlands, NJ | publisher=Humanities Press}} * {{cite book | last1=Barth | first1=Fredrik | first2=Andre | last2=Gingrich | first3=Robert | last3=Parkin | title=One Discipline, Four Ways: British, German, French, and American anthropology | year=2005 | location=Chicago | publisher=University of Chicago Press}} * {{cite book | last=Darnell | first=Regna.| year=2001 | title=Invisible Genealogies: A History of Americanist Anthropology | location=Lincoln, NE | publisher=University of Nebraska Press}} * {{cite book | last=Gisi | first=Lucas Marco | year=2007 | title=Einbildungskraft und Mythologie. Die Verschränkung von Anthropologie und Geschichte im 18. Jahrhundert | location=Berlin; New York | publisher=de Gruyter}} * {{cite book | last=Harris | first=Marvin.| year=2001 | origyear=1968 | title=The rise of anthropological theory: a history of theories of culture | publisher=AltaMira Press | location=Walnut Creek, CA}} * {{cite journal | ref=harv | first=James | last=Hunt | title=Introductory Address on the Study of Anthropology | journal=The Anthropological Review | volume= I | year=1863 | location=London | publisher=Trübner & Co. | url={{Google books|pzYpAQAAIAAJ|plainurl=yes}}}} * {{cite book | last=Kehoe | first=Alice B. | year=1998 | title=The Land of Prehistory: A Critical History of American Archaeology | location=New York; London | publisher=Routledge}} * {{Cite journal | last1 = Lewis | first1 = H. S. | title = The Misrepresentation of Anthropology and Its Consequences | doi = 10.1525/aa.1998.100.3.716 | journal = American Anthropologist | volume = 100 | issue = 3 | pages = 716–731 | year = 1998 | pmid = | pmc = | url = https://www.academia.edu/248344}} * {{cite journal | last=Lewis | first=H. S | authormask=2 | year=2004 | title=Imagining Anthropology's History | journal=Reviews in Anthropology | volume=v. 33}} * {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=H. S. | authormask=2 | year=2005 | chapter=Anthropology, the Cold War, and Intellectual History | editor1-first=R. | editor1-last=Darnell | editor2-first=F.W. | editor2-last=Gleach | title=Histories of Anthropology Annual, Vol. I}} * {{cite book | editor1-last=Pels | editor1-first=Peter | editor2-first=Oscar | editor2-last=Salemink | year=2000 | title=Colonial Subjects: Essays on the Practical History of Anthropology | location=Ann Arbor | publisher=University of Michigan Press}} * {{cite book | last=Price | first=David | year=2004 | title=Threatening Anthropology: McCarthyism and the FBI's Surveillance of Activist Anthropologists | location=Durham | publisher=Duke University Press}}. * {{cite book | last=Sera-Shriar | first=Efram | year=2013 | title=The Making of British Anthropology, 1813–1871 | series=Science and Culture in the Nineteenth Century, 18 | location=London; Vermont | publisher=Pickering and Chatto}} * {{cite book | ref=harv | title=Paul Broca, Founder of French Anthropology, Explorer of the Brain | first=Francis | last=Schiller | location=Berkeley | publisher=University of California Press | year=1979 | url={{Google books|C5dtJxYrkDYC|plainurl=yes}}}} * {{cite book | last=Stocking | first=George, Jr. | year=1968 | title=Race, Culture and Evolution | location=New York | publisher=Free Press}} * {{cite book | last=Trencher | first=Susan | year=2000 | title=Mirrored Images: American Anthropology and American Culture, 1960–1980 | location=Westport, Conn. | publisher=Bergin & Garvey}} * {{cite book | last=Wolf | first=Eric | year=1982 | title=Europe and the People Without History | location=Berkeley; Los Angeles | publisher=California University Press}} {{refend}} ===Textbooks and key theoretical works=== {{refbegin|20em}} * [[Carneiro's circumscription theory]] * {{cite book | last1=Clifford | first1=James | first2=George E. | last2=Marcus | year=1986 | title=Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography | location=Berkeley | publisher=University of California Press}} * {{cite book | last=Geertz | first=Clifford | year=1973 | title=The Interpretation of Cultures | location=New York | publisher=Basic Books}} * {{cite book | last=Harris | first=Marvin | year=1997 | title=Culture, People, Nature: An Introduction to General Anthropology | edition=7th | location=Boston | publisher=Allyn & Bacon}} * {{cite book | last=Salzmann | first=Zdeněk | year=1993 | title=Language, culture, and society: an introduction to linguistic anthropology | location=Boulder, CO | publisher=Westview Press}} * {{cite book | editor1-last=Shweder | editor1-first=Richard A. | editor2-first=Robert A. | editor2-last=LeVine | year=1984 | title=Culture Theory: essays on mind, self, and emotion | location=Cambridge, UK | publisher=Cambridge University Press}} * {{cite book | ref=harv | first=Theodor | last=Waitz | title=Introduction to Anthropology | others=Translated by J. Frederick Collingwood for the Anthropological Society of London | location=London | publisher=Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts | year=1863 | url={{Google books|G4FQAAAAcAAJ|plainurl=yes}}}} {{refend}} ==External links== {{sister project links}} {{Library resources box}} * {{cite web | first=Dieter | last=Haller | title=Interviews with German Anthropologists: Video Portal for the History of German Anthropology post 1945 | publisher=Ruhr-Universität Bochum | url=http://www.germananthropology.com/ | accessdate=22 March 2015}} * {{cite web | url=http://www.aaanet.org/ | title=AAANet Home | publisher=American Anthropological Association | year=2010}} * {{cite web | url=http://www.easaonline.org/ | title=Home | year=2015 | publisher=European Association of Social Anthropologists}} * {{cite web | first=Ed | last=Hagen | year=2015 | title=AAPA | url=http://www.physanth.org/ | publisher=American Association of Physical Anthropologists}} * {{cite web | url=http://www.aas.asn.au/ | publisher=Australian Anthropological Society | title=Home | accessdate=23 March 2015}} * {{cite web | url=http://www.aibr.org/ | title=AIBR, Revista de Antropología Iberoamericana | publisher=Antropólogos Iberoamericanos en Red | language=Spanish | accessdate=24 March 2015}} * {{cite web | url=http://hraf.yale.edu | title=Home | publisher=Human Relations Area Files | accessdate=24 March 2015}} * {{cite web | url=http://www.practicinganthropology.org/ | title=Home | publisher=National Association for the Practice of Anthropology | accessdate=24 March 2015}} * {{cite web | url=http://radicalanthropologygroup.org/about | title=About | publisher=Radical Anthropology Group | accessdate=24 March 2015}} * {{cite web | url=http://www.therai.org.uk/ | title=Home | publisher=Royal Anthropological Institute | accessdate=24 March 2015}} * {{cite web | url=http://www.sfaa.net/ | title=Home | publisher=The Society for Applied Anthropology | accessdate=24 March 2015}} * {{cite web | url=http://anthro.amnh.org/ | title=Anthropology |publisher=American Museum of Natural History | accessdate=25 March 2015}} * {{cite web | title=Department of Anthropology | url=http://anthropology.si.edu/ | publisher=Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History | accessdate=25 March 2015}} * {{cite web | url=https://aio.therai.org.uk/aio.php | title=AIO Home }} {{Social sciences}} [[Category:Humanities]] he6yjz6aklw5189wnc25bvd3n999s5z 0 572 860338382 860338317 2018-09-20T00:03:00Z Heliozoan 31602393 Reverted 1 edit by [[Special:Contributions/199.83.197.59|199.83.197.59]] ([[User talk:199.83.197.59|talk]]) to last revision by Beland. ([[WP:TW|TW]]) wikitext text/x-wiki {{refimprove|date=March 2018}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Agriculture}} '''Agricultural science''' is a broad multidisciplinary field of [[biology]] that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and [[social science]]s that are used in the practice and understanding of [[agriculture]]. ([[veterinary medicine|Veterinary science]], but not [[animal science]], is often excluded from the definition.) ==Agriculture, agricultural science, and agronomy== The three terms are often confused. However, they cover different concepts: * Agriculture is the set of activities that transform the environment for the production of animals and plants for human use. Agriculture concerns techniques, including the application of agronomic research. * [[Agronomy]] is [[research and development]] related to studying and improving plant-based crops. Agricultural sciences include research and development on:<ref name="Bosso 2015">{{cite book | last=Bosso | first=Thelma | title=Agricultural Science | publisher=Callisto Reference | year=2015 | isbn=978-1-63239-058-5}}</ref><ref name="Boucher 2018">{{cite book | last=Boucher | first=Jude | title=Agricultural Science and Management | publisher=Callisto Reference | year=2018 | isbn=978-1-63239-965-6}}</ref> * Plant Breeding and Genetics * Plant Pathology * Horticulture * Soil Science * Entomology * Production techniques (e.g., [[irrigation]] management, recommended [[nitrogen]] inputs) * Improving [[agricultural productivity]] in terms of quantity and quality (e.g., selection of [[drought]]-resistant crops and animals, development of new [[pesticide]]s, yield-sensing technologies, simulation models of crop growth, in-vitro [[cell culture]] techniques) * Minimizing the effects of pests ([[weed]]s, [[insect]]s, [[pathogen]]s, [[nematode]]s) on crop or animal production systems. * Transformation of primary products into end-consumer products (e.g., production, preservation, and packaging of [[dairy product]]s) * Prevention and correction of adverse environmental effects (e.g., [[soil retrogression and degradation|soil degradation]], [[waste management]], [[bioremediation]]) * [[Theoretical production ecology]], relating to crop production modeling * Traditional agricultural systems, sometimes termed [[subsistence agriculture]], which feed most of the poorest people in the world. These systems are of interest as they sometimes retain a level of integration with natural ecological systems greater than that of [[industrial agriculture]], which may be more sustainable than some modern agricultural systems. * Food production and demand on a global basis, with special attention paid to the major producers, such as China, India, Brazil, the USA and the EU. * Various sciences relating to agricultural resources and the environment (e.g. soil science, agroclimatology); biology of agricultural crops and animals (e.g. crop science, animal science and their included sciences, e.g. ruminant nutrition, farm animal welfare); such fields as agricultural economics and rural sociology; various disciplines encompassed in agricultural engineering. ===Agricultural biotechnology=== [[Agricultural biotechnology]] is a specific area of agricultural science involving the use of scientific tools and techniques, including [[genetic engineering]], [[molecular marker]]s, [[molecular diagnostics]], [[vaccine]]s, and [[tissue culture]], to modify living organisms: plants, animals, and [[microorganism]]s.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://absp2.cornell.edu/resources/briefs/documents/warp_briefs_eng_scr.pdf | title=What is Agricultural Biotechnology? | publisher=Cornell University | accessdate=3 February 2015 | deadurl=no | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150226020957/http://absp2.cornell.edu/resources/briefs/documents/warp_briefs_eng_scr.pdf | archivedate=26 February 2015 | df=dmy-all }}</ref> == Fertilizer == One of the most common yield reducers is because of fertilizer not being applied in slightly higher quantities during transition period, the time it takes the soil to rebuild its aggregates and organic matter. Yields will decrease temporarily because of nitrogen being immobilized in the crop residue, which can take a few months to several years to decompose, depending on the crop's C to N ratio and the local environment. ==History== {{Main article|History of agricultural science}} In the 18th century, [[Johann Friedrich Mayer (agriculturist)|Johann Friedrich Mayer]] conducted experiments on the use of [[gypsum]] (hydrated [[calcium sulphate]]) as a fertilizer.<ref name="JB 1840">John Armstrong, Jesse Buel. ''A Treatise on Agriculture, The Present Condition of the Art Abroad and at Home, and the Theory and Practice of Husbandry. To which is Added, a Dissertation on the Kitchen and Garden.'' 1840. p. 45.</ref> In 1843, [[John Lawes]] and [[Henry Gilbert]] began a set of long-term field experiments at [[Rothamsted Research Station]] in England; some of them are still running.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Long Term Experiments|url=https://www.rothamsted.ac.uk/long-term-experiments|publisher=Rothamsted Research|accessdate=26 March 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180327084207/https://www.rothamsted.ac.uk/long-term-experiments|archivedate=27 March 2018|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In the United States, a scientific revolution in agriculture began with the [[Hatch Act of 1887]], which used the term "agricultural science". The Hatch Act was driven by farmers' interest in knowing the constituents of early artificial fertilizer. The [[Smith-Hughes Act]] of 1917 shifted agricultural education back to its vocational roots, but the scientific foundation had been built.<ref>Hillison J. (1996). [http://pubs.aged.tamu.edu/jae/pdf/vol37/37-04-08.pdf The Origins of Agriscience: Or Where Did All That Scientific Agriculture Come From?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081002140821/http://pubs.aged.tamu.edu/jae/pdf/vol37/37-04-08.pdf |date=2 October 2008 }}. ''Journal of Agricultural Education''.</ref> After 1906, public expenditures on agricultural research in the US exceeded private expenditures for the next 44 years.<ref name=ScienceForAg>Huffman WE, Evenson RE. (2006). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZWcolrGftT0C Science for Agriculture]''. [[Blackwell Publishing]].</ref>{{rp|xxi}} <!-- Intensification of agriculture since the 1960s in developed and [[Developing country|developing countries]], often referred to as the [[Green Revolution]], was closely tied to progress made in selecting and improving crops and animals for high productivity, as well as to developing additional inputs such as artificial [[fertilizer]]s and [[pesticide]]s. As the oldest and largest human intervention in nature, the environmental impact of agriculture in general and more recently [[intensive agriculture]], industrial development, and population growth have raised many questions among agricultural scientists and have led to the development and emergence of new fields. These include technological fields that assume the solution to technological problems lies in better technology, such as [[integrated pest management]], [[waste management|waste treatment]] technologies, [[landscape architecture]], [[genomics]], and [[agricultural philosophy]] fields that include references to [[food industry|food production]] as something essentially different from non-essential economic 'goods'. In fact, the interaction between these two approaches provide a fertile field for deeper understanding in agricultural science. New technologies, such as [[biotechnology]] and [[computer science]] (for data processing and storage), and technological advances have made it possible to develop new research fields, including [[genetic engineering]], [[agrophysics]], improved [[statistics|statistical analysis]], and [[precision farming]]. Balancing these, as above, are the natural and human sciences of agricultural science that seek to understand the human-nature interactions of [[history of agriculture|traditional agriculture]], including interaction of [[Religion and Agriculture|religion and agriculture]], and the non-material components of agricultural production systems.--> ==Prominent agricultural scientists== [[File:Norman Borlaug.jpg|thumb|200px|Norman Borlaug, father of the [[Green Revolution]].]] * [[Robert Bakewell (farmer)|Robert Bakewell]] * [[Norman Borlaug]] * [[Luther Burbank]] * [[George Washington Carver]] * [[Carl Henry Clerk]] * [[George C. Clerk]] * [[René Dumont]] * [[Sir Albert Howard]] * [[Kailas Nath Kaul]] * [[Justus von Liebig]] * [[Jay Lush]] * [[Gregor Mendel]] * [[Louis Pasteur]] * [[M. S. Swaminathan]] * [[Jethro Tull (agriculturist)|Jethro Tull]] * [[Artturi Ilmari Virtanen]] * [[Eli Whitney, Jr.|Eli Whitney]] * [[Sewall Wright]] * [[Wilbur Olin Atwater]] ==Fields or related disciplines== {{Col-begin}} {{Col-break}} * [[Agricultural biotechnology]] * [[Agricultural chemistry]] * [[Agricultural diversification]] * [[Agricultural education]] * [[Agricultural economics]] * [[Agricultural engineering]] * [[Agricultural geography]] * [[Agricultural philosophy]] * [[Agricultural marketing]] * [[Agricultural soil science]] * [[Agroecology]] * [[Agrophysics]] * [[Animal science]] ** [[Animal breeding]] ** [[Animal husbandry]] ** [[Animal nutrition]] * [[Farm management]] * [[Agronomy]] ** [[Botany]] ** [[Theoretical production ecology]] ** [[Horticulture]] ** [[Plant breeding]] ** [[fertilizer|Plant fertilization]] {{Col-break}} * [[Aquaculture]] * [[Biological engineering]] ** [[Genetic engineering]] * [[Nematology]] * [[Microbiology]] ** [[Plant pathology]] *[[Range management]] * [[Environmental science]] * [[Entomology]] * [[Food science]] ** [[Human nutrition]] * [[Irrigation]] and [[water management]] * [[Soil science]] ** [[Agrology]] * [[Waste management]] * [[Weed]] science {{Col-end}} ==See also== * [[Agricultural Research Council]] * [[Agricultural sciences basic topics]] * [[Agriculture ministry]] * [[Agroecology]] * [[American Society of Agronomy]] * [[Genomics of domestication]] * [[History of agricultural science]] * [[Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences]] * [[International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development]] * [[International Food Policy Research Institute]], IFPRI * [[List of agriculture topics]] * [[National FFA Organization]] * [[Research Institute of Crop Production]] (RICP) (in the Czech Republic) * [[University of Agricultural Sciences (disambiguation)|University of Agricultural Sciences]] ==Further reading== *[http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/title_pages/9358.html Agricultural Research, Livelihoods, and Poverty: Studies of Economic and Social Impacts in Six Countries] Edited by Michelle Adato and Ruth Meinzen-Dick (2007), Johns Hopkins University Press Food Policy Report<ref name="Brief">[http://www.ifpri.org/publication/agricultural-research-livelihoods-and-poverty Agricultural research, livelihoods, and poverty | International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100626071001/http://www.ifpri.org/publication/agricultural-research-livelihoods-and-poverty |date=26 June 2010 }}</ref> *Claude Bourguignon, ''Regenerating the Soil: From Agronomy to Agrology'', Other India Press, 2005 *Pimentel David, Pimentel Marcia, ''Computer les kilocalories'', Cérès, n. 59, sept-oct. 1977 *Russell E. Walter, ''Soil conditions and plant growth'', Longman group, London, New York 1973 *Salamini Francesco, Oezkan Hakan, Brandolini Andrea, Schaefer-Pregl Ralf, Martin William, ''Genetics and geography of wild cereal domestication in the Near East'', in Nature, vol. 3, ju. 2002 *Saltini Antonio, ''Storia delle scienze agrarie'', 4 vols, Bologna 1984-89, {{ISBN|88-206-2412-5}}, {{ISBN|88-206-2413-3}}, {{ISBN|88-206-2414-1}}, {{ISBN|88-206-2415-X}} *Vavilov Nicolai I. (Starr Chester K. editor), ''The Origin, Variation, Immunity and Breeding of Cultivated Plants. Selected Writings'', in Chronica botanica, 13: 1-6, Waltham, Mass., 1949–50 *Vavilov Nicolai I., ''World Resources of Cereals, Leguminous Seed Crops and Flax,'' Academy of Sciences of Urss, National Science Foundation, Washington, Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem 1960 *Winogradsky Serge, ''Microbiologie du sol. Problèmes et methodes. Cinquante ans de recherches,'' Masson & c.ie, Paris 1949 ==References== {{Reflist}} ==External links== * [http://www.cgiar.org Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR)] * [http://www.ars.usda.gov/main/main.htm Agricultural Research Service] * [http://www.icar.org.in Indian Council of Agricultural Research] * [http://www.iita.org International Institute of Tropical Agriculture] * [http://www.ilri.org International Livestock Research Institute] * [http://nal.usda.gov/ The National Agricultural Library (NAL)] - The most comprehensive agricultural library in the world. * [https://www.crops.org/ Crop Science Society of America] * [https://www.agronomy.org/ American Society of Agronomy] * [https://www.soils.org/ Soil Science Society of America] * [https://www.researchgate.net/science/748_Agricultural_science Agricultural Science Researchers, Jobs and Discussions] *[http://www.fisaonline.de/index.php?act=home&lang=en Information System for Agriculture and Food Research] *[http://www.sdaglabs.com/ South Dakota Agricultural Laboratories] *[http://eppws.nmsu.edu/ NMSU Department of Entomology Plant Pathology and Weed Science] {{Interwiki conflict}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Agricultural Science}} [[Category:Agronomy]] [[Category:Agriculture|Science]] ate13fza7pce4spd56ohrgzpz532s4d 0 573 861876737 861860683 2018-09-30T17:51:34Z SaxXiz 25438103 Two tenses were used wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|Alchemist|other uses|Alchemist (disambiguation)|and|Alchemy (disambiguation)}} [[File:Alchemy of Happiness.png|thumb|upright|''[[Kimiya-yi sa'ādat]]'' (''The Alchemy of Happiness'') – a text on Persian Islamic philosophy and spiritual alchemy by [[Al-Ghazali|Al-Ghazālī]] (1058–1111).]] {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} '''Alchemy''' (from Arabic "''al-kīmiyā''"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/alchemy|title=alchemy {{!}} Definition of alchemy in English by Oxford Dictionaries|website=Oxford Dictionaries {{!}} English|access-date=2018-09-30}}</ref>) is a [[philosophical]] and [[protoscience|protoscientific]] tradition practiced throughout [[Europe]], [[Africa]], and [[Asia]]. It aims to purify, mature, and perfect certain objects.<ref>{{citation |last=Malouin |first=Paul-Jacques |contribution=Alchimie [Alchemy] |contribution-url=http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0000.057 |title=[[Encyclopédie]] ou Dictionnaire Raisonné des Sciences, des Arts, et des Métiers, ''Vol.&nbsp;I'' |location=Paris |date=1751 |editor-last=Diderot |editor-link=Diderot |editor2-last=d'Alembert |editor2-link=D'Alembert |display-editors=0 |publisher=translated by Lauren Yoder in 2003 for Michigan Publishing's ''The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project''}}.</ref><ref name=lindy>{{harvp|Linden|1996|pp=7 & 11}}.</ref>{{refn|group=n|For a detailed look into the problems of defining alchemy, see {{Harvnb|Linden|1996|pp=6–36}}}} Common aims were [[chrysopoeia]], the [[transmutation of elements|transmutation]] of "[[base metal]]s" (e.g., [[lead]]) into "[[noble metal]]s" (particularly [[gold]]); the creation of an [[elixir of immortality]]; the creation of [[panacea (medicine)|panaceas]] able to cure any disease; and the development of an [[alkahest]], a universal [[solvent]].<ref>{{citation |contribution=Alchemy |contribution-url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/alchemy |title=Dictionary.com }}.</ref> The perfection of the [[human body]] and [[soul]] was thought to permit or result from the [[Magnum opus (alchemy)|alchemical magnum opus]] and, in the [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] and western tradition, the achievement of [[gnosis]].<ref name=lindy /> In Europe, the creation of a [[philosopher's stone]] was variously connected with all of these projects. In English, the term is often limited to descriptions of European alchemy, but similar practices existed in the [[Chinese alchemy|Far East]], the [[Rasayana|Indian subcontinent]], and the [[Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam|Muslim world]]. In Europe, following the [[12th-century Renaissance]] produced by the translation of [[Islamic science|Islamic works on science]] and the [[Recovery of Aristotle]], [[list of alchemists|alchemists]] played a significant role in [[early modern era|early modern]] [[science]]<ref>{{citation |editor-last=Eddy |editor-first=Matthew Daniel |editor2-last=Mauskopf |editor2-first=Seymour |editor3-last=Newman |editor3-first=William R. |display-editors=0 |ref={{harvid|''CKEMW''|2014}} |title=Chemical Knowledge in the Early Modern World |date=2014 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |url=https://www.academia.edu/6629576/_with_Seymour_H._Mauskopf_and_William_R._Newman_An_Introduction_to_Chemical_Knowledge_in_the_Early_Modern_World_Osiris_26_2014_1-15 }}.</ref> (particularly [[history of chemistry|chemistry]] and [[history of medicine|medicine]]). Islamic and European alchemists developed a structure of basic [[laboratory techniques]], theory, terminology, and [[experimental method]], some of which are still in use today. However, they continued [[classical antiquity|antiquity]]'s belief in [[four elements]] and guarded their work in secrecy including [[history of cryptography|cyphers]] and cryptic symbolism. Their work was guided by [[Hermeticism|Hermetic principles]] related to [[Magic (paranormal)|magic]], [[mythology]], and [[religion]].<ref>Wouter J. Hanegraaff (Cambridge University Press: 2012), ''Alchemy between Science and Religion'', [https://books.google.ro/books?id=02bfnhO0H8sC&printsec=frontcover&hl=de&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Esotericism and the Academy: Rejected Knowledge in Western Culture'']</ref> Modern discussions of alchemy are generally split into an examination of its [[exoteric]] practical applications and its [[esoteric]] spiritual aspects, despite the arguments of scholars like [[Eric John Holmyard|Holmyard]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1957|p=16}}</ref> and [[Marie-Louise von Franz|von Franz]]<ref name="FRAALC97">{{harvp|von Franz|1997}}.</ref> that they should be understood as complementary. The former is pursued by [[history of the physical sciences|historians of the physical sciences]] who examine the subject in terms of [[history of chemistry|early chemistry]], [[history of medicine|medicine]], and [[charlatanism]], and the philosophical and religious contexts in which these events occurred. The latter interests historians of [[esotericism]], [[history of psychology|psychologists]], and some philosophers and [[spirituality|spiritualists]]. The subject has also made an ongoing impact on literature and the arts. Despite this split, which von Franz believes has existed since the Western traditions' origin in a mix of [[Greek philosophy]] that was mixed with [[Ancient Egyptian technology|Egyptian]] and [[Mesopotamian science|Mesopotamian technology]],<ref name="FRAALC97" /> numerous sources have stressed an integration of esoteric and exoteric approaches to alchemy as far back as [[Pseudo-Democritus]]'s first-century&nbsp;{{sc|ad}} ''On Physical and Mystical Matters'' ({{lang-grc-gre|Physika kai Mystika}}).<ref>Matteo Martelli, The Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus (Maney, 2013).</ref> {{anchor|Etymology}} == Etymology == {{See also|Chemistry (etymology)}} The word alchemy comes from [[Old French]] ''alquemie'', ''alkimie'', used in [[Medieval Latin]] as ''alchymia''. This name was itself brought from the [[Arabic]] word ''al-kīmiyā’'' ({{rtl-lang|ar|الكيمياء}} or {{rtl-lang|ar|الخيمياء}}) composed of two parts: the [[Late Greek]] term ''hēmeía'' (χημεία), ''khēmía'' (χημία), meaning 'to fuse or cast a metal',<ref>[http://oxforddictionaries.com/view/entry/m_en_gb0017630#DWS-M_EN_GB-037342 alchemy], Oxford Dictionaries</ref><ref>See, for example, the etymology for χημεία in {{Cite book| edition = Eighth edition, revised throughout| publisher = Clarendon Press| last = Liddell| first = Henry George|author2=Robert Scott| title = A Greek-English Lexicon| location = Oxford| year = 1901| isbn = 0-19-910205-8}}</ref> and the Arabic [[definite article]] ''[[al-]]'' ({{rtl-lang|ar|الـ}}), meaning 'The'.<ref name=OED>{{OED|alchemy}} Or see {{OEtymD|alchemy|accessdate=April 7, 2010}}.</ref> Together this association can be interpreted as 'the process of [[Magnum opus (alchemy)|transmutation]] by which to fuse or reunite with the divine or original form'. Its roots can be traced to the [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] name ''kēme'' (hieroglyphic 𓆎𓅓𓏏𓊖 ''khmi'' ), meaning ‘black earth’ which refers to the fertile and auriferous soil of the Nile valley, as opposed to red desert sand.<ref name=OED /> According to the Egyptologist [[Wallis Budge]], the Arabic word ''al-kīmiyaʾ'' actually means "the Egyptian [science]", borrowing from the [[Coptic language|Coptic]] word for "Egypt", ''kēme'' (or its equivalent in the Mediaeval [[Bohairic]] dialect of Coptic, ''khēme''). This Coptic word derives from [[Demotic Egyptian|Demotic]] ''kmỉ'', itself from ancient [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] ''kmt''. The ancient Egyptian word referred to both the country and the colour "black" (Egypt was the "Black Land", by contrast with the "Red Land", the surrounding desert); so this etymology could also explain the nickname "Egyptian black arts". However, according to [[Carl August Friedrich Mahn|Mahn]], this theory may be an example of [[folk etymology]].<ref name="OED" /> Assuming an Egyptian origin, chemistry is defined as follows: :'''Chemistry''', from the ancient [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] word "khēmia" meaning transmutation of earth, is the [[science]] of [[matter]] at the [[atom]]ic to [[molecular]] scale, dealing primarily with collections of atoms, such as [[molecule]]s, [[crystal]]s, and [[metal]]s. Thus, according to Budge and others, chemistry derives from an Egyptian word ''khemein'' or ''khēmia'', "preparation of black powder", ultimately derived from the name ''khem'', Egypt. A decree of [[Diocletian]], written about 300 AD in Greek, speaks against "the ancient writings of the Egyptians, which treat of the ''khēmia'' [[Chrysopoeia|transmutation]] of gold and silver".<ref>''[[Oxford English Dictionary#Electronic versions|Oxford English Dictionary Online]],'' s.v. alchemy</ref> The Medieval Latin form was influenced by Greek ''chymeia'' (χυμεία) meaning ‘mixture’ and referring to [[pharmaceutical chemistry]].<ref>See, for example, both the etymology given in the Oxford English Dictionary and also that for χυμεία in {{Cite book| edition = A new edition, revised and augmented throughout| publisher = Clarendon Press| last = Liddell| first = Henry George|author2=Robert Scott|author3=Henry Stuart Jones| title = A Greek-English Lexicon| location = Oxford| year = 1940|url = http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=xumeia&la=greek#lexicon| isbn = 0-19-910205-8}}</ref> == History == Alchemy is several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents. These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and "genetic" relationships. One can distinguish at least three major strands, which appear to be largely independent, at least in their earlier stages: [[Chinese alchemy]], centered in China and its zone of cultural influence; [[Rasayana|Indian alchemy]], centered on the [[Indian subcontinent]]; and Western alchemy, which occurred around the [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean]] and whose center has shifted over the millennia from [[Egypt (Roman province)|Greco-Roman Egypt]], to the [[Muslim world|Islamic world]], and finally [[Middle Ages|medieval Europe]]. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to [[Taoism]] and Indian alchemy with the [[Indian religions|Dharmic faiths]], whereas Western alchemy developed its own philosophical system that was largely independent of, but influenced by, various [[Western religion]]s. It is still an open question whether these three strands share a common origin, or to what extent they influenced each other. === Hellenistic Egypt === [[File:Zosimosapparat.jpg|thumb|left|300px| Ambix, cucurbit and retort of [[Zosimos of Panopolis|Zosimos]], from [[Marcelin Berthelot]], ''Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs'' (3 vol., Paris, 1887–1888).]] The start of Western alchemy may generally be traced to ancient and [[Hellenistic Egypt]], where the city of [[Alexandria]] was a center of alchemical knowledge, and retained its pre-eminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods.<ref>''New Scientist'', 24–31 December 1987</ref> Here, elements of technology, religion, mythology, and [[Hellenistic philosophy]], each with their own much longer histories, combined to form the earliest known records of alchemy in the West. [[Zosimos of Panopolis]] wrote the oldest known books on alchemy,{{citation needed|date=February 2013}} while [[Mary the Jewess]] is credited as being the first non-fictitious Western alchemist. They wrote in [[Greek language|Greek]] and lived in [[Egypt]] under [[Roman Empire|Roman]] rule. '''Mythology''' – Zosimos of Panopolis asserted that alchemy dated back to [[Ancient Egypt|Pharaonic Egypt]] where it was the domain of the priestly class, though there is little to no evidence for his assertion.<ref>{{cite book|last=Garfinkel|first=Harold|title=Ethnomethodological Studies of Work|publisher=Routledge &Kegan Paul|year=1986|pages=127|isbn=0-415-11965-0}}</ref> Alchemical writers used Classical figures from Greek, Roman, and Egyptian mythology to illuminate their works and allegorize alchemical transmutation.<ref>Yves Bonnefoy. 'Roman and European Mythologies'. University of Chicago Press, 1992. pp. 211–213</ref> These included the pantheon of gods related to the Classical planets, [[Isis]], [[Osiris]], [[Jason]], and many others. The central figure in the mythology of alchemy is [[Hermes Trismegistus]] (or Thrice-Great Hermes). His name is derived from the [[deity|god]] [[Thoth]] and his Greek counterpart [[Hermes]]. Hermes and his [[caduceus]] or serpent-staff, were among alchemy's principal symbols. According to [[Clement of Alexandria]], he wrote what were called the "forty-two books of Hermes", covering all fields of knowledge.<ref>[[s:Ante-Nicene Fathers/Volume II/CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA/The Stromata, or Miscellanies/Book VI/Chapter IV.|Clement, ''Stromata'', vi. 4.]]</ref> The ''[[Hermetica]]'' of Thrice-Great Hermes is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice, called the [[hermeticism|hermetic philosophy]] by its early practitioners. These writings were collected in the first centuries of the common era. '''Technology''' – The dawn of Western alchemy is sometimes associated with that of [[metallurgy]], extending back to 3500&nbsp;{{sc|bc}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Linden|1996|p=12}}</ref> Many writings were lost when the [[Roman Emperor|emperor]] [[Diocletian]] ordered the burning of alchemical books<ref>{{cite book|last=Partington|first=James Riddick|title=A Short History of Chemistry|year=1989|pages=20|isbn=0-486-65977-1|publisher=Dover Publications|location=New York}}</ref> after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria ({{sc|ad}}&nbsp;292). Few original Egyptian documents on alchemy have survived, most notable among them the [[Stockholm papyrus]] and the [[Leyden papyrus X]]. Dating from {{sc|ad}}&nbsp;300–500, they contained recipes for dyeing and making artificial gemstones, cleaning and fabricating pearls, and manufacturing of imitation gold and silver.<ref>{{Harvnb|Linden|2003|p=46}}</ref> These writings lack the mystical, philosophical elements of alchemy, but do contain the works of [[Bolus of Mendes]] (or [[Pseudo-Democritus]]), which aligned these recipes with theoretical knowledge of astrology and the [[classical elements]].<ref name="Chemistry, Bensaude-Vincent 1996, p13">''A History of Chemistry'', Bensaude-Vincent, Isabelle Stengers, ''Harvard University Press'', 1996, '''p13'''</ref> Between the time of Bolus and Zosimos, the change took place that transformed this metallurgy into a Hermetic art.<ref>{{Harvnb|Linden|1996|p=14}}</ref> '''Philosophy''' – Alexandria acted as a melting pot for philosophies of [[Pythagoreanism]], [[Platonism]], [[Stoicism]] and [[Gnosticism]] which formed the origin of alchemy's character.<ref name="Chemistry, Bensaude-Vincent 1996, p13" /> An important example of alchemy's roots in Greek philosophy, originated by [[Empedocles]] and developed by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements: [[Earth (classical element)|earth]], [[Air (classical element)|air]], [[Water (classical element)|water]], and [[Fire (classical element)|fire]]. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed.<ref>{{cite book | author=Lindsay, Jack | title=The Origins of Alchemy in Graeco-Roman Egypt | location=London | publisher=Muller | year=1970 | isbn= 0-389-01006-5 | page=16 }}</ref> The four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are; "...True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word. The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form."<ref>{{cite book | first=Titus | last=Burckhardt | authorlink=Titus Burckhardt | title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul | location=Baltimore | publisher=Penguin | year=1967 | page=66 | others=Trans. William Stoddart | isbn=0-906540-96-8}}</ref> Later alchemists extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept. Alchemy coexisted alongside emerging [[Christianity]]. [[Lactantius]] believed Hermes Trismegistus had prophesied its birth. [[Augustine of Hippo|St&nbsp;Augustine]] later affirmed this in the 4th & 5th centuries, but also condemned Trismegistus for idolatry.<ref>Fanning, Philip Ashley. ''Isaac Newton and the Transmutation of Alchemy: An Alternative View of the Scientific Revolution.'' 2009. p.6</ref> Examples of Pagan, Christian, and Jewish alchemists can be found during this period. Most of the Greco-Roman alchemists preceding Zosimos are known only by pseudonyms, such as [[Moses of Alexandria|Moses]], Isis, [[Cleopatra the Alchemist|Cleopatra]], [[Pseudo-Democritus|Democritus]], and [[Ostanes]]. Others authors such as Komarios, and [[Chymes]], we only know through fragments of text. After {{sc|ad}}&nbsp;400, Greek alchemical writers occupied themselves solely in commenting on the works of these predecessors.<ref>F. Sherwood Taylor. ''Alchemists, Founders of Modern Chemistry.'' p.26.</ref> By the middle of the 7th century alchemy was almost an entirely mystical discipline.<ref>Allen G. Debus. ''Alchemy and early modern chemistry: papers from Ambix.'' p. 36</ref> It was at that time that [[Khalid Ibn Yazid]] sparked its migration from Alexandria to the Islamic world, facilitating the translation and preservation of Greek alchemical texts in the 8th and 9th centuries.<ref>Glen Warren Bowersock, Peter Robert Lamont Brown, Oleg Grabar. ''Late antiquity: a guide to the postclassical world.'' p. 284–285</ref> === India === {{Main|Rasayana}} {{See also|History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent}} The [[Vedas]] describe a connection between eternal life and gold.<ref name=eb /> The use of [[Mercury (element)|Mercury]] for alchemy is first documented in the 3rd- or 4th-century ''[[Arthashastra]]''. [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] texts from the 2nd to 5th centuries mention the transmutation of base metals to gold. Greek alchemy may have been introduced to Ancient India through the invasions of [[Alexander the Great]] in 325&nbsp;{{sc|bc}}, and kingdoms that were culturally influenced by the Greeks like [[Gandhāra]], although hard evidence for this is lacking.<ref name=eb>Multhauf, Robert P. & Gilbert, Robert Andrew (2008). ''Alchemy''. Encyclopædia Britannica (2008).</ref> The 11th-century [[Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam|Persian chemist]] and [[Medicine in medieval Islam|physician]] [[Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī]], who visited Gujarat as part of the court of [[Mahmud of Ghazni]], reported that they {{bquote|have a science similar to alchemy which is quite peculiar to them, which in [[Sanskrit]] is called [[Rasayāna]] and in Persian [[Rasavātam]]. It means the art of obtaining/manipulating ''Rasa'': nectar, mercury, and juice. This art was restricted to certain operations, metals, drugs, compounds, and medicines, many of which have mercury as their core element. Its principles restored the health of those who were ill beyond hope and gave back youth to fading old age.}} The goals of alchemy in India included the creation of a divine body (Sanskrit ''divya-deham'') and immortality while still embodied (Sanskrit ''jīvan-mukti''). Sanskrit alchemical texts include much material on the manipulation of mercury and sulphur, that are homologized with the semen of the god Śiva and the menstrual blood of the goddess Devī. Some early alchemical writings seem to have their origins in the [[Kaula (Hinduism)|Kaula]] tantric schools associated to the teachings of the personality of [[Matsyendranath]]. Other early writings are found in the Jaina medical treatise ''Kalyāṇakārakam'' of Ugrāditya, written in South India in the early 9th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Meulenbeld|first1=G. Jan|title=History of Indian Medical Literature|date=1999–2002|publisher=Egbert Forsten|location=Groningen|pages=IIA, 151–155|ref=HIML}}</ref> Two famous early Indian alchemical authors were [[Nagarjuna (metallurgist)|Nāgārjuna Siddha]] and Nityanātha Siddha. Nāgārjuna Siddha was a Buddhist monk. His book, ''Rasendramangalam'', is an example of Indian alchemy and medicine. Nityanātha Siddha wrote ''Rasaratnākara'', also a highly influential work. In Sanskrit, ''rasa'' translates to "mercury", and Nāgārjuna Siddha was said to have developed a method of converting mercury into gold.<ref>See Dominik Wujastyk, "An Alchemical Ghost: The Rasaratnākara of Nāgarjuna" in ''Ambix'' 31.2 (1984): 70-83. Online at https://univie.academia.edu/DominikWujastyk/Papers/152766/</ref> Reliable scholarship on Indian alchemy has been advanced in a major way by the publication of ''The Alchemical Body'' by David Gordon White.<ref>See bibliographical details and links at https://openlibrary.org/works/OL3266066W/The_Alchemical_Body</ref> Trustworthy scholarship on Indian alchemy must now take the findings of this work into account. An important modern bibliography on Indian alchemical studies has also been provided by David Gordon White at [http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399318/obo-9780195399318-0046.xml?rskey=skoSqW&result=1&q=rasayana#firstMatch Oxford Bibliographies Online].<ref>{{doi|10.1093/OBO/9780195399318-0046}}</ref> The contents of 39 Sanskrit alchemical treatises have been analysed in detail in G. Jan Meulenbeld's ''History of Indian Medical Literature''.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Meulenbeld|first1=G. Jan|title=History of Indian Medical Literature|date=1999–2002|publisher=Egbert Forsten|location=Groningen|pages=IIA, 581–738}}</ref>{{refn|group=n|To wit, the ''Ānandakanda, Āyurvedaprakāśa, Gorakṣasaṃhitā, Kākacaṇḍeśvarīmatatantra, Kākacaṇḍīśvarakalpatantra, Kūpīpakvarasanirmāṇavijñāna, Pāradasaṃhitā, Rasabhaiṣajyakalpanāvijñāna, Rasādhyāya, Rasahṛdayatantra, Rasajalanidhi, Rasakāmadhenu, Rasakaumudī, Rasamañjarī, Rasamitra, Rasāmṛta, Rasapaddhati, Rasapradīpa, Rasaprakāśasudhākara, Rasarājalakṣmī, Rasaratnadīpikā, Rasaratnākara, Rasaratnasamuccaya, Rasārṇava, Rasārṇavakalpa, Rasasaṃketakalikā, Rasasāra, Rasataraṅgiṇī, Rasāyanasāra, Rasayogasāgara, Rasayogaśataka, Rasendracintāmaṇi, Rasendracūḍāmaṇi, Rasendramaṅgala, Rasendrapurāṇa, Rasendrasambhava, Rasendrasārasaṅgraha, Rasoddhāratantra'' or ''Rasasaṃhitā'', and '' Rasopaniṣad''. }} The discussion of these works in HIML gives a summary of the contents of each work, their special features, and where possible the evidence concerning their dating. Chapter 13 of HIML, ''Various works on rasaśāstra and ratnaśāstra'' (or ''Various works on alchemy and gems'') gives brief details of a further 655 (six hundred and fifty-five) treatises. In some cases Meulenbeld gives notes on the contents and authorship of these works; in other cases references are made only to the unpublished manuscripts of these titles. A great deal remains to be discovered about Indian alchemical literature. The content of the Sanskrit alchemical corpus has not yet (2014) been adequately integrated into the wider general history of alchemy. {{anchor|Islamic alchemy|Islamic world}} === Muslim world === {{Main|Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam}} [[File:Jabir ibn Hayyan.jpg|thumb|right|[[Jābir ibn Hayyān|Jabir ibn Hayyan]] (Geber), considered the "father of [[chemistry]]", introduced a [[Scientific method|scientific]] and [[experiment]]al approach to alchemy.]] After [[The fall of the roman empire|the fall of the Roman Empire]], the focus of alchemical development moved to the Islamic World. Much more is known about [[Islam]]ic alchemy because it was better documented: indeed, most of the earlier writings that have come down through the years were preserved as Arabic translations.<ref>{{cite book | first=Titus | last=Burckhardt | authorlink=Titus Burckhardt | title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul | location=Baltimore | publisher=Penguin | year=1967 | page=46 | others=Trans. William Stoddart | isbn=0-906540-96-8}}</ref> The word ''alchemy'' itself was derived from the Arabic word ''al-kīmiyā’'' (الكيمياء). The early Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy. [[Plato]]nic and [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] thought, which had already been somewhat appropriated into hermetical science, continued to be assimilated during the late 7th and early 8th centuries through [[Syriac language|Syriac]] translations and scholarship. In the late 8th century, [[Jābir ibn Hayyān]] (Latinized as "Geber" or "Geberus") introduced a new approach to alchemy, based on [[scientific method]]ology and controlled [[experiment]]ation in the [[laboratory]], in contrast to the ancient Greek and Egyptian alchemists whose works were often allegorical and unintelligible, with very little concern for laboratory work.<ref name=Kraus /> Jabir is thus "considered by many to be the father of [[chemistry]]",<ref>{{Cite journal|first=Zygmunt S.|last=Derewenda|year=2007|title=On wine, chirality and crystallography|journal=Acta Crystallographica Section A|volume=64|pages=246–258 [247]|doi=10.1107/S0108767307054293|pmid=18156689|bibcode = 2008AcCrA..64..246D |doi-access=free}}</ref> albeit others reserve that title for [[Robert Boyle]] or [[Antoine Lavoisier]]. The science historian, Paul Kraus, wrote: {{quote|To form an idea of the historical place of Jabir's alchemy and to tackle the problem of its sources, it is advisable to compare it with what remains to us of the alchemical literature in the [[Greek language]]. One knows in which miserable state this literature reached us. Collected by [[Byzantine science|Byzantine scientists]] from the tenth century, the corpus of the Greek alchemists is a cluster of incoherent fragments, going back to all the times since the third century until the end of the Middle Ages. The efforts of Berthelot and Ruelle to put a little order in this mass of literature led only to poor results, and the later researchers, among them in particular Mrs. Hammer-Jensen, Tannery, Lagercrantz, von Lippmann, Reitzenstein, Ruska, Bidez, Festugiere and others, could make clear only few points of detail .... The study of the Greek alchemists is not very encouraging. An even surface examination of the Greek texts shows that a very small part only was organized according to true experiments of laboratory: even the supposedly technical writings, in the state where we find them today, are unintelligible nonsense which refuses any interpretation. It is different with Jabir's alchemy. The relatively clear description of the processes and the alchemical apparati, the methodical classification of the substances, mark an experimental spirit which is extremely far away from the weird and odd esotericism of the Greek texts. The theory on which Jabir supports his operations is one of clearness and of an impressive unity. More than with the other Arab authors, one notes with him a balance between theoretical teaching and practical teaching, between the ''[[Ilm (Arabic)|`ilm]]'' and the ''`amal''. In vain one would seek in the Greek texts a work as systematic as that which is presented, for example, in the ''Book of Seventy''.<ref name=Kraus>Kraus, Paul, Jâbir ibn Hayyân, ''Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque,''. Cairo (1942–1943). Repr. By Fuat Sezgin, (Natural Sciences in Islam. 67–68), Frankfurt. 2002: (cf. {{cite web|author=[[Ahmad Y Hassan]]|title=A Critical Reassessment of the Geber Problem: Part Three|url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/geber/geber%2003.html|accessdate=16 September 2014}})</ref>}} Jabir himself clearly recognized and proclaimed the importance of experimentation: {{bquote|The first essential in chemistry is that thou shouldest perform practical work and conduct experiments,<br /> for he who performs not practical work nor makes experiments will never attain to the least degree of mastery.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1931|p=60}}</ref>}} Early Islamic chemists such as [[Jābir ibn Hayyān|Jabir Ibn Hayyan]], [[Al-Kindi]] ("Alkindus") and [[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi]] ("Rasis" or "Rhazes") contributed a number of key chemical discoveries, such as the muriatic ([[hydrochloric acid]]), [[sulfuric acid|sulfuric]] and [[nitric acid]]s, and more. The discovery that [[aqua regia]], a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, could dissolve the noblest metal, gold, was to fuel the imagination of alchemists for the next millennium. Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism. The most influential author in this regard was arguably Jabir. Jabir's ultimate goal was ''[[Takwin]]'', the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up to, and including, human life. He analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of ''hotness'', ''coldness'', ''dryness'', and ''moistness''.<ref name=burckhardt29 /> According to Jabir, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry, while gold was hot and moist. Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result.<ref name=burckhardt29>{{cite book | first=Titus | last=Burckhardt | authorlink=Titus Burckhardt | title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul | location=Baltimore | publisher=Penguin | year=1967 | page=29 | others=Trans. William Stoddart | isbn=0-906540-96-8}}</ref> By this reasoning, the search for the [[philosopher's stone]] was introduced to Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate [[numerology]] whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties. The elemental system used in medieval alchemy also originated with Jabir. His original system consisted of seven elements, which included the five [[classical element]]s ([[aether (classical element)|aether]], [[Air (classical element)|air]], [[Earth (classical element)|earth]], [[Fire (classical element)|fire]], and [[Water (classical element)|water]]) in addition to two [[chemical element]]s representing the metals: [[Sulfur|sulphur]], "the stone which burns", which characterized the principle of combustibility, and [[Mercury (element)|mercury]], which contained the idealized principle of metallic properties. Shortly thereafter, this evolved into eight elements, with the Arabic concept of the three metallic principles: sulphur giving flammability or combustion, mercury giving volatility and stability, and [[Salt (chemistry)|salt]] giving solidity.<ref name="r8">Strathern, Paul. (2000), ''Mendeleyev's Dream – the Quest for the Elements'', New York: [[Berkley Books]]</ref> The [[atomic theory]] of [[corpuscularianism]], where all physical bodies possess an inner and outer layer of minute particles or corpuscles, also has its origins in the work of Jabir.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Distilling knowledge: alchemy, chemistry, and the scientific revolution|first=Bruce T.|last=Moran|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|year=2005|isbn=0-674-01495-2|page=146|quote=a corpuscularian tradition in alchemy stemming from the speculations of the medieval author Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan)}}</ref> From the 9th to 14th centuries, alchemical theories faced criticism from a variety of practical Muslim chemists, including [[Al-Kindi|Alkindus]],<ref>Felix Klein-Frank (2001), "Al-Kindi", in [[Oliver Leaman]] & [[Hossein Nasr]], ''History of Islamic Philosophy'', p. 174. London: [[Routledge]].</ref> [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]],<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Marmura | first1 = Michael E. |name-list-format=vanc| year = 1965 | title = ''An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines: Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina'' by Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]] | url = | journal = Speculum | volume = 40 | issue = 4| pages = 744–6 | doi=10.2307/2851429}}</ref> [[Avicenna]]<ref>[[Robert Briffault]] (1938). ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 196–197.</ref> and [[Ibn Khaldun]]. In particular, they wrote refutations against the idea of the [[Philosopher's stone|transmutation of metals]]. === East Asia === {{Main|Chinese alchemy}} [[File:Esoteric Taijitu.svg|thumb| upright=0.5|Taoist alchemists often use this alternate version of the [[taijitu]].]] Whereas European alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble metals, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine. The [[philosopher's stone]] of European alchemists can be compared to the [[Elixir of life|Grand Elixir of Immortality]] sought by Chinese alchemists. However, in the hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equated with the [[Panacea (medicine)|universal panacea]]; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in common than initially appears. [[Black powder]] may have been an important invention of Chinese alchemists. As previously stated above, [[China|Chinese]] alchemy was more related to medicine. It is said that the Chinese invented gunpowder while trying to find a [[potion]] for eternal life. Described in 9th-century texts{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}} and used in [[fireworks]] in China by the 10th century,{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}} it was used in [[cannon]]s by 1290.{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}} From China, the use of [[gunpowder]] spread to Japan, the [[Mongol]]s, the Muslim world, and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe by the 14th century. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to [[Taoist]] forms of [[traditional Chinese medicine]], such as [[Acupuncture]] and [[Moxibustion]], and to martial arts such as [[T'ai chi ch'uan|Tai Chi Chuan]]{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}} and [[Kung Fu]] (although some Tai Chi schools believe that their art derives from the philosophical or hygienic branches of Taoism, not Alchemical). In fact, in the early [[Song dynasty]], followers of this Taoist idea (chiefly the elite and upper class) would ingest [[cinnabar|mercuric sulfide]], which, though tolerable in low levels, led many to suicide.{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}} Thinking that this consequential death would lead to freedom and access to the Taoist heavens, the ensuing deaths encouraged people to eschew this method of alchemy in favor of external sources{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}} (the aforementioned Tai Chi Chuan,{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}} mastering of the [[qi]],{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}} etc.) === Medieval Europe === <!-- [[Aludel]] links to this section--> [[File:Joseph Wright of Derby The Alchemist.jpg|thumb|right|''[[The Alchemist in Search of the Philosopher's Stone]]'', by Joseph Wright, 1771]] [[File:WMS 446, R. Lullius, Ymage de Vie, late 15th Wellcome L0031726.jpg|thumb|"An illuminated page from a book on alchemical processes and receipts", ca. 15th century.]] The introduction of alchemy to Latin Europe may be dated to 11 February 1144, with the completion of [[Robert of Chester]]'s translation of the Arabic ''Book of the Composition of Alchemy''. Although European craftsmen and technicians preexisted, Robert notes in his preface that alchemy was unknown in Latin Europe at the time of his writing. The translation of Arabic texts concerning numerous disciplines including alchemy flourished in 12th-century [[Toledo, Spain]], through contributors like [[Gerard of Cremona]] and [[Adelard of Bath]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1957|pp=105–108}}</ref> Translations of the time included the [[Turba Philosophorum]], and the works of [[Avicenna]] and [[al-Razi]]. These brought with them many new words to the European vocabulary for which there was no previous Latin equivalent. Alcohol, carboy, elixir, and athanor are examples.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1957|p=110}}</ref> Meanwhile, theologian contemporaries of the translators made strides towards the reconciliation of faith and experimental rationalism, thereby priming Europe for the influx of alchemical thought. The 11th-century [[Anselm of Canterbury|St&nbsp;Anselm]] put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. In the early 12th century, [[Peter Abelard]] followed Anselm's work, laying down the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle had reached the West. In the early 13th century, [[Robert Grosseteste]] used Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observation, experimentation, and conclusions when conducting scientific investigations. Grosseteste also did much work to reconcile Platonic and Aristotelian thinking.<ref name=hollister294f>{{cite book | author=Hollister, C. Warren | title=Medieval Europe: A Short History | location=Blacklick, Ohio | publisher=McGraw–Hill College | year=1990 | isbn=0-07-557141-2 | edition=6th |pages=294f}}</ref> Through much of the 12th and 13th centuries, alchemical knowledge in Europe remained centered on translations, and new Latin contributions were not made. The efforts of the translators were succeeded by that of the encyclopaedists. In the 13th century, [[Albertus Magnus]] and [[Roger Bacon]] were the most notable of these, their work summarizing and explaining the newly imported alchemical knowledge in Aristotelian terms.<ref>John Read. ''From Alchemy to Chemistry.'' 1995 p.90</ref> Albertus Magnus, a [[Dominican Order|Dominican monk]], is known to have written works such as the ''Book of Minerals'' where he observed and commented on the operations and theories of alchemical authorities like Hermes and Democritus and unnamed alchemists of his time. Albertus critically compared these to the writings of Aristotle and Avicenna, where they concerned the transmutation of metals. From the time shortly after his death through to the 15th century, more than 28 alchemical tracts were misattributed to him, a common practice giving rise to his reputation as an accomplished alchemist.<ref>James A. Weisheipl. ''Albertus Magnus and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays.'' PIMS. 1980. p.187-202</ref> Likewise, alchemical texts have been attributed to Albert's student [[Thomas Aquinas]]. Roger Bacon, a [[Franciscan Order|Franciscan monk]] who wrote on a wide variety of topics including [[optics]], [[comparative linguistics]], and medicine, composed his ''[[Opus Majus|Great Work]]'' ({{lang-la|Opus Majus}}) for {{nowrap|[[Pope Clement IV]]}} as part of a project towards rebuilding the [[medieval university]] curriculum to include the new learning of his time. While alchemy was not more important to him than other sciences and he did not produce allegorical works on the topic, he did consider it and astrology to be important parts of both natural philosophy and theology and his contributions advanced alchemy's connections to [[soteriology]] and Christian theology. Bacon's writings integrated morality, salvation, alchemy, and the prolongation of life. His correspondence with Clement highlighted this, noting the importance of alchemy to the papacy.<ref>Edmund Brehm. "Roger Bacon's Place in the History of Alchemy." ''Ambix.'' Vol. 23, Part I, March 1976.</ref> Like the Greeks before him, Bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy into practical and theoretical spheres. He noted that the theoretical lay outside the scope of Aristotle, the natural philosophers, and all Latin writers of his time. The practical, however, confirmed the theoretical thought experiment, and Bacon advocated its uses in natural science and medicine.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1957|pp=120–121}}</ref> In later European legend, however, Bacon became an archmage. In particular, along with Albertus Magnus, he was credited with the forging of a [[brazen head]] capable of answering its owner's questions. Soon after Bacon, the influential work of [[Pseudo-Geber]] (sometimes identified as [[Paul of Taranto]]) appeared. His ''Summa Perfectionis'' remained a staple summary of alchemical practice and theory through the medieval and renaissance periods. It was notable for its inclusion of practical chemical operations alongside sulphur-mercury theory, and the unusual clarity with which they were described.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1957|pp=134–141}}.</ref> By the end of the 13th century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body (for example, if one could learn the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the [[soul|human soul]]). They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded [[jargon]] set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made [[observation]]s and [[theory|theories]] about how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God.<ref>{{cite book | first=Titus | last=Burckhardt | authorlink=Titus Burckhardt | title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul | location=Baltimore | publisher=Penguin | year=1967 | page=149 | others=Trans. William Stoddart | isbn=0-906540-96-8}}</ref> In the 14th century, alchemy became more accessible to Europeans outside the confines of Latin speaking churchmen and scholars. Alchemical discourse shifted from scholarly philosophical debate to an exposed social commentary on the alchemists themselves.<ref>Tara E. Nummedal. ''Alchemy and Authority in the Holy Roman Empire.'' University of Chicago Press, 2007. p. 49</ref> [[Dante]], [[Piers Plowman]], and [[Chaucer]] all painted unflattering pictures of alchemists as thieves and liars. [[Pope John XXII]]'s 1317 edict, ''[[Spondent quas non exhibent]]'' forbade the false promises of transmutation made by pseudo-alchemists.<ref>John Hines, II, R. F. Yeager. ''John Gower, Trilingual Poet: Language, Translation, and Tradition.'' Boydell & Brewer. 2010. p.170</ref> In 1403, Henry IV of England banned the practice of multiplying metals (although it was possible to buy a licence to attempt to make gold alchemically, and a number were granted by Henry VI and Edward IV<ref>D. Geoghegan, "A licence of Henry VI to practise Alchemy" Ambix, volume 6, 1957, pages 10-17</ref>). These critiques and regulations centered more around pseudo-alchemical charlatanism than the actual study of alchemy, which continued with an increasingly Christian tone. The 14th century saw the Christian imagery of death and resurrection employed in the alchemical texts of [[Petrus Bonus]], [[John of Rupescissa]], and in works written in the name of Raymond Lull and Arnold of Villanova.<ref>[[Leah DeVun]]. ''From Prophecy, Alchemy, and the End of Time: John of Rupescissa in the late Middle Ages.'' Columbia University Press, 2009. p. 104</ref> [[Nicolas Flamel]] is a well-known alchemist, but a good example of [[pseudepigraphy]], the practice of giving your works the name of someone else, usually more famous. Although the historical Flamel existed, the writings and legends assigned to him only appeared in 1612.<ref>{{Harvnb|Linden|2003|p=123}}</ref><ref>"Nicolas Flamel. Des Livres et de l'or" by Nigel Wilkins</ref> Flamel was not a religious scholar as were many of his predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around the pursuit of the [[philosopher's stone]]. His work spends a great deal of time describing the processes and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out the transmutations. Most of 'his' work was aimed at gathering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosopher's stone.<ref>{{cite book | first=Titus | last=Burckhardt | authorlink=Titus Burckhardt | title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul | location=Baltimore | publisher=Penguin | year=1967 | pages=170–181 | others=Trans. William Stoddart | isbn=0-906540-96-8}}</ref> Through the [[late Middle Ages|14th and 15th centuries]], alchemists were much like Flamel: they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone. [[Bernard Trevisan]] and [[George Ripley (alchemist)|George Ripley]] made similar contributions. Their cryptic allusions and [[symbol]]ism led to wide variations in interpretation of the art. === Renaissance and early modern Europe === {{Further|Renaissance magic|natural magic}} [[File:Raimundus Lullus alchemic page.jpg|thumb|right|Page from alchemic treatise of [[Ramon Llull]], 16th century]] [[File:Splendor Solis 22 sun rising over city.jpg|thumb|right |The red sun rising over the city, the final illustration of 16th-century alchemical text, ''[[Splendor Solis]]''. The word [[rubedo]], meaning "redness", was adopted by alchemists and signalled alchemical success, and the end of the great work.]] During the [[Renaissance]], Hermetic and Platonic foundations were restored to European alchemy. The dawn of medical, pharmaceutical, occult, and entrepreneurial branches of alchemy followed. In the late 15th century, [[Marsilo Ficino]] translated the [[Corpus Hermeticum]] and the works of Plato into Latin. These were previously unavailable to Europeans who for the first time had a full picture of the alchemical theory that Bacon had declared absent. [[Renaissance Humanism]] and [[Renaissance Neoplatonism]] guided alchemists away from physics to refocus on mankind as the alchemical vessel. Esoteric systems developed that blended alchemy into a broader occult Hermeticism, fusing it with magic, astrology, and Christian cabala.<ref>Peter J. Forshaw. '"Chemistry, That Starry Science" - Early Modern Conjunctions of Astrology and Alchemy' (2013)</ref><ref>Peter J. Forshaw, 'Cabala Chymica or Chemia Cabalistica – Early Modern Alchemists and Cabala' (2013)</ref> A key figure in this development was German [[Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa]] (1486–1535), who received his Hermetic education in Italy in the schools of the humanists. In his ''De Occulta Philosophia'', he attempted to merge [[Kabbalah]], Hermeticism, and alchemy. He was instrumental in spreading this new blend of Hermeticism outside the borders of Italy.<ref>Glenn Alexander Magee. ''Hegel and the Hermetic Tradition.'' Cornell University Press. 2008. p.30</ref><ref>Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke. ''The Western Esoteric Traditions: A Historical Introduction.'' Oxford University Press. 2008 p.60</ref> Philippus Aureolus [[Paracelsus]], (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of Agrippa's occultism and moving away from [[chrysopoeia]]. Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine and wrote, "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines."<ref>{{cite book | author=Edwardes, Michael | title=The Dark Side of History | location=New York | publisher=Stein and Day | year=1977 | page=47 | isbn=0-552-11463-4 }}</ref> His hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them.<ref>{{cite book | author=[[Debus, Allen G.]] |author2=Multhauf, Robert P. | title=Alchemy and Chemistry in the Seventeenth Century | location=Los Angeles | publisher=William Andrews Clark Memorial Library, University of California. | year=1966 | pages=6–12 }}</ref> Paracelsian practical alchemy, especially herbal medicine and plant remedies has since been named [[spagyric]] (a synonym for alchemy from the Greek words meaning ''to separate'' and ''to join together'', based on the Latin alchemic maxim: ''solve et coagula'').<ref>Joseph Needham. ''Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 5, Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Physiological Alchemy.'' Cambridge University Press. P.9</ref> [[Iatrochemistry]] also refers to the pharmaceutical applications of alchemy championed by Paracelsus. [[John Dee]] (13 July 1527 – December, 1608) followed Agrippa's occult tradition. Although better known for angel summoning, divination, and his role as [[astrologer]], cryptographer, and consultant to [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]], Dee's alchemical<ref>“''Monas hieroglyphica'' is not a traditional alchemical work, but has important theoretical insights about a cosmic vision, in which alchemy played an important part.”{{cite web | last = Szőnyi| first = György E.| year = 2015 | url = http://www.renesancni-texty.upol.cz/soubory/publikace/Latin_Alchemical_Literature_of_Czech_Provenance.pdf | title = ‘Layers of Meaning in Alchemy in John Dee’s Monas hieroglyphica and its Relevance in a Central European Context‘| publisher = Centre for Renaissance Texts, 2015, 118 }}</ref> ''Monas Hieroglyphica'', written in 1564 was his most popular and influential work. His writing portrayed alchemy as a sort of terrestrial astronomy in line with the Hermetic axiom ''As above so below''.<ref>William Royall Newman, Anthony Grafton. ''Secrets of Nature: Astrology and Alchemy in Early Modern Europe''. MIT Press, 2001. P.173.</ref> During the 17th century, a short-lived "supernatural" interpretation of alchemy became popular, including support by fellows of the [[Royal Society]]: [[Robert Boyle]] and [[Elias Ashmole]]. Proponents of the supernatural interpretation of alchemy believed that the [[philosopher's stone]] might be used to summon and communicate with angels.<ref>* ''Journal of the History of Ideas, 41'', 1980, '''p. 293-318''' *{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|pp=399}} * ''The Aspiring Adept: Robert Boyle and His Alchemical Quest'', by Lawrence M. Principe, 'Princeton University Press', 1998, '''pp. 188 90'''</ref> Entrepreneurial opportunities were common for the alchemists of Renaissance Europe. Alchemists were contracted by the elite for practical purposes related to mining, medical services, and the production of chemicals, medicines, metals, and gemstones.<ref>Tara E. Nummedal. ''Alchemy and authority in the Holy Roman Empire.'' p.4</ref> [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor]], in the late 16th century, famously received and sponsored various alchemists at his court in Prague, including Dee and his associate [[Edward Kelley]]. [[James IV of Scotland|King James IV of Scotland]],<ref>''Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland'', vol. iii, (1901), 99, 202, 206, 209, 330, 340, 341, 353, 355, 365, 379, 382, 389, 409.</ref> [[Julius, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg]], [[Henry V, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg]], [[Augustus, Elector of Saxony]], [[Julius Echter von Mespelbrunn]], and [[Maurice, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel]] all contracted alchemists.<ref>Tara E. Nummedal. ''Alchemy and authority in the Holy Roman Empire.'' p.85-98</ref> John's son [[Arthur Dee]] worked as a court physician to [[Michael I of Russia]] and [[Charles I of England]] but also compiled the alchemical book ''[[Fasciculus Chemicus]]''. [[File:Alchemik Sedziwoj Matejko.JPG|thumb|left|250px|''Alchemist [[Sendivogius]]'' (1566–1636) by [[Jan Matejko]], 1867]] Although most of these appointments were legitimate, the trend of pseudo-alchemical fraud continued through the Renaissance. ''Betrüger'' would use sleight of hand, or claims of secret knowledge to make money or secure patronage. Legitimate mystical and medical alchemists such as [[Michael Maier]] and [[Heinrich Khunrath]] wrote about fraudulent transmutations, distinguishing themselves from the [[con artist]]s.<ref>Tara E. Nummedal. ''Alchemy and authority in the Holy Roman Empire.'' p.171</ref> False alchemists were sometimes prosecuted for fraud. The terms "chemia" and "alchemia" were used as synonyms in the early modern period, and the differences between alchemy, chemistry and small-scale assaying and metallurgy were not as neat as in the present day. There were important overlaps between practitioners, and trying to classify them into alchemists, chemists and craftsmen is anachronistic. For example, [[Tycho Brahe]] (1546–1601), an alchemist better known for his [[astronomical]] and [[astrological]] investigations, had a laboratory built at his [[Uraniborg]] observatory/research institute. [[Michał Sędziwój|Michael Sendivogius]] (''Michał Sędziwój'', 1566–1636), a [[Poland|Polish]] alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor and pioneer of chemistry wrote mystical works but is also credited with distilling [[oxygen]] in a lab sometime around 1600. Sendivogious taught his technique to [[Cornelius Drebbel]] who, in 1621, applied this in a submarine. [[Isaac Newton]] devoted considerably more of his writing to the study of alchemy (see [[Isaac Newton's occult studies]]) than he did to either optics or physics. Other early modern alchemists who were eminent in their other studies include [[Robert Boyle]], and [[Jan Baptist van Helmont]]. Their Hermeticism complemented rather than precluded their practical achievements in medicine and science. === Late modern period === [[File:The Shannon Portrait of the Hon Robert Boyle.jpg|thumb|right|[[Robert Boyle]]]] [[File:Alchemist.png|thumb|right|An alchemist, pictured in Charles Mackay's ''[[Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds]]''.]] The decline of European alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for "ancient wisdom". Although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years, and in fact may have reached its peak in the 18th century. As late as 1781 [[James Price (chemist)|James Price]] claimed to have produced a powder that could transmute mercury into silver or gold. Early modern European alchemy continued to exhibit a diversity of theories, practices, and purposes: "Scholastic and anti-Aristotelian, Paracelsian and anti-Paracelsian, Hermetic, Neoplatonic, mechanistic, vitalistic, and more—plus virtually every combination and compromise thereof."<ref name="Alchemy Restored">Principe, Lawrence M. "Alchemy Restored." Isis 102.2 (2011): 305-12. Web.</ref> [[Robert Boyle]] (1627–1691) pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data. Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the Sun and Moon, and the barometer reading, all just in case they proved to be relevant.<ref>{{cite book | author=Pilkington, Roger | title=Robert Boyle: Father of Chemistry | location=London | publisher=John Murray | year=1959 | page=11 }}</ref> This approach eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the 18th and 19th centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries of [[Antoine Lavoisier|Lavoisier]] and [[John Dalton]]. Beginning around 1720, a rigid distinction was drawn between "alchemy" and "chemistry" for the first time.<ref name="NewmanPrincipe2002p37">{{Harvnb|Newman|Principe|2002|p=37}}</ref><ref name="PrincipeNewmanp386">{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=386}}</ref> By the 1740s, "alchemy" was now restricted to the realm of gold making, leading to the popular belief that alchemists were charlatans, and the tradition itself nothing more than a fraud.<ref name="Alchemy Restored" /><ref name="PrincipeNewmanp386" /> In order to protect the developing science of modern chemistry from the negative censure of which alchemy was being subjected, academic writers during the scientific Enlightenment attempted, for the sake of survival, to divorce and separate the "new" chemistry from the "old" practices of alchemy. This move was mostly successful, and the consequences of this continued into the 19th and 20th centuries, and even to the present day.<ref name="PrincipeNewmanpp386–7">{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|pp=386–7}}</ref> During the occult revival of the early 19th century, alchemy received new attention as an occult science.<ref name="PrincipeNewmanp387">{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=387}}</ref><ref name="KripalShuck2005p27">{{Harvnb|Kripal|Shuck|2005|p=27}}</ref> The esoteric or occultist school, which arose during the 19th century, held (and continues to hold) the view that the substances and operations mentioned in alchemical literature are to be interpreted in a spiritual sense, and it downplays the role of the alchemy as a practical tradition or protoscience.<ref name="NewmanPrincipe2002p37" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Eliade|1994|p=49}}</ref><ref name="PrincipeNewmanp388">{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=388}}</ref> This interpretation further forwarded the view that alchemy is an art primarily concerned with spiritual enlightenment or illumination, as opposed to the physical manipulation of apparatus and chemicals, and claims that the obscure language of the alchemical texts were an allegorical guise for spiritual, moral or mystical processes.<ref name="PrincipeNewmanp388" /> In the 19th-century revival of alchemy, the two most seminal figures were [[Mary Anne Atwood]] and [[Ethan A. Hitchcock (general)|Ethan Allen Hitchcock]], who independently published similar works regarding spiritual alchemy. Both forwarded a completely esoteric view of alchemy, as Atwood claimed: "No modern art or chemistry, notwithstanding all its surreptitious claims, has any thing in common with Alchemy."<ref name="PrincipeNewmanp391">{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=391}}</ref><ref name="Rutkin2001p143">{{Harvnb|Rutkin|2001|p=143}}</ref> Atwood's work influenced subsequent authors of the occult revival including [[Eliphas Levi]], [[Arthur Edward Waite]], and [[Rudolf Steiner]]. Hitchcock, in his ''Remarks Upon Alchymists'' (1855) attempted to make a case for his spiritual interpretation with his claim that the alchemists wrote about a spiritual discipline under a materialistic guise in order to avoid accusations of blasphemy from the church and state. In 1845, Baron [[Carl Reichenbach]], published his studies on [[Odic force]], a concept with some similarities to alchemy, but his research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion.<ref>Daniel Merkur. ''Gnosis: An Esoteric Tradition of Mystical Visions and Unions.'' SUNY Press. 1993 p.55</ref> === Women in alchemy === Several women appear in the earliest history of alchemy. [[Michael Maier]] names [[Mary the Jewess]], [[Cleopatra the Alchemist]], [[Medera]], and [[Taphnutia]] as the four women who knew how to make the philosopher's stone.<ref>Raphael Patai. ''The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book.'' p. 78.</ref> Zosimos' sister Theosebia (later known as Euthica the Arab) and [[Isis the Prophetess]] also played a role in early alchemical texts. The first alchemist whose name we know is said to have been [[Mary the Jewess]] (c. 200 A.D.).<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Women in Chemistry: Their Changing Roles from Alchemical Times to the Mid-Twentieth Century|author1=Rayner-Canham, M |author2=Rayner-Canham, G|publisher=Chemical Heritage Foundation|year=2005|isbn=9780941901277|location=|pages=2–4}}</ref> Early sources claim that Mary (or Maria) devised a number of improvements to alchemical equipment and tools as well as novel techniques in chemistry.<ref name=":0" /> Her best known advances were in heating and distillation processes. The laboratory water-bath, known eponymously (especially in France) as the [[bain-marie]], is said to have been invented or at least improved by her.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book|last=Patai|first=R|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1995|isbn=9780691006420|location=|pages=60–80}}</ref> Essentially a double-boiler, it was (and is) used in chemistry for processes that require gentle heating. The tribikos (a modified distillation apparatus) and the kerotakis (a more intricate apparatus used especially for sublimations) are two other advancements in the process of distillation that are credited to her.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The origins of alchemy in Graeco-Roman Egypt|last=Lindsay|first=J|publisher=Barnes & Noble|year=1970|isbn=9780389010067|location=New York|pages=240–250}}</ref> The occasional claim that Mary was the first to discover hydrochloric acid is not accepted by most authorities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/1094-alchemy#anchor2|title=Alchemy|last=Gaster|first=Moses|date=2011|website=Jewish Encyclopedia|publisher=Funk & Wagnalls Company|access-date=April 6, 2016}}</ref> Although we have no writing from Mary herself, she is known from the early-fourth-century writings of [[Zosimos of Panopolis]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book|last=Patai|first=R|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=|isbn=9780691006420|location=|pages=81–93}}</ref> Due to the proliferation of [[pseudepigrapha]] and anonymous works, it is difficult to know which of the alchemists were actually women. After the Greco-Roman period, women's names appear less frequently in the alchemical literature. Women vacate the history of alchemy during the medieval and renaissance periods, aside from the fictitious account of [[Perenelle Flamel]]. [[Mary Anne Atwood]]'s ''A Suggestive Inquiry into the Hermetic Mystery'' (1850) marks their return during the nineteenth-century occult revival. === Modern historical research === The history of alchemy has become a significant and recognized subject of academic study.<ref name="Antoine Faivre 1995. p.viii–xv">Antoine Faivre, Wouter J. Hanegraaff. ''Western esotericism and the science of religion.'' 1995. p.viii–xvi</ref> As the language of the alchemists is analyzed, historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the evolution of science and [[philosophy]], the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities, [[Kabbalah|kabbalism]], [[spiritualism]], [[Rosicrucianism]], and other mystic movements.<ref>[http://centres.exeter.ac.uk/exeseso/ See Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism website]</ref> Institutions involved in this research include The Chymistry of Isaac Newton project at [[Indiana University]], the [[University of Exeter]] Centre for the Study of Esotericism (EXESESO), the [[European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism]] (ESSWE), and the [[University of Amsterdam]]'s Sub-department for the History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents. A large collection of books on alchemy is kept in the [[Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica]] in Amsterdam. A recipe found in a mid-19th-century kabbalah based book features step by step instructions on turning copper into gold. The author attributed this recipe to an ancient manuscript he located.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://jewishnews.com/2015/09/27/old-jewish-book-outlines-how-to-turn-copper-into-gold|title=Old Jewish Book Outlines how to Turn Copper into Gold|access-date=2016-04-21}}</ref> Journals which publish regularly on the topic of Alchemy include '[[Ambix]]', published by the Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry, and '[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]', published by The History of Science Society. == Core concepts == [[File:Fotothek df tg 0006104 Theosophie ^ Alchemie ^ Judentum ^ Kabbala.jpg|thumb|Mandala illustrating common alchemical concepts, symbols, and processes. From ''Spiegel der Kunst und Natur''.]] Western alchemical theory corresponds to the worldview of late antiquity in which it was born. Concepts were imported from [[Neoplatonism]] and earlier Greek [[cosmology]]. As such, the [[Classical elements]] appear in alchemical writings, as do the seven [[Classical planets]] and the corresponding seven [[metals of antiquity]]. Similarly, the gods of the Roman pantheon who are associated with these luminaries are discussed in alchemical literature. The concepts of [[prima materia]] and [[anima mundi]] are central to the theory of the [[philosopher's stone]]. === Hermeticism === In the eyes of a variety of esoteric and [[Hermeticism|Hermetic]] practitioners, alchemy is fundamentally spiritual. Transmutation of lead into gold is presented as an analogy for personal transmutation, purification, and perfection.<ref name="Antoine Faivre 1995. p.96">Antoine Faivre, Wouter J. Hanegraaff. ''Western esotericism and the science of religion.'' 1995. p.96</ref> The writings attributed to [[Hermes Trismegistus]] are a primary source of alchemical theory. He is named "alchemy's founder and chief patron, authority, inspiration and guide".<ref>{{Harvnb|Linden|2003|pp=9}}</ref> Early alchemists, such as [[Zosimos of Panopolis]] (c. AD 300), highlight the spiritual nature of the alchemical quest, symbolic of a religious regeneration of the human soul.<ref>Allen G. Debus. ''Alchemy and early modern chemistry.'' The Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry. p.34.</ref> This approach continued in the Middle Ages, as metaphysical aspects, substances, physical states, and material processes were used as metaphors for [[spirit]]ual entities, spiritual states, and, ultimately, transformation. In this sense, the literal meanings of 'Alchemical Formulas' were a blind, hiding their true [[spiritual philosophy]]. Practitioners and patrons such as [[Melchior Cibinensis]] and [[Pope Innocent VIII]] existed within the ranks of the church, while [[Martin Luther]] applauded alchemy for its consistency with Christian teachings.<ref>Raphael Patai. ''The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book.'' Princeton University Press. p.4</ref> Both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea symbolized evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible, and ephemeral state toward a perfect, healthy, incorruptible, and everlasting state, so the philosopher's stone then represented a mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist himself, the twin goal symbolized his evolution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented a hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are written according to this view, the cryptic [[alchemical symbol]]s, diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works typically contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; and must be laboriously decoded to discover their true meaning. In his 1766 ''Alchemical Catechism'', Théodore Henri de Tschudi denotes that the usage of the metals was merely symbolic: {{quote|<poem>Q. When the Philosophers speak of gold and silver, from which they extract their matter, are we to suppose that they refer to the vulgar gold and silver? A. By no means; vulgar silver and gold are dead, while those of the Philosophers are full of life.<ref>Théodore Henri de Tschudi. Hermetic Catechism in his ''L'Etoile Flamboyant ou la Société des Franc-Maçons considerée sous tous les aspects.'' 1766. (A.E. Waite translation as found in ''The Hermetic and Alchemical Writings of Paracelsus.'')</ref></poem>}} === Magnum opus === {{Main|Magnum opus (alchemy)}} The Great Work of Alchemy is often described as a series of four stages represented by colors. *''[[nigredo]]'', a blackening or melanosis *''[[Albedo (alchemy)|albedo]]'', a whitening or leucosis *''[[citrinitas]]'', a yellowing or xanthosis *''[[rubedo]]'', a reddening, purpling, or iosis<ref>Joseph Needham. ''Science & Civilisation in China: Chemistry and chemical technology. Spagyrical discovery and invention: magisteries of gold and immortality.'' Cambridge. 1974. p.23</ref> == Modern alchemy == Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the 18th-century disappearance of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of chemistry; the general understanding of alchemy has been strongly influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations.<ref>{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=385}}</ref> Those focusing on the exoteric, such as historians of science [[Lawrence M. Principe]] and [[William R. Newman]], have interpreted the 'decknamen' (or code words) of alchemy as physical substances. These scholars have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that they say are described in medieval and early modern texts.<ref>Richard Conniff. "Alchemy May Not Have Been the Pseudoscience We All Thought It Was." [http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/alchemy-may-not-been-pseudoscience-we-thought-it-was-180949430/#ixzz2sYcrpZl7 Smithsonian Magazine.] February 2014.</ref> At the opposite end of the spectrum, focusing on the esoteric, scholars, such as George Calian<ref> {{cite book|last= Calian |first= George |title= Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on the Historiography of Alchemy |publisher= Annual of Medieval Studies at CEU |year= 2010 |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= https://archive.org/stream/AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnThe/FlorinGeorgeCalian-AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnTheHistoriographyOfAlchemy#page/n0/mode/2up |accessdate= |ref= harv }}</ref> and Anna Marie Roos,<ref>Anna Marie Roos (2013), Review of ''The Secrets of Alchemy'', [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1369848613001143 ''Studies in History and Philosophy of Science'' '''44''']</ref> who question the reading of Principe and Newman, interpret these same decknamen as spiritual, religious, or psychological concepts. Today new interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated, sometimes merging in concepts from [[New Age]] or radical environmentalism movements.<ref>{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=396}}</ref> Groups like the [[Rosicrucianism|Rosicrucians]] and [[Freemasonry|Freemasons]] have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism. Since the Victorian revival of alchemy, "occultists reinterpreted alchemy as a spiritual practice, involving the self-transformation of the practitioner and only incidentally or not at all the transformation of laboratory substances.",<ref name="Alchemy Restored" /> which has contributed to a merger of [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] and alchemy in popular thought. === Traditional medicine === {{Main|Ayurveda|Traditional Chinese medicine}} Traditional medicine can use the concept of the transmutation of natural substances, using pharmacological or a combination of pharmacological and spiritual techniques. In [[Ayurveda]], the [[Samskara (Ayurvedic)|samskaras]] are claimed to transform [[heavy metals]] and toxic herbs in a way that removes their toxicity. These processes are actively used to the present day.<ref>Junius, Manfred M; ''The Practical Handbook of Plant Alchemy: An Herbalist's Guide to Preparing Medicinal Essences, Tinctures, and Elixirs''; Healing Arts Press 1985</ref> Spagyrists of the 20th century, [[Frater Albertus|Albert Richard Riedel]] and Jean Dubuis, merged Paracelsian alchemy with occultism, teaching laboratory pharmaceutical methods. The schools they founded, ''Les Philosophes de la Nature'' and ''The Paracelsus Research Society'', popularized modern spagyrics including the manufacture of herbal tinctures and products.<ref>Joscelyn Godwin. ''The Golden Thread: The Ageless Wisdom of the Western Mystery Traditions.'' Quest Books, 2007. p.120</ref> The courses, books, organizations, and conferences generated by their students continue to influence popular applications of alchemy as a New Age medicinal practice. === Psychology === Alchemical symbolism has been important in depth and analytical psychology and was revived and popularized from near extinction by the Swiss psychologist [[Carl Jung|Carl Gustav Jung]]. Initially confounded and at odds with alchemy and its images, after being given a copy of the translation of ''The Secret of the Golden Flower'', a Chinese alchemical text, by his friend Richard Wilhelm, Jung discovered a direct correlation or parallels between the symbolic images in the alchemical drawings and the inner, symbolic images coming up in dreams, visions or imaginations during the psychic processes of transformation occurring in his patients. A process, which he called "process of individuation". He regarded the alchemical images as symbols expressing aspects of this "process of [[individuation]]" of which the creation of the gold or lapis within were symbols for its origin and goal.<ref name="Jung, C. G. 1944">Jung, C. G. (1944). Psychology and Alchemy (2nd ed. 1968 Collected Works Vol. 12 {{ISBN|0-691-01831-6}}). London: Routledge. E.g. §41, §116, §427, §431, §448.</ref><ref name="Polly Young-Eisendrath, Terence Dawson. ''The Cambridge companion to Jung.'' Cambridge University Press. 1997. p.33"/> Together with his alchemical ''mystica soror'', Jungian Swiss analyst [[Marie-Louise von Franz]], Jung began collecting all the old alchemical texts available, compiled a lexicon of key phrases with cross-references<ref>Anthony Stevens: ''On Jung.'' (A new and authoritiative introduction to Jung's life and thought), Penguin Books, London 1990, {{ISBN|0140124942}}, p. 193.</ref> and pored over them. The volumes of work he wrote brought new light into understanding the art of transubstantiation and renewed alchemy's popularity as a symbolic process of coming into wholeness as a human being where opposites brought into contact and inner and outer, spirit and matter are reunited in the ''[[hieros gamos]]'' or divine marriage. His writings are influential in psychology and for persons who have an interest in understanding the importance of dreams, symbols and the unconscious archetypal forces ([[Jungian archetypes|archetypes]])<ref name="Polly Young-Eisendrath, Terence Dawson. ''The Cambridge companion to Jung.'' Cambridge University Press. 1997. p.33">Polly Young-Eisendrath, Terence Dawson. ''The Cambridge companion to Jung.'' Cambridge University Press. 1997. p.33</ref><ref>C.G. Jung Preface to [[Richard Wilhelm (sinologist)|Richard Wilhelm]]'s translation of the [[I Ching]].</ref><ref>C.-G. Jung Preface to the translation of [[Secret of the Golden Flower|The Secret of The Golden Flower]].</ref> that influence all of life. Both von Franz and Jung have contributed greatly to the subject and work of alchemy and its continued presence in psychology as well as contemporary culture. Jung wrote volumes on alchemy and his magnum opus is Volume 14 of his Collected Works, ''[[Mysterium Coniunctionis|Mysterium Conuinctionis]].'' === Literature === {{Main|Alchemy in art and entertainment}} Alchemy has had a long-standing relationship with art, seen both in alchemical texts and in mainstream entertainment. ''Literary alchemy'' appears throughout the history of English literature from [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] to [[J. K. Rowling]], and also the popular Japanese manga [[Full Metal Alchemist]]. Here, characters or plot structure follow an alchemical magnum opus. In the 14th century, Chaucer began a trend of alchemical satire that can still be seen in recent fantasy works like those of Terry Pratchett. Visual artists had a similar relationship with alchemy. While some of them used alchemy as a source of satire, others worked with the alchemists themselves or integrated alchemical thought or symbols in their work. Music was also present in the works of alchemists and continues to influence popular performers. In the last hundred years, alchemists have been portrayed in a magical and spagyric role in fantasy fiction, film, television, novels, comics and video games. == See also == {{div col|colwidth=15em}} *[[Alchemy in art and entertainment]] *[[Biological transmutation]] *[[Chemistry]] *[[Chinese alchemy]] *[[Cupellation]] *[[Hermes Trismegistus]] *[[Historicism]] *[[History of chemistry]] *[[List of alchemists]] *[[List of topics characterized as pseudoscience]] *[[Magnum opus (alchemy)]] *[[Mary the Jewess]] *[[Nuclear transmutation]] *[[Outline of alchemy]] *[[Philosopher's Stone]] *[[Physics]] *[[Porta Alchemica]] *[[Scientific method]] *[[Superseded scientific theories]] *[[Synthesis of precious metals]] {{div col end}} == Notes == {{reflist|group=n}} == References == === Citations === {{Reflist}} === Bibliography === {{refbegin}} *{{cite book|last= Calian |first= George |title= Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on the Historiography of Alchemy |publisher= Annual of Medieval Studies at CEU |year= 2010 |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= https://archive.org/stream/AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnThe/FlorinGeorgeCalian-AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnTheHistoriographyOfAlchemy#page/n0/mode/2up |accessdate= |ref= harv }} *{{cite book|last= Eliade |first= Mircea |authorlink= Mircea Eliade |title=[[The Forge and the Crucible]]|publisher= [[State University of New York Press]] |year= 1994 |url= |ref= harv }} *{{cite book|last= Forshaw |first= Peter J |chapter = Chemistry, That Starry Science – Early Modern Conjunctions of Astrology and Alchemy |title= Sky and Symbol |url= https://www.academia.edu/5317837/Chemistry_That_Starry_Science_-_Early_Modern_Conjunctions_of_Astrology_and_Alchemy}} *{{cite book|last= Forshaw |first= Peter J |article = Cabala Chymica or Chemica Cabalistica – Early Modern Alchemists and Cabala |title= Ambix, Vol. 60:4 |url= https://www.academia.edu/5237828/Cabala_Chymica_or_Chemia_Cabalistica_-_Early_Modern_Alchemists_and_Cabala}} *{{cite book|last1= Holmyard |first1= Eric John |authorlink1= Eric John Holmyard |title= Makers of Chemistry |publisher= [[Clarendon Press]] |location = Oxford |year= 1931 |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= https://archive.org/details/makersofchemistr029725mbp |ref= harv }} *{{cite book|last1= Holmyard |first1= Eric John |authorlink1= Eric John Holmyard |title= Alchemy |publisher= [[Courier Dover Publications]] |year= 1957 |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7Bt-kwKRUzUC&lpg=PP1&dq=alchemy&pg=PP1&hl=en |ref= harv }} *{{cite book|last1= Linden |first1= Stanton J. |title= Darke Hierogliphicks: Alchemy in English literature from Chaucer to the Restoration |publisher= [[University Press of Kentucky]] |year= 1996 |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=3JUfBgAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1 |ref= harv }} *{{cite book|last1= Linden |first1= Stanton J. |title= The Alchemy Reader: from Hermes Trismegistus to Isaac Newton |publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]] |year= 2003 |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= |ref= harv }} *{{cite book|last1= Newman |first1= William R. |last2= Principe |first2= Lawrence M. |authorlink2= Lawrence M. Principe |title= Alchemy Tried in the Fire |publisher= [[University of Chicago Press]] |year= 2002 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=eQERmMdykZEC&lpg=PP1&dq=alchemy&pg=PP1 |ref= harv }} *{{cite book|last1= von Franz |first1= Marie Louise |authorlink= Marie-Louise von Franz |title= Alchemical Active Imagination |publisher= [[Shambhala Publications]] |location= Boston |year= 1997 |isbn= 0-87773-589-1 |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=wOVUUMirSnEC&lpg=PP1&dq=alchemy&pg=PP1 |ref= harv }} *{{cite book|last1= Kripal |first1= Jeffrey John |authorlink1= Jeffrey John Kripal |last2= Shuck |first2= Glenn W. |authorlink2= Glenn Shuck |title= On the Edge of the Future |publisher= [[Indiana University Press]] |date=July 2005 |isbn= 978-0-253-34556-1 |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=mffc2m9D3REC |accessdate= 17 December 2011 |ref= harv }} *{{cite book| last=Principe| first=Lawrence M.|title=The secrets of alchemy|location=Chicago &London|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-226-68295-2}} *{{cite book|last1= Principe |first1= Lawrence M. |authorlink1= Lawrence M. Principe |last2= Newman |first2= William R. |authorlink2= |editor1-last= Newman |editor1-first= William R. |editor1-link= |editor2-last= Grafton |editor2-first= Anthony |editor2-link= Anthony Grafton |title= Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe |publisher= [[MIT Press]] |year= 2001 |isbn= 978-0-262-14075-1 |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=CMuJGpztRFMC |accessdate= 17 December 2011 |chapter= Some Problems with the Historiography of Alchemy |chapterurl= |pages= 385–432 |ref= harv }} *{{cite book|last1= Rutkin |first1= H. Darrel |editor1-last= Newman |editor1-first= William R. |editor2-last= Grafton |editor2-first= Anthony |editor2-link= Anthony Grafton |title= Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe |publisher= [[MIT Press]] |year= 2001 |isbn= 978-0-262-14075-1 |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=CMuJGpztRFMC |accessdate= 17 December 2011 |chapter= Celestial Offerings: Astrological Motifs in the Dedicatory Letters of Kepler's ''Astronomia Nova'' and Galileo's ''Sidereus Nuncius'' |chapterurl= |pages= 133–172 |ref= harv }} {{refend}} == External links == {{Wiktionary}} {{Wiktionary|alchemy}} {{Wikiquote}} {{Commons category|Alchemy}} {{Wikisource|Portal:Alchemy|Alchemy}} {{Wikibooks}} <!--===========================({{NoMoreLinks}})===============================--> <!--| DO NOT ADD MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. WIKIPEDIA IS NOT A COLLECTION OF |--> <!--| LINKS. If you think that your link might be useful, do not add it here, |--> <!--| but put it on this article's discussion page first or submit your link |--> <!--| to the appropriate category at the Open Directory Project (www.dmoz.org)|--> <!--| and link back to that category using the {{dmoz}} template. |--> <!--| |--> <!--| Links that have not been verified WILL BE DELETED. |--> <!--| See [[Wikipedia:External links]] and [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details |--> <!--===========================({{NoMoreLinks}})===============================--> * [http://www.ambix.org/ SHAC: Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry] * [http://www.esswe.org/ ESSWE: European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism] * [http://www.aseweb.org/ Association for the Study of Esotericism] * [http://www.alchemywebsite.com/ The Alchemy Website.] – [[Adam McLean]]'s online collections and academic discussion. * {{In Our Time|Alchemy|p003k9bn|Alchemy (Peter Forshaw, Lauren Kassell and Stephen Pumfrey)}} * [http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=DicHist/uvaBook/tei/DicHist1.xml;chunk.id=dv1-04 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Alchemy * [http://beinecke.library.yale.edu/digitallibrary/alchemy.html Book of Secrets: Alchemy and the European Imagination, 1500–2000] – A digital exhibition from the [http://www.library.yale.edu/beinecke/ Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University] {{Alchemy}} {{Metaphysics}} {{Philosophy of science}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Alchemy| ]] [[Category:Hermeticism]] [[Category:Esotericism]] t39yxggxszhsvo3x5qkecdf4zlki209 0 579 851422465 850222253 2018-07-22T05:22:10Z Izno 2927383 /* Video games */ fix self redirect wikitext text/x-wiki {{pp|small=yes}} {{Wiktionary|alien|aliens}} '''Alien''' primarily refers to: * [[Extraterrestrial life]], life which does not originate from Earth ** Specifically, intelligent extraterrestrial beings; see [[List of alleged extraterrestrial beings]] * [[Alien (law)]], a person in a country who is not a national of that country '''Alien(s)''', or '''The Alien(s)''' may also refer to: {{TOC right}} == Science and technology == <!--keep at top--> * [[Introduced species]], a species not native to its environment * [[Alien (file converter)]], a Linux program * [[AliEn (ALICE Environment)]], a grid framework * [[Alien Technology]], a manufacturer of RFID technology * ''Aliens'', a newsletter of the IUCN [[Invasive Species Specialist Group]] == Arts and entertainment == * [[Alien (franchise)|''Alien'' (franchise)]], a media franchise ** [[Alien (creature in Alien franchise)|Alien (creature in ''Alien'' franchise)]] === Films === * [[Alien (film)|''Alien'' (film)]], a 1979 film by Ridley Scott * [[Aliens (film)|''Aliens'' (film)]], the 1986 sequel by James Cameron * ''[[Alien 3]]'', third film in the series from 1992 by David Fincher * ''[[Alien 2: On Earth]]'', a 1980 unofficial sequel of the 1979 ''Alien'' film * [[The Alien (unproduced film)|''The Alien'' (unproduced film)]], an incomplete 1960s Indian-American film * [[The Alien (2016 film)|''The Alien'' (2016 film)]], a 2016 Mexican film === Literature === * [[Aliens (Tappan Wright novel)|''Aliens'' (Tappan Wright novel)]], a 1902 novel by Mary Tappan Wright * [[The Aliens (play)|''The Aliens'' (play)]], a 2010 play by Annie Baker * [[The Alien (Animorphs)|''The Alien'' (Animorphs)]], the eighth book in the ''Animorphs'' series * [[Alien novels|''Alien'' novels]], an extension of the ''Alien'' franchise === Music === ==== Performers ==== * [[Alien (band)]], a 1980s Swedish rock group * [[The Aliens (Australian band)]], a 1970s new wave group * [[The Aliens (Scottish band)]], a 2005–present rock group ==== Albums ==== * [[Alien (Strapping Young Lad album)|''Alien'' (Strapping Young Lad album)]] * [[Alien (Tankard album)|''Alien'' (Tankard album)]] * [[Alien (soundtrack)|''Alien'' (soundtrack)]] * [[Aliens (soundtrack)|''Aliens'' (soundtrack)]] ==== Songs ==== * [[Alien (Britney Spears song)|"Alien" (Britney Spears song)]] * [[Alien (Pennywise song)|"Alien" (Pennywise song)]] * [[Alien (Third Day song)|"Alien" (Third Day song)]] * [[Aliens (Coldplay song)|"Aliens" (Coldplay song)]] * "My Alien", a song by Simple Plan on the album ''[[No Pads, No Helmets... Just Balls]]'' * "Alien", a song by Bush on the album ''[[Sixteen Stone]]'' * "Alien", a song by Erasure on the album ''[[Loveboat (album)|Loveboat]]'' * "Alien", a song by Japan on the album ''[[Quiet Life]]'' * "Alien", a song by [[Jonas Blue]] * "Alien", a song by Lamb on the album ''[[Fear of Fours]]'' * "Alien", a song by Nerina Pallot on the album ''[[Dear Frustrated Superstar]]'' * "Alien", a song by P-Model on the album ''[[Landsale (P-Model album)|Landsale]]'' * "Alien", a song by Thriving Ivory on [[Thriving Ivory (album)|their self-titled album]] * "Alien", a song by Tokio Hotel on the album ''[[Humanoid (album)|Humanoid]]''. Also, fans of the band call themselves Aliens * "The Aliens", a song by [[Warlord (band)|Warlord]] === Video games === * [[Alien (1984 video game)|''Alien'' (1984 video game)]], based on the film * [[Aliens (Konami video game)|''Aliens'' (Konami video game)]], based on the sequel of the film * [[Aliens (Kaypro video game)|''Aliens'' (Kaypro video game)]], a text-only clone of ''Space Invaders'' written for the CP/M operating system * ''[[Alien: Isolation]]'', a 2014 video game based on the ''Alien'' science fiction horror film series * {{crossref|printworthy=y|See also: [[List of Alien, Predator, and Alien vs. Predator games|List of ''Alien'', ''Predator'', and ''Alien vs. Predator'' games]]}} === Other media === * [[The Aliens (TV series)|''The Aliens'' (TV series)]], 2016 British sci-fi television series * [[Aliens (Dark Horse Comics line)|''Aliens'' (Dark Horse Comics line)]] == Other uses == * [[Alien (shipping company)]], a Russian company * [[Alien Sun]] (born 1974), Singaporean actress * ''Alien'', a perfume by [[Thierry Mugler#Fragrances|Thierry Mugler]] == See also == * [[Astrobiology]], the study of hypothetical alien life * [[List of Alien and Predator games|List of ''Alien'' and ''Predator'' games]] * [[Alien vs. Predator (disambiguation)]] * [[Alians]], an Islamic order * ''[[ATLiens]]'', a 1996 album by OutKast * [[Unidentified flying object (disambiguation)]] * [[UFO (disambiguation)]] * {{Lookfrom|Alien}} * {{Intitle|Alien}} {{disambiguation}} cw6c78tm5u0qg9fz4sotjyvwyd8pquq 0 580 861714993 861707806 2018-09-29T13:33:18Z Vsmith 84417 Reverted to revision 861492591 by [[Special:Contributions/CLCStudent|CLCStudent]] ([[User talk:CLCStudent|talk]]): ...and "maybe, concievably" not. ([[WP:TW|TW]]) wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2012}} [[File:JohannesVermeer-TheAstronomer(1668).jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|''[[The Astronomer (Vermeer)|The Astronomer]]'' by [[Johannes Vermeer]]]] An '''astronomer''' is a [[scientist]] in the field of [[astronomy]] who focuses their studies on a specific question or field outside the scope of [[Earth]]. They observe [[astronomical object]]s such as [[star]]s, [[planet]]s, [[natural satellite|moons]], [[comet]]s, and [[galaxy|galaxies]] – in either [[observational astronomy|observational]] (by analyzing the data) or [[theoretical astronomy]]. Examples of topics or fields astronomers study include [[planetary science]], solar astronomy, the origin or [[stellar evolution|evolution of stars]], or the [[galaxy formation and evolution|formation of galaxies]]. Related but distinct subjects like [[physical cosmology]], which studies the [[Universe]] as a whole. Astronomers usually fall under either of two main types: observational and [[scientific theory|theoretical]]. Observational astronomers make direct [[observation]]s of celestial objects and analyze the data. In contrast, theoretical astronomers create and investigate [[Conceptual model|model]]s of things that cannot be observed. Because it takes millions to billions of years for a system of stars or a galaxy to complete a life cycle, astronomers must observe snapshots of different systems at unique points in their evolution to determine how they form, evolve, and die. They use these data to create models or [[simulation]]s to theorize how different celestial objects work. Further subcategories under these two main [[branches of science|branches]] of astronomy include planetary astronomy, [[galactic astronomy]], or physical cosmology. == Academic == {{For|subdisciplines|Outline of astronomy}} [[Image:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg|left|thumb|upright|[[Galileo]] is often referred to as the Father of [[modern astronomy]]]] <!-- [[WP:NFCC]] violation: [[File:Sagan planetary orbits2.jpg|right|thumb|[[Carl Sagan]] on the set of ''[[Cosmos]]'']] --> [[History of astronomy|Historically]], astronomy was more concerned with the classification and description of [[phenomena]] in the sky, while [[astrophysics]] attempted to explain these phenomena and the differences between them using physical laws. Today, that distinction has mostly disappeared and the terms "astronomer" and "astrophysicist" are interchangeable. Professional astronomers are highly educated individuals who typically have a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] in [[physics]] or astronomy and are employed by research institutions or universities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.noao.edu/education/astfaq.html |title=Frequently Asked Questions About Becoming an Astronomer |accessdate=29 March 2009 |work= |publisher=NOAO | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090403101540/http://www.noao.edu/education/astfaq.html| archivedate= 3 April 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> They spend the majority of their time working on research, although they quite often have other duties such as teaching, building instruments, or aiding in the operation of an observatory. The number of professional astronomers in the [[United States]] is actually quite small. The [[American Astronomical Society]], which is the major organization of professional astronomers in [[North America]], has approximately 7,000 members. This number includes scientists from other fields such as physics, [[geology]], and [[engineering]], whose research interests are closely related to astronomy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://aas.org/ |title=American Astronomical Society Home |accessdate=14 August 2009 |work= |publisher=AAS| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090802044012/http://aas.org/|archive-date= 2 August 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> The [[International Astronomical Union]] comprises almost 10,145 members from 70 different countries who are involved in astronomical research at the Ph.D. level and beyond.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iau.org/about/ |title=About IAU |accessdate=14 August 2009 |work= |publisher=IAU}}</ref> [[Image:Br Guy in Lab.jpg|right|thumb|160px|[[Guy Consolmagno]] [[Vatican Observatory]], analyzing a meteorite, 2014]] Contrary to the classical image of an old astronomer peering through a [[telescope]] through the dark hours of the night, it is far more common to use a [[charge-coupled device]] (CCD) camera to record a long, deep exposure, allowing a more sensitive image to be created because the [[light]] is added over time. Before CCDs, [[photographic plates]] were a common method of observation. Modern astronomers spend relatively little time at telescopes usually just a few weeks per year. Analysis of observed phenomena, along with making predictions as to the causes of what they observe, takes the majority of observational astronomers' time. Astronomers who serve as faculty spend much of their time teaching undergraduate and graduate classes. Most universities also have outreach programs including public telescope time and sometimes [[planetarium]]s as a public service to encourage interest in the field. Those who become astronomers usually have a broad background in maths, sciences and computing in high school. Taking courses that teach how to research, write and present papers are also invaluable. In college/university most astronomers get a Ph.D. in astronomy or physics. == Amateur astronomers == [[Image:Emily_Lakdawalla_at_FameLab_at_LPSC_2013.jpg|right|thumb|160px|[[Emily Lakdawalla]] at the Planetary Conference 2013]] While there is a relatively low number of professional astronomers, the field is popular among [[amateurs]]. Most cities have [[amateur astronomy]] clubs that meet on a regular basis and often host [[star party|star parties]]. The [[Astronomical Society of the Pacific]] is the largest general astronomical society in the world, comprising both professional and amateur astronomers as well as educators from 70 different nations.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.astrosociety.org/about.html |title=About Us |accessdate=29 March 2009 |work= |publisher=[[Astronomical Society of the Pacific]]| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090225074145/http://astrosociety.org/about.html| archivedate= 25 February 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Like any [[hobby]], most people who think of themselves as amateur astronomers may devote a few hours a month to [[stargazing]] and reading the latest developments in research. However, amateurs span the range from so-called "armchair astronomers" to the very ambitious, who own science-grade telescopes and instruments with which they are able to make their own discoveries and assist professional astronomers in research. == See also == * [[List of astronomers]] * [[List of women astronomers]] * [[List of Muslim astronomers]] * [[List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists]] == References == === Specific === {{Reflist}} === General === * {{Cite book|last=Dallal |first=Ahmad |contribution=Science, Medicine and Technology |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John |title=The Oxford History of Islam |date=1999 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]], New York|ref=harv|postscript=<!--None-->|isbn=0-300-15911-0 }} * {{Cite journal|last=Kennedy|first=E.S.|title=A Survey of Islamic Astronomical Tables; Transactions of the American Philosophical Society| date=1956|location=[[Philadelphia]]| publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|volume=46|issue=2|ref=harv|postscript=<!--None-->}} * {{Cite encyclopedia | last = Toomer | first = Gerald | title = Al-Khwārizmī, Abu Jaʿfar Muḥammad ibn Mūsā | encyclopedia = [[Dictionary of Scientific Biography]] | volume = 7 | editor = Gillispie, Charles Coulston | publisher = [[Charles Scribner's Sons]] | location = New York | date = 1990 | isbn = 0-684-16962-2 | ref=harv }} == External links == * [http://www.aas.org American Astronomical Society] * [http://eas.unige.ch European Astronomical Society] * [http://www.iau.org International Astronomical Union] * [http://www.astrosociety.org Astronomical Society of the Pacific] * [http://www.space.com Space's astronomy news] {{Portal bar|Astronomy}} {{Astronomy navbox}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Astronomy]] [[Category:Astronomers| ]] [[Category:Science occupations]] 29h3bxkmp3pwd01t5p98ul7truy1x6i 0 583 627604814 625443490 2014-09-29T22:26:05Z Invadibot 15934865 Bot: Fixing double redirect to [[Amoeba]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Amoeba]] 31ad9nr0bdq92bic2plgomlo1q8sy0n 0 586 861908068 861904338 2018-09-30T22:11:08Z Guy Harris 122189 /* Overview */ OK, archives from two days ago. wikitext text/x-wiki {{Distinguish|text=MS [[Windows-1252]] or other types of [[extended ASCII]]}} {{About|the character encoding}} {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox character encoding| |name = US-ASCII |alias = ASCII |mime = us-ascii |image = ASCII-infobox.svg |caption = ASCII (1967 or later) |lang = [[English language|English]] |extensions = * [[UTF-8]] * [[ISO 8859]] (series) * [[KOI-8]] * [[OEM code page|OEM]] (series) * [[Windows-125x]] (series) * [[Extended ASCII|Others]] |prev = [[International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2|ITA 2]], [[FIELDATA]] |next = [[ISO 8859]], [[Unicode]] |otherrelated = [[PETSCII]] |classification = [[ISO 646|ISO 646 series]] }} '''ASCII''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-ASCII.ogg|ˈ|æ|s|k|iː}} {{respell|ASS|kee}}),<ref name="Mackenzie_1980">{{cite book |url=https://textfiles.meulie.net/bitsaved/Books/Mackenzie_CodedCharSets.pdf |title=Coded Character Sets, History and Development |work=The Systems Programming Series |author-last=Mackenzie |author-first=Charles E. |date=1980 |edition=1 |publisher=[[Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.]] |isbn=0-201-14460-3 |lccn=77-90165 |pages=6, 66, 211, 215, 217, 220, 223, 228, 236–238, 243–245, 247–253, 423, 425–428, 435–439 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160526172151/https://textfiles.meulie.net/bitsaved/Books/Mackenzie_CodedCharSets.pdf |archive-date=May 26, 2016 |dead-url=no |access-date=2018-09-28}}</ref>{{rp|6}} abbreviated from '''American Standard Code for Information Interchange''', is a [[character encoding]] standard for electronic communication. ASCII codes represent text in computers, [[telecommunications equipment]], and other devices. Most modern character-encoding schemes are based on ASCII, although they support many additional characters. ASCII is the traditional name for the encoding system; the [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] (IANA) prefers the updated name '''US-ASCII''', which clarifies that this system was developed in the US and based on the typographical symbols predominantly in use there.<ref name="IANA_2007">Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) (May 14, 2007). "[http://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets Character Sets]". Accessed 2008-04-14.</ref> ASCII is one of the [[List of IEEE milestones|IEEE milestones]]. [[File:USASCII code chart.png|thumb|361px|ASCII chart from an earlier-than 1972 printer manual (b1 is the least significant bit.)]] ==Overview== ASCII was developed from [[telegraph code]]. Its first commercial use was as a seven-[[bit]] [[teleprinter]] code promoted by Bell data services. Work on the ASCII standard began on October 6, 1960, with the first meeting of the [[American Standards Association]]'s (ASA) (now the [[American National Standards Institute]] or ANSI) X3.2 subcommittee. The first edition of the standard was published in 1963,<ref name="Brandel_1999">{{cite news |author-first=Mary |author-last=Brandel |date=July 6, 1999 |url=http://edition.cnn.com/TECH/computing/9907/06/1963.idg/ |title=1963: The Debut of ASCII |publisher=[[CNN]] |access-date=2008-04-14}}</ref><ref name="ASCII-1963">{{cite web |title=American Standard Code for Information Interchange, ASA X3.4-1963 |publisher=[[American Standards Association]] (ASA) |date=1963-06-17 |url=http://worldpowersystems.com/ARCHIVE/codes/X3.4-1963/index.html |access-date=2018-09-28 |dead-url=no |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180928201050/http://worldpowersystems.com/ARCHIVE/codes/X3.4-1963/index.html |archive-date=September 28, 2018}}</ref> underwent a major revision during 1967,<ref name="ASCII-1967">{{cite journal |title=USA Standard Code for Information Interchange, USAS X3.4-1967 |publisher=[[United States of America Standards Institute]] (USASI) |date=July 7, 1967}}</ref><ref name="Jennings_2016">{{cite web |title=An annotated history of some character codes or ASCII: American Standard Code for Information Infiltration |author-first=Thomas Daniel |author-last=Jennings |author-link=Thomas Daniel Jennings |website=World Power Systems (WPS) |date=2016-04-20 |orig-year=1999 |url=http://worldpowersystems.com/ARCHIVE/codes/#ASCII-1967 |access-date=2018-09-28 |dead-url=no |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180928201025/http://worldpowersystems.com/ARCHIVE/codes/#ASCII-1967 |archive-date=September 28, 2018}}</ref> and experienced its most recent update during 1986.<ref name="ASCII-1986">{{cite journal |title=American National Standard for Information Systems — Coded Character Sets — 7-Bit American National Standard Code for Information Interchange (7-Bit ASCII), ANSI X3.4-1986 |publisher=[[American National Standards Institute]] (ANSI) |date=March 26, 1986}}</ref> Compared to earlier telegraph codes, the proposed Bell code and ASCII were both ordered for more convenient sorting (i.e., alphabetization) of lists, and added features for devices other than teleprinters. Originally based on the [[English alphabet]], ASCII encodes 128 specified [[character (computing)|characters]] into seven-bit integers as shown by the ASCII chart above.<ref name="RFC-4949">{{citation |title=Internet Security Glossary, Version 2 |date=August 2007 |author-first=R. |author-last=Shirley |rfc=4949 |url=https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4949 |access-date=2016-06-13 |dead-url=no |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160613203815/https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4949 |archive-date=2016-06-13}}</ref> Ninety-five of the encoded characters are printable: these include the digits ''0'' to ''9'', lowercase letters ''a'' to ''z'', uppercase letters ''A'' to ''Z'', and [[punctuation symbol]]s. In addition, the original ASCII specification included 33 non-printing [[control code]]s which originated with [[Teletype machine]]s; most of these are now obsolete,<ref name="Maini_2007">{{cite book |author-last=Maini |author-first=Anil Kumar |title=Digital Electronics: Principles, Devices and Applications |url=https://books.google.com/?id=NQSpNAEACAAJ&pg=PA28 |date=2007 |publisher=[[John Wiley and Sons]] |isbn=978-0-470-03214-5 |page=28 |quote=In addition, it defines codes for 33 nonprinting, mostly obsolete control characters that affect how the text is processed.}}</ref> although a few are still commonly used, such as the [[carriage return]], [[line feed]] and [[Tab key#Tab characters|tab]] codes. For example, lowercase ''[[i]]'' would be represented in the ASCII encoding by [[binary number|binary]] 1101001 = [[hexadecimal]] 69 (''i'' is the ninth letter) = [[decimal]] 105. =={{anchor|1963|1965|1967|1968|1977|1986|1992|1997|2002|2007|2012}}History== [[File:ASCII1963-infobox-paths.svg|thumb|right|ASCII (1963). [[Control Pictures|Control pictures]] of equivalent controls are shown where they exist, or a grey dot otherwise.]] The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) was developed under the auspices of a committee of the [[American Standards Association]] (ASA), called the X3 committee, by its X3.2 (later X3L2) subcommittee, and later by that subcommittee's X3.2.4 working group (now [[INCITS]]). The ASA became the [[United States of America Standards Institute]] (USASI)<ref name="Mackenzie_1980"/>{{rp|211}} and ultimately the [[American National Standards Institute]] (ANSI). With the other special characters and control codes filled in, ASCII was published as ASA X3.4-1963,<ref name="ASCII-1963"/><ref name="Bukstein_1964">{{cite journal |title=Binary Computer Codes and ASCII |author-first=Ed |author-last=Bukstein |journal=[[Electronics World]] |date=July 1964 |volume=72 |number=1 |publisher=[[Ziff-Davis Publishing Company]]<!-- Poptronix, Inc.? --> |pages=28–29 |url=http://www.swtpc.com/mholley/ElectronicsWorld/Jul1964/EW_Jul1964.htm |access-date=2016-05-22}}</ref> leaving 28 code positions without any assigned meaning, reserved for future standardization, and one unassigned control code.<ref name="Mackenzie_1980"/>{{rp|66, 245}} There was some debate at the time whether there should be more control characters rather than the lowercase alphabet.<ref name="Mackenzie_1980"/>{{rp|435}} The indecision did not last long: during May 1963 the CCITT Working Party on the New Telegraph Alphabet proposed to assign lowercase characters to ''sticks''{{Efn|name="NB_Stick"|{{anchor|Stick}}The 128 characters of the 7-bit ASCII character set are divided into eight 16-character groups called ''sticks'' 0–7, associated with the three [[most-significant bit]]s.<ref name="Bemer_1980_Inside"/> Depending on the horizontal or vertical representation of the character map, ''sticks'' correspond with either table rows or columns.}}<ref name="Bemer_1980_Inside"/> 6 and 7,<ref name="CCITT_1963">Brief Report: Meeting of CCITT Working Party on the New Telegraph Alphabet, May 13–15, 1963.</ref> and [[International Organization for Standardization]] TC 97 SC 2 voted during October to incorporate the change into its draft standard.<ref name="ISO_1963">Report of ISO/TC/97/SC 2 – Meeting of October 29–31, 1963.</ref> The X3.2.4 task group voted its approval for the change to ASCII at its May 1963 meeting.<ref>Report on Task Group X3.2.4, June 11, 1963, Pentagon Building, Washington, DC.</ref> Locating the lowercase letters in ''sticks''{{Efn|name="NB_Stick"}}<ref name="Bemer_1980_Inside"/> 6 and 7 caused the characters to differ in bit pattern from the upper case by a single bit, which simplified [[case-insensitive]] character matching and the construction of keyboards and printers. The X3 committee made other changes, including other new characters (the [[brace (punctuation)|brace]] and [[vertical bar]] characters),<ref>Report of Meeting No. 8, Task Group X3.2.4, December 17 and 18, 1963</ref> renaming some control characters (SOM became start of header (SOH)) and moving or removing others (RU was removed).<ref name="Mackenzie_1980"/>{{rp|247–248}} ASCII was subsequently updated as USAS X3.4-1967,<ref name="ASCII-1967"/><ref name="Winter_2010">{{cite web |title=US and International standards: ASCII |url=http://homepages.cwi.nl/~dik/english/codes/stand.html#ascii |author-first=Dik T. |author=Winter |date=2010 |orig-year=2003 |dead-url=yes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100116001012/http://homepages.cwi.nl/~dik/english/codes/stand.html#ascii |archive-date=2010-01-16}}</ref> then USAS X3.4-1968, ANSI X3.4-1977, and finally, ANSI X3.4-1986.<ref name="ASCII-1986"/><ref name="Salste_2016">{{cite web |title=7-bit character sets: Revisions of ASCII |author-first=Tuomas |author-last=Salste |publisher=Aivosto Oy |date=January 2016 |id={{URN|nbn|fi-fe201201011004}} |url=http://www.aivosto.com/vbtips/charsets-7bit.html#body |access-date=2016-06-13 |dead-url=no |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160613145224/http://www.aivosto.com/vbtips/charsets-7bit.html#body |archive-date=2016-06-13}}</ref> Revisions of the ASCII standard: *ASA <!-- Standard -->X3.4-1963<ref name="Mackenzie_1980"/><ref name="ASCII-1963"/><ref name="Winter_2010"/><ref name="Salste_2016"/> *ASA X3.4-1965 (approved, but not published, nevertheless used by [[IBM 2260]] & [[IBM 2265|2265]] Display Stations and [[IBM 2848]] Display Control)<ref name="Mackenzie_1980"/>{{rp|423, 425–428, 435–439}}<ref name="SA_215">{{cite journal |title=Information<!-- Title of issue, not title of article --> |author-first= |author-last= |date=September 1966 |volume=215 |number=3 |type=special edition |journal=[[Scientific American]] |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/e24931041 |jstor=e24931041 |pages=}}</ref><ref name="Winter_2010"/><ref name="Salste_2016"/> *USAS <!-- USA Standard -->X3.4-1967<ref name="Mackenzie_1980"/><ref name="ASCII-1967"/><ref name="Salste_2016"/> *USAS X3.4-1968<!-- October 1968 --><ref name="Mackenzie_1980"/><ref name="Salste_2016"/> *ANSI <!-- American National Standard -->X3.4-1977<ref name="Salste_2016"/> *ANSI X3.4-1986<ref name="ASCII-1986"/><ref name="Salste_2016"/> *ANSI X3.4-1986 (R1992) *ANSI X3.4-1986 (R1997) *ANSI INCITS 4-1986 (R2002)<ref name="Korpela_2014">{{cite book |title=Unicode Explained – Internationalize Documents, Programs, and Web Sites |author-first=Jukka K. |author-last=Korpela |edition=2nd release of 1st |date=2014-03-14 |orig-year=2006-06-07 |publisher=[[O'Reilly Media, Inc.]] |isbn=978-0-596-10121-3 |id={{ISBN|0-596-10121-X}} |page=118}}</ref> *ANSI INCITS 4-1986 (R2007)<ref name="ANSI_INCITS_4-1986_2007">{{citation |title=ANSI INCITS 4-1986 (R2007): American National Standard for Information Systems – Coded Character Sets – 7-Bit American National Standard Code for Information Interchange (7-Bit ASCII) |date=2007 |orig-year=1986 |id= |url=http://sliderule.mraiow.com/w/images/7/73/ASCII.pdf |access-date=2016-06-12 |dead-url=no |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140207170900/http://sliderule.mraiow.com/w/images/7/73/ASCII.pdf |archive-date=2014-02-07}}</ref> *ANSI INCITS 4-1986 (R2012) In the X3.15 standard, the X3 committee also addressed how ASCII should be transmitted ([[least significant bit]] first),<ref name="Mackenzie_1980"/>{{rp|249–253}}<ref name="X3.15-1966">{{citation |title=Bit Sequencing of the American National Standard Code for Information Interchange in Serial-by-Bit Data Transmission |id=X3.15-1966 |date=1966 |publisher=[[American National Standards Institute]] (ANSI)}}</ref> and how it should be recorded on perforated tape. They proposed a [[9-track]] standard for magnetic tape, and attempted to deal with some [[punched card]] formats. <!-- To be mentioned: [[Decimal ASCII]] --> ==Design considerations== ===Bit width=== The X3.2 subcommittee designed ASCII based on the earlier [[teleprinter]] encoding systems. Like other [[character encoding]]s, ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and [[character (computing)|character]] symbols (i.e. [[grapheme]]s and [[control character]]s). This allows [[Digital data|digital]] devices to communicate with each other and to process, store, and communicate character-oriented information such as written language. Before ASCII was developed, the encodings in use included 26 [[English alphabet|alphabetic]] characters, 10 [[numerical digit]]s, and from 11 to 25 special graphic symbols. To include all these, and control characters compatible with the [[CCITT|Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique]] (CCITT) [[International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2]] (ITA2) standard of 1924,<ref name="Bruxy_2005">{{cite web |title=BruXy: Radio Teletype communication |date=2005-10-10 |access-date=2016-05-09 |url=http://bruxy.regnet.cz/web/hamradio/EN/radio-teletype-communication/ |quote=The transmitted code use International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2 (ITA-2) which was introduced by CCITT in 1924.}}</ref><ref name="bdcode">{{cite web |author-last=Smith |author-first=Gil |title=Teletype Communication Codes |publisher=Baudot.net |date=2001 |url=http://www.baudot.net/docs/smith--teletype-codes.pdf |format=PDF |access-date=2008-07-11}}</ref> [[FIELDATA]] (1956{{citation needed|date=June 2016|reason=My sources state 1957 rather than 1956, but Wikipedia states 1956 in various places. This needs to be sorted out with better sources.}}), and early [[EBCDIC]] (1963), more than 64 codes were required for ASCII. ITA2 were in turn based on the 5-bit telegraph code [[Émile Baudot]] invented in 1870 and patented in 1874.<ref name="bdcode"/> The committee debated the possibility of a [[Shift code|shift]] function (like in [[ITA2]]), which would allow more than 64 codes to be represented by a [[six-bit character code|six-bit code]]. In a shifted code, some character codes determine choices between options for the following character codes. It allows compact encoding, but is less reliable for [[data transmission]], as an error in transmitting the shift code typically makes a long part of the transmission unreadable. The standards committee decided against shifting, and so ASCII required at least a seven-bit code.<ref name="Mackenzie_1980"/>{{rp|215, 236&thinsp;§&thinsp;4}} The committee considered an eight-bit code, since eight bits ([[octet (computing)|octet]]s) would allow two four-bit patterns to efficiently encode two digits with [[binary-coded decimal]]. However, it would require all data transmission to send eight bits when seven could suffice. The committee voted to use a seven-bit code to minimize costs associated with data transmission. Since perforated tape at the time could record eight bits in one position, it also allowed for a [[parity bit]] for [[error checking]] if desired.<ref name="Mackenzie_1980"/>{{rp|217, 236&thinsp;§&thinsp;5}} [[Eight-bit]] machines (with octets as the native data type) that did not use parity checking typically set the eighth bit to 0.<ref name="Sawyer_1995">{{cite book |author-first1=Stanley A. |author-last1=Sawyer |author-first2=Steven George |author-last2=Krantz |title=A TeX Primer for Scientists |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bXLDwmIJNkUC&pg=PA13 |date=1995 |publisher=[[CRC Press, LLC]] |isbn=978-0-8493-7159-2 |page=13}}</ref> In some printers, the high bit was used to enable [[Italics]] printing. ===Internal organization=== The code itself was patterned so that most control codes were together and all graphic codes were together, for ease of identification. The first two so called ''ASCII sticks''{{Efn|name="NB_Stick"}}<ref name="Bemer_1980_Inside"/> (32 positions) were reserved for control characters.<ref name="Mackenzie_1980"/>{{rp|220, 236&thinsp;§&thinsp;8,9)}} The [[Space (punctuation)|"space" character]] had to come before graphics to make [[sorting algorithm|sorting]] easier, so it became position 20_{[[hexadecimal|hex]]};<ref name="Mackenzie_1980"/>{{rp|237&thinsp;§&thinsp;10}} for the same reason, many special signs commonly used as separators were placed before digits. The committee decided it was important to support [[upper case|uppercase]] [[sixbit code pages|64-character alphabets]], and chose to pattern ASCII so it could be reduced easily to a usable 64-character set of graphic codes,<ref name="Mackenzie_1980"/>{{rp|228, 237&thinsp;§&thinsp;14}} as was done in the [[DEC SIXBIT]] code (1963). [[Lower case|Lowercase]] letters were therefore not interleaved with uppercase. To keep options available for lowercase letters and other graphics, the special and numeric codes were arranged before the letters, and the letter ''A'' was placed in position 41_{[[hexadecimal|hex]]} to match the draft of the corresponding British standard.<ref name="Mackenzie_1980"/>{{rp|238&thinsp;§&thinsp;18}} The digits 0–9 are prefixed with 011, but the remaining [[Nibble|4 bits]] correspond to their respective values in binary, making conversion with [[binary-coded decimal]] straightforward. Many of the non-alphanumeric characters were positioned to correspond to their shifted position on typewriters; an important subtlety is that these were based on ''mechanical'' typewriters, not ''electric'' typewriters.<ref name="Savard">{{cite web |title=Computer Keyboards |url=http://www.quadibloc.com/comp/kybint.htm |author-first=John J. G. |author-last=Savard |access-date=2014-08-24}}</ref> Mechanical typewriters followed the standard set by the Remington No. 2 (1878), the first typewriter with a shift key, and the shifted values of <code>23456789-</code> were <code>"#$%_&'()</code>{{snd}} early typewriters omitted ''0'' and ''1'', using ''O'' (capital letter ''o'') and ''l'' (lowercase letter ''L'') instead, but <code>1!</code> and <code>0)</code> pairs became standard once 0 and 1 became common. Thus, in ASCII <code>!"#$%</code> were placed in the second stick,{{Efn|name="NB_Stick"}}<ref name="Bemer_1980_Inside"/> positions 1–5, corresponding to the digits 1–5 in the adjacent stick.{{Efn|name="NB_Stick"}}<ref name="Bemer_1980_Inside"/> The parentheses could not correspond to ''9'' and ''0'', however, because the place corresponding to ''0'' was taken by the space character. This was accommodated by removing <code>_</code> (underscore) from ''6'' and shifting the remaining characters, which corresponded to many European typewriters that placed the parentheses with ''8'' and ''9''. This discrepancy from typewriters led to [[bit-paired keyboard]]s, notably the [[Teletype Model 33]], which used the left-shifted layout corresponding to ASCII, not to traditional mechanical typewriters. Electric typewriters, notably the [[IBM Selectric]] (1961), used a somewhat different layout that has become standard on computers{{snd}} following the [[IBM PC]] (1981), especially [[Model M]] (1984){{snd}} and thus shift values for symbols on modern keyboards do not correspond as closely to the ASCII table as earlier keyboards did. The <code>/?</code> pair also dates to the No. 2, and the <code>,&lt; .&gt;</code> pairs were used on some keyboards (others, including the No. 2, did not shift <code>,</code> (comma) or <code>.</code> (full stop) so they could be used in uppercase without unshifting). However, ASCII split the <code>;:</code> pair (dating to No. 2), and rearranged mathematical symbols (varied conventions, commonly <code>-* =+</code>) to <code>:* ;+ -=</code>. Some common characters were not included, notably <code>½¼¢</code>, while <code>^`~</code> were included as diacritics for international use, and <code>&lt;&gt;</code> for mathematical use, together with the simple line characters <code>\|</code> (in addition to common <code>/</code>). The ''@'' symbol was not used in continental Europe and the committee expected it would be replaced by an accented ''À'' in the French variation, so the ''@'' was placed in position 40<sub>[[hexadecimal|hex]]</sub>, right before the letter A.<ref name="Mackenzie_1980"/>{{rp|243}} The control codes felt essential for data transmission were the start of message (SOM), end of address (EOA), [[End of Message|end of message]] (EOM), end of transmission (EOT), "who are you?" (WRU), "are you?" (RU), a reserved device control (DC0), synchronous idle (SYNC), and acknowledge (ACK). These were positioned to maximize the [[Hamming distance]] between their bit patterns.<ref name="Mackenzie_1980"/>{{rp|243–245}} ===Character order=== ASCII-code order is also called ''ASCIIbetical'' order.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia_term/0,2542,t=ASCIIbetical&i=38025,00.asp |title=ASCIIbetical definition |magazine=[[PC Magazine]] |access-date=2008-04-14}}</ref> [[Collation]] of data is sometimes done in this order rather than "standard" alphabetical order ([[collating sequence]]). The main deviations in ASCII order are: * All uppercase come before lowercase letters; for example, "Z" precedes "a" * Digits and many punctuation marks come before letters An intermediate order converts uppercase letters to lowercase before comparing ASCII values. ==Character groups== ==={{anchor|ASCII control characters}}Control characters=== {{Main|Control character}} ASCII reserves the first 32 codes (numbers 0–31 decimal) for [[control character]]s: codes originally intended not to represent printable information, but rather to control devices (such as [[computer printer|printers]]) that make use of ASCII, or to provide [[Metadata|meta-information]] about data streams such as those stored on magnetic tape. For example, character 10 represents the "line feed" function (which causes a printer to advance its paper), and character 8 represents "backspace". {{IETF RFC|2822}} refers to control characters that do not include carriage return, line feed or [[Whitespace (computer science)|white space]] as non-whitespace control characters.<ref name="RFC-2822">{{citation |title=Internet Message Format |author-first=P. |author-last=Resnick |date=April 2001 |rfc=2822 |url=https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822 |access-date=2016-06-13 |dead-url=no |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160613203505/https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822 |archive-date=2016-06-13}} (NB. NO-WS-CTL.)</ref> Except for the control characters that prescribe elementary line-oriented formatting, ASCII does not define any mechanism for describing the structure or appearance of text within a document. Other schemes, such as [[markup language]]s, address page and document layout and formatting. The original ASCII standard used only short descriptive phrases for each control character. The ambiguity this caused was sometimes intentional, for example where a character would be used slightly differently on a terminal link than on a [[data stream]], and sometimes accidental, for example with the meaning of "delete". Probably the most influential single device on the interpretation of these characters was the [[Teletype Model 33]] ASR, which was a printing terminal with an available [[punched tape|paper tape]] reader/punch option. Paper tape was a very popular medium for long-term program storage until the 1980s, less costly and in some ways less fragile than magnetic tape. In particular, the Teletype Model 33 machine assignments for codes 17 (Control-Q, DC1, also known as XON), 19 (Control-S, DC3, also known as XOFF), and 127 ([[Delete key|Delete]]) became de facto standards. The Model 33 was also notable for taking the description of Control-G (code 7, BEL, meaning audibly alert the operator) literally, as the unit contained an actual bell which it rang when it received a BEL character. Because the keytop for the O key also showed a left-arrow symbol (from ASCII-1963, which had this character instead of [[underscore]]), a noncompliant use of code 15 (Control-O, Shift In) interpreted as "delete previous character" was also adopted by many early timesharing systems but eventually became neglected. When a Teletype 33 ASR equipped with the automatic paper tape reader received a Control-S (XOFF, an abbreviation for transmit off), it caused the tape reader to stop; receiving Control-Q (XON, "transmit on") caused the tape reader to resume. This technique became adopted by several early computer operating systems as a "handshaking" signal warning a sender to stop transmission because of impending overflow; it persists to this day in many systems as a manual output control technique. On some systems Control-S retains its meaning but Control-Q is replaced by a second Control-S to resume output. The 33 ASR also could be configured to employ Control-R (DC2) and Control-T (DC4) to start and stop the tape punch; on some units equipped with this function, the corresponding control character lettering on the keycap above the letter was TAPE and <s>TAPE</s> respectively.<ref name="McConnell">{{cite web |title=Understanding ASCII Codes |author-last1=McConnell |author-first1=Robert |author-last2=Haynes |author-first2=James |author-last3=Warren |author-first3=Richard |url=http://www.nadcomm.com/ascii_code.htm |access-date=2014-05-11}}</ref> The Teletype could not move the head backwards, so it did not put a key on the keyboard to send a BS (backspace). Instead there was a key marked "rubout" that sent code 127 (DEL). The purpose of this key was to erase mistakes in a hand-typed paper tape: the operator had to push a button on the tape punch to back it up, then type the rubout, which punched all holes and replaced the mistake with a character that was intended to be ignored.<ref>{{cite mailing list |url=http://lists.gnu.org/archive/html/help-gnu-emacs/2014-05/msg00448.html |title=Re: editor and word processor history (was: Re: RTF for emacs) |author=Barry Margolin |mailing-list=help-gnu-emacs |date=May 29, 2014}}</ref> Teletypes were commonly used for the less-expensive computers from [[Digital Equipment Corporation]], so these systems had to use the available key and thus the DEL code to erase the previous character.<ref name="pdp-6-monitor-manual">{{cite web |url=http://bitsavers.trailing-edge.com/pdf/dec/pdp6/DEC-6-0-EX-SYS-UM-IP-PRE00_Multiprogramming_System_Manual_1965.pdf |title=PDP-6 Multiprogramming System Manual |page=43 |publisher=[[Digital Equipment Corporation]] (DEC) |date=1965}}</ref><ref name="pdp-10-monitor-manual">{{cite web |url=http://bitsavers.org/pdf/dec/pdp10/1970_PDP-10_Ref/1970PDP10Ref_Part3.pdf |title=PDP-10 Reference Handbook, Book 3, Communicating with the Monitor |page=5-5 |publisher=[[Digital Equipment Corporation]] (DEC) |date=1969}}</ref> Because of this, DEC video terminals (by default) sent the DEL code for the key marked "Backspace" while the key marked "Delete" sent an escape sequence, while many other terminals sent BS for the Backspace key. The Unix terminal driver could only use one code to back up, this could be set to BS ''or'' DEL, but not both, resulting in a very long period of annoyance where you had to correct it depending on what terminal you were using (modern shells using [[readline]] understand both codes). The assumption that no key sent a BS caused Control+H to be used for other purposes, such as a "help" command in Emacs.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/manual/html_node/emacs/Help.html|title=Help - GNU Emacs Manual}}</ref> Many more of the control codes have been given meanings quite different from their original ones. The "escape" character (ESC, code 27), for example, was intended originally to allow sending other control characters as literals instead of invoking their meaning. This is the same meaning of "escape" encountered in URL encodings, [[C (programming language)|C language]] strings, and other systems where certain characters have a reserved meaning. Over time this meaning has been co-opted and has eventually been changed. In modern use, an ESC sent to the terminal usually indicates the start of a command sequence usually in the form of a so-called "[[ANSI escape code]]" (or, more properly, a "[[Control Sequence Introducer]]") from ECMA-48 (1972) and its successors, beginning with ESC followed by a "<nowiki>[</nowiki>" (left-bracket) character. An ESC sent from the terminal is most often used as an [[out-of-band data|out-of-band]] character used to terminate an operation, as in the [[Text Editor and Corrector|TECO]] and [[vi]] [[text editor]]s. In [[graphical user interface]] (GUI) and [[window (computing)|windowing]] systems, ESC generally causes an application to abort its current operation or to [[exit (system call)|exit]] (terminate) altogether. The inherent ambiguity of many control characters, combined with their historical usage, created problems when transferring "plain text" files between systems. The best example of this is the [[newline]] problem on various [[operating system]]s. Teletype machines required that a line of text be terminated with both "Carriage Return" (which moves the printhead to the beginning of the line) and "Line Feed" (which advances the paper one line without moving the printhead). The name "Carriage Return" comes from the fact that on a manual [[typewriter]] the carriage holding the paper moved while the position where the typebars struck the ribbon remained stationary. The entire carriage had to be pushed (returned) to the right in order to position the left margin of the paper for the next line. [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] operating systems ([[OS/8]], [[RT-11]], [[RSX-11]], [[RSTS/E|RSTS]], [[TOPS-10]], etc.) used both characters to mark the end of a line so that the console device (originally [[Teleprinter|Teletype machines]]) would work. By the time so-called "glass TTYs" (later called CRTs or terminals) came along, the convention was so well established that backward compatibility necessitated continuing the convention. When [[Gary Kildall]] created [[CP/M]] he was inspired by some command line interface conventions used in [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]]'s [[RT-11]]. Until the introduction of [[PC DOS]] in 1981, [[IBM]] had no hand in this because their 1970s operating systems used EBCDIC instead of ASCII and they were oriented toward punch-card input and line printer output on which the concept of carriage return was meaningless. IBM's [[PC DOS]] (also marketed as [[MS-DOS]] by Microsoft) inherited the convention by virtue of being loosely based on [[CP/M]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dosmandrivel.blogspot.com/2007/08/is-dos-rip-off-of-cpm.html|title=Is DOS a Rip-Off of CP/M?|author=[[Tim Paterson]]|date=August 8, 2007|website=DosMan Drivel}}</ref> and [[Windows]] inherited it from MS-DOS. Unfortunately, requiring two characters to mark the end of a line introduces unnecessary complexity and questions as to how to interpret each character when encountered alone. To simplify matters [[plain text]] data streams, including files, on [[Multics]]<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://www.multicians.org/jhs-jfo-terminals.pdf |title=Technical and human engineering problems in connecting terminals to a time-sharing system |author-last1=Ossanna |author-first1=J. F. |author-link1=Joe Ossanna |author-last2=Saltzer |author-first2=J. H. |author-link2=Jerry Saltzer |date=November 17–19, 1970 |publisher=[[AFIPS]] Press |booktitle=Proceedings of the November 17–19, 1970, [[Fall Joint Computer Conference]] (FJCC) |pages=355–362 |location=p. 357 |quote=Using a "new-line" function (combined carriage-return and line-feed) is simpler for both man and machine than requiring both functions for starting a new line; the American National Standard X3.4-1968 permits the line-feed code to carry the new-line meaning.}}</ref> used line feed (LF) alone as a line terminator. [[Unix]] and [[Unix-like]] systems, and [[Amiga]] systems, adopted this convention from Multics. The original [[Macintosh OS]], [[Apple DOS]], and [[ProDOS]], on the other hand, used carriage return (CR) alone as a line terminator; however, since Apple replaced these operating systems with the Unix-based [[macOS]] operating system, they now use line feed (LF) as well. The Radio Shack [[TRS-80]] also used a lone CR to terminate lines. Computers attached to the [[ARPANET]] included machines running operating systems such as TOPS-10 and [[TOPS-20#TENEX|TENEX]] using CR-LF line endings, machines running operating systems such as Multics using LF line endings, and machines running operating systems such as [[OS/360]] that represented lines as a character count followed by the characters of the line and that used [[EBCDIC]] rather than ASCII. The [[Telnet]] protocol defined an ASCII "[[Network Virtual Terminal]]" (NVT), so that connections between hosts with different line-ending conventions and character sets could be supported by transmitting a standard text format over the network. Telnet used ASCII along with CR-LF line endings, and software using other conventions would translate between the local conventions and the NVT.<ref name="RFC-158">{{citation |title=TELNET Protocol |rfc=158 |pages=4–5 |author-first=T. |author-last=O'Sullivan |date=1971-05-19 |publisher=[[Internet Engineering Task Force]] (IETF) |url=https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc158 |access-date=2013-01-28 |dead-url=no |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160613202223/https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc158 |archive-date=2016-06-13}}</ref> The [[File Transfer Protocol]] adopted the Telnet protocol, including use of the Network Virtual Terminal, for use when transmitting commands and transferring data in the default ASCII mode.<ref name="RFC-542">{{citation |title=File Transfer Protocol |rfc=542 |author-first=Nancy J. |author-last=Neigus |date=1973-08-12 |publisher=[[Internet Engineering Task Force]] (IETF) |url=https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc542 |access-date=2013-01-28 |dead-url=no |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160613202314/https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc542 |archive-date=2016-06-13}}</ref><ref name="RFC-765">{{citation |title=File Transfer Protocol |rfc=765 |author-first=Jon |author-last=Postel |author-link=Jon Postel |date=June 1980 |publisher=[[Internet Engineering Task Force]] (IETF) |url=https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc765 |access-date=2013-01-28 |dead-url=no |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160613202356/https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc765 |archive-date=2016-06-13}}</ref> This adds complexity to implementations of those protocols, and to other network protocols, such as those used for E-mail and the World Wide Web, on systems not using the NVT's CR-LF line-ending convention.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mercurial-scm.org/wiki/EOLTranslationPlan |title=EOL translation plan for Mercurial |publisher=Mercurial |access-date=2017-06-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bare LFs in SMTP |url=http://cr.yp.to/docs/smtplf.html |author-first=Daniel J. |author-last=Bernstein |author-link=Daniel J. Bernstein |access-date=2013-01-28}}</ref> The PDP-6 monitor,<ref name="pdp-6-monitor-manual"/> and its PDP-10 successor TOPS-10,<ref name="pdp-10-monitor-manual"/> used Control-Z (SUB) as an end-of-file indication for input from a terminal. Some operating systems such as CP/M tracked file length only in units of disk blocks and used Control-Z to mark the end of the actual text in the file.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/digitalResearch/cpm/1.4/CPM_1.4_Interface_Guide_1978.pdf |title=CP/M 1.4 Interface Guide |date=1978 |page=10 |publisher=[[Digital Research]]}}</ref> For these reasons, EOF, or [[end-of-file]], was used colloquially and conventionally as a [[three-letter acronym]] for Control-Z instead of SUBstitute. The end-of-text code ([[End-of-text character|ETX]]), also known as [[Control-C]], was inappropriate for a variety of reasons, while using Z as the control code to end a file is analogous to it ending the alphabet and serves as a very convenient [[Mnemonic device|mnemonic aid]]. A historically common and still prevalent convention uses the ETX code convention to interrupt and halt a program via an input data stream, usually from a keyboard. In C library and [[Unix]] conventions, the [[null character]] is used to terminate text [[string (computer science)|strings]]; such [[null-terminated string]]s can be known in abbreviation as ASCIZ or ASCIIZ, where here Z stands for "zero". {{anchor|ASCII control code chart}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" |- ! rowspan="2"|[[Binary numeral system|Binary]] !! rowspan="2"|[[Octal|Oct]] !! rowspan="2"|[[Decimal|Dec]] !! rowspan="2"|[[Hexadecimal|Hex]] !! colspan="3"|Abbreviation !! rowspan="2"|{{Efn|The [[Unicode]] characters from the area U+2400 to U+2421 reserved for representing control characters when it is necessary to print or display them rather than have them perform their intended function. Some browsers may not display these properly.}} !! rowspan="2"|{{Efn|[[Caret notation]] is often used to represent control characters on a terminal. On most text terminals, holding down the {{key press|[[Control key|Ctrl]]}} key while typing the second character will type the control character. Sometimes the shift key is not needed, for instance <code>^@</code> may be typable with just Ctrl and 2.}} !! rowspan="2"|{{Efn|Character [[escape sequence]]s in [[C (programming language)|C programming language]] and many other languages influenced by it, such as [[Java (programming language)|Java]] and [[Perl]] (though not all implementations necessarily support all escape sequences).}} !! rowspan="2"|Name (1967) |- ! 1963 !! 1965 !! 1967 |- | 000 0000 || style="background:lightblue;" | 000 || style="background:#CFF;" | 0 || style="background:lightblue;" | 00 |NULL||colspan=2|NUL|| style="font-size:large;" | ␀ || <code>[[^@]]</code> || <code>[[\0]]</code> || style="text-align:left;" | [[Null character|Null]] |- | 000 0001 || style="background:lightblue;" | 001 || style="background:#CFF;" | 1 || style="background:lightblue;" | 01 |SOM||colspan=2|SOH|| style="font-size:large;" | ␁ || <code>[[^A]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Start of Heading]] |- | 000 0010 || style="background:lightblue;" | 002 || style="background:#CFF;" | 2 || style="background:lightblue;" | 02 |EOA||colspan=2|STX|| style="font-size:large;" | ␂ || <code>[[^B]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Start of Text]] |- | 000 0011 || style="background:lightblue;" | 003 || style="background:#CFF;" | 3 || style="background:lightblue;" | 03 |EOM||colspan=2|ETX|| style="font-size:large;" | ␃ || <code>[[^C]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[End-of-Text character|End of Text]] |- | 000 0100 || style="background:lightblue;" | 004 || style="background:#CFF;" | 4 || style="background:lightblue;" | 04 <!-- Please note that the character below, U+2404, is correct. If you are seeing it as "ENQ", please upgrade your fonts as the one you have is buggy. --> |colspan=3|EOT|| style="font-size:large;" | ␄ || <code>[[^D]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[End-of-Transmission character|End of Transmission]] |- | 000 0101 || style="background:lightblue;" | 005 || style="background:#CFF;" | 5 || style="background:lightblue;" | 05 <!-- Please note that the character below, U+2405, is correct. If you are seeing it as "EOT", please upgrade your fonts as the one you have is buggy. --> |WRU||colspan=2|ENQ|| style="font-size:large;" | ␅ || <code>[[^E]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Enquiry character|Enquiry]] |- | 000 0110 || style="background:lightblue;" | 006 || style="background:#CFF;" | 6 || style="background:lightblue;" | 06 |RU||colspan=2|ACK|| style="font-size:large;" | ␆ || <code>[[^F]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Acknowledge character|Acknowledgement]] |- | 000 0111 || style="background:lightblue;" | 007 || style="background:#CFF;" | 7 || style="background:lightblue;" | 07 |BELL||colspan=2|BEL|| style="font-size:large;" | ␇ || <code>[[^G]]</code> || <code>[[\a]]</code> || style="text-align:left;" | [[Bell character|Bell]] |- | 000 1000 || style="background:lightblue;" | 010 || style="background:#CFF;" | 8 || style="background:lightblue;" | 08 |FE0||colspan=2|BS|| style="font-size:large;" | ␈ || <code>[[^H]]</code> || <code>[[Backspace|\b]]</code> || style="text-align:left;" | [[Backspace]]{{Efn|The [[Backspace]] character can also be entered by pressing the {{key press|Backspace}} key on some systems.}}{{Efn|name="bsp del mismatch"}} |- | 000 1001 || style="background:lightblue;" | 011 || style="background:#CFF;" | 9 || style="background:lightblue;" | 09 |HT/SK||colspan=2|HT|| style="font-size:large;" | ␉ || <code>[[^I]]</code> || <code>[[\t]]</code> || style="text-align:left;" | [[Horizontal Tab]]{{Efn|The [[Tab character]] can also be entered by pressing the {{key press|Tab}} key on most systems.}} |- | 000 1010 || style="background:lightblue;" | 012 || style="background:#CFF;" | 10 || style="background:lightblue;" | 0A |colspan=3|LF|| style="font-size:large;" | ␊ || <code>[[^J]]</code> || <code>[[\n]]</code> || style="text-align:left;" | [[Line Feed]] |- | 000 1011 || style="background:lightblue;" | 013 || style="background:#CFF;" | 11 || style="background:lightblue;" | 0B |VTAB||colspan=2|VT|| style="font-size:large;" | ␋ || <code>[[^K]]</code> || <code>[[\v]]</code> || style="text-align:left;" | [[Vertical Tab]] |- | 000 1100 || style="background:lightblue;" | 014 || style="background:#CFF;" | 12 || style="background:lightblue;" | 0C |colspan=3|FF|| style="font-size:large;" | ␌ || <code>[[^L]]</code> || <code>[[\f]]</code> || style="text-align:left;" | [[Form Feed]] |- | 000 1101 || style="background:lightblue;" | 015 || style="background:#CFF;" | 13 || style="background:lightblue;" | 0D |colspan=3|CR|| style="font-size:large;" | ␍ || <code>[[^M]]</code> || <code>[[\r]]</code> || style="text-align:left;" | [[Carriage Return]]{{Efn|The [[Carriage Return]] character can also be entered by pressing the {{key press|Enter}} or {{key press|Return}} key on most systems.}} |- | 000 1110 || style="background:lightblue;" | 016 || style="background:#CFF;" | 14 || style="background:lightblue;" | 0E |colspan=3|SO|| style="font-size:large;" | ␎ || <code>[[^N]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Shift Out]] |- | 000 1111 || style="background:lightblue;" | 017 || style="background:#CFF;" | 15 || style="background:lightblue;" | 0F |colspan=3|SI|| style="font-size:large;" | ␏ || <code>[[^O]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Shift In]] |- | 001 0000 || style="background:lightblue;" | 020 || style="background:#CFF;" | 16 || style="background:lightblue;" | 10 |DC0||colspan=2|DLE|| style="font-size:large;" | ␐ || <code>[[^P]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Data Link Escape]] |- | 001 0001 || style="background:lightblue;" | 021 || style="background:#CFF;" | 17 || style="background:lightblue;" | 11 |colspan=3|DC1|| style="font-size:large;" | ␑ || <code>[[^Q]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Device Control 1]] (often [[XON]]) |- | 001 0010 || style="background:lightblue;" | 022 || style="background:#CFF;" | 18 || style="background:lightblue;" | 12 |colspan=3|DC2|| style="font-size:large;" | ␒ || <code>[[^R]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Device Control 2]] |- | 001 0011 || style="background:lightblue;" | 023 || style="background:#CFF;" | 19 || style="background:lightblue;" | 13 |colspan=3|DC3|| style="font-size:large;" | ␓ || <code>[[^S]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Device Control 3]] (often [[XOFF]]) |- | 001 0100 || style="background:lightblue;" | 024 || style="background:#CFF;" | 20 || style="background:lightblue;" | 14 |colspan=3|DC4|| style="font-size:large;" | ␔ || <code>[[^T]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Device Control 4]] |- | 001 0101 || style="background:lightblue;" | 025 || style="background:#CFF;" | 21 || style="background:lightblue;" | 15 |ERR||colspan=2|NAK|| style="font-size:large;" | ␕ || <code>[[^U]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Negative-acknowledge character|Negative Acknowledgement]] |- | 001 0110 || style="background:lightblue;" | 026 || style="background:#CFF;" | 22 || style="background:lightblue;" | 16 |SYNC||colspan=2|SYN|| style="font-size:large;" | ␖ || <code>[[^V]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Synchronous Idle]] |- | 001 0111 || style="background:lightblue;" | 027 || style="background:#CFF;" | 23 || style="background:lightblue;" | 17 |LEM||colspan=2|ETB|| style="font-size:large;" | ␗ || <code>[[^W]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[End-of-Transmission-Block character|End of Transmission Block]] |- | 001 1000 || style="background:lightblue;" | 030 || style="background:#CFF;" | 24 || style="background:lightblue;" | 18 |S0||colspan=2|CAN|| style="font-size:large;" | ␘ || <code>[[^X]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Cancel character|Cancel]] |- | 001 1001 || style="background:lightblue;" | 031 || style="background:#CFF;" | 25 || style="background:lightblue;" | 19 |S1||colspan=2|EM|| style="font-size:large;" | ␙ || <code>[[^Y]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[End of Medium]] |- | 001 1010 || style="background:lightblue;" | 032 || style="background:#CFF;" | 26 || style="background:lightblue;" | 1A |S2||SS||SUB|| style="font-size:large;" | ␚ || <code>[[^Z]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Substitute character|Substitute]] |- | 001 1011 || style="background:lightblue;" | 033 || style="background:#CFF;" | 27 || style="background:lightblue;" | 1B |S3||colspan=2|ESC|| style="font-size:large;" | ␛ || <code>^<nowiki>[</nowiki></code> || <code>[[\e]]</code>{{Efn|The <code>\e</code> [[escape sequence]] is not part of [[ISO C]] and many other language specifications. However, it is understood by several compilers, including [[GCC (software)|GCC]].}} || style="text-align:left;" | [[Escape character|Escape]]{{Efn|The [[Escape character]] can also be entered by pressing the {{key press|Esc}} key on some systems.}} |- | 001 1100 || style="background:lightblue;" | 034 || style="background:#CFF;" | 28 || style="background:lightblue;" | 1C |S4||colspan=2|FS|| style="font-size:large;" | ␜ || <code>[[^\]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[File Separator]] |- | 001 1101 || style="background:lightblue;" | 035 || style="background:#CFF;" | 29 || style="background:lightblue;" | 1D |S5||colspan=2|GS|| style="font-size:large;" | ␝ || <code>^<nowiki>]</nowiki></code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Group Separator]] |- | 001 1110 || style="background:lightblue;" | 036 || style="background:#CFF;" | 30 || style="background:lightblue;" | 1E |S6||colspan=2|RS|| style="font-size:large;" | ␞ || <code>^^</code>{{Efn|^^ means {{key press|Ctrl|^}} (pressing the "Ctrl" and [[caret]] keys).}} || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Record Separator]] |- | 001 1111 || style="background:lightblue;" | 037 || style="background:#CFF;" | 31 || style="background:lightblue;" | 1F |S7||colspan=2|US|| style="font-size:large;" | ␟ || <code>^_</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Unit Separator]] |- | colspan="9" | |- | 111 1111 || style="background:lightblue;" | 177 || style="background:#CFF;" | 127 || style="background:lightblue;" | 7F |colspan=3|DEL|| style="font-size:large;" | ␡ || <code>[[^?]]</code> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Delete character|Delete]]{{Efn|The [[Delete character]] can sometimes be entered by pressing the {{key press|Backspace}} key on some systems.}}{{Efn|name="bsp del mismatch"|The ambiguity of [[Backspace]] is due to early terminals designed assuming the main use of the keyboard would be to manually punch paper tape while not connected to a computer. To delete the previous character, one had to back up the paper tape punch, which for mechanical and simplicity reasons was a button on the punch itself and not the keyboard, then type the rubout character. They therefore placed a key producing rubout at the location used on typewriters for backspace. When systems used these terminals and provided command-line editing, they had to use the "rubout" code to perform a backspace, and often did not interpret the backspace character (they might echo "<code>^H</code>" for backspace). Other terminals not designed for paper tape made the key at this location produce Backspace, and systems designed for these used that character to back up. Since the delete code often produced a backspace effect, this also forced terminal manufacturers to make any {{key press|Delete}} key produce something other than the Delete character.}} |} Other representations might be used by specialist equipment, for example [[ISO 2047]] graphics or [[hexadecimal]] numbers. ==={{anchor|ASCII printable characters}}Printable characters=== <!-- Anchor linked to from redirects --> Codes 20<sub>[[hexadecimal|hex]]</sub> to 7E<sub>[[hexadecimal|hex]]</sub>, known as the printable characters, represent letters, digits, [[punctuation mark]]s, and a few miscellaneous symbols. There are 95 printable characters in total.{{efn|Printed out, the characters are: {{Pre2|scroll|<nowiki> !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz{|}~</nowiki>}}}} Code 20_{[[hexadecimal|hex]]}, the [[Space (punctuation)|"space" character]], denotes the space between words, as produced by the space bar of a keyboard. Since the space character is considered an invisible graphic (rather than a control character)<ref name="Mackenzie_1980"/>{{rp|223}}<ref name="RFC-20_1968">{{citation |title=ASCII format for Network Interchange |author-first=Vinton Gray |author-last=Cerf |author-link=Vinton Gray Cerf |publisher=Network Working Group |date=1969-10-16 |rfc=20 |url=https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc20 |access-date=2016-06-13 |dead-url=no |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160613203624/https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc20 |archive-date=2016-06-13}} (NB. Almost identical wording to [[USAS X3.4-1968]] except for the intro.)</ref> it is listed in the table below instead of in the previous section. Code 7F_{[[hexadecimal|hex]]} corresponds to the non-printable "delete" (DEL) control character and is therefore omitted from this chart; it is covered in the previous section's chart. Earlier versions of ASCII used the up arrow instead of the [[caret]] (5E_{[[hexadecimal|hex]]}) and the left arrow instead of the [[underscore]] (5F_{[[hexadecimal|hex]]}).<ref name="ASCII-1963"/><ref name="Haynes_2015">{{cite web|title=First-Hand: Chad is Our Most Important Product: An Engineer's Memory of Teletype Corporation |author-first=Jim |publisher=Engineering and Technology History Wiki (ETHW) |date=2015-01-13 |author-last=Haynes |url=http://ethw.org/First-Hand:Chad_is_Our_Most_Important_Product:_An_Engineer's_Memory_of_Teletype_Corporation |access-date=2016-10-31 |dead-url=no |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031223347/http://ethw.org/First-Hand%3AChad_is_Our_Most_Important_Product%3A_An_Engineer%27s_Memory_of_Teletype_Corporation |archive-date=October 31, 2016 |quote=There was the change from 1961 ASCII to 1968 ASCII. Some computer languages used characters in 1961 ASCII such as up arrow and left arrow. These characters disappeared from 1968 ASCII. We worked with Fred Mocking, who by now was in Sales at [[Teletype Corporation|Teletype]], on a type cylinder that would compromise the changing characters so that the meanings of 1961 ASCII were not totally lost. The underscore character was made rather wedge-shaped so it could also serve as a left arrow.}}</ref> <!-- To be more useful this list should be expanded to include the character names and reflect the various revisions of the ASCII standard --> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |- ! rowspan="2"|[[Binary numeral system|Binary]] !! rowspan="2"|[[Octal|Oct]] !! rowspan="2"|[[Decimal|Dec]] !! rowspan="2"|[[Hexadecimal|Hex]] !! colspan="3"|Glyph |- ! 1963 !! 1965 !! 1967 |- |010 0000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 040 || style="background:#cff;"| 32 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 20 ||colspan=3|&nbsp;[[space (punctuation)|space]] |- |010 0001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 041 || style="background:#cff;"| 33 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 21 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[Exclamation mark|!]]</span> |- |010 0010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 042 || style="background:#cff;"| 34 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 22 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[Quotation mark|"]]</span> |- |010 0011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 043 || style="background:#cff;"| 35 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 23 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[Number sign|#]]</span> |- |010 0100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 044 || style="background:#cff;"| 36 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 24 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[Dollar sign|$]]</span> |- |010 0101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 045 || style="background:#cff;"| 37 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 25 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[Percent sign|%]]</span> |- |010 0110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 046 || style="background:#cff;"| 38 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 26 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[Ampersand|&]]</span> |- |010 0111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 047 || style="background:#cff;"| 39 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 27 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[Apostrophe|']]</span> |- |010 1000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 050 || style="background:#cff;"| 40 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 28 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[Left parenthesis|(]]</span> |- |010 1001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 051 || style="background:#cff;"| 41 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 29 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[Right parenthesis|)]]</span> |- |010 1010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 052 || style="background:#cff;"| 42 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 2A ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[Asterisk|*]]</span> |- |010 1011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 053 || style="background:#cff;"| 43 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 2B ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[Plus sign|+]]</span> |- |010 1100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 054 || style="background:#cff;"| 44 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 2C ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[Comma|,]]</span> |- |010 1101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 055 || style="background:#cff;"| 45 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 2D ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[Hyphen-minus|-]]</span> |- |010 1110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 056 || style="background:#cff;"| 46 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 2E ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[Full stop|.]]</span> |- |010 1111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 057 || style="background:#cff;"| 47 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 2F ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[Slash (punctuation)|/]]</span> |- |011 0000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 060 || style="background:#cff;"| 48 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 30 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[0 (number)|0]]</span> |- |011 0001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 061 || style="background:#cff;"| 49 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 31 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[1 (number)|1]]</span> |- |011 0010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 062 || style="background:#cff;"| 50 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 32 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[2 (number)|2]]</span> |- |011 0011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 063 || style="background:#cff;"| 51 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 33 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[3 (number)|3]]</span> |- |011 0100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 064 || style="background:#cff;"| 52 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 34 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[4 (number)|4]]</span> |- |011 0101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 065 || style="background:#cff;"| 53 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 35 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[5 (number)|5]]</span> |- |011 0110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 066 || style="background:#cff;"| 54 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 36 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[6 (number)|6]]</span> |- |011 0111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 067 || style="background:#cff;"| 55 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 37 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[7 (number)|7]]</span> |- |011 1000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 070 || style="background:#cff;"| 56 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 38 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[8 (number)|8]]</span> |- |011 1001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 071 || style="background:#cff;"| 57 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 39 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[9 (number)|9]]</span> |- |011 1010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 072 || style="background:#cff;"| 58 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 3A ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[Colon (punctuation)|:]]</span> |- |011 1011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 073 || style="background:#cff;"| 59 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 3B ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[Semicolon|;]]</span> |- |011 1100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 074 || style="background:#cff;"| 60 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 3C ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[Less-than sign|<]]</span> |- |011 1101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 075 || style="background:#cff;"| 61 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 3D ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[Equals sign|=]]</span> |- |011 1110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 076 || style="background:#cff;"| 62 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 3E ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[Greater-than sign|>]]</span> |- |011 1111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 077 || style="background:#cff;"| 63 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 3F ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[Question mark|?]]</span> |- |100 0000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 100 || style="background:#cff;"| 64 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 40 || <span class="nounderlines">[[At sign|@]]</span> || <span class="nounderlines">[[Grave accent|`]]</span> || <span class="nounderlines">[[At sign|@]]</span> |- |100 0001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 101 || style="background:#cff;"| 65 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 41 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[A]]</span> |- |100 0010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 102 || style="background:#cff;"| 66 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 42 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[B]]</span> |- |100 0011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 103 || style="background:#cff;"| 67 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 43 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[C]]</span> |- |100 0100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 104 || style="background:#cff;"| 68 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 44 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[D]]</span> |- |100 0101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 105 || style="background:#cff;"| 69 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 45 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[E]]</span> |- |100 0110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 106 || style="background:#cff;"| 70 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 46 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[F]]</span> |- |100 0111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 107 || style="background:#cff;"| 71 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 47 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[G]]</span> |- |100 1000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 110 || style="background:#cff;"| 72 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 48 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[H]]</span> |- |100 1001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 111 || style="background:#cff;"| 73 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 49 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[I]]</span> |- |100 1010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 112 || style="background:#cff;"| 74 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 4A ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[J]]</span> |- |100 1011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 113 || style="background:#cff;"| 75 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 4B ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[K]]</span> |- |100 1100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 114 || style="background:#cff;"| 76 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 4C ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[L]]</span> |- |100 1101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 115 || style="background:#cff;"| 77 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 4D ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[M]]</span> |- |100 1110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 116 || style="background:#cff;"| 78 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 4E ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[N]]</span> |- |100 1111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 117 || style="background:#cff;"| 79 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 4F ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[O]]</span> |- |101 0000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 120 || style="background:#cff;"| 80 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 50 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[P]]</span> |- |101 0001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 121 || style="background:#cff;"| 81 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 51 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[Q]]</span> |- |101 0010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 122 || style="background:#cff;"| 82 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 52 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[R]]</span> |- |101 0011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 123 || style="background:#cff;"| 83 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 53 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[S]]</span> |- |101 0100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 124 || style="background:#cff;"| 84 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 54 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[T]]</span> |- |101 0101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 125 || style="background:#cff;"| 85 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 55 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[U]]</span> |- |101 0110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 126 || style="background:#cff;"| 86 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 56 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[V]]</span> |- |101 0111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 127 || style="background:#cff;"| 87 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 57 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[W]]</span> |- |101 1000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 130 || style="background:#cff;"| 88 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 58 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[X]]</span> |- |101 1001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 131 || style="background:#cff;"| 89 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 59 ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[Y]]</span> |- |101 1010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 132 || style="background:#cff;"| 90 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 5A ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[Z]]</span> |- |101 1011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 133 || style="background:#cff;"| 91 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 5B ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[Left square bracket|<nowiki>[</nowiki>]]</span> |- |101 1100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 134 || style="background:#cff;"| 92 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 5C || <span class="nounderlines">[[Backslash|\]]</span> || <span class="nounderlines">[[Tilde|~]]</span> || <span class="nounderlines">[[Backslash|\]]</span> |- |101 1101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 135 || style="background:#cff;"| 93 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 5D ||colspan=3|<span class="nounderlines">[[Right square bracket|<nowiki>]</nowiki>]]</span> |- |101 1110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 136 || style="background:#cff;"| 94 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 5E || <span class="nounderlines">[[Up arrow (symbol)|↑]]</span> ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[Caret|^]]</span> |- |101 1111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 137 || style="background:#cff;"| 95 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 5F || <span class="nounderlines">[[Left arrow (symbol)|←]]</span> ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[Underscore|_]]</span> |- |110 0000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 140 || style="background:#cff;"| 96 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 60 || || <span class="nounderlines">[[At sign|@]]</span> || <span class="nounderlines">[[Grave accent|`]]</span> |- |110 0001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 141 || style="background:#cff;"| 97 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 61 || ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[a]]</span> |- |110 0010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 142 || style="background:#cff;"| 98 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 62 || ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[b]]</span> |- |110 0011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 143 || style="background:#cff;"| 99 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 63 || ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[c]]</span> |- |110 0100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 144 || style="background:#cff;"| 100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 64 || ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[d]]</span> |- |110 0101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 145 || style="background:#cff;"| 101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 65 || ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[e]]</span> |- |110 0110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 146 || style="background:#cff;"| 102 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 66 || ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[f]]</span> |- |110 0111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 147 || style="background:#cff;"| 103 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 67 || ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[g]]</span> |- |110 1000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 150 || style="background:#cff;"| 104 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 68 || ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[h]]</span> |- |110 1001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 151 || style="background:#cff;"| 105 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 69 || ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[i]]</span> |- |110 1010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 152 || style="background:#cff;"| 106 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 6A || ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[j]]</span> |- |110 1011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 153 || style="background:#cff;"| 107 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 6B || ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[k]]</span> |- |110 1100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 154 || style="background:#cff;"| 108 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 6C || ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[l]]</span> |- |110 1101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 155 || style="background:#cff;"| 109 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 6D || ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[m]]</span> |- |110 1110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 156 || style="background:#cff;"| 110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 6E || ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[n]]</span> |- |110 1111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 157 || style="background:#cff;"| 111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 6F || ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[o]]</span> |- |111 0000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 160 || style="background:#cff;"| 112 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 70 || ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[p]]</span> |- |111 0001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 161 || style="background:#cff;"| 113 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 71 || ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[q]]</span> |- |111 0010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 162 || style="background:#cff;"| 114 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 72 || ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[r]]</span> |- |111 0011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 163 || style="background:#cff;"| 115 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 73 || ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[s]]</span> |- |111 0100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 164 || style="background:#cff;"| 116 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 74 || ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[t]]</span> |- |111 0101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 165 || style="background:#cff;"| 117 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 75 || ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[u]]</span> |- |111 0110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 166 || style="background:#cff;"| 118 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 76 || ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[v]]</span> |- |111 0111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 167 || style="background:#cff;"| 119 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 77 || ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[w]]</span> |- |111 1000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 170 || style="background:#cff;"| 120 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 78 || ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[x]]</span> |- |111 1001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 171 || style="background:#cff;"| 121 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 79 || ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[y]]</span> |- |111 1010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 172 || style="background:#cff;"| 122 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 7A || ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[z]]</span> |- |111 1011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 173 || style="background:#cff;"| 123 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 7B || ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[Left curly bracket|{]]</span> |- |111 1100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 174 || style="background:#cff;"| 124 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 7C || [[Acknowledge character|ACK]] || <span class="nounderlines">[[Not sign|¬]]</span> || <span class="nounderlines">[[Vertical bar|<nowiki>|</nowiki>]]</span> |- |111 1101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 175 || style="background:#cff;"| 125 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 7D || ||colspan=2|<span class="nounderlines">[[Right curly bracket|}]]</span> |- |111 1110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 176 || style="background:#cff;"| 126 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 7E || [[Escape character|ESC]] || <span class="nounderlines">[[Vertical bar|<nowiki>|</nowiki>]]</span> || <span class="nounderlines">[[Tilde|~]]</span> |} ===Character set=== {{anchor|Code chart|ASCII printable code chart|ASCII printable characters}}<!-- when changing a section title that might be link-referenced from ELSEWHERE, drop in the anchor template to maintain cross-linking integrity! --> {| {{chset-tableformat}} {{chset-table-header|ASCII (1977/1986)}} |- !{{chset-left|0}} |{{chset-color-ctrl}}|{{chset-ctrl3|0000|[[Null character|NUL]]|0}} |{{chset-color-ctrl-box}}|{{chset-ctrl3|0001|[[Start of heading|SOH]]|1}} |{{chset-color-ctrl-box}}|{{chset-ctrl3|0002|[[Start of text|STX]]|2}} |{{chset-color-ctrl-box}}|{{chset-ctrl3|0003|[[End of text|ETX]]|3}} |{{chset-color-ctrl}}|{{chset-ctrl3|0004|[[End of transmission character|EOT]]|4}} |{{chset-color-ctrl-box}}|{{chset-ctrl3|0005|[[Enquiry character|ENQ]]|5}} |{{chset-color-ctrl-box}}|{{chset-ctrl3|0006|[[Acknowledge character|ACK]]|6}} |{{chset-color-ctrl}}|{{chset-ctrl3|0007|[[Bell character|BEL]]|77}} |{{chset-color-ctrl-box}}|{{chset-ctrl3|0008|[[Backspace|BS]]|8}} |{{chset-color-ctrl}}|{{chset-ctrl3|0009|[[Horizontal tabulation|HT]]|9}} |{{chset-color-ctrl}}|{{chset-ctrl3|000A|[[Line feed|LF]]|10}} |{{chset-color-ctrl}}|{{chset-ctrl3|000B|[[Vertical tabulation|VT]]|11}} |{{chset-color-ctrl}}|{{chset-ctrl3|000C|[[Form feed|FF]]|12}} |{{chset-color-ctrl}}|{{chset-ctrl3|000D|[[Carriage return|CR]]|13}} |{{chset-color-ctrl}}|{{chset-ctrl3|000E|[[Shift out|SO]]|14}} |{{chset-color-ctrl}}|{{chset-ctrl3|000F|[[Shift in|SI]]|15}} |- !{{chset-left|1}} |{{chset-color-ctrl-box}}|{{chset-ctrl3|0010|[[Data link escape|DLE]]|16}} |{{chset-color-ctrl}}|{{chset-ctrl3|0011|[[Device Control 1|DC1]]|17}} |{{chset-color-ctrl}}|{{chset-ctrl3|0012|[[Device Control 2|DC2]]|18}} |{{chset-color-ctrl}}|{{chset-ctrl3|0013|[[Device Control 3|DC3]]|19}} |{{chset-color-ctrl}}|{{chset-ctrl3|0014|[[Device Control 4|DC4]]|20}} |{{chset-color-ctrl-box}}|{{chset-ctrl3|0015|[[Negative acknowledge character|NAK]]|21}} |{{chset-color-ctrl}}|{{chset-ctrl3|0016|[[Synchronous idle|SYN]]|22}} |{{chset-color-ctrl-box}}|{{chset-ctrl3|0017|[[End of transmission block|ETB]]|23}} |{{chset-color-ctrl-box}}|{{chset-ctrl3|0018|[[Cancel character|CAN]]|24}} |{{chset-color-ctrl-box}}|{{chset-ctrl3|0019|[[End of medium|EM]]|25}} |{{chset-color-ctrl-box}}|{{chset-ctrl3|001A|[[Substitute character|SUB]]|26}} |{{chset-color-ctrl-box}}|{{chset-ctrl3|001B|[[Escape character|ESC]]|27}} |{{chset-color-ctrl-box}}|{{chset-ctrl3|001C|[[File separator|FS]]|28}} |{{chset-color-ctrl-box}}|{{chset-ctrl3|001D|[[Group separator|GS]]|29}} |{{chset-color-ctrl-box}}|{{chset-ctrl3|001E|[[Record separator|RS]]|30}} |{{chset-color-ctrl-box}}|{{chset-ctrl3|001F|[[Unit separator|US]]|31}} |- !{{chset-left|2}} |{{chset-color-punct}}|{{chset-ctrl3|0020|[[Space character|SP]]|32}} |{{chset-color-punct}}|{{chset-cell3|0021|[[Exclamation mark|!]]|33}} |{{chset-color-punct}}|{{chset-cell3|0022|[[Quotation mark|&#x22;]]|34}} |{{chset-color-punct}}|{{chset-cell3|0023|[[Number sign|#]]|35}} |{{chset-color-graph}}|{{chset-cell3|0024|[[Dollar sign|$]]|36}} |{{chset-color-punct}}|{{chset-cell3|0025|[[Percent sign|%]]|37}} |{{chset-color-punct}}|{{chset-cell3|0026|[[Ampersand|&amp;]]|38}} |{{chset-color-punct}}|{{chset-cell3|0027|[[Apostrophe|&#x27;]]|39}} |{{chset-color-punct}}|{{chset-cell3|0028|[[Left parenthesis|(]]|40}} |{{chset-color-punct}}|{{chset-cell3|0029|[[Right parenthesis|)]]|41}} |{{chset-color-punct}}|{{chset-cell3|002A|[[Asterisk|*]]|42}} |{{chset-color-graph}}|{{chset-cell3|002B|[[Plus sign|+]]|43}} |{{chset-color-punct}}|{{chset-cell3|002C|[[Comma (punctuation)|,]]|44}} |{{chset-color-punct}}|{{chset-cell3|002D|[[Hyphen-minus|-]]|45}} |{{chset-color-punct}}|{{chset-cell3|002E|[[Full stop|.]]|46}} |{{chset-color-punct}}|{{chset-cell3|002F|[[Slash (punctuation)|/]]|47}} |- !{{chset-left|3}} |{{chset-color-digit}}|{{chset-cell3|0030|[[0]]|48}} |{{chset-color-digit}}|{{chset-cell3|0031|[[1]]|49}} |{{chset-color-digit}}|{{chset-cell3|0032|[[2]]|50}} |{{chset-color-digit}}|{{chset-cell3|0033|[[3]]|51}} |{{chset-color-digit}}|{{chset-cell3|0034|[[4]]|52}} |{{chset-color-digit}}|{{chset-cell3|0035|[[5]]|53}} |{{chset-color-digit}}|{{chset-cell3|0036|[[6]]|54}} |{{chset-color-digit}}|{{chset-cell3|0037|[[7]]|55}} |{{chset-color-digit}}|{{chset-cell3|0038|[[8]]|56}} |{{chset-color-digit}}|{{chset-cell3|0039|[[9]]|57}} |{{chset-color-punct}}|{{chset-cell3|003A|[[Colon (punctuation)|:]]|58}} |{{chset-color-punct}}|{{chset-cell3|003B|[[Semicolon|;]]|59}} |{{chset-color-graph}}|{{chset-cell3|003C|[[Less-than sign|&lt;]]|60}} |{{chset-color-graph}}|{{chset-cell3|003D|[[Equal sign|=]]|61}} |{{chset-color-graph}}|{{chset-cell3|003E|[[Greater-than sign|>]]|62}} |{{chset-color-punct}}|{{chset-cell3|003F|[[Question mark|?]]|63}} |- !{{chset-left|4}} |{{chset-color-punct-box}}|{{chset-cell3|0040|[[@]]|64}} |{{chset-color-alpha}}|{{chset-cell3|0041|[[A]]|65}} |{{chset-color-alpha}}|{{chset-cell3|0042|[[B]]|66}} |{{chset-color-alpha}}|{{chset-cell3|0043|[[C]]|67}} |{{chset-color-alpha}}|{{chset-cell3|0044|[[D]]|68}} |{{chset-color-alpha}}|{{chset-cell3|0045|[[E]]|69}} |{{chset-color-alpha}}|{{chset-cell3|0046|[[F]]|70}} |{{chset-color-alpha}}|{{chset-cell3|0047|[[G]]|71}} |{{chset-color-alpha}}|{{chset-cell3|0048|[[H]]|72}} |{{chset-color-alpha}}|{{chset-cell3|0049|[[I]]|73}} |{{chset-color-alpha}}|{{chset-cell3|004A|[[J]]|74}} |{{chset-color-alpha}}|{{chset-cell3|004B|[[K]]|75}} |{{chset-color-alpha}}|{{chset-cell3|004C|[[L]]|76}} |{{chset-color-alpha}}|{{chset-cell3|004D|[[M]]|77}} |{{chset-color-alpha}}|{{chset-cell3|004E|[[N]]|78}} |{{chset-color-alpha}}|{{chset-cell3|004F|[[O]]|79}} |- !{{chset-left|5}} |{{chset-color-alpha}}|{{chset-cell3|0050|[[P]]|80}} |{{chset-color-alpha}}|{{chset-cell3|0051|[[Q]]|81}} |{{chset-color-alpha}}|{{chset-cell3|0052|[[R]]|82}} |{{chset-color-alpha}}|{{chset-cell3|0053|[[S]]|83}} |{{chset-color-alpha}}|{{chset-cell3|0054|[[T]]|84}} |{{chset-color-alpha}}|{{chset-cell3|0055|[[U]]|85}} |{{chset-color-alpha}}|{{chset-cell3|0056|[[V]]|86}} |{{chset-color-alpha}}|{{chset-cell3|0057|[[W]]|87}} |{{chset-color-alpha}}|{{chset-cell3|0058|[[X]]|88}} |{{chset-color-alpha}}|{{chset-cell3|0059|[[Y]]|89}} |{{chset-color-alpha}}|{{chset-cell3|005A|[[Z]]|90}} |{{chset-color-punct}}|{{chset-cell3|005B|[[Left square bracket|&#x5B;]]|91}} |{{chset-color-punct-box}}|{{chset-cell3|005C|[[Backslash|&#x5C;]]|92}} |{{chset-color-punct}}|{{chset-cell3|005D|[[Right square bracket|&#x5D;]]|93}} |{{chset-color-graph-box}}|{{chset-cell3|005E|[[Caret|^]]|94}} |{{chset-color-punct-box}}|{{chset-cell3|005F|[[Underscore|_]]|95}} |- !{{chset-left|6}} |{{chset-color-graph-box}}|{{chset-cell3|0060|[[Grave accent|`]]|96}} |{{chset-color-alpha-var}}|{{chset-cell3|0061|[[a]]|97}} |{{chset-color-alpha-var}}|{{chset-cell3|0062|[[b]]|98}} |{{chset-color-alpha-var}}|{{chset-cell3|0063|[[c]]|99}} |{{chset-color-alpha-var}}|{{chset-cell3|0064|[[d]]|100}} |{{chset-color-alpha-var}}|{{chset-cell3|0065|[[e]]|101}} |{{chset-color-alpha-var}}|{{chset-cell3|0066|[[f]]|102}} |{{chset-color-alpha-var}}|{{chset-cell3|0067|[[g]]|103}} |{{chset-color-alpha-var}}|{{chset-cell3|0068|[[h]]|104}} |{{chset-color-alpha-var}}|{{chset-cell3|0069|[[i]]|105}} |{{chset-color-alpha-var}}|{{chset-cell3|006A|[[j]]|106}} |{{chset-color-alpha-var}}|{{chset-cell3|006B|[[k]]|107}} |{{chset-color-alpha-var}}|{{chset-cell3|006C|[[l]]|108}} |{{chset-color-alpha-var}}|{{chset-cell3|006D|[[m]]|109}} |{{chset-color-alpha-var}}|{{chset-cell3|006E|[[n]]|110}} |{{chset-color-alpha-var}}|{{chset-cell3|006F|[[o]]|111}} |- !{{chset-left|7}} |{{chset-color-alpha-var}}|{{chset-cell3|0070|[[p]]|112}} |{{chset-color-alpha-var}}|{{chset-cell3|0071|[[q]]|113}} |{{chset-color-alpha-var}}|{{chset-cell3|0072|[[r]]|114}} |{{chset-color-alpha-var}}|{{chset-cell3|0073|[[s]]|115}} |{{chset-color-alpha-var}}|{{chset-cell3|0074|[[t]]|116}} |{{chset-color-alpha-var}}|{{chset-cell3|0075|[[u]]|117}} |{{chset-color-alpha-var}}|{{chset-cell3|0076|[[v]]|118}} |{{chset-color-alpha-var}}|{{chset-cell3|0077|[[w]]|119}} |{{chset-color-alpha-var}}|{{chset-cell3|0078|[[x]]|120}} |{{chset-color-alpha-var}}|{{chset-cell3|0079|[[y]]|121}} |{{chset-color-alpha-var}}|{{chset-cell3|007A|[[z]]|122}} |{{chset-color-punct-var}}|{{chset-cell3|007B|[[Left curly bracket|&#x7B;]]|123}} |{{chset-color-graph-box}}|{{chset-cell3|007C|[[Vertical bar|&#x7C;]]|124}} |{{chset-color-punct-var}}|{{chset-cell3|007D|[[Right curly bracket|&#x7D;]]|125}} |{{chset-color-graph-box}}|{{chset-cell3|007E|[[~]]|126}} |{{chset-color-ctrl}}|{{chset-ctrl3|007F|[[Delete character|DEL]]|127}} |} {{Chset-legend}} {{Legend-inline||border=medium solid gray|Changed from 1963 version}} ==Use== ASCII was first used commercially during 1963 as a seven-bit teleprinter code for [[American Telephone & Telegraph]]'s TWX (TeletypeWriter eXchange) network. TWX originally used the earlier five-bit [[ITA2]], which was also used by the competing [[Telex]] teleprinter system. [[Robert William Bemer|Bob Bemer]] introduced features such as the [[Escape character|escape sequence]].<ref name="Brandel_1999"/> His British colleague [[Hugh McGregor Ross]] helped to popularize this work{{snd}} according to Bemer, "so much so that the code that was to become ASCII was first called the ''Bemer-Ross Code'' in Europe".<ref>{{cite web |author-link=Robert William Bemer |author-last=Bemer |author-first=Robert William |url=http://www.trailing-edge.com/~bobbemer/EUROPE.HTM |title=Bemer meets Europe (Computer Standards) – Computer History Vignettes |publisher=Trailing-edge.com |access-date=2008-04-14 |dead-url=yes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017062722/http://www.trailing-edge.com/~bobbemer/EUROPE.HTM |archive-date=2013-10-17}} (NB. Bemer was employed at [[IBM]] at that time.)</ref> Because of his extensive work on ASCII, Bemer has been called "the father of ASCII".<ref name="thocp">{{cite web |url=http://www.thocp.net/biographies/bemer_bob.htm |title=Robert William Bemer: Biography |date=2013-03-09 |dead-url=no |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616081929/http://www.thocp.net/biographies/bemer_bob.htm |archive-date=2016-06-16}}</ref> <!-- "The endorsement of the Federal government, then the largest purchaser of computer equipment, was probably the single most important reason for the subsequent wide adoption of ASCII." – Martha M. Gray.<ref>http://csrc.nist.gov/fips/fips1861.pdf</ref> /* ?? */ --> On March 11, 1968, U.S. President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] mandated that all computers purchased by the United States federal government support ASCII, stating:<ref name="Johnson_1968">{{cite web |title=Memorandum Approving the Adoption by the Federal Government of a Standard Code for Information Interchange |author-last=Johnson |author-first=Lyndon Baines |author-link=Lyndon Baines Johnson |publisher=The American Presidency Project |date=1968-03-11 |url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=28724 |access-date=2008-04-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite newsgroup|url=https://groups.google.com/d/msg/alt.folklore.computers/gbg5YVFaT48/wlVFfJ2j4hYJ|title=Re: Early history of ASCII?|author=Richard S. Shuford|date=December 20, 1996|newsgroup=alt.folklore.computers|message-id=Pine.SUN.3.91.961220100220.13180C-100000@duncan.cs.utk.edu}}</ref><ref name="Folts_1982">{{cite book |publisher=[[McGraw-Hill Inc.]] |title=Compilation of Data Communications Standards |editor-first1=Harold C. |editor-last1=Folts |editor-first2=Harry |editor-last2=Karp |date=1982-02-01 |edition=2nd revised |isbn=0-07-021457-3 |id={{ISBN|978-0-07-021457-6}}}}</ref> <blockquote>I have also approved recommendations of the [[Secretary of Commerce]] regarding standards for recording the Standard Code for Information Interchange on magnetic tapes and paper tapes when they are used in computer operations. All computers and related equipment configurations brought into the [[Federal Government]] inventory on and after July 1, 1969, must have the capability to use the Standard Code for Information Interchange and the formats prescribed by the magnetic tape and paper tape standards when these media are used.</blockquote> ASCII was the most common character encoding on the [[World Wide Web]] until December 2007, when [[UTF-8]] encoding surpassed it; UTF-8 is backward compatible with ASCII.<ref name="Dubost_2008">{{cite web |title=UTF-8 Growth on the Web |author-last=Dubost |author-first=Karl |date=2008-05-06 |work=W3C Blog |publisher=[[World Wide Web Consortium]] |url=http://www.w3.org/QA/2008/05/utf8-web-growth.html |access-date=2010-08-15 |dead-url=no |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616084132/https://www.w3.org/blog/2008/05/utf8-web-growth/ |archive-date=2016-06-16}}</ref><ref name="UTF-8_2008">{{cite web |title=Moving to Unicode 5.1 |author-last=Davis |author-first=Mark |author-link=Mark Davis (Unicode) |date=2008-05-05 |work=Official Google Blog |publisher=[[Google]] |url=http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2008/05/moving-to-unicode-51.html |access-date=2010-08-15 |dead-url=no |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616084637/https://googleblog.blogspot.de/2008/05/moving-to-unicode-51.html |archive-date=2016-06-16}}</ref><ref name="Davis_2010">{{cite web |title=Unicode nearing 50% of the web |author-last=Davis |author-first=Mark |author-link=Mark Davis (Unicode) |date=2010-01-28 |work=Official Google Blog |publisher=[[Google]] |url=http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2010/01/unicode-nearing-50-of-web.html |access-date=2010-08-15 |dead-url=no |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616085323/https://googleblog.blogspot.de/2010/01/unicode-nearing-50-of-web.html |archive-date=2016-06-16}}</ref> =={{anchor|Variants}}Variants and derivations== As computer technology spread throughout the world, different [[Standardization|standards bodies]] and corporations developed many variations of ASCII to facilitate the expression of non-English languages that used Roman-based alphabets. One could class some of these variations as "[[ASCII extension]]s", although some misuse that term to represent all variants, including those that do not preserve ASCII's character-map in the 7-bit range. Furthermore, the ASCII extensions have also been mislabelled as ASCII. ==={{anchor|7-bit}}7-bit codes=== {{Main|ECMA-6|ISO/IEC 646|ITU T.50}}{{See also|UTF-7}} From early in its development,<ref>"Specific Criteria", attachment to memo from R. W. Reach, "X3-2 Meeting – September 14 and 15", September 18, 1961</ref> ASCII was intended to be just one of several national variants of an international character code standard. <!-- ITU-T ITU T.50 International Reference Alphabet (IRA) International Alphabet No. 5 (IA5) --> Other international standards bodies have ratified character encodings such as [[ISO 646]] (1967) that are identical or nearly identical to ASCII, with extensions for characters outside the English [[alphabet]] and symbols used outside the United States, such as the symbol for the United Kingdom's [[pound sterling]] (£). Almost every country needed an adapted version of ASCII, since ASCII suited the needs of only the US and a few other countries. For example, Canada had its own version that supported French characters. Many other countries developed variants of ASCII to include non-English letters (e.g. [[é]], [[ñ]], [[ß]], [[Ł]]), currency symbols (e.g. [[£]], [[¥]]), etc. See also [[YUSCII]] (Yugoslavia). It would share most characters in common, but assign other locally useful characters to several [[code point]]s reserved for "national use". However, the four years that elapsed between the publication of ASCII-1963 and ISO's first acceptance of an international recommendation during 1967<ref name="Maréchal_1967">{{citation |author-last=Maréchal |author-first=R. |title=ISO/TC 97 – Computers and Information Processing: Acceptance of Draft ISO Recommendation No. 1052 |date=1967-12-22}}</ref> caused ASCII's choices for the national use characters to seem to be de facto standards for the world, causing confusion and incompatibility once other countries did begin to make their own assignments to these code points. ISO/IEC 646, like ASCII, is a 7-bit character set. It does not make any additional codes available, so the same code points encoded different characters in different countries. Escape codes were defined to indicate which national variant applied to a piece of text, but they were rarely used, so it was often impossible to know what variant to work with and, therefore, which character a code represented, and in general, text-processing systems could cope with only one variant anyway. Because the bracket and brace characters of ASCII were assigned to "national use" code points that were used for accented letters in other national variants of ISO/IEC 646, a German, French, or Swedish, etc. programmer using their national variant of ISO/IEC 646, rather than ASCII, had to write, and thus read, something such as :<code>ä aÄiÜ = 'Ön'; ü</code> instead of :<code>{ a[i] = '\n'; }</code> [[C trigraph]]s were created to solve this problem for [[ANSI C]], although their late introduction and inconsistent implementation in compilers limited their use. Many programmers kept their computers on US-ASCII, so plain-text in Swedish, German etc. (for example, in e-mail or [[Usenet]]) contained "{, }" and similar variants in the middle of words, something those programmers got used to. For example, a Swedish programmer mailing another programmer asking if they should go for lunch, could get "N{ jag har sm|rg}sar" as the answer, which should be "Nä jag har smörgåsar" meaning "No I've got sandwiches". ==={{anchor|8-bit}}8-bit codes=== {{Main|Extended ASCII|ISO/IEC 8859}}{{See also|UTF-8}} <!-- to be mentioned [[USASCII-8]] --> Eventually, as 8-, [[16-bit|16-]] and [[32-bit]] (and later [[64-bit]]) computers began to replace [[12-bit|12-]], [[18-bit|18-]] and [[36-bit]] computers as the norm, it became common to use an 8-bit byte to store each character in memory, providing an opportunity for extended, 8-bit relatives of ASCII. In most cases these developed as true extensions of ASCII, leaving the original character-mapping intact, but adding additional character definitions after the first 128 (i.e., 7-bit) characters. Encodings include [[ISCII]] (India), [[VISCII]] (Vietnam). Although these encodings are sometimes referred to as ASCII, true ASCII is defined strictly only by the ANSI standard. Most early home computer systems developed their own 8-bit character sets containing line-drawing and game glyphs, and often filled in some or all of the control characters from 0 to 31 with more graphics. [[Kaypro]] [[CP/M]] computers used the "upper" 128 characters for the Greek alphabet. The [[PETSCII]] code [[Commodore International]] used for their [[8-bit]] systems is probably unique among post-1970 codes in being based on ASCII-1963, instead of the more common ASCII-1967, such as found on the [[ZX Spectrum character set|ZX Spectrum]] computer. [[ATASCII|Atari]] 8-bit computers and [[Galaksija (computer)#Character ROM|Galaksija]] computers also used ASCII variants. The IBM PC defined [[code page 437]], which replaced the control characters with graphic symbols such as [[Emoticon|smiley faces]], and mapped additional graphic characters to the upper 128 positions. Operating systems such as [[DOS]] supported these code pages, and manufacturers of [[IBM PC]]s supported them in hardware. [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] developed the [[Multinational Character Set]] (DEC-MCS) for use in the popular [[VT220]] [[computer terminal|terminal]] as one of the first extensions designed more for international languages than for block graphics. The Macintosh defined [[Mac OS Roman]] and Postscript also defined a set, both of these contained both international letters and typographic punctuation marks instead of graphics, more like modern character sets. The [[ISO/IEC 8859]] standard (derived from the DEC-MCS) finally provided a standard that most systems copied (at least as accurately as they copied ASCII, but with many substitutions). A popular further extension designed by Microsoft, [[Windows-1252]] (often mislabeled as [[ISO-8859-1]]), added the typographic punctuation marks needed for traditional text printing. ISO-8859-1, Windows-1252, and the original 7-bit ASCII were the most common character encodings until 2008 when [[UTF-8]] became more common.<ref name="UTF-8_2008"/> ISO/IEC 4873 introduced 32 additional control codes defined in the 80–9F [[hexadecimal]] range, as part of extending the 7-bit ASCII encoding to become an 8-bit system.<ref name="Unicode-5.0_2006">{{cite book |author=The Unicode Consortium |editor-first=Julie D. |editor-last=Allen |title=The Unicode standard, Version 5.0 |date=2006-10-27 |publisher=[[Addison-Wesley Professional]] |location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, US |isbn=0-321-48091-0 |chapter-url=http://unicode.org/book/ch13.pdf |access-date=2015-03-13 |chapter-format=PDF |chapter=Chapter 13: Special Areas and Format Characters |page=314}}</ref> ===Unicode=== {{Main|Unicode|ISO/IEC 10646}}{{See also|Basic Latin (Unicode block)}} [[Unicode]] and the ISO/IEC 10646 [[Universal Character Set]] (UCS) have a much wider array of characters and their various encoding forms have begun to supplant ISO/IEC 8859 and ASCII rapidly in many environments. While ASCII is limited to 128 characters, Unicode and the UCS support more characters by separating the concepts of unique identification (using [[natural number]]s called ''code points'') and encoding (to 8-, 16- or 32-bit binary formats, called [[UTF-8]], [[UTF-16]] and [[UTF-32]]). ASCII was incorporated into the Unicode (1991) character set as the first 128 symbols, so the 7-bit ASCII characters have the same numeric codes in both sets. This allows [[UTF-8]] to be [[Backward compatibility|backward compatible]] with 7-bit ASCII, as a UTF-8 file containing only ASCII characters is identical to an ASCII file containing the same sequence of characters. Even more importantly, [[forward compatibility]] is ensured as software that recognizes only 7-bit ASCII characters as special and does not alter bytes with the highest bit set (as is often done to support 8-bit ASCII extensions such as ISO-8859-1) will preserve UTF-8 data unchanged.<ref>{{cite web |title=utf-8(7)&nbsp;– Linux manual page |publisher=Man7.org |date=2014-02-26 |url=http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man7/utf-8.7.html |access-date=2014-04-21}}</ref> ==See also== {{Portal|Computing}} * [[3568 ASCII]], an asteroid named after the character encoding * [[Ascii85]] * [[ASCII art]] * [[ASCII Ribbon Campaign]] * [[Basic Latin (Unicode block)]] (ASCII as a subset of Unicode) * [[Extended ASCII]] * [[HTML decimal character rendering]] * [[List of Unicode characters]] * [[Jargon File]], a glossary of computer programmer slang which includes a list of common slang names for ASCII characters * [[List of computer character sets]] * [[Alt codes]] ==Notes== {{Notelist|40em}} ==References== {{Reflist|40em|refs= <ref name="Bemer_1980_Inside">{{cite book |title=General Purpose Software |chapter=Chapter 1: Inside ASCII |author-last=Bemer |author-first=Robert William |author-link=Robert William Bemer |date=1980 |series=Best of Interface Age |volume=2 |location=Portland, OR, USA |publisher=dilithium Press |isbn=0-918398-37-1 |lccn=79-67462 |url=http://bookzz.org/dl/1210234/1105c6 |access-date=2016-08-27 |dead-url=yes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827000956/http://dlx.bookzz.org/genesis/772000/c80a62495acf1e1a5b966de23c1f989a/_as/%5BInterface_Age_Staff%5D_Best_of_Interface_Age%2C_Volum%28BookZZ.org%29.pdf |archive-date=August 27, 2016 |pages=1–50 |postscript=,}} from: * {{cite journal |title=Inside ASCII – Part I |author-last=Bemer |author-first=Robert William |author-link=Robert William Bemer |journal=Interface Age |volume=3 |issue=5 |date=May 1978 |location=Portland, Oregon |publisher=dilithium Press |pages=96–102}} * {{cite journal |title=Inside ASCII – Part II |author-last=Bemer |author-first=Robert William |author-link=Robert William Bemer |journal=Interface Age |volume=3 |issue=6 |date=June 1978 |location=Portland, Oregon |publisher=dilithium Press |pages=64–74}} * {{cite journal |title=Inside ASCII – Part III |author-last=Bemer |author-first=Robert William |author-link=Robert William Bemer |journal=Interface Age |volume=3 |issue=7 |date=July 1978 |location=Portland, Oregon |publisher=dilithium Press |pages=80–87}}</ref> }} ==Further reading== * {{cite journal |title=A Proposal for Character Code Compatibility |author-first=Robert William |author-last=Bemer |author-link=Robert William Bemer |journal=Communications of the ACM |volume=3 |issue=2 |date=1960 |doi=10.1145/366959.366961 |pages=71–72}} * {{cite web |title=The Babel of Codes Prior to ASCII: The 1960 Survey of Coded Character Sets: The Reasons for ASCII |author-first=Robert William |author-last=Bemer |author-link=Robert William Bemer |date=2003-05-23 |url=http://www.trailing-edge.com/~bobbemer/SURVEY.HTM |access-date=2016-05-09 |dead-url=yes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017062654/http://www.trailing-edge.com/~bobbemer/SURVEY.HTM |archive-date=2013-10-17 |postscript=,}} from: ** {{cite journal |title=Survey of coded character representation |author-first=Robert William |author-last=Bemer |author-link=Robert William Bemer |journal=[[Communications of the ACM]] |volume=3 |issue=12 |pages=639–641 |date=December 1960 |doi=10.1145/367487.367493}} ** {{cite journal |title=Survey of punched card codes |author-first1=H. J. |author-last1=Smith |author-first2=F. A. |author-last2=Williams |journal=[[Communications of the ACM]] |volume=3 |issue=12 |page=642 |date=December 1960 |doi=10.1145/367487.367491}} * {{cite book |title=American National Standard Code for Information Interchange |publisher=[[American National Standards Institute]] |date=1977}} * {{cite journal |title=History and impact of computer standards |author-first1=G. S. |author-last1=Robinson |author-first2=C. |author-last2=Cargill |journal=[[Computer (magazine)|Computer]] |volume=29 |issue=10 |pages=79–85 |date=1996 |doi=10.1109/2.539725}} * {{cite web |title=On the Early Development of ASCII – The History of ASCII |editor-first=John F. |editor-last=Ptak |author-first=Ralph Elvin |author-last=Mullendore<!-- https://web.archive.org/web/20160616031928/https://www.geni.com/people/Ralph-Mullendore/6000000036811759940 --> |publisher=JF Ptak Science Books |publication-date=March 2012 |date=1964 |orig-year=1963 |url=http://longstreet.typepad.com/thesciencebookstore/2012/03/heres-the-link.html |access-date=2016-05-26 |dead-url=no |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160526181319/http://longstreet.typepad.com/thesciencebookstore/2012/03/heres-the-link.html |archive-date=2016-05-26}} ==External links== {{Commons category|ASCII}} <!-- ==========(PLEASE NOTE)============ PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. WIKIPEDIA IS NOT A COLLECTION OF LINKS NOR SHOULD IT BE USED FOR ADVERTISING. This article already contains ASCII code charts, therefore any link to such a chart does not pass [[WP:ELNO]] #1 and WILL BE DELETED. This article is not about so-called "extended ASCII", therefore any link to a page about "extended ASCII" is not relevant and WILL BE DELETED. "ASCII converters" are a dime a dozen, so choosing any one would be linkspam for that site. All such links WILL BE DELETED. Add them to the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) instead. See [[Wikipedia:External links]] & [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. ==========(PLEASE NOTE)============ --> * {{cite web |title=C0 Controls and Basic Latin – Range: 0000–007F |work=The Unicode Standard 8.0 |date=2015 |orig-year=1991 |publisher=[[Unicode, Inc.]] |url=https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0000.pdf |access-date=2016-05-26 |dead-url=no |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160526182105/http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0000.pdf |archive-date=2016-05-26}} * {{cite web |title=The Evolution of Character Codes, 1874–1968 |author-first=Eric |author-last=Fischer |url=http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.96.678 |access-date=2016-05-26}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20120213005708/http://www.transbay.net/~enf/ascii/ascii.pdf] {{Character encodings|state=collapsed}} [[Category:ASCII| ]] [[Category:Computer-related introductions in 1963]] [[Category:Character sets]] [[Category:Latin-script representations]] [[Category:Presentation layer protocols]] 16980ewt1kfq7hg5xf14ns0r0sc1m1s 0 589 783824643 290580331 2017-06-04T22:06:19Z Tom.Reding 9784415 +{{R category shell}} using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]] {{Redirect category shell|1= {{R from other capitalisation}} }} npxg2ykm98z1qgxcx3pek4zrnxiat0h 0 590 842727923 841549643 2018-05-24T08:36:07Z Crouch, Swale 11009441 per [[MOS:DABPRIMARY]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{wiktionary|Austin}} '''[[Austin]]''' is the capital of Texas in the United States. '''Austin''' may also refer to: {{TOC right}} ==People names == * [[Austin (name)]] - a short form of Augustin, or Augustine ** [[Augustin (disambiguation)]] ** [[Augustine (disambiguation)]] ** [[August (disambiguation)]] ==Geographical locations== ===Australia=== * [[Austin, Western Australia]] ===Canada=== * [[Austin, Manitoba]] * [[Austin, Ontario]] * [[Austin, Quebec]] * [[Austin Island]], Nunavut ===France=== * Saint-Austin, hamlet at [[la Neuville-Chant-d'Oisel]], Normandy ===United States of America=== * [[Austin, Arkansas]] * [[Austin, Colorado]] * Austin, Illinois: ** [[Austin Township, Macon County, Illinois]] ** [[Austin, Chicago]], Cook County, Illinois * [[Austin, Indiana]] * [[Austin, Kentucky]] * [[Austin, Minnesota]] * [[Austin, Missouri]] * [[Austin, Nevada]] * [[Austin, Ohio]] * [[Austin, Oregon]] * [[Austin County, Texas]] (note that the city of Austin, Texas is located in Travis County) ==Schools== * [[Austin College]], Sherman, Texas * [[University of Texas at Austin]], flagship institution of the University of Texas System * [[Austin Peay State University]], Clarksville, Tennessee ==Religion== * [[Augustine of Hippo]] or [[Augustine of Canterbury]] * An adjective for the [[Augustinians]] ==Business== * [[Austin Automobile Company]], short-lived American automobile company * [[Austin (brand)]], a brand owned by the Kellogg Company * [[Austin Motor Company]], British car manufacturer * [[American Austin Car Company]], short-lived American automobile maker ==Entertainment== * [[Austin (song)|"Austin" (song)]], a single by Blake Shelton * Austin, a kangaroo [[Beanie Baby]] produced by Ty, Inc. * Austin the kangaroo from the children's television series ''[[The Backyardigans]]'' * [[Austin Moon]], titular character in the television show ''Austin & Ally'' ==Other uses== * [[USS Austin|USS ''Austin'']], three ships * [[Austin station (disambiguation)]], various public transportation stations * [[Austin (building)|''Austin'' (building)]], a building designed by artist Ellsworth Kelly under construction in Austin, Texas * [[Austin Allegro]], a small family car that was manufactured by the Austin-Morris division of British Leyland from 1973 until 1982 ==See also== * [[Austen (disambiguation)]] * [[Augustine (disambiguation)]] * [[Special:Prefixindex/Austin|All pages beginning with Austin]] * [[Justice Austin (disambiguation)]] {{disambiguation|geo}} 3cwpmttg8vv269r6u8bhbqpwbpxpdee 0 593 861081340 861081235 2018-09-24T23:52:27Z Shellwood 2366721 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/2601:281:CB80:1210:80FA:F597:5E70:8E26|2601:281:CB80:1210:80FA:F597:5E70:8E26]] ([[User talk:2601:281:CB80:1210:80FA:F597:5E70:8E26|talk]]) ([[WP:HG|HG]]) (3.4.4) wikitext text/x-wiki {{other uses}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{multiple image |align=Right |direction=vertical | width = 150 | image1 = Animexample3edit.png | width1 = 150 | caption1 = The [[bouncing ball]] animation (below) consists of these six frames. | image2 = Animexample.gif | width2 = 82 | caption2 = This animation moves at 10 frames per second. | footer_align = center | height1 = 160 | height2 = 82 }} '''Animation''' is a dynamic medium in which images or objects are manipulated to appear as moving images. In [[traditional animation]], images are drawn or painted by hand on transparent [[cel|celluloid sheets]] to be photographed and exhibited on [[film]]. Today most animations are made with [[computer-generated imagery]] (CGI). [[Computer animation]] can be very detailed [[3D computer graphics|3D animation]], while [[2D computer graphics|2D computer animation]] can be used for stylistic reasons, low bandwidth or faster real-time renderings. Other common animation methods apply a [[stop motion]] technique to two and three-dimensional objects like [[cutout animation|paper cutouts]], [[puppet]]s or [[Clay animation|clay figures]]. The stop motion technique where live actors are used as a frame-by-frame subject is known as [[pixilation]]. Commonly the effect of animation is achieved by a rapid succession of sequential images that minimally differ from each other. The illusion&mdash;as in motion pictures in general&mdash;is thought to rely on the [[phi phenomenon]] and [[beta movement]], but the exact causes are still uncertain. [[Analog device|Analog]] mechanical animation media that rely on the rapid display of sequential images include the [[phenakistiscope|phénakisticope]], [[zoetrope]], [[flip book]], [[praxinoscope]] and film. [[Television]] and [[video]] are popular electronic animation media that originally were [[analog device|analog]] and now operate [[digital media|digitally]]. For display on the computer, techniques like [[animated GIF]] and [[Flash animation]] were developed. Apart from [[short films]], [[feature films]], animated gifs and other media dedicated to the display moving images, animation is also heavily used for [[video game]]s, [[motion graphics]] and [[special effect]]s. The physical movement of image parts through simple mechanics in for instance the moving images in [[magic lantern]] shows can also be considered animation. Mechanical animation of actual robotic devices is known as [[animatronics]]. [[Animator]]s are artists who specialize in creating animation.It can include from 2D games and movies(Anime) to 3D games {{TOC limit|3}} ==Etymology== The word "animation" stems from the Latin "animationem" (nominative "animatio"), noun of action from past participle stem of "animare", meaning "the action of imparting life". The primary meaning of the English word is "liveliness" and has been in use much longer than the meaning of "moving image medium".<ref>http://www.dictionary.com/browse/animation</ref> == History == {{Main|History of animation}} [[File:Phenakistoscope 3g07690u.jpg|thumb|right|A [[phenakistoscope]] disc by [[Eadweard Muybridge]] (1893)]] The history of animation started long before the development of [[cinematography]]. Humans have probably attempted to depict motion as far back as the [[paleolithic]] period. [[Shadow play]] and the [[magic lantern]] offered popular shows with moving images as the result of manipulation by hand and/or some minor mechanics. A 5,200-year old pottery bowl discovered in [[Shahr-e Sukhteh]], [[Iran]], has five sequential images painted around it that seem to show phases of a goat leaping up to nip at a tree.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thevisuallinguist.com/2006/02/burnt-city-animation-vl.html|title=The Visual Linguist: Burnt City animation VL|date=February 15, 2006|publisher=The Visual Linguist|last=Cohn|first=Neil}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.animationmagazine.net/article/8045|title=Oldest Animation Discovered In Iran|publisher=''Animation Magazine''|date=March 12, 2008|last=Ball|first=Ryan|ref=harv}}</ref> In 1833, the [[phenakistiscope]] introduced the [[stroboscope|stroboscopic]] principle of modern animation, which would also provide the basis for the [[zoetrope]] (1866), the [[flip book]] (1868), the [[praxinoscope]] (1877) and cinematography. [[File:Lanature1882 praxinoscope projection reynaud.png|thumb|left|A projecting [[praxinoscope]], 1882, here shown superimposing an animated figure on a separately projected background scene]] [[Charles-Émile Reynaud]] further developed his projection praxinoscope into the [[Théâtre Optique]] with transparent hand-painted colorful pictures in a long perforated strip wound between two spools, patented in December 1888. From 28 October 1892 to March 1900 Reynaud gave over 12,800 shows to a total of over 500.000 visitors at the [[Musée Grévin]] in Paris. His ''Pantomimes Lumineuses'' series of animated films each contained 300 to 700 frames that were manipulated back and forth to last 10 to 15 minutes per film. Piano music, song and some dialogue were performed live, while some sound effects were synchronized with an electromagnet. When film became a common medium some manufacturers of optical toys adapted small magic lanterns into toy film projectors for short loops of film. By 1902, they were producing many [[chromolithography]] film loops, usually by tracing live-action film footage (much like the later [[rotoscoping]] technique). Some early filmmakers, including [[J. Stuart Blackton]], [[Arthur Melbourne-Cooper]], [[Segundo de Chomón]] and [[Edwin S. Porter]] experimented with stop-motion animation, possibly since around 1899. Blackton's ''The Haunted Hotel'' (1907) was the first huge success that baffled audiences with objects apparently moving by themselves and inspired other filmmakers to try the technique for themselves. J. Stuart Blackton also experimented with animation drawn on blackboards and some [[cutout animation]] in ''[[Humorous Phases of Funny Faces]]'' (1906). [[File:Fantasmagorie (Cohl).GIF|thumb|The oldest known animated film created by using what became known as [[traditional animation|traditional (hand-drawn) animation]]—the 1908 ''[[Fantasmagorie (1908 film)|Fantasmagorie]]'' by [[Émile Cohl]]]] In 1908, [[Émile Cohl]]'s ''[[Fantasmagorie (1908 film)|Fantasmagorie]]'' was released with a white-on-black chalkline look created with [[Negative (photography)|negative prints]] from black ink drawings on white paper.{{sfn|Crafton|1993|pp=60–61}} The film largely consists of a [[stick figure]] moving about and encountering all kinds of [[morphing]] objects, including a wine bottle that transforms into a flower.<ref name="Harryhausen_Dalton42"/> Inspired by Émile Cohl's stop-motion film ''Les allumettes animées [Animated Matches]'' (1908), [[Ladislas Starevich]] started making his influential puppet animations in 1910. [[Winsor McCay]]'s ''[[Little Nemo (1911 film)|Little Nemo]]'' (1911) showcased very detailed drawings. His ''[[Gertie the Dinosaur]]'' (1914) was an also an early example of character development in drawn animation.{{sfn|Canemaker|2005|p=171}} [[File:Charlie in Turkey Pat Sullivan Keen Cartoon Corporation 1916 685703 FLM11263.ogv|thumb|''Charlie in Turkey'' (1916), an animated film by [[Pat Sullivan (film producer)|Pat Sullivan]] for [[Keen Cartoon Corporation]].]] During the 1910s, the production of animated short films typically referred to as "[[animated cartoon|cartoons]]", became an industry of its own and cartoon shorts were produced for showing in movie theaters.{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=28}} The most successful producer at the time was [[John Randolph Bray]], who, along with animator [[Earl Hurd]], patented the [[cel animation]] process that dominated the animation industry for the rest of the decade.{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=24}}{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=34}} [[File:Quirino Cristiani con una figura.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Italian-Argentine cartoonist [[Quirino Cristiani]] showing the cut and articulated figure of his satirical character ''El Peludo'' (based on President [[Hipólito Yrigoyen|Yrigoyen]]) patented in 1916 for the realization of his movies, including the world's first animated feature film ''[[El Apóstol]]''.{{sfn|Bendazzi|1994|p=49}}]] ''[[El Apóstol]]'' (Spanish: "The Apostle") was a 1917 Argentine animated film utilizing cutout animation, and the world's first animated feature film.{{sfn|Finkielman|2004}}{{sfn|Crafton|1993|p=378}} Unfortunately, a fire that destroyed producer Federico Valle's film studio incinerated the only known copy of ''El Apóstol'', and it is now considered a [[lost film]].{{sfn|Beckerman|2003|p=25}}{{sfn|Bendazzi|1996}} The earliest extant feature-length animated film is [[The Adventures of Prince Achmed]] (1926) made by director [[Lotte Reiniger]] and her collaborators [[Carl Koch (director)|Carl Koch]] and [[Berthold Bartosch]]. In 1932, the first short animated film created entirely with [[Technicolor]] (using red/green/blue photographic filters and three strips of film) was [[Walt Disney]]'s ''[[Flowers and Trees]]'', directed by [[Burt Gillett]]. But, the first feature film that was done with this technique, apart from the movie The Vanities Fair (1935), by Rouben Mamoulian, was "[[Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)|Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs]]", also by Walt Disney.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.esquire.com/es/actualidad/cine/a10335017/primera-pelicula-color/|title=¿Cuál fue la primera película en color?|date=2017-08-02|work=Esquire|access-date=2017-12-07|language=es-ES}}</ref> In 1958, [[Hanna-Barbera]] released ''[[The Huckleberry Hound Show]]'', the first half hour television program to feature only in animation.{{sfn|Bendazzi|1994|pp=234–235}} [[Terrytoons]] released ''[[Tom Terrific]]'' that same year.{{sfn|Beckerman|2003|p=61}}{{sfn|Solomon|1989|pp=239–240}} Television significantly decreased public attention to the animated shorts being shown in theaters.{{sfn|Bendazzi|1994|pp=234–235}} [[Computer animation]] has become popular since ''[[Toy Story]]'' (1995), the first feature-length animated film completely made using this technique.{{sfn|Masson|2007|p=432}} In 2008, the animation market was worth US$68.4 billion.{{sfn|Board of Investments|2009}} Animation as an art and industry continues to thrive as of the mid-2010s because well-made animated projects can find audiences across borders and in all [[Four-quadrant movie|four quadrants]]. Animated feature-length films returned the highest [[gross margin]]s (around 52%) of all [[film genre]]s in the 2004–2013 timeframe.{{sfn|McDuling|2014}} == Techniques == === Traditional animation === {{Main|Traditional animation}} [[File:Animhorse.gif|thumb|An example of traditional animation, a horse animated by [[rotoscoping]] from [[Eadweard Muybridge]]'s 19th-century photos]] '''Traditional animation''' (also called cel animation or hand-drawn animation) was the process used for most animated films of the 20th century.{{sfn|White|2006|p=31}} The individual frames of a traditionally animated film are photographs of drawings, first drawn on paper.{{sfn|Beckerman|2003|p=153}} To create the illusion of movement, each drawing differs slightly from the one before it. The animators' drawings are traced or photocopied onto transparent acetate sheets called [[cel]]s,{{sfn|Thomas|Johnston|1981|pp=277–279}} which are filled in with paints in assigned colors or tones on the side opposite the line drawings.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|p=203}} The completed character cels are photographed one-by-one against a painted background by a [[rostrum camera]] onto motion picture film.{{sfn|White|2006|pp=195–201}} The traditional cel animation process became obsolete by the beginning of the 21st century. Today, animators' drawings and the backgrounds are either scanned into or drawn directly into a computer system.{{sfn|Buchan|2013}}{{sfn|White|2006|p=394}} Various software programs are used to color the drawings and simulate camera movement and effects.{{sfn|Culhane|1990|p=296}} The final animated piece is output to one of several delivery media, including traditional [[35&nbsp;mm film]] and newer media with [[digital video]].{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=35–36, 52–53}}{{sfn|Buchan|2013}} The "look" of traditional cel animation is still preserved, and the [[character animator]]s' work has remained essentially the same over the past 70 years.{{sfn|Williams|2001|pp=52–57}} Some animation producers have used the term "tradigital" (a play on the words "traditional" and "digital") to describe cel animation that uses significant computer technology. Examples of traditionally animated feature films include ''[[Pinocchio (1940 film)|Pinocchio]]'' (United States, 1940),{{sfn|Solomon|1989|pp=63–65}} ''[[Animal Farm (1954 film)|Animal Farm]]'' (United Kingdom, 1954), ''[[Lucky and Zorba]]'' (Italy, 1998), and ''[[The Illusionist (2010 film)|The Illusionist]]'' (British-French, 2010). Traditionally animated films produced with the aid of computer technology include ''[[The Lion King]]'' (US, 1994), ''[[The Prince of Egypt]]'' (US, 1998), ''[[Akira (1988 film)|Akira]]'' (Japan, 1988),{{sfn|Beckerman|2003|p=80}} ''[[Spirited Away]]'' (Japan, 2001), ''[[The Triplets of Belleville]]'' (France, 2003), and ''[[The Secret of Kells]]'' (Irish-French-Belgian, 2009). ==== Full animation ==== '''Full animation''' refers to the process of producing high-quality traditionally animated films that regularly use detailed drawings and plausible movement,{{sfn|Culhane|1990|p=71}} having a smooth animation.{{sfn|Culhane|1990|pp=194–195}} Fully animated films can be made in a variety of styles, from more realistically animated works like those produced by the [[Walt Disney Animation Studios|Walt Disney studio]] (''[[The Little Mermaid (1989 film)|The Little Mermaid]]'', ''[[Beauty and the Beast (1991 film)|Beauty and the Beast]]'', ''[[Aladdin (1992 Disney film)|Aladdin]]'', ''[[The Lion King]]'') to the more 'cartoon' styles of the [[Warner Bros. Cartoons|Warner Bros. animation studio]]. Many of the [[Disney animated features]] are examples of full animation, as are non-Disney works, ''[[The Secret of NIMH]]'' (US, 1982), ''[[The Iron Giant]]'' (US, 1999), and ''[[Nocturna (Film)|Nocturna]]'' (Spain, 2007). Fully animated films are animated at 24 frames per second, with a combination of animation on ones and twos, meaning that drawings can be held for one frame out of 24 or two frames out of 24.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=25–26}} ==== Limited animation ==== {{Main|Limited animation}} '''[[Limited animation]]''' involves the use of less detailed or more stylized drawings and methods of movement usually a choppy or "skippy" movement animation.{{sfn|Beckerman|2003|p=142}} Limited animation uses fewer drawings per second, thereby limiting the fluidity of the animation. This is a more economic technique. Pioneered by the artists at the American studio [[United Productions of America]],{{sfn|Beckerman|2003|pp=54–55}} limited animation can be used as a method of stylized artistic expression, as in ''[[Gerald McBoing-Boing]]'' (US, 1951), ''[[Yellow Submarine (1968 film)|Yellow Submarine]]'' (UK, 1968), and certain [[anime]] produced in Japan.{{sfn|Ledoux|1997|p=24, 29}} Its primary use, however, has been in producing cost-effective animated content for media for television (the work of [[Hanna-Barbera]],{{sfn|Lawson|Persons|2004|p=82}} [[Filmation]],{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=241}} and other TV animation studios{{sfn|Lawson|Persons|2004|p=xxi}}) and later [[the Internet]] ([[web cartoon]]s). ==== Rotoscoping ==== {{Main|Rotoscoping}} '''[[Rotoscoping]]''' is a technique patented by [[Max Fleischer]] in 1917 where animators trace live-action movement, frame by frame.{{sfn|Crafton|1993|p=158}} The source film can be directly copied from actors' outlines into animated drawings,{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=163–164}} as in ''[[The Lord of the Rings (1978 film)|The Lord of the Rings]]'' (US, 1978), or used in a stylized and expressive manner, as in ''[[Waking Life]]'' (US, 2001) and ''[[A Scanner Darkly (film)|A Scanner Darkly]]'' (US, 2006). Some other examples are ''[[Fire and Ice (1983 film)|Fire and Ice]]'' (US, 1983), ''[[Heavy Metal (film)|Heavy Metal]]'' (1981), and ''[[The Flowers of Evil (manga)|Aku no Hana]]'' (2013). ==== Live-action/animation ==== {{Main|Films with live action and animation}} '''[[Films with live action and animation|Live-action/animation]]''' is a technique combining hand-drawn characters into live action shots or live action actors into animated shots.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=162–163}} One of the earlier uses was in [[Koko the Clown]] when Koko was drawn over live action footage.{{sfn|Beck|2004|pp=18–19}} Other examples include ''[[Allegro Non Troppo]]'' (Italy, 1976), ''[[Who Framed Roger Rabbit]]'' (US, 1988), ''[[Space Jam]]'' (US, 1996) and ''[[Osmosis Jones]]'' (US, 2001). === Stop motion animation === {{Main|Stop motion}} '''Stop-motion animation''' is used to describe animation created by physically manipulating real-world objects and photographing them one frame of film at a time to create the illusion of movement.{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=299}} There are many different types of stop-motion animation, usually named after the medium used to create the animation.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|p=159}} Computer software is widely available to create this type of animation; traditional stop motion animation is usually less expensive but more time-consuming to produce than current computer animation.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|p=159}} * '''[[Puppet animation]]''' typically involves stop-motion puppet figures interacting in a constructed environment, in contrast to real-world interaction in model animation.{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=171}} The puppets generally have an [[armature (sculpture)|armature]] inside of them to keep them still and steady to constrain their motion to particular joints.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=155–156}} Examples include ''[[The Tale of the Fox]]'' (France, 1937), ''[[The Nightmare Before Christmas]]'' (US, 1993), ''[[Corpse Bride]]'' (US, 2005), ''[[Coraline (film)|Coraline]]'' (US, 2009), the films of [[Jiří Trnka]] and the adult animated sketch-comedy television series ''[[Robot Chicken]]'' (US, 2005–present). ** '''[[Puppetoon]]''', created using techniques developed by [[George Pal]],{{sfn|Beck|2004|p=70}} are puppet-animated films that typically use a different version of a puppet for different frames, rather than simply manipulating one existing puppet.{{sfn|Beck|2004|pp=92–93}} [[File:Claychick.jpg|thumb|A clay animation scene from a [[Finland|Finnish]] television commercial]] * '''[[Clay animation]]''', or [[Plasticine]] animation (often called ''claymation'', which, however, is a [[Laika (company)|trademark]]ed name), uses figures made of clay or a similar malleable material to create stop-motion animation.{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=299}}{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=150-151}} The figures may have an [[armature (sculpture)|armature]] or wire frame inside, similar to the related puppet animation (below), that can be manipulated to pose the figures.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=151–154}} Alternatively, the figures may be made entirely of clay, in the films of [[Bruce Bickford (animator)|Bruce Bickford]], where clay creatures morph into a variety of different shapes. Examples of clay-animated works include ''[[Gumby|The Gumby Show]]'' (US, 1957–1967), ''[[Mio Mao]]'' (Italy, 1974-2005), ''[[Morph (animation)|Morph]]'' shorts (UK, 1977–2000), ''[[Wallace and Gromit]]'' shorts (UK, as of 1989), [[Jan Švankmajer]]'s ''[[Dimensions of Dialogue]]'' ([[Czechoslovakia]], 1982), ''[[The Trap Door]]'' (UK, 1984). Films include ''[[Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit]]'', ''[[Chicken Run]]'' and ''[[The Adventures of Mark Twain (1985 film)|The Adventures of Mark Twain]]''.{{sfn|Beck|2004|p=250}} ** '''[[Strata-cut animation]]''', Strata-cut animation is most commonly a form of clay animation in which a long bread-like "loaf" of clay, internally packed tight and loaded with varying imagery, is sliced into thin sheets, with the animation camera taking a frame of the end of the loaf for each cut, eventually revealing the movement of the internal images within.{{sfn|Furniss|1998|pp=52–54}} * '''[[Cutout animation]]''' is a type of stop-motion animation produced by moving two-dimensional pieces of material paper or cloth.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=59–60}} Examples include [[Terry Gilliam]]'s animated sequences from ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]'' (UK, 1969–1974); ''[[Fantastic Planet]]'' (France/Czechoslovakia, 1973) ; ''[[Tale of Tales (1979 film)|Tale of Tales]]'' (Russia, 1979), The pilot episode of the adult television sitcom series (and sometimes in episodes) of ''[[South Park]]'' (US, 1997) and the music video [[Live for the moment]], from Verona Riots band (produced by Alberto Serrano and Nívola Uyá, Spain 2014). ** '''[[Silhouette animation]]''' is a variant of cutout animation in which the characters are backlit and only visible as silhouettes.{{sfn|Culhane|1990|pp=170–171}} Examples include ''[[The Adventures of Prince Achmed]]'' ([[Weimar Republic]], 1926) and ''[[Ciné si|Princes et princesses]]'' (France, 2000). * '''[[Model animation]]''' refers to stop-motion animation created to interact with and exist as a part of a live-action world.{{sfn|Harryhausen|Dalton|2008|pages=9–11}} Intercutting, [[matte (filmmaking)|matte]] effects and split screens are often employed to blend stop-motion characters or objects with live actors and settings.<ref name="Harryhausen_Dalton222–226"/> Examples include the work of [[Ray Harryhausen]], as seen in films, ''[[Jason and the Argonauts (1963 film)|Jason and the Argonauts]]'' (1963),<ref name="Harryhausen_Dalton18"/> and the work of [[Willis H. O'Brien]] on films, ''[[King Kong (1933 film)|King Kong]]'' (1933). ** '''[[Go motion]]''' is a variant of model animation that uses various techniques to create [[motion blur]] between frames of film, which is not present in traditional stop-motion.{{sfn|Smith|1986|p=90}} The technique was invented by [[Industrial Light & Magic]] and [[Phil Tippett]] to create [[special effect]] scenes for the film ''[[The Empire Strikes Back]]'' (1980).{{sfn|Watercutter|2012}} Another example is the dragon named "Vermithrax" from ''[[Dragonslayer (1981 film)|Dragonslayer]]'' (1981 film).{{sfn|Smith|1986|pages=91–95}} * '''[[Object animation]]''' refers to the use of regular inanimate objects in stop-motion animation, as opposed to specially created items.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=51–57}} ** '''[[Graphic animation]]''' uses non-drawn flat visual graphic material (photographs, newspaper clippings, magazines, etc.), which are sometimes manipulated frame-by-frame to create movement.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|p=128}} At other times, the graphics remain stationary, while the stop-motion camera is moved to create on-screen action. ** '''[[Brickfilm]]''' are a subgenre of object animation involving using [[Lego]] or other similar brick toys to make an animation.{{sfn|Paul|2005|pages=357–363}}{{sfn|Herman|2014}} These have had a recent boost in popularity with the advent of video sharing sites, [[YouTube]] and the availability of cheap cameras and animation software.{{sfn|Haglund|2014}} * '''[[Pixilation]]''' involves the use of live humans as stop motion characters.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=75–79}} This allows for a number of surreal effects, including disappearances and reappearances, allowing people to appear to slide across the ground, and other effects.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=75–79}} Examples of pixilation include ''[[The Secret Adventures of Tom Thumb]]'' and ''[[Angry Kid]]'' shorts, and the [[academy award]]-winning ''[[Neighbours (1952 film)|Neighbours]]'' by [[Norman McLaren]]. === Computer animation === {{Main|Computer animation}} '''Computer animation''' encompasses a variety of techniques, the unifying factor being that the animation is created digitally on a computer.{{sfn|Culhane|1990|p=296}}{{sfn|Serenko|2007}} 2D animation techniques tend to focus on image manipulation while 3D techniques usually build virtual worlds in which characters and objects move and interact.{{sfn|Masson|2007|p=405}} 3D animation can create images that seem real to the viewer.{{sfn|Serenko|2007|p=482}} ==== 2D animation ==== {{main|2D computer graphics}} [[File:Catenary animation.gif|thumb|A 2D animation of two circles joined by a chain]] [[2D computer graphics|2D animation]] figures are created or edited on the computer using 2D [[Raster graphics|bitmap graphics]] and 2D [[vector graphics]].{{sfn|Masson|2007|p=165}} This includes automated computerized versions of traditional animation techniques, [[Interpolation|interpolated]] [[morphing]],{{sfn|Sito|2013|pp=32, 70, 132}} [[onion skinning]]{{sfn|Priebe|2006|pp=71–72}} and interpolated rotoscoping. 2D animation has many applications, including [[Scanimate|analog computer animation]], [[Flash animation]], and [[PowerPoint animation]]. [[Cinemagraph]]s are [[still photograph]]s in the form of an [[animated GIF]] file of which part is animated.{{sfn|White|2006|p=392}} Final line advection animation is a technique used in 2D animation,{{sfn|Lowe|Schnotz|2008|pp=246–247}} to give artists and animators more influence and control over the final product as everything is done within the same department.{{sfn|Masson|2007|pp=127–128}} Speaking about using this approach in ''[[Paperman]]'', John Kahrs said that "Our animators can change things, actually erase away the CG underlayer if they want, and change the profile of the arm."{{sfn|Beck|2012}} ==== 3D animation ==== {{Main|Computer animation|3D computer graphics}} 3D animation is digitally modeled and manipulated by an animator. The animator usually starts by creating a 3D [[polygon mesh]] to manipulate.{{sfn|Masson|2007|p=88}} A mesh typically includes many vertices that are connected by edges and faces, which give the visual appearance of form to a 3D object or 3D environment.{{sfn|Masson|2007|p=88}} Sometimes, the mesh is given an internal digital skeletal structure called an [[Armature (computer animation)|armature]] that can be used to control the mesh by weighting the vertices.{{sfn|Sito|2013|p=208}}{{sfn|Masson|2007|pp=78–80}} This process is called rigging and can be used in conjunction with keyframes to create movement.{{sfn|Sito|2013|p=285}} Other techniques can be applied, mathematical functions (e.g., gravity, particle simulations), simulated fur or hair, and effects, fire and water simulations.{{sfn|Masson|2007|p=96}} These techniques fall under the category of 3D dynamics.{{sfn|Lowe|Schnotz|2008|p=92}} ===== 3D terms ===== * '''[[Cel-shaded animation]]''' is used to mimic traditional animation using computer software.<ref>{{cite web|title=Cel Shading: the Unsung Hero of Animation?|url=http://www.animatormag.com/computer/cel-shading-hero-animation/|publisher=Animator Mag|accessdate=20 February 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305090445/http://www.animatormag.com/computer/cel-shading-hero-animation/|archivedate=5 March 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Shading looks stark, with less blending of colors. Examples include ''[[Skyland]]'' (2007, France), ''[[The Iron Giant]]'' (1999, United States), ''[[Futurama]]'' (Fox, 1999) ''[[Appleseed Ex Machina]]'' (2007, Japan), ''[[The Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker]]'' (2002, Japan), ''[[The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild]]'' (2017, Japan) * '''[[Machinima]]''' – Films created by screen capturing in video games and virtual worlds. The term originated from the software introduction in the 1980s [[demoscene]], as well as the 1990s recordings of the [[first-person shooter]] video game ''[[Quake (video game)|Quake]]''. * '''[[Motion capture]]''' is used when live-action actors wear special suits that allow computers to copy their movements into CG characters.{{sfn|Sito|2013|pp=207–208}}{{sfn|Masson|2007|p=204}} Examples include ''[[The Polar Express (film)|Polar Express]]'' (2004, US), ''[[Beowulf (2007 film)|Beowulf]]'' (2007, US), ''[[A Christmas Carol (2009 film)|A Christmas Carol]]'' (2009, US), ''[[The Adventures of Tintin (film)|The Adventures of Tintin]]'' (2011, US) ''[[Kochadaiiyaan|kochadiiyan]]'' (2014, India) * '''[[Computer animation|Photo-realistic animation]]''' is used primarily for animation that attempts to resemble real life, using advanced rendering that mimics in detail skin, plants, water, fire, clouds, etc.{{sfn|Parent|2007|p=19}} Examples include ''[[Up (2009 film)|Up]]'' (2009, US), ''[[How to Train Your Dragon (film)|How to Train Your Dragon]]'' (2010, US) === Mechanical animation === * '''[[Animatronics]]''' is the use of [[mechatronics]] to create machines that seem animate rather than robotic. ** '''[[Audio-Animatronics|Audio-Animatronics and Autonomatronics]]''' is a form of [[robotics]] animation, combined with 3-D animation, created by [[Walt Disney Imagineering]] for shows and attractions at Disney theme parks move and make noise (generally a recorded speech or song).{{sfn|Pilling|1997|p=249}} They are fixed to whatever supports them. They can sit and stand, and they cannot walk. An Audio-Animatron is different from an [[android (robot)|android]]-type robot in that it uses prerecorded movements and sounds, rather than responding to external stimuli. In 2009, Disney created an interactive version of the technology called Autonomatronics.{{sfn|O'Keefe|2014}} ** '''Linear Animation Generator''' is a form of animation by using static picture frames installed in a tunnel or a shaft. The animation illusion is created by putting the viewer in a linear motion, parallel to the installed picture frames.{{sfn|Parent|2007|pages=22–23}} The concept and the technical solution were invented in 2007 by Mihai Girlovan in Romania. * '''[[Chuckimation]]''' is a type of animation created by the makers of the television series ''[[Action League Now!]]'' in which characters/props are thrown, or chucked from off camera or wiggled around to simulate talking by unseen hands.{{sfn|Kenyon|1998}} * The '''[[Magic lantern#Moving images|magic lantern]]''' used mechanical slides to project moving images, probably since Christiaan Huygens invented this early image projector in 1659. === Other animation styles, techniques, and approaches === [[File:World of Color overview.jpg|thumb|''[[World of Color]]'' hydrotechnics at [[Disney California Adventure]] creates illusion of motion using 1200 fountains with high-definition projections on mist screens.]] * '''Hydrotechnics''': a technique that includes lights, water, fire, fog, and lasers, with high-definition projections on mist screens. * '''[[Drawn on film animation]]''': a technique where footage is produced by creating the images directly on [[film stock]], for example by [[Norman McLaren]],{{sfn|Faber|Walters|2004|p=1979}} [[Len Lye]] and [[Stan Brakhage]]. * '''[[Paint-on-glass animation]]''': a technique for making animated films by manipulating slow drying [[oil paint]]s on sheets of glass,{{sfn|Pilling|1997|p=222}} for example by [[Aleksandr Petrov (animator)|Aleksandr Petrov]]. * '''Erasure animation''': a technique using traditional 2D media, photographed over time as the artist manipulates the image. For example, [[William Kentridge]] is famous for his [[charcoal]] erasure films,{{sfn|Carbone|2010}} and [[Piotr Dumała]] for his auteur technique of animating scratches on plaster. * '''[[Pinscreen animation]]''': makes use of a screen filled with movable pins that can be moved in or out by pressing an object onto the screen.{{sfn|Neupert|2011}} The screen is lit from the side so that the pins cast shadows. The technique has been used to create animated films with a range of textural effects difficult to achieve with traditional cel animation.{{sfn|Pilling|1997|p=204}} * '''[[Sand animation]]''': sand is moved around on a back- or front-lighted piece of glass to create each frame for an animated film.{{sfn|Brown|2003|p=7}} This creates an interesting effect when animated because of the [[light]] [[Contrast (vision)|contrast]].{{sfn|Furniss|1998|pp=30–33}} * '''[[Flip book]]''': a flip book (sometimes, especially in British English, called a flick book) is a book with a series of pictures that vary gradually from one page to the next, so that when the pages are turned rapidly, the pictures appear to animate by simulating motion or some other change.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=22–24}}{{sfn|Solomon|1989|pp=8–10}} Flip books are often illustrated books for children,{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|p=xiv}} they also be geared towards adults and employ a series of photographs rather than drawings. Flip books are not always separate books, they appear as an added feature in ordinary books or magazines, often in the page corners.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=22–24}} Software packages and websites are also available that convert digital video files into custom-made flip books.{{sfn|White|2006|p=203}} * '''[[Character animation]]''' * '''[[Multi-sketch]]ing''' * '''[[Special effects animation]]''' == Animator == {{Main|Animator}} An animator is an artist who creates a visual sequence (or audio-visual if added sound) of multiple sequential images that generate the illusion of movement, that is, an animation. Animations are currently in many areas of technology and video, such as [[Film|cinema]], [[television]], [[video game]]s or the [[internet]]. Generally, these works require the collaboration of several animators. The methods to create these images depend on the animator and style that one wants to achieve (with images generated by computer, manually ...). Animators can be divided into animators of '''characters''' (artists who are specialized in the movements, dialogue and acting of the characters) and animators of '''special effects''' (for example vehicles, machinery or natural phenomena such as water, snow, rain). ==Production== The creation of non-trivial animation works (i.e., longer than a few seconds) has developed as a form of [[filmmaking]], with certain unique aspects.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|p=117}} Traits common to both live-action and animated [[Feature film|feature-length films]] are labor-intensity and high production costs.{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=274}} The most important difference is that once a film is in the production phase, the [[marginal cost]] of one more shot is higher for animated films than live-action films.{{sfn|White|2006|p=151}} It is relatively easy for a director to ask for one more [[take]] during [[principal photography]] of a live-action film, but every take on an animated film must be manually rendered by animators (although the task of rendering slightly different takes has been made less tedious by modern computer animation).{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|p=339}} It is pointless for a studio to pay the salaries of dozens of animators to spend weeks creating a visually dazzling five-minute scene if that scene fails to effectively advance the plot of the film.{{sfn|Culhane|1990|p=55}} Thus, animation studios starting with Disney began the practice in the 1930s of maintaining story departments where [[storyboard artist]]s develop every single scene through [[storyboard]]s, then handing the film over to the animators only after the production team is satisfied that all the scenes make sense as a whole. {{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=120}} While live-action films are now also storyboarded, they enjoy more latitude to depart from storyboards (i.e., real-time improvisation).{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=100–101}} Another problem unique to animation is the requirement to maintain a film's consistency from start to finish, even as films have grown longer and teams have grown larger. Animators, like all artists, necessarily have individual styles, but must subordinate their individuality in a consistent way to whatever style is employed on a particular film.{{sfn|Masson|2007|p=94}} Since the early 1980s, teams of about 500 to 600 people, of whom 50 to 70 are animators, typically have created feature-length animated films. It is relatively easy for two or three artists to match their styles; synchronizing those of dozens of artists is more difficult.{{sfn|Beck|2004|p=37}} This problem is usually solved by having a separate group of visual development artists develop an overall look and palette for each film before animation begins. Character designers on the visual development team draw [[model sheet]]s to show how each character should look like with different facial expressions, posed in different positions, and viewed from different angles.{{sfn|Williams|2001|p=34}}{{sfn|Culhane|1990|p=146}} On traditionally animated projects, [[maquette]]s were often sculpted to further help the animators see how characters would look from different angles.{{sfn|Williams|2001|pp=52–57}}{{sfn|Williams|2001|p=34}} Unlike live-action films, animated films were traditionally developed beyond the synopsis stage through the storyboard format; the storyboard artists would then receive credit for writing the film.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=99–100}} In the early 1960s, animation studios began hiring professional screenwriters to write screenplays (while also continuing to use story departments) and screenplays had become commonplace for animated films by the late 1980s. ==Criticism== Criticism of animation has been common in media and cinema since its inception. With its popularity, a large amount of criticism has arisen, especially animated feature-length films.{{sfn|Amidi|2011}} Many concerns of cultural representation, psychological effects on children have been brought up around the animation industry, which has remained rather politically unchanged and stagnant since its inception into mainstream culture.{{sfn|Nagel|2008}} ==Awards== As with any other form of media, animation too has instituted awards for excellence in the field. The original awards for animation were presented by the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] for animated shorts from the year 1932, during the 5th [[Academy Awards]] function. The first winner of the [[5th Academy Awards|Academy Award]] was the short ''[[Flowers and Trees]]'',{{sfn|Walt Disney Family Museum|2013}} a production by [[Walt Disney Productions]].{{sfn|Beckerman|2003|p=37}}{{sfn|Shaffer|2010|page=211}} The Academy Award for a feature-length animated motion picture was only instituted for the year 2001, and awarded during the 74th Academy Awards in 2002. It was won by the film ''[[Shrek]]'', produced by [[DreamWorks]] and [[Pacific Data Images]].{{sfn|Beckerman|2003|pp=84–85}} [[Disney]]/[[Pixar]] have produced the most films either to win or be nominated for the award. The list of both awards can be obtained here: *[[Academy Award for Best Animated Feature]] *[[Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film]] Several other countries have instituted an award for best animated feature film as part of their national film awards: [[Africa Movie Academy Award for Best Animation]] (since 2008), [[BAFTA Award for Best Animated Film]] (since 2006), [[César Award for Best Animated Film]] (since 2011), [[Golden Rooster Award for Best Animation]] (since 1981), [[Goya Award for Best Animated Film]] (since 1989), [[Japan Academy Prize for Animation of the Year]] (since 2007), [[National Film Award for Best Animated Film]] (since 2006). Also since 2007, the [[Asia Pacific Screen Award for Best Animated Feature Film]] has been awarded at the [[Asia Pacific Screen Awards]]. Since 2009, the [[European Film Awards]] have awarded the [[European Film Award for Best Animated Film]]. The [[Annie Award]] is another award presented for excellence in the field of animation. Unlike the Academy Awards, the Annie Awards are only received for achievements in the field of animation and not for any other field of technical and artistic endeavor. They were re-organized in 1992 to create a new field for Best Animated feature. The 1990s winners were dominated by Walt Disney, however, newer studios, led by Pixar & DreamWorks, have now begun to consistently vie for this award. The list of awardees is as follows: *[[Annie Award for Best Animated Feature]] *[[Annie Award for Best Animated Short Subject]] *[[Annie Award for Best Animated Television Production]] == See also == {{Wikipedia books|1=Animation}} {{Div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[12 basic principles of animation]] * [[War film#Animated|Animated war film]] * [[Animation department]] * [[Animation software]] * [[Anime]] * [[Architectural animation]] * [[Avar (animation variable)]] * [[Computer-generated imagery]] * [[Independent animation]] * [[International Animated Film Association]] * [[International Tournée of Animation]] * [[List of film-related topics|List of motion picture topics]] * [[Model sheet]] * [[Motion graphic design]] * [[Society for Animation Studies]] * [[Tradigital art]] * [[Wire-frame model]] {{Div col end}} == References == ===Citations=== {{reflist|15em|refs= <ref name="Harryhausen_Dalton18">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Harryhausen|Dalton|2008|page=18}}</ref> <ref name="Harryhausen_Dalton42">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Harryhausen|Dalton|2008|page=42}}</ref> <ref name="Harryhausen_Dalton222–226">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Harryhausen|Dalton|2008|pages=222–226}}</ref> }} === Bibliography === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal |url=http://www.uca.edu/org/ccsmi/ccsmi/classicwork/Myth%20Revisited.htm |title=Journal of Film and Video |date=Spring 1993 |journal=The Myth of Persistence of Vision Revisited |publisher=[[University of Central Arkansas]] |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=3–13 |last=Anderson |first=Joseph and Barbara |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091124182503/http://www.uca.edu/org/ccsmi/ccsmi/classicwork/Myth%20Revisited.htm |archivedate=24 November 2009 |df=dmy }} * {{cite book |last=Baer |first=Eva |title=Metalwork in Medieval Islamic Art |year=1983 |publisher=[[State University of New York Press]] |isbn=0-87395-602-8 |pages=58, 86, 143, 151, 176, 201, 226, 243, 292, 304 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last=Beck |first=Jerry |title=Animation Art: From Pencil to Pixel, the History of Cartoon, Anime & CGI |year=2004 |location=Fulhamm London |publisher=Flame Tree Publishing |isbn=978-1-84451-140-2 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last=Beckerman |first=Howard |title=Animation: The Whole Story |publisher=Allworth Press |year=2003 |isbn=1-58115-301-5 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last=Bendazzi |first=Giannalberto |title=Cartoons: One Hundred Years of Cinema Animation |location=Bloomington, Indiana |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1994 |isbn=0-253-20937-4 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last=Buchan |first=Suzanne |title=Pervasive Animation |location=New York and London |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-415-80723-4 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last=Canemaker |first=John |author-link = John Canemaker |title = Winsor McCay: His Life and Art |edition = Revised |year = 2005 |publisher = Abrams Books |isbn=978-0-8109-5941-5 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last=Crafton |first=Donald |year=1993 |title=Before Mickey: The Animated Film 1898–1928 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=0-226-11667-0 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |author-link1=Shamus Culhane |last1=Culhane |first1=Shamus |title=Animation: Script to Screen |publisher=St. Martin's Press |year=1990 |isbn=0-312-05052-6 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last1=Drazin |first1=Charles |title=The Faber Book of French Cinema |date=March 17, 2011 |publisher=Faber & Faber |isbn=978-0-571-21849-3 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last1=Finkielman |first1=Jorge |title=The Film Industry in Argentina: An Illustrated Cultural History |year=2004 |publisher=McFarland |location=North Carolina |isbn=0-7864-1628-9 |page=20 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last=Furniss |first=Maureen |title=Art in Motion: Animation Aesthetics |year=1998 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=1-86462-039-0 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last1=Faber |first=Liz |last2=Walters |first2=Helen |title=Animation Unlimited: Innovative Short Films Since 1940 |publisher=Laurence King Publishing |location=London |year=2004 |isbn=1-85669-346-5 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book|last=Godfrey|first=Bob|last2=Jackson|first2=Anna|title=The Do-It-Yourself Film Animation Book|publisher=BBC Publications|year=1974|isbn=978-0-563-10829-0|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|first1=Ray|last1=Harryhausen|author-link1=Ray Harryhausen |last2=Dalton |first2=Tony |author-link2=Tony Dalton |title=A Century of Model Animation: From Méliès to Aardman |year=2008 |publisher=Aurum Press |isbn=978-0-8230-9980-1 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |author-link1=Kit Laybourne |last1=Laybourne|first1=Kit |title=The Animation Book: A Complete Guide to Animated Filmmaking– from Flip-books to Sound Cartoons to 3-D Animation |publisher=Three Rivers Press |location=New York |year=1998 |isbn=0-517-88602-2 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last=Lawson |first=Tim |last2=Persons |first2=Alisa|title=[[The Magic Behind the Voices]] |trans-title=A Who's Who of Cartoon Voice Actors |publisher=University Press of Mississippi |year=2004 |isbn=1-57806-696-4 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last=Ledoux |first=Trish |title=Complete Anime Guide: Japanese Animation Film Directory and Resource Guide |publisher=Tiger Mountain Press |year=1997 |isbn=0-9649542-5-7 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |editor-last1=Lowe |editor-first1=Richard |editor-last2=Schnotz |editor-first2=Wolfgang |title=Learning with Animation. Research implications for design |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-521-85189-3 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last=Masson |first=Terrence |author-link1=Terrence Masson |year=2007 |title=CG101: A Computer Graphics Industry Reference |url=http://www.cg101.com/ |series=Unique and personal histories of early computer animation production, plus a comprehensive foundation of the industry for all reading levels. |location=Williamstown, Massachusetts |publisher=Digital Fauxtography |isbn=978-0-9778710-0-1 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last=Needham |first=Joseph |year=1962 |title=Physics and Physical Technology |url= |location= |publisher=Cambridge University Press |chapter=Science and Civilization in China |volume=IV |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last1=Parent |first1=Rick |title=Computer Animation: Algorithms & Techniques |date=November 1, 2007 |publisher=Morgan Kaufmann |location=Ohio State University |isbn=978-0-12-532000-9 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last1=Paul |first1=Joshua |title=Digital Video Hacks |date=2005 |publisher=O'Reilly Media |isbn=0-596-00946-1 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last=Pilling |first=Jayne |title=A Reader in Animation Studies |year=1997|publisher=Indiana University Press |editor=Society of Animation Studies |isbn=1-86462-000-5 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |first1=Ken A. |last1=Priebe |title=The Art of Stop-Motion Animation |year=2006 |publisher=Thompson Course Technology |isbn=1-59863-244-2 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |first1=Richard |last1=Neupert |title=French Animation History |year=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-3836-2 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last1=Rojas |first1=Carlos |last2=Chow |first2=Eileen |title=The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Cinemas |year=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-998844-0 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last=Herman |first=Sarah |year=2014 |title=Brick Flicks: A Comprehensive Guide to Making Your Own Stop-Motion LEGO Movies |publisher=Skyhorse Publishing |location=New York |isbn=978-1-62914-649-2 |ref=harv }} * {{cite journal |last=Serenko |first=Alexander |year=2007 |title=Computers in Human Behavior |url=http://www.aserenko.com/papers/Serenko_Animation_Scale.pdf |journal=The development of an instrument to measure the degree of animation predisposition of agent users |publisher= |volume=23 |number=1 |issue= |pages=478–495 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last1=Shaffer |first1=Joshua C. |title=Discovering The Magic Kingdom: An Unofficial Disneyland Vacation Guide |date=September 24, 2010 |publisher=Author House |location=Indiana |isbn=978-1-4520-6312-6 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last=Solomon |first=Charles |year=1989 |title=Enchanted Drawings: The History of Animation |location=New York |publisher=Random House, Inc. |isbn=978-0-394-54684-1 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last=Thomas |first=Bob |title=Walt Disney, the Art of Animation: The Story of the Disney Studio Contribution to a New Art |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pw3WAAAAMAAJ |year=1958 |work=Walt Disney Studios |publisher=Simon and Schuster |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last=Thomas|first=Frank |author-link1=Frank Thomas (animator) |last2=Johnston |first2=Ollie |author-link2=Ollie Johnston |title=[[Disney Animation: The Illusion of Life]] |location= |publisher=Abbeville Press |year=1981 |isbn=0-89659-233-2 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |first1=Siegfried |last1=Zielinski |title=Audiovisions: Cinema and Television as Entr'actes in History |year=1999 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |isbn=90-5356-303-2 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last=Sito |first=Tom |title=Moving Innovation: A History of Computer Animation |year=2013 |location=Massachusetts |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |isbn=978-0-262-01909-5 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book | title = Industrial Light & Magic: The Art of Special Effects | first = Thomas G. | last = Smith | year = 1986 | publisher = Ballantine Books | location = New York |isbn=0-345-32263-0 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last=White |first=Tony |title=Animation from Pencils to Pixels: Classical Techniques for the Digital Animator |year=2006 |location=Milton Park |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-240-80670-9 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last=Williams |first=Richard |author-link1=Richard Williams (animator) |title=[[The Animator's Survival Kit]] |year=2001 |publisher=Faber and Faber |isbn=978-0-571-20228-7 |ref=harv }} {{refend}} === Online sources === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite web|last1=Amidi|first1=Amid|title=NY Film Critics Didn't like a Single Animated Film This Year|url=http://www.cartoonbrew.com/feature-film/ny-film-critics-didnt-like-a-single-animated-film-this-year-53464.html|publisher=Cartoon Brew|accessdate=19 February 2016|date=2 December 2011 |ref=harv }} * {{cite web |last1=Ball |first1=Ryan |title=Oldest Animation Discovered In Iran |url=http://www.animationmagazine.net/features/oldest-animation-discovered-in-iran/ |publisher=Animation Magazine |accessdate=15 March 2016 |date=March 12, 2008 |ref=harv }} * {{cite web |url=http://www.cartoonbrew.com/cgi/a-little-more-about-disneys-paperman-63782.html |title=A Little More About Disney's "Paperman" |last=Beck |first=Jerry |date=July 2, 2012 |publisher=Cartoon Brew |access-date= |quote= |ref=harv }} * {{cite web |url=http://www.awn.com/mag/issue1.4/articles/bendazzi1.4.html |title=The Untold Story of Argentina's Pioneer Animator|publisher=Animation World Network |last=Bendazzi |first=Giannalberto |year=1996 |accessdate=April 29, 2016 |ref=harv }} * {{cite web |last1=Bhattacgarjee |first1=Subhankar |title=A short history of Animation, before Disney |url=https://medium.com/@SubhankarB/a-short-history-of-animation-before-disney-1d814db85aa1#.2ffjm9uuv |publisher=[[Medium (website)|Medium]] |accessdate=15 March 2016 |date=December 2, 2015 |ref=harv }} * {{cite web |url=http://www.boi.gov.ph/pdf/valuepropositions/Animation/Animation.pdf |title=Animation |date=November 2009 |accessdate=24 July 2012 |work=boi.gov.ph |publisher=Board of Investments |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019232801/http://www.boi.gov.ph/pdf/valuepropositions/Animation/Animation.pdf |archivedate=19 October 2012 |df= |ref={{SfnRef|Board of Investments |2009 }} }} * {{cite web|url=http://academic.evergreen.edu/curricular/eat/handouts/Pictures/CutSandPaintRules.pdf |title=Experimental Animation Techniques |year=2003 |last=Brown |first=Margery |accessdate=2005-11-11 |publisher=Evergreen State Collage |location=Olympia, Washington |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307025951/http://academic.evergreen.edu/curricular/eat/handouts/Pictures/CutSandPaintRules.pdf |archivedate=7 March 2008 |df=dmy |ref=harv }} * {{cite web |last1=Carbone |first1=Ken |title=Stone-Age Animation in a Digital World: William Kentridge at MoMA |url=http://www.fastcompany.com/1561390/stone-age-animation-digital-world-william-kentridge-moma |publisher=Fast Company |accessdate=7 March 2016 |date=February 24, 2010 |ref=harv }} * {{cite web |last1=Haglund |first1=David |title=The Oldest Known LEGO Movie |url=http://www.slate.com/blogs/browbeat/2014/02/07/lego_movie_brickfilms_go_back_to_1973_watch_the_very_first_video.html |publisher=Slate |accessdate=25 February 2016 |date=7 February 2014 |ref=harv }} * {{cite web |url=http://www.theheritagetrust.wordpress.com/2012/07/25/worlds-oldest-animation |title=World's Oldest Animation? |publisher=The Heritage Trust |website=theheritagetrust.wordpress.com |date=July 25, 2012 |ref={{SfnRef|The Heritage Trust|2012 }} |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151022192615/https://theheritagetrust.wordpress.com/2012/07/25/worlds-oldest-animation/ |archivedate=22 October 2015 |df=dmy-all }} * {{cite web |last1=Kenyon |first1=Heather |title=How'd They Do That?: Stop-Motion Secrets Revealed |url=http://www.awn.com/animationworld/howd-they-do-stop-motion-secrets-revealed |publisher=Animation World Network |accessdate=2 March 2016 |date=February 1, 1998 |ref=harv }} * {{cite web |last1=Nagel |first1=Jan |title=Gender in Media: Females Don't Rule |url=http://www.awn.com/animationworld/gender-media-females-dont-rule |publisher=Animation World Network |accessdate=3 March 2016 |date=May 21, 2008 |ref=harv }} * {{cite news |last1=McDuling |first1=John |title=Hollywood Is Giving Up on Comedy |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2014/07/the-completely-serious-decline-of-the-hollywood-comedy/373914/ |accessdate=20 July 2014 |work=The Atlantic |publisher=The Atlantic Monthly Group |date=3 July 2014 |ref=harv }} * {{cite web |last=McLaughlin |first=Dan |title=A RATHER INCOMPLETE BUT STILL FASCINATING |url=http://animation.filmtv.ucla.edu/NewSite/WebPages/Histories.html |work=Film Tv |publisher=UCLA |year=2001 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091119055944/http://animation.filmtv.ucla.edu/NewSite/WebPages/Histories.html |archive-date=November 19, 2009 |accessdate=12 February 2013 |ref=harv }} * {{cite web|last1=O'Keefe|first1=Matt|url=http://www.themeparktourist.com/features/20141110/29600/6-major-innovations-sprung-heads-disney-imagineers|title=6 Major Innovations That Sprung from the Heads of Disney Imagineers|publisher=Theme Park Tourist |accessdate=9 March 2016 |date=November 11, 2014 |ref=harv }} * {{cite web |last1=Watercutter |first1=Angela |url=https://www.wired.com/2012/05/phil-tippett-feature/ |title=35 Years After Star Wars, Effects Whiz Phil Tippett Is Slowly Crafting a Mad God |publisher=Wired |date=May 24, 2012 |accessdate=2016-02-06 |ref=harv }} * {{cite web |url=http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2010/03/disney-animation-girls-201003 |title=Coloring the Kingdom |last1=Zohn |first1=Patricia |date=February 28, 2010 |publisher=[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]] |access-date=December 7, 2015 |quote= |ref=harv }} * {{cite web |title = Walt Disney's Oscars |url = http://www.waltdisney.org/blog/walt-disneys-oscars%C2%AE |date = 22 February 2013 |publisher = The Walt Disney Family Museum |accessdate = 22 February 2016 |ref = {{SfnRef|Walt Disney Family Museum|2013}} |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150322054517/http://www.waltdisney.org/blog/walt-disneys-oscars%C2%AE |archive-date = 22 March 2015 |dead-url = yes |df = dmy-all }} * {{cite web |title=Władysław Starewicz - Biography |url=http://culture.pl/en/artist/wladyslaw-starewicz |website=culture.pl |date=16 April 2012 |publisher=Adam Mickiewicz Institute |accessdate=2016-02-09 |ref={{SfnRef|Adam Mickiewicz Institute|2012}} }} {{refend}} == External links == {{Wikiquote}} {{Wiktionary|animation}} {{Commons category|Animations}} {{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=no |others=no |about=yes |label=Animation }} * [http://www.sparetimelabs.com/animato/animato/cartoon/cartoon.html The making of an 8-minute cartoon short] * [https://sites.google.com/site/3ddesigningservices/blog/importance-of-animation-in-various-industries Importance of animation and its utilization in varied industries] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091001071111/http://www.nfb.ca/film/animando_english/ "Animando"], a 12-minute film demonstrating 10 different animation techniques (and teaching how to use them). * [https://www.slideshare.net/winbizindia/19-types-of-animation-techniques-and-styles 19 types of animation techniques and styles] * {{dmoz|Arts/Animation}} {{Animation}} {{Film genres}} {{Portal bar|Cartoon|Animation|Film|Arts|Visual arts}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Animation}} [[Category:Cartooning]] [[Category:Animation| ]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] [[Category:Film and video technology]] 48ulpms3xb499iji6j3kqw68j6y8e34 0 594 861812366 861808779 2018-09-30T05:53:16Z Shachi77 33725681 /* Consorts and children: extended list */Corrected a misinformation wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|God in Greek mythology}} {{About|the Greek and Roman god|the spaceflight program|Apollo program|other uses|Apollo (disambiguation)}} {{Redirect|Phoebus|other uses|Phoebus (disambiguation)}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{pp-move-indef|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} <!-- this article uses the BCE/CE convention --> {{Infobox deity | type = Greek | name = Apollo | image = File:Apollo of the Belvedere.jpg | alt = | caption = ''[[Apollo Belvedere]]'', c. 120–140 CE | god_of = God of music, poetry, art, oracles, archery, plague, medicine, sun, light, and knowledge | abode = [[Mount Olympus]] | symbol = [[Lyre]], [[Bay Laurel|laurel]] wreath, [[Python (mythology)|python]], [[raven]], [[Swan]], bow and arrows | consort = | parents = [[Zeus]] and [[Leto]] | siblings = [[Artemis]], [[Aeacus]], [[Angelos (Greek mythology)|Angelos]], [[Aphrodite]], [[Ares]], [[Athena]], [[Dionysus]], [[Eileithyia]], [[Enyo]], [[Eris (mythology)|Eris]], [[Ersa]], [[Hebe (mythology)|Hebe]], [[Helen of Troy]], [[Hephaestus]], [[Heracles]], [[Hermes]], [[Minos]], [[Pandia]], [[Persephone]], [[Perseus]], [[Rhadamanthus]], the [[Graces]], the [[Horae]], the [[Litae]], the [[Muse]]s, the [[Moirai]] | children = [[Asclepius]], [[Troilus]], [[Aristaeus]], [[Orpheus]] | mount = | Roman_equivalent = Apollo }} {{Ancient Greek religion}} {{Contains special characters}} '''Apollo''' ([[Attic Greek|Attic]], [[Ionic Greek|Ionic]], and [[Homeric Greek]]: {{lang|grc|Ἀπόλλων}}, ''Apollōn'' ({{small|[[Genitive|GEN]]}} {{lang|grc|Ἀπόλλωνος}}); [[Doric Greek|Doric]]: {{lang|grc|Ἀπέλλων}}, ''Apellōn''; [[Arcadocypriot Greek|Arcadocypriot]]: {{lang|grc|Ἀπείλων}}, ''Apeilōn''; [[Aeolic Greek|Aeolic]]: {{lang|grc|Ἄπλουν}}, ''Aploun''; {{lang-la|Apollō}}) is one of the most important and complex of the [[Twelve Olympians|Olympian deities]] in [[Ancient Greek religion|classical Greek]] and [[Ancient Roman religion|Roman religion]] and [[Greek mythology|Greek]] and [[Roman mythology]]. The ideal of the ''[[kouros]]'' (a beardless, athletic youth), Apollo has been variously recognized as a god of music, truth and prophecy, healing, the sun and light, plague, poetry, and more. Apollo is the son of [[Zeus]] and [[Leto]], and has a twin sister, the chaste huntress [[Artemis]]. Apollo is known in Greek-influenced [[Etruscan mythology]] as ''Apulu''.<ref>Krauskopf, I. 2006. "The Grave and Beyond." ''The Religion of the Etruscans.'' edited by N. de Grummond and E. Simon. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. vii, p. 73-75.</ref> As the patron of [[Delphi]] (''Pythian Apollo''), Apollo was an [[oracular]] god—the prophetic [[deity]] of the [[Pythia|Delphic Oracle]]. Medicine and healing are associated with Apollo, whether through the god himself or mediated through his son [[Asclepius]], yet Apollo was also seen as a god who could bring ill-health and deadly [[Plague (disease)|plague]]. Amongst the god's custodial charges, Apollo became associated with dominion over [[Colonies in antiquity|colonists]], and as the patron defender of herds and flocks. As the leader of the [[Muse]]s (''Apollon Musegetes'') and director of their choir, Apollo functioned as the patron god of music and poetry. [[Hermes]] created the [[lyre]] for him, and the instrument became a common [[Apollo#Attributes and symbols|attribute of Apollo]]. Hymns sung to Apollo were called [[paean]]s. In Hellenistic times, especially during the 3rd century BCE, as ''Apollo Helios'' he became identified among Greeks with [[Helios]], [[Titan (mythology)|Titan]] [[solar deity|god of the sun]], and his sister Artemis similarly equated with [[Selene]], Titan [[lunar deity|goddess of the moon]].<ref>For the iconography of the Alexander–Helios type, see H. Hoffmann, 1963. "Helios", in ''Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt'' '''2''', pp. 117–23; cf. Yalouris 1980, no. 42.</ref> In Latin texts, on the other hand, [[Joseph Fontenrose]] declared himself unable to find any [[conflation]] of Apollo with [[Sol (mythology)|Sol]] among the [[Classical Latin|Augustan poets]] of the 1st century, not even in the [[conjuration]]s of [[Aeneas]] and [[Latinus]] in ''[[Aeneid]]'' XII (161–215).<ref>Joseph Fontenrose, "Apollo and Sol in the Latin poets of the first century BC", ''Transactions of the American Philological Association'' '''30''' (1939), pp 439–55; "Apollo and the Sun-God in Ovid", ''American Journal of Philology'' '''61''' (1940) pp 429–44; and "Apollo and Sol in the Oaths of Aeneas and Latinus" ''Classical Philology'' '''38'''.2 (April 1943), pp. 137–138.</ref> Apollo and Helios/Sol remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts until the 3rd century CE. {{TOC limit|3}} ==Etymology== [[File:Apollo, from the west pediment of the temple of Zeus at Olympia.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Apollo, from the west pediment of the temple of Zeus at Olympia|alt=]] [[File:MANNapoli 6281 Sitting Apollo Farnese.jpg|thumb|Apollo seated with [[lyre]]. [[Porphyry (geology)|Porphyry]] and marble, 2nd century AD. [[Farnese collection]], Naples, Italy.|alt=|373x373px]] The name ''Apollo''—unlike the related [[List of Mycenaean deities|older name]] ''Paean''—is generally not found in the [[Linear B]] ([[Mycenean Greek]]) texts, although there is a possible attestation in the [[Lacuna (manuscripts)|lacunose]] form '']pe-rjo-['' (Linear B: ]{{lang|gmy|𐀟𐁊}}-[) on the [[Knossos|KN]] E 842 tablet.<ref>[[Robert S. P. Beekes|R. S. P. Beekes]], ''Etymological Dictionary of Greek'', Brill, 2009, p. 118.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Internationale Archäologie|title=Apollon Delphinios – Apollon Didymeus: Zwei Gesichter eines milesischen Gottes und ihr Bezug zur Kolonisation Milets in archaischer Zeit|first=Alexander|last=Herda|url=https://www.academia.edu/515462/Apollon_Delphinios_Apollon_Didymeus_Zwei_Gesichter_eines_milesischen_Gottes_und_ihr_Bezug_zur_Kolonisation_Milets_in_archaischer_Zeit|page=16|publication-date=2008|volume=Arbeitsgemeinschaft, Symposium, Tagung, Kongress. Band 11: Kult(ur)kontakte. Apollon in Milet/Didyma, Histria, Myus, Naukratis und auf Zypern. Akten des Table Ronde in Mainz vom 11.–12. März 2004|language=German|isbn=978-3-89646-441-5}}</ref><ref>{{citation|title=DĀMOS: Database of Mycenaean at Oslo|url=http://www.hf.uio.no/ifikk/english/research/projects/damos/|publisher=[[University of Oslo]]. Department of Philosophy, Classics, History of Art and Ideas|chapter=KN 842 E|chapterurl=https://www2.hf.uio.no/damos/Index/item/chosen_item_id/775}}.</ref> The [[etymology]] of the name is uncertain. The spelling {{lang|grc|Ἀπόλλων}} ({{IPA-el|a.pól.lɔːn|pron}} in [[Attic Greek|Classical Attic]]) had almost superseded all other forms by the beginning of the [[common era]], but the [[Dorians|Doric]] form, ''Apellon'' ({{lang|grc|Ἀπέλλων}}), is more archaic, as it is derived from an earlier {{lang|grc|*Ἀπέλjων}}. It probably is a cognate to the Doric month ''Apellaios'' ({{lang|grc|Ἀπελλαῖος}}),<ref name="DDD">{{cite book |last1=van der Toorn |first1=Karel |last2=Becking |first2=Bob |last3=van der Horst |first3=Pieter Willem |title=Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible |url=https://books.google.com/?id=PHgUAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA73 |year=1999 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-11119-6 |page=73}}</ref> and the offerings [[apellaia]] ({{lang|grc|ἀπελλαῖα}}) at the initiation of the young men during the family-festival [[apellai]] ({{lang|grc|ἀπέλλαι}}).<ref>"The young men became grown-up [[kouros|kouroi]], and Apollon was the "megistos kouros" (The Great Kouros) : Jane Ellen Harrison (2010): ''Themis: A study to the Social origins of Greek Religion'' Cambridge University Press. pp. 439–441, {{ISBN|1108009492}}</ref><ref>''Visible Religion. Volume IV–V. Approaches to Iconology.'' Leiden, E. J. Brill, 1985 p. 143 [https://books.google.com/books?id=UesUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA143&dq=apellaia&hl=el&sa=X&ei=CgiPU5enDObaygPayYCABg&ved=0CEIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=apellaia&f=false]</ref> According to some scholars, the words are derived from the Doric word ''apella'' ({{lang|grc|ἀπέλλα}}), which originally meant "wall," "fence for animals" and later "assembly within the limits of the square."<ref name=Nilsson556>The word usually appears in plural: [[Hesychius of Alexandria|Hesychius]]: {{lang|grc|ἀπέλλαι}} (''apellai''), {{lang|grc|σηκοί}} ("folds"), {{lang|grc|ἐκκλησίαι}} ("assemblies"), {{lang|grc|ἀρχαιρεσίαι}} ("elections"): Nilsson, Vol. I, p. 556</ref><ref>Doric Greek verb: {{lang|grc|ἀπέλλάζειν}} ("to assemble"), and the festival {{lang|grc|ἀπέλλαι}} (''apellai''), which surely belonged to Apollo. Nilsson, Vol I, p. 556.</ref> [[Apella]] ({{lang|grc|Ἀπέλλα}}) is the name of the popular assembly in Sparta,<ref name=Nilsson556/> corresponding to the ''[[Ecclesia (ancient Athens)|ecclesia]]'' ({{lang|grc|ἐκκλησία}}). [[Robert S. P. Beekes|R. S. P. Beekes]] rejected the connection of the theonym with the noun ''apellai'' and suggested a [[Pre-Greek]] proto-form *''Apal<sup>y</sup>un''.<ref>Beekes, 2009, pp. 115 and 118–119.</ref> Several instances of [[popular etymology]] are attested from ancient authors. Thus, the Greeks most often associated Apollo's name with the Greek verb {{lang|grc|ἀπόλλυμι}} (''apollymi''), "to destroy".<ref>{{cite web|author=Mike Campbell |url=http://www.behindthename.com/php/view.php?name=apollo |title=Meaning, Origin and History of the Name Apollo |publisher=Behind the Name |accessdate=30 July 2013}}</ref> [[Plato]] in ''[[Cratylus]]'' connects the name with {{lang|grc|ἀπόλυσις}} (''apolysis''), "redemption", with {{lang|grc|ἀπόλουσις}} (''apolousis''), "purification", and with {{lang|grc|ἁπλοῦν}} (''[h]aploun''), "simple",<ref>The {{lang|grc|ἁπλοῦν}} suggestion is repeated by [[Plutarch]] in ''[[Moralia]]'' in the sense of "[[1 (number)|unity]]".</ref> in particular in reference to the Thessalian form of the name, {{lang|grc|Ἄπλουν}}, and finally with {{lang|grc|Ἀειβάλλων}} (''aeiballon''), "ever-shooting". [[Hesychius of Alexandria|Hesychius]] connects the name Apollo with the Doric {{lang|grc|ἀπέλλα}} (''apella''), which means "assembly", so that Apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation {{lang|grc|σηκός}} (''sekos''), "fold", in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds.{{sfn|Freese|1911|p=184}} In the [[ancient Macedonian language]] {{lang|grc|πέλλα}} (''pella'') means "stone,"<ref>[[Robert S. P. Beekes|R. S. P. Beekes]], ''Etymological Dictionary of Greek'', Brill, 2009, p. 1168.</ref> and some [[toponyms]] may be derived from this word: {{lang|grc|Πέλλα}} ([[Pella]],<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2380486 Πέλλα / Pella], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek–English Lexicon''</ref> the capital of [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|ancient Macedonia]]) and {{lang|grc|Πελλήνη}} (''Pellēnē''/''[[Pallini|Pallene]]'').<ref>Nilsson Vol I, p.558</ref> A number of non-Greek etymologies have been suggested for the name,<ref>Martin Nilsson, ''Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion'', vol. I (C. H. Beck), 1955:555–564.</ref> The [[Hittite language|Hittite]] form ''[[Apaliunas]]'' (''<sup>d</sup>''{{lang|hit-Latn|x-ap-pa-li-u-na-aš}}) is attested in the [[Manapa-Tarhunta letter]],<ref>The reading of ''Apaliunas'' and the possible identification with Apollo is due to [[Emil Forrer]] (1931). It was doubted by [[Paul Kretschmer|Kretschmer]], ''Glotta'' XXIV, p. 250. Martin Nilsson (1967), Vol I, p. 559</ref> perhaps related to [[Hurrian]] (and certainly the [[List of Etruscan mythological figures|Etruscan]]) ''[[Aplu (deity)|Aplu]]'', a god of plague, in turn likely from [[Akkadian]] ''Aplu Enlil'' meaning simply "the son of [[Enlil]]", a title that was given to the god [[Nergal]], who was linked to [[Shamash]], Babylonian god of the sun.<ref name="Grummond">de Grummond, Nancy Thomson (2006) ''Etruscan Myth, Sacred History, and Legend''. (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology); Mackenzie, Donald A. (2005) ''Myths of Babylonia and Assyria'' (Gutenberg)</ref> The role of Apollo as god of plague is evident in the invocation of [[Apollo Smintheus]] ("mouse Apollo") by Chryses, the Trojan priest of Apollo, with the purpose of sending a plague against the Greeks (the reasoning behind a god of the plague becoming a god of healing is [[apotropaic]], meaning that the god responsible for bringing the plague must be appeased in order to remove the plague). The [[Hittite language|Hittite]] testimony reflects an early form ''{{lang|grc-Latn|*Apeljōn}}'', which may also be surmised from comparison of Cypriot {{lang|grc|Ἀπείλων}} with Doric {{lang|grc|Ἀπέλλων}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Angel |first1=John L. |last2=Mellink |first2=Machteld Johanna | title = Troy and the Trojan War: A Symposium Held at Bryn Mawr College, October 1984| year = 1986| publisher = Bryn Mawr Commentaries| isbn = 978-0-929524-59-7| page = 42 }}</ref> The name of the Lydian god ''Qλdãns'' /kʷʎðãns/ may reflect an earlier /kʷalyán-/ before palatalization, syncope, and the pre-Lydian sound change *y ''>'' d.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pgQowuFZeLUC&pg=PA338|title=Anatolian Historical Phonology|last=Melchert|first=Harold Craig|date=1994|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=905183697X|language=en}}</ref> Note the labiovelar in place of the labial /p/ found in pre-Doric ''Ἀπέλjων'' and Hittite ''Apaliunas''. A [[Luwian language|Luwian]] etymology suggested for ''Apaliunas'' makes Apollo "The One of Entrapment", perhaps in the sense of "Hunter".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Immerwahr |first1=Sara Anderson |last2=Chapin |first2=Anne Proctor | title = Charis: Essays in Honor of Sara A. Immerwahr| year = 2004| publisher = Amer School of Classical| isbn = 978-0-87661-533-1| page = 254 }}</ref> ===Greco-Roman epithets=== Apollo's chief [[epithet]] was '''Phoebus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|iː|b|ə|s}} {{respell|FEE|bəs}}; {{lang|grc|Φοῖβος}}, ''Phoibos'' {{IPA-el|pʰó͜i.bos}}), literally "bright".<ref>[[Robert S. P. Beekes|R. S. P. Beekes]], ''Etymological Dictionary of Greek'', Brill, 2009, p. 1582.</ref> It was very commonly used by both the Greeks and Romans for Apollo's role as the god of light. Like other Greek deities, he had a number of others applied to him, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to the god. However, while Apollo has a great number of appellations in Greek myth, only a few occur in [[Latin literature]]. ====Sun==== *'''Aegletes''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|ɡ|l|iː|t|iː|z}} {{respell|ə|GLEE|teez}}; Αἰγλήτης, ''Aiglētēs''), from {{lang|grc|αἴγλη}}, "light of the sun"<ref>[[Apollonius of Rhodes]], iv. 1730;'' Pseudo-Apollodorus, [[Bibliotheke|Biblioteca]]'', i. 9. § 26</ref> *'''Helius''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|iː|l|i|ə|s}} {{respell|HEE|lee|əs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἥλιος}}, ''[[Helios]]''), literally "sun"<ref name="simbolismo">{{cite book| last = Álvaro Jr., Santos| first = Allan| title = Simbolismo divino| url = https://books.google.com/?id=uAiConL3xyYC| publisher = Allan Álvaro, Jr., Santos }}</ref> *'''[[Apollo Lyceus|Lyceus]]''' ({{IPAc-en|l|aɪ|ˈ|s|iː|ə|s}} {{respell|ly|SEE|əs}}; {{lang|grc|Λύκειος}}, ''Lykeios'', from [[Proto-Greek language|Proto-Greek]] *{{lang|grc|λύκη}}) "light". The meaning of the epithet "Lyceus" later became associated with Apollo's mother [[Leto]], who was the patron goddess of [[Lycia]] ({{lang|grc|Λυκία}}) and who was identified with the wolf ({{lang|grc|λύκος}}).<ref>Aelian, ''On the Nature of Animals'' 4. 4 (A.F. Scholfield, tr.)</ref> *'''Phanaeus''' ({{IPAc-en|f|ə|ˈ|n|iː|ə|s}} {{respell|fə|NEE|əs}}; {{lang|grc|Φαναῖος}}, ''Phanaios''), literally "giving or bringing light" *'''Phoebus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|iː|b|ə|s}} {{respell|FEE|bəs}}; {{lang|grc|Φοῖβος}}, ''Phoibos''), literally "bright", his most commonly used epithet by both the Greeks and Romans *'''[[Sol (mythology)|Sol]]''' (Roman) ({{IPAc-en|s|ɒ|l}}), "sun" in Latin ====Wolf==== *'''Lycegenes''' ({{IPAc-en|l|aɪ|ˈ|s|ɛ|dʒ|ən|iː|z}} {{respell|ly|SEJ|ən|eez}}; {{lang|grc|Λυκηγενής}}, ''Lukēgenēs''), literally "born of a wolf" or "born of Lycia" *'''Lycoctonus''' ({{IPAc-en|l|aɪ|ˈ|k|ɒ|k|t|ə|n|ə|s}} {{respell|ly|KOK|tə|nəs}}; {{lang|grc|Λυκοκτόνος}}, ''Lykoktonos''), from {{lang|grc|λύκος}}, "wolf", and {{lang|grc|κτείνειν}}, "to kill" ====Origin and birth==== Apollo's birthplace was [[Cynthus|Mount Cynthus]] on the island of [[Delos]]. *'''Cynthius''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ɪ|n|θ|i|ə|s}} {{respell|SIN|thee|əs}}; {{lang|grc|Κύνθιος}}, ''Kunthios''), literally "Cynthian" *'''Cynthogenes''' ({{IPAc-en|s|ɪ|n|ˈ|θ|ɒ|dʒ|ɪ|n|iː|z}} {{respell|sin|THOJ|i|neez}}; {{lang|grc|Κυνθογενής}}, ''Kynthogenēs''), literally "born of Cynthus" *'''Delius''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|iː|l|i|ə|s}} {{respell|DEE|lee|əs}}; Δήλιος, ''Delios''), literally "Delian" *'''Didymaeus''' ({{IPAc-en|d|ɪ|d|ɪ|ˈ|m|iː|ə|s}} {{respell|did|i|MEE|əs}}; {{lang|grc|Διδυμαῖος}}, ''Didymaios'') from δίδυμος, "twin") as [[Artemis]]' twin [[File:Bassai Temple Of Apollo Detail.jpg|250px|thumb|Partial view of the temple of Apollo Epikurios (healer) at [[Bassae]] in southern Greece]] ====Place of worship==== [[Delphi]] and [[Actium]] were his primary places of worship.<ref>[[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses]]'' xiii. 715</ref><ref>[[Strabo]], x. p. 451</ref> *'''Acraephius''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|k|r|iː|f|i|ə|s}} {{respell|ə|KREE|fee|əs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀκραίφιος}},{{clarify|date=March 2014|reason=Please put proper accent onto Greek word.}} ''Akraiphios'', literally "Acraephian") or '''Acraephiaeus''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˌ|k|r|iː|f|i|ˈ|iː|ə|s}} {{respell|ə|KREE|fee|EE|əs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀκραιφιαίος}}, ''Akraiphiaios''), "Acraephian", from the [[Boeotia]]n town of [[Acraephia]] ({{lang|grc|Ἀκραιφία}}), reputedly founded by his son [[Acraepheus]].<ref>Wiliam Smith. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/moa/acl3129.0001.001/29?page=root;rgn=full+text;size=100;view=image Acraepheus ]</ref> *'''Actiacus''' ({{IPAc-en|æ|k|ˈ|t|aɪ|.|ə|k|ə|s}} {{respell|ak|TY|ə|kəs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἄκτιακός}}, ''Aktiakos''), literally "Actian", after Actium ({{lang|grc|Ἄκτιον}}) *'''Delphinius''' ({{IPAc-en|d|ɛ|l|ˈ|f|ɪ|n|i|ə|s}} {{respell|del|FIN|ee|əs}}; {{lang|grc|Δελφίνιος}}, ''Delphinios''), literally "Delphic", after Delphi (Δελφοί). An [[etiology]] in the ''[[Homeric Hymns]]'' associated this with dolphins. *'''[[Epactaeus]]''', meaning "god worshipped on the coast", in [[Samos]].<ref>{{Cite DGRBM|author=Leonhard Schmitz| title=Epactaeus|volume=|page=|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0104:entry=epactaeus-bio-1&highlight=epactaeus|short=}}</ref> *'''Pythius''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|ɪ|θ|i|ə|s}} {{respell|PITH|ee|əs}}; {{lang|grc|Πύθιος}}, ''Puthios'', from Πυθώ, ''Pythō''), from the region around Delphi *'''[[Apollo Smintheus|Smintheus]]''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|m|ɪ|n|θj|uː|s}} {{respell|SMIN|thewss}}; {{lang|grc|Σμινθεύς}}, ''Smintheus''), "Sminthian"—that is, "of the town of Sminthos or Sminthe"<ref name=LSJsmintheus>{{LSJ|*sminqeu/s|Σμινθεύς|shortref}}</ref> near the [[Troad]] town of [[Hamaxitus]]<ref>The epithet "Smintheus" has historically been confused with {{lang|grc|σμίνθος}}, "mouse", in association with Apollo's role as a god of disease</ref> [[File:TempleDelos.jpg|thumb|250px|Temple of the Delians at [[Delos]], dedicated to Apollo (478 BC). 19th-century pen-and-wash restoration.]] [[File:Chryse.jpg|thumb|250px|Temple of Apollo Smintheus at [[Çanakkale]], Turkey]] ====Healing and disease==== *'''Acesius''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|s|iː|ʒ|ə|s}} {{respell|ə|SEE|zhəs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀκέσιος}}, ''Akesios''), from {{lang|grc|ἄκεσις}}, "healing". Acesius was the epithet of Apollo worshipped in [[Elis]], where he had a temple in the [[agora]].<ref name="Smith">{{cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DA%3Aentry+group%3D2%3Aentry%3Dacesius-bio-1|chapter=Acesius|last=Smith|first=William|title=Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology|place=London|year=1873}} At the Perseus Project.</ref> *'''[[Acestor]]''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|s|ɛ|s|t|ər}} {{respell|ə|SES|tər}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀκέστωρ}}, ''Akestōr''), literally "healer" *'''Culicarius''' (Roman) ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|j|uː|l|ɪ|ˈ|k|ær|i|ə|s}} {{respell|KEW|li|KARR|ee|əs}}), from Latin ''culicārius'', "of midges" *'''Iatrus''' ({{IPAc-en|aɪ|ˈ|æ|t|r|ə|s}} {{respell|eye|AT|rəs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἰατρός}}, ''Iātros''), literally "physician"<ref>[[Euripides]], ''[[Andromache (play)|Andromache]]'' 901</ref> *'''Medicus''' (Roman) ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|ɛ|d|ɪ|k|ə|s}} {{respell|MED|i|kəs}}), "physician" in Latin. A [[Roman temple|temple]] was dedicated to ''Apollo Medicus'' at Rome, probably next to the temple of [[Bellona (goddess)|Bellona]]. *'''[[Paean (god)|Paean]]''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|iː|ə|n}} {{respell|PEE|ən}}; {{lang|grc|Παιάν}}, ''Paiān''),physician, healer <ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D*paia%2Fn παιών ]</ref> *'''Parnopius''' ({{IPAc-en|p|ɑːr|ˈ|n|oʊ|p|i|ə|s}} {{respell|par|NOH|pee|əs}}; {{lang|grc|Παρνόπιος}}, ''Parnopios''), from {{lang|grc|πάρνοψ}}, "locust" ====Founder and protector==== *'''[[Agyieus]]''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|dʒ|aɪ|.|ɪ|j|uː|s}} {{respell|ə|JY|i|yooss}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀγυιεύς}}, ''Aguīeus''), from {{lang|grc|ἄγυια}}, "street", for his role in protecting roads and homes *'''[[Alexicacus]]''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˌ|l|ɛ|k|s|ɪ|ˈ|k|eɪ|k|ə|s}} {{respell|ə|LEK|si|KAY|kəs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀλεξίκακος}}, ''Alexikakos''), literally "warding off evil" *'''Apotropaeus''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˌ|p|ɒ|t|r|ə|ˈ|p|iː|ə|s}} {{respell|ə|POT|rə|PEE|əs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀποτρόπαιος}}, ''Apotropaios''), from {{lang|grc|ἀποτρέπειν}}, "to avert" *'''[[Archegetes]]''' ({{IPAc-en|ɑːr|ˈ|k|ɛ|dʒ|ə|t|iː|z}} {{respell|ar|KEJ|ə|teez}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀρχηγέτης}}, ''Arkhēgetēs''), literally "founder" *'''Averruncus''' (Roman) ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|v|ə|ˈ|r|ʌ|ŋ|k|ə|s}} {{respell|AV|ə|RUNG|kəs}}; from Latin ''āverruncare''), "to avert" *'''Clarius''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|l|ær|i|ə|s}} {{respell|KLARR|ee|əs}}; {{lang|grc|Κλάριος}}, ''Klārios''), from [[Doric Greek|Doric]] {{lang|grc|κλάρος}}, "allotted lot"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dklh%3Dros1 κλάρος ]</ref> *'''Epicurius''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɛ|p|ɪ|ˈ|k|j|ʊər|i|ə|s}} {{respell|EP|i|KEWR|ee|əs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἐπικούριος}}, ''Epikourios''), from {{lang|grc|ἐπικουρέειν}}, "to aid"<ref name=simbolismo/> *'''Genetor''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|dʒ|ɛ|n|ɪ|t|ər}} {{respell|JEN|i|tər}}; {{lang|grc|Γενέτωρ}}, ''Genetōr''), literally "ancestor"<ref name=simbolismo/> *'''Nomius''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|n|oʊ|m|i|ə|s}} {{respell|NOH|mee|əs}}; {{lang|grc|Νόμιος}}, ''Nomios''), literally "pastoral" *'''Nymphegetes''' ({{IPAc-en|n|ɪ|m|ˈ|f|ɛ|dʒ|ɪ|t|iː|z}} {{respell|nim|FEJ|i|teez}}; {{lang|grc|Νυμφηγέτης}}, ''Numphēgetēs''), from {{lang|grc|Νύμφη}}, "Nymph", and {{lang|grc|ἡγέτης}}, "leader", for his role as a protector of shepherds and pastoral life ====Prophecy and truth==== *'''Coelispex''' (Roman) ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ɛ|l|ɪ|s|p|ɛ|k|s}} {{respell|SEL|i|speks}}), from Latin ''coelum'', "sky", and ''specere'' "to look at" *'''Iatromantis''' ({{IPAc-en|aɪ|ˌ|æ|t|r|ə|ˈ|m|æ|n|t|ɪ|s}} {{respell|eye|AT|rə|MAN|tis}}; {{lang|grc|Ἰατρομάντις}}, ''Iātromantis'',) from {{lang|grc|ἰατρός}}, "physician", and {{lang|grc|μάντις}}, "prophet", referring to his role as a god both of healing and of prophecy *'''Leschenorius''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|l|ɛ|s|k|ɪ|ˈ|n|ɔr|i|ə|s}} {{respell|LES|ki|NOR|ee|əs}}; {{lang|grc|Λεσχηνόριος}}, ''Leskhēnorios''), from {{lang|grc|λεσχήνωρ}}, "converser" *'''Loxias''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|ɒ|k|s|i|ə|s}} {{respell|LOK|see|əs}}; {{lang|grc|Λοξίας}}, ''Loxias''), from {{lang|grc|λέγειν}}, "to say",<ref name=simbolismo/> historically associated with {{lang|grc|λοξός}}, "ambiguous" *'''Manticus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|æ|n|t|ɪ|k|ə|s}} {{respell|MAN|ti|kəs}}; {{lang|grc|Μαντικός}}, ''Mantikos''), literally "prophetic" ====Music and arts==== *'''Musagetes''' ({{IPAc-en|m|j|uː|ˈ|s|æ|dʒ|ɪ|t|iː|z}} {{respell|mew|SAJ|i|teez}}; [[Doric Greek|Doric]] {{lang|grc|Μουσαγέτας}}, ''Mousāgetās''), from {{lang|grc|Μούσα}}, "[[Muse]]", and {{lang|grc|ἡγέτης}} "leader"<ref>{{LSJ|*mousage/tas|Μουσαγέτας|shortref}}.</ref> *'''Musegetes''' ({{IPAc-en|m|j|uː|ˈ|s|ɛ|dʒ|ɪ|t|iː|z}} {{respell|mew|SEJ|i|teez}}; {{lang|grc|Μουσηγέτης}}, ''Mousēgetēs''), as the preceding ====Archery==== *'''Aphetor''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|f|iː|t|ər}} {{respell|ə|FEE|tər}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀφήτωρ}}, ''Aphētōr''), from {{lang|grc|ἀφίημι}}, "to let loose" *'''Aphetorus''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|f|ɛ|t|ər|ə|s}} {{respell|ə|FET|ər|əs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀφητόρος}}, ''Aphētoros''), as the preceding *'''Arcitenens''' (Roman) ({{IPAc-en|ɑːr|ˈ|t|ɪ|s|ɪ|n|ə|n|z}} {{respell|ar|TISS|i|nənz}}), literally "bow-carrying" *'''Argyrotoxus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɑːr|dʒ|ər|ə|ˈ|t|ɒ|k|s|ə|s}} {{respell|AR|jər|ə|TOK|səs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀργυρότοξος}}, ''Argyrotoxos''), literally "with silver bow" *'''Hecaërgus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|h|ɛ|k|i|ˈ|ɜːr|ɡ|ə|s}} {{respell|HEK|ee|UR|gəs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἑκάεργος}}, ''Hekaergos''), literally "far-shooting" *'''Hecebolus''' ({{IPAc-en|h|ɪ|ˈ|s|ɛ|b|əl|ə|s}} {{respell|hi|SEB|əl|əs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἑκηβόλος}}, ''Hekēbolos''), "far-shooting" *'''Ismenius''' ({{IPAc-en|ɪ|z|ˈ|m|iː|n|i|ə|s}} {{respell|iz|MEE|nee|əs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἰσμηνιός}}, ''Ismēnios''), literally "of Ismenus", after Ismenus, the son of [[Amphion]] and [[Niobe]], whom he struck with an arrow ===Celtic epithets and cult titles=== Apollo was worshipped throughout the [[Roman Empire]]. In the traditionally [[Celtic nations|Celtic]] lands he was most often seen as a healing and sun god. He was often equated with [[List of Celtic gods|Celtic gods]] of similar character.<ref>Miranda J. Green, ''Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend'', Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1997</ref> * '''[[Apollo Atepomarus]]''' ("the great horseman" or "possessing a great horse"). Apollo was worshipped at [[Mauvières]] ([[Indre]]). Horses were, in the Celtic world, closely linked to the sun.<ref>''Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum'' XIII, 1863–1986; A. Ross, ''Pagan Celtic Britain'', 1967; M.J. Green, ''The Gods of the Celts'', 1986, London</ref> * '''[[Apollo Belenus]]''' ('bright' or 'brilliant'). This epithet was given to Apollo in parts of [[Gaul]], Northern Italy and [[Noricum]] (part of modern Austria). Apollo Belenus was a healing and sun god.<ref>J. Zwicker, ''Fontes Historiae Religionis Celticae'', 1934–36, Berlin; ''Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum'' V, XI, XII, XIII; J. Gourcest, "Le culte de Belenos en Provence occidentale et en Gaule", ''Ogam'' '''6'''.6 (1954:257–262); E. Thevonot, "Le cheval sacre dans la Gaule de l'Est", ''Revue archeologique de l'Est et du Centre-Est'' (vol 2), 1951; [], "Temoignages du culte de l'Apollon gaulois dans l'Helvetie romaine"'', Revue celtique'' (vol 51), 1934.</ref> * '''[[Apollo Cunomaglus]]''' ('hound lord'). A title given to Apollo at a shrine at [[Nettleton, Wiltshire#Roman-period shrine|Nettleton Shrub]], [[Wiltshire]]. May have been a god of healing. Cunomaglus himself may originally have been an independent healing god.<ref>W.J. Wedlake, ''The Excavation of the Shrine of Apollo at Nettleton, Wiltshire, 1956–1971'', Society of Antiquaries of London, 1982.</ref> * '''[[Apollo Grannus]]'''. Grannus was a healing spring god, later equated with Apollo.<ref>M. Szabo, ''The Celtic Heritage in Hungary'' (Budapest 1971)</ref><ref name="thevonat">Divinites et sanctuaires de la Gaule, E. Thevonat, 1968, Paris</ref><ref name="devries">La religion des Celtes, J. de Vries, 1963, Paris</ref> * '''Apollo Maponus'''. A god known from inscriptions in Britain. This may be a local fusion of Apollo and [[Maponus]]. * '''[[Apollo Moritasgus]]''' ('masses of sea water'). An epithet for Apollo at Alesia, where he was worshipped as god of healing and, possibly, of physicians.<ref>J. Le Gall, ''Alesia, archeologie et histoire'' (Paris 1963).</ref> * '''[[Apollo Vindonnus]]''' ('clear light'). Apollo Vindonnus had a temple at [[Essarois]], near [[Châtillon-sur-Seine]] in present-day [[Burgundy]]. He was a god of healing, especially of the eyes.<ref name=thevonat/> * '''[[Apollo Virotutis]]''' ('benefactor of mankind?'). Apollo Virotutis was worshipped, among other places, at Fins d'Annecy ([[Haute-Savoie]]) and at [[Jublains]] ([[Maine-et-Loire]]).<ref name=devries/><ref>''Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum'' XIII</ref> ==Origins== [[File:Omphalos museum.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Omphalos]] in the Museum of [[Delphi]]]] The cult centers of Apollo in Greece, [[Delphi]] and [[Delos]], date from the 8th century BCE. The Delos sanctuary was primarily dedicated to [[Artemis]], Apollo's twin sister. At Delphi, Apollo was venerated as the slayer of [[Pytho]]. For the Greeks, Apollo was all the Gods in one and through the centuries he acquired different functions which could originate from different gods. In [[archaic period in Greece|archaic Greece]] he was the [[prophet]], the oracular god who in older times was connected with "healing". In [[classical period in Greece|classical Greece]] he was the god of light and of music, but in popular religion he had a strong function to keep away evil.<ref>Martin Nilsson (1967)".Die Geschicte der Giechischen Religion.Vol I".C.F.Beck Verlag.Munchen. p 529</ref> [[Walter Burkert]]<ref>Burkert, Walter. ''Greek Religion'', 1985:144.</ref> discerned three components in the prehistory of Apollo worship, which he termed "a Dorian-northwest Greek component, a Cretan-Minoan component, and a Syro-Hittite component." From his eastern origin Apollo brought the art of inspection of "symbols and [[omen|omina]]" (σημεία και τέρατα : ''semeia kai terata''), and of the observation of the [[omen]]s of the days. The inspiration oracular-cult was probably introduced from [[Anatolia]]. The [[ritual]]ism belonged to Apollo from the beginning. The Greeks created the [[Legalism (Western philosophy)|legalism]], the supervision of the orders of the gods, and the demand for moderation and harmony. Apollo became the god of shining youth, the protector of music, spiritual-life, moderation and perceptible order. The improvement of the old [[Anatolia]]n god, and his elevation to an intellectual sphere, may be considered an achievement of the [[Greek people]].<ref name="Nilsson563">[[Martin P. Nilsson|Martin Nilsson]]. ''Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion Vol I'', pp. 563–564</ref> ===Healer and god-protector from evil=== The function of Apollo as a "healer" is connected with [[Paean (god)|Paean]] ({{lang|grc|Παιών-Παιήων}}), the physician of the Gods in the ''[[Iliad]]'', who seems to come from a more primitive religion.<ref>Paieon ({{lang|grc|Παιήων}}) puts pain-relieving medicines on the wounds of Pluton and Ares ( [[Ilias]] E401). This art is related with Egypt: ([[Odyssey]] D232): M. Nilsson Vol I, p. 543</ref> Paeοn is probably connected with the [[Mycenean Greece|Mycenean]] ''pa-ja-wo-ne'' (Linear B: {{lang|gmy|𐀞𐀊𐀺𐀚}}),<ref>{{cite book|title=The Mycenaeans|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QXwzT1048Z4C&lpg=PA144&pg=PA160#v=onepage&f=false|page=160|first=Louise|last=Schofield|year=2007|publisher=The British Museum Press|isbn=978-0-89236-867-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://minoan.deaditerranean.com/linear-b-transliterations/knossos/kn-v/kn-v/#toc-kn-v-52|title=KN V 52+|website=Deaditerranean: Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B}}</ref><ref name=Chawick>{{cite book|last=Chadwick|first=John|author-link=John Chadwick|title=The Mycenaean World|location=Cambridge, UK|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1976|isbn=0-521-29037-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RMj7M_tGaNMC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA89#v=onepage&q&f=false|page=89}} At Google Books.</ref> but this is not certain. He did not have a separate cult, but he was the personification of the holy magic-song sung by the magicians that was supposed to cure disease. Later the Greeks knew the original meaning of the relevant song "paean" ({{lang|grc|παιάν}}). The magicians were also called "seer-doctors" ({{lang|grc|ἰατρομάντεις}}), and they used an ecstatic prophetic art which was used exactly by the god Apollo at the oracles.<ref>{{lang|grc|Ἐπὶ καταπαύσει λοιμῶν καὶ νόσων ᾄδόμενος}}. ''Which is sung to stop the plagues and the diseases''. Proklos: Chrestom from Photios Bibl. code. 239, p. 321: Martin Nilsson. Die Geschicthe der Griechischen religion. Vol I, p. 543</ref> In the ''Iliad'', Apollo is the healer under the gods, but he is also the bringer of disease and death with his arrows, similar to the function of the [[Vedic]] god of disease [[Rudra]].<ref name="Martin Nilsson 1967 p. 541">"The conception that the diseases come from invisible shots sent by magicians or supernatural beings is common in primitive people and also in European folklore. In North-Europe they speak of the "[[Elf-shot]]s". In Sweden where the Lapps were called magicians, they speak of the "Lappen-shots". Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, p. 541</ref> He sends a plague ({{lang|grc|λοιμός}}) to the [[Achaeans (Homer)|Achaeans]]. The god who sends a disease can also prevent it; therefore, when it stops, they make a purifying ceremony and offer him a [[hecatomb]] to ward off evil. When the oath of his priest appeases, they pray and with a song they call their own god, the ''Paean''.<ref>[[Ilias]] A 314. Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, p. 543</ref> Some common epithets of Apollo as a healer are "paion" ({{lang|grc|παιών}}, literally "healer" or "helper")<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0062:entry=paean-harpers]: Harper's Dictionary of classical antiquity</ref> "epikourios" ({{lang|grc|ἐπικουρώ}}, "help"), "oulios" ({{lang|grc|οὐλή}}, "healed wound", also a "scar" )<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:abo:tlg,0099,001:14:1:6&lang=original Perseus.tufts.edu]</ref> and "loimios" ({{lang|grc|λοιμός}}, "plague"). In classical times, his strong function in popular religion was to keep away evil, and was therefore called "apotropaios" ({{lang|grc|ἀποτρέπω}}, "divert", "deter", "avert") and "alexikakos" (from [[verb|v.]] {{lang|grc|ἀλέξω}} + [[noun|n.]] {{lang|grc|κακόν}}, "defend from evil").<ref>Pausanias VIII 41, 8-IV 34, 7-Sittig. Nom P. 48. f-Aristoph. Vesp. V. 61-Paus. I 3, 4. Martin Nilsson (1967) Vol I, p. 540, 544</ref> In later writers, the word, usually spelled "Paean", becomes a mere epithet of Apollo in his capacity as a god of [[healing]].<ref>{{cite book| last = Graf| first = Fritz| title = Apollo| url = https://books.google.com/?id=it9n9_I-UOkC&pg=PA66| year = 2008| publisher = Taylor & Francis| isbn = 978-0-203-58171-1| page = 66 }}</ref> Homer illustrated Paeon the god, and the song both of [[apotropaic]] thanksgiving or triumph.{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}} Such songs were originally addressed to Apollo, and afterwards to other gods: to [[Dionysus]], to Apollo [[Helios]], to Apollo's son [[Asclepius]] the healer. About the 4th century BCE, the paean became merely a formula of adulation; its object was either to implore protection against disease and misfortune, or to offer thanks after such protection had been rendered. It was in this way that Apollo had become recognised as the god of music. Apollo's role as the slayer of the [[Python (mythology)|Python]] led to his association with battle and victory; hence it became the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] custom for a paean to be sung by an army on the march and before entering into battle, when a fleet left the harbour, and also after a victory had been won. ===Dorian origin=== [[File:Apollo-WaltersArt.jpg|left|thumb|''Apollo Victorious over the Python'' by the Florentine [[Pietro Francavilla]] (dated 1591) depicting Apollo's first triumph, when he slew with his bow and arrows the serpent Python, which lies dead at his feet<ref>{{cite web | publisher=[[The Walters Art Museum]] | url=http://art.thewalters.org/detail/7866 | title=Apollo Victorious over the Python | accessdate=21 June 2013}}</ref> ([[Walters Art Museum|The Walters Art Museum]]).]] The connection with the Dorians and their initiation festival ''[[apellai]]'' is reinforced by the month ''Apellaios'' in northwest Greek calendars.<ref>Graf, ''Apollo'', pp. 104–113; Burkert also notes in this context [[Archilochus]] ''Fr.'' 94.</ref> The family-festival was dedicated to Apollo ([[Dorians|Doric]]: {{lang|grc|Ἀπέλλων}}).<ref>Walter Burkert (1985) ''Greek Religion''. Harvard University Press. p. 255</ref> ''Apellaios'' is the month of these rites, and Apellon is the "megistos kouros" (the great Kouros).<ref>Jane Ellen Harrison (2010): ''Themis: A study to the Social origins of Greek Religion''. Cambridge University Press. p. 441. {{ISBN|1108009492}}</ref> However it can explain only the Doric type of the name, which is connected with the [[Ancient Macedonian language|Ancient Macedonian]] word "pella" ([[Pella]]), ''stone''. Stones played an important part in the cult of the god, especially in the oracular shrine of Delphi ([[Omphalos]]).<ref>Compare: [[Baetylus]]. In Semitic: sacred stone</ref><ref>Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I. p. 556</ref> The "[[Homeric hymn]]" represents Apollo as a Northern intruder. His arrival must have occurred during the "[[Greek Dark Ages|Dark Ages]]" that followed the destruction of the [[Mycenaean civilization]], and his conflict with [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]] (Mother Earth) was represented by the legend of his slaying her daughter the serpent [[Python (mythology)|Python]].<ref>Herbert W. Park (1956). ''The delphic oracle''. Vol.I, p. 3</ref> The earth deity had power over the ghostly world, and it is believed that she was the deity behind the oracle.<ref>Lewis Farnel(1909)''The cult of the city states. Clarendon Press. VIII. pp. 8–10''</ref> The older tales mentioned two dragons who were perhaps intentionally conflated. A female dragon named [[Delphyne]] ({{lang|grc|δελφύς}}, "womb"),<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0058%3Aentry%3Ddelfu%2Fs δελφύς]</ref> and a male serpent [[Typhon]] ({{lang|grc|τύφειν}}, "to smoke"), the adversary of [[Zeus]] in the [[Titanomachy]], who the narrators confused with [[Python (mythology)|Python]].<ref>"Many pictures show the serpent Python living in amity with Apollo and guarding the Omphalos. Karl Kerenyi (1951). ed. 1980: ''The gods of the Greeks'', pp. 36–37</ref><ref>"In a Pompeian fresco Python is lying peacefully on the ground and the priests with the sacred double axe in their hand bring the bull (''bouphronion''). Jane. H. Harisson (1912): ''Themis. A study of the social origins of the Greek religion''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 423–424</ref> Python was the good [[Daemon (classical mythology)|daemon]] (ἀγαθὸς δαίμων) of the temple as it appears in [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] religion,<ref>In Minoan religion the serpent is the protector of the household (underground stored corn). Also in Greek religion, "snake of the house" ({{lang|grc|οἰκουρὸς ὄφις}}) in the temple of [[Athena]] at Acropolis, etc., and in Greek folklore. Martin Nilsson, Vol.I, pp. 213–214</ref> but she was represented as a dragon, as often happens in Northern European folklore as well as in the East.<ref>Nordig sagas. [[Hittites|Hittite]] myth of [[Illuyankas]]. Also in the Bible: [[Leviathan]]. W. Porzig (1930).'' Illuyankas and Typhon. Kleinasiatische Forschung'', pp. 379–386</ref> Apollo and his sister [[Artemis]] can bring death with their arrows. The conception that diseases and death come from invisible shots sent by supernatural beings, or magicians is common in [[Germanic mythology|Germanic]] and [[Norse mythology]].<ref name="Martin Nilsson 1967 p. 541"/> In [[Greek mythology]] Artemis was the leader ({{lang|grc|ἡγεμών}}, "hegemon") of the [[nymphs]], who had similar functions with the [[Norse mythology|Nordic]] [[Elf|Elves]].<ref name="Nilsson499">. Martin Nilsson (1967), Vol I, pp. 499–500</ref> The "elf-shot" originally indicated disease or death attributed to the elves, but it was later attested denoting stone [[arrow (weapon)|arrow]]-heads which were used by witches to harm people, and also for healing rituals.<ref>Hall, Alaric. 2005. 'Getting Shot of Elves: Healing, Witchcraft and Fairies in the Scottish Witchcraft Trials', [http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/5597/], 116 (2005), pp.&nbsp;19–36.</ref> The [[Vedic]] Rudra has some similar functions with Apollo. The terrible god is called "The Archer", and the bow is also an attribute of [[Shiva]].<ref>For {{IAST|Śarva}} as a name of Shiva see: Apte, p.&nbsp;910.</ref> Rudra could bring diseases with his arrows, but he was able to free people of them, and his alternative Shiba is a healer physician god.<ref>For association between Rudra and disease, with Rigvedic references, see: Bhandarkar, p.&nbsp;146.</ref> However the [[Indo-European language|Indo-European]] component of Apollo does not explain his strong relation with omens, exorcisms, and with the oracular cult. ===Minoan origin=== [[File:AMI - Goldene Doppelaxt.jpg|thumb|250px|Ornamented golden [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] [[labrys]]]] It seems an oracular cult existed in Delphi from the [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] age.<ref>''[[Odyssey]]'' 8.80</ref> In historical times, the priests of Delphi were called [[labrys|Labryaden]], "the double-axe men", which indicates [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] origin. The double-axe, [[labrys]], was the holy symbol of the [[Crete|Cretan]] [[labyrinth]].<ref>Huxley (1975). ''Cretan Paewones. Roman and Byzantine studies'', pp.&nbsp;129–134</ref><ref>H.G.Wunderlich. ''The secret of Creta'' Souvenir Press Ltd. London p.&nbsp;319</ref> The Homeric hymn adds that Apollo appeared as a dolphin and carried Cretan priests to Delphi, where they evidently transferred their religious practices. ''Apollo Delphinios'' or ''Delphidios'' was a sea-god especially worshiped in Crete and in the islands.<ref>Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol&nbsp;I, p.&nbsp;554 A4</ref> Apollo's sister [[Artemis]], who was the Greek goddess of hunting, is identified with [[Britomartis]] ([[Diktynna]]), the [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] "Mistress of the animals". In her earliest depictions she is accompanied by the "Mister of the animals", a male god of hunting who had the bow as his attribute. His original name is unknown, but it seems that he was absorbed by the more popular Apollo, who stood by the virgin "Mistress of the Animals", becoming her brother.<ref name=Nilsson499/> The old oracles in Delphi seem to be connected with a local tradition of the priesthood, and there is not clear evidence that a kind of inspiration-prophecy existed in the temple. This led some scholars to the conclusion that Pythia carried on the rituals in a consistent procedure through many centuries, according to the local tradition. In that regard, the mythical seeress [[Sibyl]] of [[Anatolia]]n origin, with her ecstatic art, looks unrelated to the oracle itself.<ref>Hugh Bowden (2005). ''Classical Athens and the Delphic oracle'', pp. 17–18</ref> However, the Greek tradition is referring to the existence of vapours and chewing of laurel-leaves, which seem to be confirmed by recent studies.<ref>{{cite book| author = William J. Broad| title = The oracle: the lost secrets and hidden message of ancient Delphi| year = 2006| publisher = Penguin Group USA| isbn = 1-59420-081-5| page = 32 }}</ref> [[Plato]] describes the priestesses of Delphi and [[Dodona]] as frenzied women, obsessed by "[[mania]]" ({{lang|grc|μανία}}, "frenzy"), a Greek word he connected with ''mantis'' ({{lang|grc|μάντις}}, "prophet").<ref>{{LSJ|ma/ntis|μάντις|shortref}}.</ref> Frenzied women like Sibyls from whose lips the god speaks are recorded in the [[Near East]] as [[Mari, Syria|Mari]] in the second millennium BC.<ref>Walter Burkert (1985).''The Greek religion''. p. 116</ref> Although Crete had contacts with Mari from 2000 BC,<ref>F.Schachermeyer (1964). p. 128</ref> there is no evidence that the ecstatic prophetic art existed during the Minoan and Mycenean ages. It is more probable that this art was introduced later from [[Anatolia]] and regenerated an existing oracular cult that was local to Delphi and dormant in several areas of Greece.<ref>Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, pp. 543–545</ref> ===Anatolian origin=== [[File:Coin of Apollo Agyieus.png|thumb|250px|Illustration of a coin of Apollo Agyieus from [[Ambracia]]]] A non-Greek origin of Apollo has long been assumed in scholarship.<ref name="DDD"/> The name of Apollo's mother [[Leto]] has [[Lydia]]n origin, and she was worshipped on the coasts of [[Asia Minor]]. The inspiration oracular cult was probably introduced into Greece from [[Anatolia]], which is the origin of [[Sibyl]], and where existed some of the oldest oracular shrines. Omens, symbols, purifications, and exorcisms appear in old [[Assyria|Assyro]]-[[Babylon]]ian texts, and these rituals were spread into the empire of the [[Hittites]]. In a Hittite text is mentioned that the king invited a Babylonian priestess for a certain "purification".<ref name=Nilsson563/> A similar story is mentioned by [[Plutarch]]. He writes that the [[Creta]]n [[prophet|seer]] [[Epimenides]] purified [[Athens]] after the pollution brought by the [[Alcmeonidae]], and that the seer's expertise in [[sacrifice]]s and reform of funeral practices were of great help to [[Solon]] in his reform of the Athenian state.<ref>Plutarch, ''Life of Solon'', 12; [[Aristotle]], ''[[Constitution of the Athenians (Aristotle)|Ath. Pol]]''. 1.</ref> The story indicates that Epimenides was probably heir to the [[Shamanism#Asia|shamanic religions of Asia]], and proves, together with the [[Homeric]] hymn, that Crete had a resisting religion up to historical times. It seems that these rituals were dormant in Greece, and they were reinforced when the Greeks migrated to [[Anatolia]]. [[Homer]] pictures Apollo on the side of the [[Troy|Trojans]], fighting against the [[Achaeans (Homer)|Achaeans]], during the [[Trojan War]]. He is pictured as a terrible god, less trusted by the Greeks than other gods. The god seems to be related to ''Appaliunas'', a tutelary god of [[Wilusa]] ([[Troy]]) in Asia Minor, but the word is not complete.<ref>[[Paul Kretschmer]] (1936). Glotta XXIV p. 250. Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, p. 559.</ref> The stones found in front of the gates of [[Homer]]ic Troy were the symbols of Apollo. A western Anatolian origin may also be bolstered by references to the parallel worship of ''Artimus'' ([[Artemis]]) and ''Qλdãns'', whose name may be cognate with the Hittite and Doric forms, in surviving [[Lydian language|Lydian]] texts''.''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ediana.gwi.uni-muenchen.de/corpus.php|title=EDIANA - Corpus|website=www.ediana.gwi.uni-muenchen.de|access-date=2018-03-08}}</ref> However, recent scholars have cast doubt on the identification of ''Qλdãns'' with Apollo.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sardisexpedition.org/en/essays/latw-greenewalt-gods-of-lydia|title=The Archaeological Exploration of Sardis|website=sardisexpedition.org|language=en|access-date=2018-03-08}}</ref> The Greeks gave to him the name {{lang|grc|ἀγυιεύς}} ''[[agyieus]]'' as the protector god of public places and houses who wards off evil, and his symbol was a tapered stone or column.<ref>Martin Nilsson, ''Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion.'' vol. I (C. H. Beck), 1955:563f.</ref> However, while usually Greek festivals were celebrated at the [[full moon]], all the feasts of Apollo were celebrated at the seventh day of the month, and the emphasis given to that day (''sibutu'') indicates a [[Babylonia]]n origin.<ref>Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, p. 561.</ref> The [[Late Bronze Age]] (from 1700 to 1200 BCE) [[Hittites|Hittite]] and [[Hurrian]] ''Aplu'' was a god of [[Plague (disease)|plague]], invoked during plague years. Here we have an [[apotrope|apotropaic]] situation, where a god originally bringing the plague was invoked to end it. Aplu, meaning ''the son of'', was a title given to the god [[Nergal]], who was linked to the Babylonian god of the sun [[Shamash]].<ref name=Grummond /> Homer interprets Apollo as a terrible god ({{lang|grc|δεινὸς θεός}}) who brings death and disease with his arrows, but who can also heal, possessing a magic art that separates him from the other Greek gods.<ref>Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I. pp. 559–560.</ref> In ''[[Iliad]]'', his priest prays to ''Apollo Smintheus'',<ref>"You Apollo Smintheus, let my tears become your arrows against the Danaans, for revenge". [[Iliad]] 1.33 (A 33).</ref> the mouse god who retains an older agricultural function as the protector from field rats.<ref name=LSJsmintheus/><ref>An ancient aetiological myth connects ''sminthos'' with mouse and suggests Cretan origin. Apollo is the mouse-god (Strabo 13.1.48).</ref><ref>"Sminthia" in several areas of Greece. In [[Rhodes]] (Lindos) they belong to Apollo and Dionysos who have destroyed the rats that were swallowing the grapes". Martin Nilsson (1967). pp. 534–535.</ref> All these functions, including the function of the healer-god [[Paean (god)|Paean]], who seems to have Mycenean origin, are fused in the cult of Apollo. ==Oracular cult== [[File:Columns of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, Greece.jpeg|thumb|250px|Columns of the [[Temple of Apollo (Delphi)|Temple of Apollo]] at Delphi, Greece]] Unusually among the Olympic deities, Apollo had two cult sites that had widespread influence: [[Delos]] and [[Delphi]]. In cult practice, [[Delos|Delian Apollo]] and [[Pythian Apollo]] (the Apollo of Delphi) were so distinct that they might both have shrines in the same locality.<ref>Burkert 1985:143.</ref> Apollo's [[Cult (religion)|cult]] was already fully established when written sources commenced, about 650 BCE. Apollo became extremely important to the Greek world as an oracular deity in the [[Archaic Greece|archaic period]], and the frequency of [[theophoric names]] such as ''Apollodorus'' or ''Apollonios'' and cities named ''Apollonia'' testify to his popularity. Oracular sanctuaries to Apollo were established in other sites. In the 2nd and 3rd century CE, those at [[Didyma]] and [[Clarus]] pronounced the so-called "theological oracles", in which Apollo confirms that all deities are aspects or servants of an [[Monism#Monism, pantheism, and panentheism|all-encompassing, highest deity]]. "In the 3rd century, Apollo fell silent. [[Julian the Apostate]] (359–361) tried to revive the Delphic oracle, but failed."<ref name="DDD"/> ===Oracular shrines=== [[File:Delos lions.jpg|thumb|250px|Delos lions]] Apollo had a famous [[oracle]] in Delphi, and other notable ones in [[Clarus]] and [[Branchidae]]. His oracular shrine in [[Abae]] in [[Phocis]], where he bore the [[toponym]]ic epithet ''[[Abaeus]]'' ({{lang|grc|Ἀπόλλων Ἀβαῖος}}, ''Apollon Abaios''), was important enough to be consulted by [[Croesus]].<ref>[[Herodotus]], 1.46.</ref> His oracular shrines include: * [[Abae]] in [[Phocis]]. * [[Bassae]] in the [[Peloponnese]]. * At [[Clarus]], on the west coast of [[Asia Minor]]; as at Delphi a holy spring which gave off a ''pneuma'', from which the priests drank. * In [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]], the Oracle of Corinth came from the town of [[Tenea]], from prisoners supposedly taken in the Trojan War. * At [[Khyrse]], in [[Troad]], the temple was built for Apollo Smintheus. * In [[Delos]], there was an oracle to the Delian Apollo, during summer. The Hieron (Sanctuary) of Apollo adjacent to the Sacred Lake, was the place where the god was said to have been born. * In [[Delphi]], the [[Pythia]] became filled with the ''[[pneuma]]'' of Apollo, said to come from a spring inside the [[Adyton]]. * In [[Didyma]], an oracle on the coast of [[Anatolia]], south west of [[Lydia]]n ([[Luwian]]) [[Sardis]], in which priests from the lineage of the Branchidae received inspiration by drinking from a healing spring located in the temple. Was believed to have been founded by [[Branchus]], son or lover of Apollo. * In [[Manbij|Hierapolis Bambyce]], Syria (modern Manbij), according to the treatise ''[[De Dea Syria]]'', the sanctuary of the [[Atargatis|Syrian Goddess]] contained a robed and bearded image of Apollo. Divination was based on spontaneous movements of this image.<ref>[[Lucian]] (attrib.), ''[[De Dea Syria]]'' [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/tsg/tsg07.htm#35 35–37].</ref> * At [[Patara (Lycia)|Patara]], in [[Lycia]], there was a seasonal winter oracle of Apollo, said to have been the place where the god went from Delos. As at Delphi the oracle at Patara was a woman. * In [[Segesta]] in Sicily. Oracles were also given by sons of Apollo. * In [[Oropus]], north of [[Athens]], the oracle [[Amphiaraus]], was said to be the son of Apollo; Oropus also had a sacred spring. * in Labadea, {{convert|20|mi|km}} east of Delphi, [[Trophonius]], another son of Apollo, killed his brother and fled to the cave where he was also afterwards consulted as an oracle. ==Temples of Apollo== {{Main|Ancient Greek temple|Roman temple}} Many temples were dedicated to Apollo in Greece and the Greek colonies. They show the spread of the cult of Apollo and the evolution of the Greek architecture, which was mostly based on the rightness of form and on mathematical relations. Some of the earliest temples, especially in [[Crete]], do not belong to any Greek order. It seems that the first peripteral temples were rectanglular wooden structures. The different wooden elements were considered [[divine]], and their forms were preserved in the marble or stone elements of the temples of [[Doric order]]. The Greeks used standard types because they believed that the world of objects was a series of typical forms which could be represented in several instances. The temples should be canonic, and the architects were trying to achieve this esthetic perfection.<ref>To know what a thing is, we must know the look of it": Rhys Carpenter: ''The esthetic basis of Greek art''. Indiana University Press. p. 108</ref> From the earliest times there were certain rules strictly observed in rectangular peripteral and prostyle buildings. The first buildings were built narrowly in order to hold the roof, and when the dimensions changed some mathematical relations became necessary in order to keep the original forms. This probably influenced the theory of numbers of [[Pythagoras]], who believed that behind the appearance of things there was the permanent principle of mathematics.<ref name="C. M. Bowra 1957 p. 166">C. M. Bowra (1957). ''The Greek experience'', p. 166.</ref> The [[Doric order]] dominated during the 6th and the 5th century BC but there was a mathematical problem regarding the position of the triglyphs, which couldn’t be solved without changing the original forms. The order was almost abandoned for the [[Ionic order]], but the Ionic capital also posed an insoluble problem at the corner of a temple. Both orders were abandoned for the [[Corinthian order]] gradually during the Hellenistic age and under Rome. The most important temples are: ===Greek temples=== *[[Thebes, Greece]]: The oldest temple probably dedicated to ''Apollo Ismenius'' was built in the 9th century B.C. It seems that it was a curvilinear building. The [[Doric order|Doric]] temple was built in the early 7th century B.C., but only some small parts have been found <ref>William Dinsmoor (1950),''The architecture of Ancient Greece'', p. 218, {{ISBN|0-8196-0283-3}}</ref> A festival called [[Daphnephoria]] was celebrated every ninth year in honour of Apollo Ismenius (or Galaxius). The people held laurel branches (daphnai), and at the head of the procession walked a youth (chosen priest of Apollo), who was called "daphnephoros".<ref name="William Smith 1875. p. 384">William Smith.'' A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities'', John Murray, London, 1875. p. 384</ref> *[[Eretria]]: According to the Homeric hymn to Apollo, the god arrived to the plain, seeking for a location to establish its oracle. The first temple of ''Apollo Daphnephoros'', "Apollo, laurel-bearer", or "carrying off Daphne", is dated to 800 B.C. The temple was curvilinear ''hecatombedon'' (a hundred feet). In a smaller building were kept the bases of the laurel branches which were used for the first building. Another temple probably peripteral was built in the 7th century B.C., with an inner row of wooden columns over its Geometric predecessor. It was rebuilt peripteral around 510 B.C., with the [[stylobate]] measuring 21,00 x 43,00 m. The number of [[pteron]] column was 6 x 14.<ref>[http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/2/eh251.jsp?obj_id=1689 Hellenic Ministry of culture, Temple of Apollo Daphnephoros] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140912212901/http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/2/eh251.jsp?obj_id=1689 |date=12 September 2014 }}</ref><ref>Rufus B. Richardson, "A Temple in Eretria" ''The American Journal of Archaeology and of the History of the Fine Arts'', '''10'''.3 (July – September 1895:326–337)</ref> *[[Dreros]] ([[Crete]]). The temple of ''Apollo Delphinios'' dates from the 7th century B.C., or probably from the middle of the 8th century B.C. According to the legend, Apollo appeared as a dolphin, and carried Cretan priests to the port of [[Delphi]].<ref name="Martin Nilsson 1967 p. 529">Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol&nbsp;I, p.&nbsp;529</ref> The dimensions of the plan are 10,70 x 24,00 m and the building was not peripteral. It contains column-bases of the [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] type, which may be considered as the predecessors of the [[Doric order|Doric]] columns.<ref>Robertson pp. 56 and 323</ref> *[[Gortyn]] ([[Crete]]). A temple of ''Pythian Apollo'', was built in the 7th century B.C. The plan measured 19,00 x 16,70 m and it was not peripteral. The walls were solid, made from limestone, and there was single door on the east side. *[[Thermon]] ([[West Greece]]): The [[Doric order|Doric]] temple of ''Apollo Thermios'', was built in the middle of the 7th century B.C. It was built on an older curvilinear building dating perhaps from the 10th century B.C., on which a [[peristyle]] was added. The temple was narrow, and the number of pteron columns (probably wooden) was 5 x 15. There was a single row of inner columns. It measures 12.13 x 38.23 m at the stylobate, which was made from stones.<ref name="Spivey, p. 112">Spivey, p. 112</ref> [[File:Apollotempel.gif|thumb|left|200px| Floor plan of the temple of Apollo, Corinth]] *[[Corinth]]: A [[Doric order|Doric]] temple was built in the 6th century B.C. The temple's [[stylobate]] measures 21.36 x 53.30 m, and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 15. There was a double row of inner columns. The style is similar with the Temple of Alcmeonidae at [[Delphi]].<ref>Robertson p. 87</ref> The Corinthians were considered to be the inventors of the [[Doric order]].<ref name="Spivey, p. 112"/> *Napes ([[Lesbos]]): An [[Aeolic order|Aeolic]] temple probably of ''Apollo Napaios'' was built in the 7th century B.C. Some special capitals with floral ornament have been found, which are called [[Aeolic order|Aeolic]], and it seems that they were borrowed from the East.<ref name=Robertson324>D.S Robertson(1945):''A handbook of Greek and Roman architecture'', Cambridge University Press pp. 324-329</ref> *[[Cyrene, Libya]]: The oldest [[Doric order|Doric]] temple of Apollo was built in c. 600 B.C. The number of pteron columns was 6 x 11, and it measures 16.75 x 30.05 m at the stylobate. There was a double row of sixteen inner columns on stylobates. The capitals were made from stone.<ref name=Robertson324/> *[[Naukratis]]: An [[Ionic order|Ionic]] temple was built in the early 6th century B.C. Only some fragments have been found and the earlier, made from limestone, are identified among the oldest of the [[Ionic order]].<ref>Robertson, p. 98</ref> [[File:Siracusa-Temple-of-Apoll-Plan-bjs.png|thumb|right|200px|Floor plan of the temple of Apollo, Syracuse]] *[[Syracuse, Sicily]]: A [[Doric order|Doric]] temple was built at the beginning of the 6th century B.C. The temple's [[stylobate]] measures 21.47 x 55.36 m and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 17. It was the first temple in Greek west built completely out of stone. A second row of columns were added, obtaining the effect of an inner porch.<ref>Mertens 2006, pp. 104–109.</ref> *[[Selinus]] ([[Sicily]]):The [[Doric order|Doric]] [[Temple C (Selinus)|Temple C]] dates from 550 B.C., and it was probably dedicated to Apollo. The temple's stylobate measures 10.48 x 41.63 m and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 17. There was portico with a second row of columns, which is also attested for the temple at [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]].<ref>[[Inscriptiones Graecorum|IG]] XIV 269</ref> *[[Delphi]]: The first temple dedicated to Apollo, was built in the 7th century B.C. According to the legend, it was wooden made of laurel branches. The "Temple of Alcmeonidae" was built in c. 513 B.C. and it is the oldest Doric temple with significant marble elements. The temple's stylobate measures 21.65 x 58.00 m, and the number of pteron columns as 6 x 15.<ref>[http://www.ancient-greece.org/architecture/delphi-temple-of-apollo.html Temple of Apollo at Delphi], Ancient-Greece.org</ref> A fest similar with Apollo's fest at [[Thebes, Greece]] was celebrated every nine years. A boy was sent to the temple, who walked on the sacred road and returned carrying a laurel branch (''dopnephoros''). The maidens participated with joyful songs.<ref name="William Smith 1875. p. 384"/> *[[Chios]]: An [[Ionic order|Ionic]] temple of ''Apollo Phanaios'' was built at the end of the 6th century B.C. Only some small parts have been found and the capitals had floral ornament.<ref name=Robertson324/> *[[Abae]] ([[Phocis (ancient region)|Phocis]]). The temple was destroyed by the [[Persia]]ns in the invasion of [[Xerxes I of Persia|Xerxes]] in 480 B.C., and later by the [[Boeotia]]ns. It was rebuilt by [[Hadrian]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Smith|first1=William|title=New classical dictionary of biography, mythology, and geography|date=1850|page=1|url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=5_oGAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA1|accessdate=14 October 2017}}</ref> The oracle was in use from early [[Mycenae]]an times to the Roman period, and shows the continuity of Mycenaean and Classical Greek religion.<ref>See reports of the German Archaeological Institute in Archaeological Reports for 2008/9 43-45</ref> [[File:Bassai Temple of Apollo Plan.svg|left|thumb|200px|Floor plan of the Temple of Apollo at Bassae]] *[[Bassae]] ([[Peloponnesus]]):A temple dedicated to ''Apollo Epikourios'' ("Apollo the helper"), was built in 430 B.C. and it was designed by [[Iktinos]].It combined [[Doric order|Doric]] and [[Ionic order|Ionic]] elements, and the earliest use of column with a [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] capital in the middle.<ref>[http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/3/eh351.jsp?obj_id=6664 Hellenic Ministry of Culture: The Temple of Epicurean Apollo].</ref> The temple is of a relatively modest size, with the [[stylobate]] measuring 14.5 x 38.3 metres<ref name="WHO">[http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/apolloepicurius.html Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae], World Heritage Site.</ref> containing a [[Doric order|Doric]] [[peristyle]] of 6 x 15 columns. The roof left a central space open to admit light and air. *[[Delos]]: A temple probably dedicated to Apollo and not peripteral, was built in the late 7th century B.C., with a plan measuring 10,00 x 15,60 m. The [[Doric order|Doric]] Great temple of Apollo, was built in c. 475 B.C. The temple's stylobate measures 13.72 x 29.78 m, and the number of pteron columns as 6 x 13. Marble was extensively used.<ref name=Robertson324/> *[[Ambracia]]: A [[Doric order|Doric]] peripteral temple dedicated to ''Apollo Pythios Sotir'' was built in 500 B.C., and It is lying at the centre of the Greek city [[Arta, Greece|Arta]]. Only some parts have been found, and it seems that the temple was built on earlier sanctuaries dedicated to Apollo. The temple measures 20,75 x 44,00 m at the [[stylobate]]. The foundation which supported the statue of the god, still exists.<ref>[http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/2/eh251.jsp?obj_id=7002 Ministry of culture. Temple of Apollo Pythios Sotir] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141202081651/http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/2/eh251.jsp?obj_id=7002 |date=2 December 2014 }}</ref> [[File:Tempel des Apollo Didymaeos in Milet.png|right|thumb|180px|Temple of Apollo, Didyma]] *[[Didyma]] (near [[Miletus]]): The gigantic [[Ionic order|Ionic]] temple of ''Apollo Didymaios'' started around 540 B.C. The construction ceased and then it was restarted in 330 B.C. The temple is dipteral, with an outer row of 10 x 21 columns, and it measures 28.90 x 80.75 m at the stylobate.<ref>Peter Schneider: ''Neue Funde vom archaischen Apollontempel in Didyma''. In: Ernst-Ludwig Schwandner (ed.): ''Säule und Gebälk. Zu Struktur und Wandlungsprozeß griechisch-römischer Architektur''. Bauforschungskolloquium in Berlin vom 16.-18. Juni 1994. Diskussionen zur Archäologischen Bauforschung</ref> *[[Clarus]] (near ancient [[Colophon (city)|Colophon]]): According to the legend, the famous seer Calchas, on his return from Troy, came to Clarus. He challenged the seer Mopsus, and died when he lost.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0064:entry=clarus-geo perseus tufts Clarus]</ref> The [[Doric order|Doric]] temple of ''Apollo Clarius'' was probably built in the 3rd century B.C., and it was peripteral with 6 x 11 columns. It was reconstructed at the end of the Hellenistic period, and later from the emperor [[Hadrian]] but Pausanias claims that it was still incomplete in the 2nd century B.C.<ref>[https://archive.is/20140917093750/http://www.klaros.org/apollon-klarios-tapinagi-ve-sunaklari?lang=en Prophecy centre of Apollo Clarius]</ref> *[[Hamaxitus]] ([[Troad]]): In [[Iliad]], [[Chryses]] the priest of Apollo, addresses the god with the epithet Smintheus (Lord of Mice), related with the god’s ancient role as bringer of the disease (plague). Recent excavations indicate that the Hellenistic temple of ''Apollo Smintheus'' was constructed at 150–125 B.C., but the symbol of the mouse god was used on coinage probably from the 4th century B.C.<ref>Bresson (2007) 154-5, citing the excavations reports of Özgünel (2001).</ref> The temple measures 40,00 x 23,00 m at the [[stylobate]], and the number of pteron columns was 8 x 14.<ref>Robertson p.333</ref> ===Etruscan and Roman temples=== *[[Veii]] ([[Etruria]]): The temple of Apollo was built in the late 6th century B.C. and it indicates the spread of Apollo’s culture (Aplu) in Etruria. There was a prostyle porch, which is called [[Tuscan order|Tuscan]], and a triple cella 18,50 m wide.<ref name="Robertson pp. 200-201">Robertson pp. 200-201</ref> *[[Falerii Veteres]] ([[Etruria]]): A temple of Apollo was built probably in the 4th-3rd century B.C. Parts of a teraccotta capital, and a teraccotta base have been found. It seems that the Etruscan columns were derived from the archaic Doric.<ref name="Robertson pp. 200-201"/> A cult of [[Soranus (mythology)|Apollo Soranus]] is attested by one inscription found near Falerii.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0006:entry=falerii-veteres Perseus tufts: Falerii Veteres]</ref> [[File:Pompeii Regio 07 Insula 07 Temple of Apollo plan 01.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Plan of the [[Temple of Apollo (Pompeii)]]]] *[[Pompeii]] (Italy): The cult of Apollo was widespread in the region of Campania since the 6th century B.C. The temple was built in 120 B.V, but its beginnings lie in the 6th century B.C. It was reconstructed after an earthquake in A.D. 63. It demonstrates a mixing of styles which formed the basis of Roman architecture. The columns in front of the cella formed a [[Tuscan order|Tuscan]] prostyle porch, and the cella is situated unusually far back. The peripteral colonnade of 48 [[Ionic order|Ionic]] columns was placed in such a way that the emphasis was given to the front side.<ref>Davidson CSA :[http://sites.davidson.edu/csa/the-temple-of-apollo-at-pompeii-a-mishmash-of-architecture/ Temple of Apollo, Pompeii] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150106221543/http://sites.davidson.edu/csa/the-temple-of-apollo-at-pompeii-a-mishmash-of-architecture/ |date=6 January 2015 }}</ref> * Rome: The [[temple of Apollo Sosianus]] and the ''temple of Apollo Medicus''. The first temple building dates to 431 B.C., and was dedicated to Apollo Medicus (the doctor), after a plague of 433 B.C.<ref>[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/livy/liv.4.shtml#25 Livy 4.25]</ref> It was rebuilt by [[Gaius Sosius]], probably in 34 B.C. Only three columns with [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] capitals exist today. It seems that the cult of Apollo had existed in this area since at least to the mid-5th century B.C.<ref>[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/livy/liv.34.shtml#43 Livy 34.43]</ref> *Rome:The [[temple of Apollo Palatinus]] was located on the Palatine hill within the sacred boundary of the city. It was dedicated by [[Augustus]] on 28 B.C. The façade of the original temple was [[Ionic order|Ionic]] and it was constructed from solid blocks of marble. Many famous statues by Greek masters were on display in and around the temple, including a marble statue of the god at the entrance and a statue of Apollo in the cella.<ref>[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/_Texts/PLATOP*/Aedes_Apollinis_Palatini.html A topographical dictionary of Ancient Rome]</ref> *[[Melite (ancient city)|Melite]] (modern [[Mdina]], [[Malta]]): A [[Temple of Apollo (Melite)|Temple of Apollo]] was built in the city in the 2nd century A.D. Its remains were discovered in the 18th century, and many of its architectural fragments were dispersed among private collections or reworked into new sculptures. Parts of the temple's podium were rediscovered in 2002.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Testa|first1=Michael|title=New find at Mdina most important so far in old capital|url=http://www.maltamigration.com/news/times93020.shtml|work=[[Times of Malta]]|date=19 March 2002|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413115810/http://www.maltamigration.com/news/times93020.shtml |archivedate=13 April 2016}}</ref> ==Mythology== {{Main|Greek mythology}} ===Birth=== [[File:Apollo Artemis Brygos Louvre G151.jpg|thumb|250px|Apollo (left) and [[Artemis]]. [[Brygos]] (potter signed), tondo of an Attic red-figure cup c. 470 BC, [[Musée du Louvre]].]] When Zeus' wife [[Hera]] discovered that [[Leto]] was pregnant and that Zeus was the father, she banned Leto from giving birth on ''[[Solid Earth|terra firma]]''. In her wanderings, Leto found the newly created floating island of [[Delos]], which was neither mainland nor a real island. She gave birth there and was accepted by the people, offering them her promise that her son would be always favourable toward the city. Afterwards, Zeus secured Delos to the bottom of the ocean.{{sfn|Freese|1911|p=184}} This island later became sacred to Apollo. It is also stated that Hera kidnapped [[Eileithyia]], the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods tricked Hera into letting her go by offering her a necklace of amber 9 yards or 8.2 meters long. Mythographers agree that [[Artemis]] was born first and subsequently assisted with the birth of Apollo, or that Artemis was born on the island of [[Ortygia]] and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo. Apollo was born on the seventh day ({{lang|grc|ἑβδομαγενής}}, ''hebdomagenes'')<ref>{{LSJ|e(bdomagenh/s|ἑβδομαγενής|shortref}}.</ref> of the month [[Attic calendar#Festival calendar|Thargelion]] —according to Delian tradition—or of the month [[Hellenic calendars#Delphic|Bysios]]—according to Delphian tradition. The seventh and twentieth, the days of the new and full moon, were ever afterwards held sacred to him.{{sfn|Freese|1911|p=184}} ===Youth=== Four days after his birth, Apollo killed the [[chthonic]] dragon [[Python (mythology)|Python]], which lived in [[Delphi]] beside the [[Castalian Spring]]. This was the spring which emitted vapors that caused the oracle at Delphi to give her prophecies. Hera sent the serpent to hunt Leto to her death across the world. To protect his mother, Apollo begged [[Hephaestus]] for a bow and arrows. After receiving them, Apollo cornered Python in the sacred cave at Delphi.<ref>''Children of the Gods'' by Kenneth McLeish, page 32.</ref> Apollo killed Python but had to be punished for it, since Python was a child of [[Gaia]]. Hera then sent the giant [[Tityos]] to rape Leto. This time Apollo was aided by his sister Artemis in protecting their mother. During the battle Zeus finally relented his aid and hurled Tityos down to [[Tartarus]]. There, he was pegged to the rock floor, covering an area of {{convert|9|acre|m2}}, where a pair of [[vulture]]s feasted daily on his liver. ===Trojan War=== [[File:Marble Bust of Apollo.jpg|thumb|Marble Bust of Apollo after the [[Apollo Belvedere]], c. 1675]] Apollo shot arrows infected with the plague into the Greek encampment during the [[Trojan War]] in retribution for [[Agamemnon]]'s insult to [[Chryses]], a priest of Apollo whose daughter [[Chryseis]] had been captured. He demanded her return, and the Achaeans complied, indirectly causing the ''[[Achilles and Patroclus#In the Iliad|anger of Achilles]]'', which is the theme of the ''[[Iliad]]''. In the Iliad, when [[Diomedes]] injured [[Aeneas]], Apollo rescued him. First, [[Aphrodite]] tried to rescue Aeneas but Diomedes injured her as well. Aeneas was then enveloped in a cloud by Apollo, who took him to Pergamos, a sacred spot in [[Troy]]. Apollo aided [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] in the killing of Achilles by guiding the arrow of his bow into [[Achilles]]' heel. One interpretation of his motive is that it was in revenge for Achilles' sacrilege in murdering [[Troilus]], the god's own son by [[Hecuba]], on the very [[Ancient Greek religion#Practices|altar]] of the god's own temple. ===Admetus=== When Zeus struck down Apollo's son Asclepius with a lightning bolt for resurrecting [[Hippolytus (mythology)|Hippolytus]] from the dead (transgressing [[Themis]] by stealing [[Hades]]'s subjects), Apollo in revenge killed the [[Cyclops|Cyclopes]], who had fashioned the bolt for Zeus.<ref>Pseudo-Apollodorus, ''[[Bibliothke]]'' iii. 10.4.</ref> Apollo would have been banished to [[Tartarus]] forever for this, but was instead sentenced to one year of [[Penal labour|hard labor]], due to the intercession of his mother, [[Leto]]. During this time he served as [[shepherd]] for [[Admetus|King Admetus]] of [[Pherae]] in [[Thessaly]]. Admetus treated Apollo well, and, in return, the god conferred great benefits on Admetus. Apollo helped Admetus win [[Alcestis]], the daughter of [[Pelias|King Pelias]] and later convinced the [[Moirai|Fates]] to let Admetus live past his time, if another took his place. But when it came time for Admetus to die, his parents, whom he had assumed would gladly die for him, refused to cooperate. Instead, Alcestis took his place, but [[Heracles]] managed to "''[[Coercion|persuade]]''" [[Thanatos]], the god of death, to return her to the world of the living. [[File:Niobe JacquesLouisDavid 1772 Dallas Museum of Art.jpg|thumb|250px|''Artemis and Apollo Piercing Niobe's Children with their Arrows'' by [[Jacques-Louis David]], [[Dallas Museum of Art]]]] ===Niobe=== [[Niobe]], the queen of [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebes]] and wife of [[Amphion]], boasted of her superiority to Leto because she had fourteen children ([[Niobids]]), seven male and seven female, while Leto had only two. Apollo killed her sons, and Artemis her daughters. Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them, though according to some versions of the myth, a number of the Niobids were spared ([[Chloris]], usually). Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, either killed himself or was killed by Apollo after swearing revenge. A devastated Niobe fled to [[Spil Mount|Mount Sipylos]] in [[Asia Minor]] and turned into stone as she wept. Her tears formed the river [[Achelous]]. Zeus had turned all the people of Thebes to stone and so no one buried the Niobids until the ninth day after their death, when the gods themselves entombed them. ===Consorts and children=== Love affairs ascribed to Apollo are a late development in Greek mythology.<ref>"The love-stories themselves were not told until later." [[Karl Kerenyi]], ''The Gods of the Greeks'' 1951:140.</ref> Their vivid anecdotal qualities have made some of them favorites of painters since the Renaissance, the result being that they stand out more prominently in the modern imagination. ====Female lovers==== {{Main|Apollo and Daphne}} [[File:Apollo and Daphne (Bernini).jpg|thumb|250px|''[[Apollo and Daphne]]'' by [[Bernini]] in the [[Galleria Borghese]]]] [[Daphne]] was a [[nymph]], daughter of the [[Sea and river deity|river god]] [[Peneus]], who had scorned Apollo. The myth explains the connection of Apollo with δάφνη (''daphnē''), the [[Bay Laurel|laurel]] whose leaves his priestess employed at [[Delphi]].<ref>The ancient Daphne episode is noted in late narratives, notably in [[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses]]'', in [[Hyginus]], ''[[Fabulae]]'', 203 and by the fourth-century-CE teacher of rhetoric and Christian convert, [[Libanius]], in ''Narrationes''.</ref> In [[Ovid]]'s ''[[Metamorphoses]]'', Phoebus Apollo chaffs [[Cupid]] for toying with a weapon more suited to a man, whereupon Cupid wounds him with a golden dart; simultaneously, however, Cupid shoots a leaden arrow into Daphne, causing her to be repulsed by Apollo. Following a spirited chase by Apollo, Daphne prays to her father Peneus for help and he changes her into the laurel tree, sacred to Apollo. Artemis Daphnaia, who had her temple among the Lacedemonians, at a place called Hypsoi<ref>G. Shipley, "The Extent of Spartan Territory in the Late Classical and Hellenistic Periods", ''The Annual of the British School at Athens'', 2000.</ref> in Antiquity, on the slopes of Mount Cnacadion near the Spartan frontier,<ref>[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], 3.24.8 ([http://www.theoi.com/Text/Pausanias3B.html on-line text]); Lilius Gregorius Gyraldus, ''Historiae Deorum Gentilium'', Basel, 1548, Syntagma 10, is noted in this connection in [[Benjamin Hedericus|Benjamin Hederich]], [http://www.textlog.de/40739.html ''Gründliches mythologisches Lexikon''], 1770.</ref> had her own sacred laurel trees.<ref>[[Karl Kerenyi]], ''The Gods of the Greeks'', 1951:141</ref> At [[Eretria]] the identity of an excavated 7th- and 6th-century temple to ''Apollo Daphnephoros'', "Apollo, laurel-bearer", or "carrying off Daphne", a "place where the citizens are to take the oath", is identified in inscriptions.<ref>Rufus B. Richardson, "A Temple in Eretria" ''The American Journal of Archaeology and of the History of the Fine Arts'', '''10'''.3 (July - September 1895:326–337); Paul Auberson, ''Eretria. Fouilles et Recherches I, Temple d'Apollon Daphnéphoros, Architecture'' (Bern, 1968). See also [[Plutarch]], ''Pythian Oracle'', 16.</ref> [[Cyrene (mythology)|Cyrene]], was a Thessalian princess whom Apollo loved. In her honor, he built the city Cyrene and made her it's ruler. She was later granted longevity by Apollo who turned her into a nymph. The couple had two sons, [[Aristaeus]], and [[Idmon]]. [[Evadne]] was princess or nymph of Arcadia and a lover of Apollo. She bore him a son, [[Iamos]]. During the time of the childbirth, Apollo sent [[Eileithyia]], the goddess of childbirth to assist her. [[Rhoeo]], a princess of the island of Naxos was loved by Apollo. On the island Delos she bore Apollo a son named [[Anius]]. She left the child in Apollo's care. [[Hecuba]] was the wife of King [[Priam]] of [[Troy]], and Apollo had a son with her named [[Troilus]]. An [[oracle]] prophesied that Troy would not be defeated as long as Troilus reached the age of twenty alive. He was ambushed and killed by [[Achilleus]]. Hyrie or Thyrie was the mother of [[Cycnus (son of Apollo)|Cycnus]]. Apollo turned both the mother and son into swans when they jumped into a lake and tried to kill themselves.<ref>[http://www.theoi.com/Heros/KyknosThyrios.html]</ref> [[Leucothea]] was daughter of [[Orchamus]] and sister of [[Clytia]]. She fell in love with Apollo who disguised himself as Leucothea's mother to gain entrance to her chambers. Clytia, jealous of her sister because she wanted Apollo for herself, told Orchamus the truth, betraying her sister's trust and confidence in her. Enraged, Orchamus ordered Leucothea to be buried alive. Apollo refused to forgive Clytia for betraying his beloved, and a grieving Clytia wilted and slowly died. Apollo changed her into an incense plant, either heliotrope or sunflower, which follows the sun every day. [[Marpessa]] was kidnapped by [[Idas]] but was loved by Apollo as well. [[Zeus]] made her choose between them, and she chose Idas on the grounds that Apollo, being immortal, would tire of her when she grew old. [[Castalia]] was a [[nymph]] whom Apollo loved. She fled from him and dove into the [[castalian Spring|spring]] at Delphi, at the base of [[Mt. Parnassos]], which was then named after her. Water from this spring was sacred; it was used to clean the Delphian temples and inspire the priestesses. In the last [[oracle]] is mentioned that the "water which could speak", has been lost for ever. [[Cassandra]], was daughter of Hecuba and Priam, and Troilus' half-sister. Apollo fell in love with Cassandra and she promised to return it on a condition that Apollo gift to her the prophetic powers. Apollo granted her wish but she rejected him afterwards. Enraged, Apollo indeed gave her the ability to know the future, with a curse that she could only see the future tragedies and that no one would ever believe her. [[Coronis (Greek mythology)|Coronis]], was daughter of [[Phlegyas]], King of the [[Lapiths]]. While pregnant with [[Asclepius]], Coronis fell in love with [[Ischys]], son of [[Elatus]] and slept with him. When Apollo found out about her infidelity through his prophetic powers, he sent his sister, Artemis, to kill Coronis (in few other versions, Apollo himself killed Coronis). Apollo rescued the baby by cutting open Koronis' belly and gave it to the [[centaur]] [[Chiron]] to raise. In [[Euripides]]' play ''[[Ion (play)|Ion]]'', Apollo fathered [[Ion (mythology)|Ion]] by [[Creusa (daughter of Erechtheus)|Creusa]], wife of [[Xuthus]]. Creusa left Ion to die in the wild, but Apollo asked [[Hermes]] to save the child and bring him to the oracle at [[Delphi]], where he was raised by a priestess. According to the ''[[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Biblioteca]]'', the "library" of mythology mis-attributed to Apollodorus, he fathered the [[Corybantes]] on the Muse [[Thalia (Muse)|Thalia]].<ref>Apollodorus, [http://www.theoi.com/Text/Apollodorus1.html ''Bibliotheca'', 1.3.4]. Other ancient sources, however, gave the Corybantes different parents; see [[James George Frazer|Sir James Frazer]]'s [http://www.theoi.com/Text/Ap1a.html#46 note] on the passage in the ''Bibliotheca''.</ref> Apollo is said to have been the lover of all nine [[Muses]], and not being able to marry all nine, chose to remain unwed.<ref>[http://www.theoi.com/Olympios/ApollonLoves.html]</ref> ====Consorts and children: extended list==== {{Div col|colwidth=30em}} # [[Acacallis (mythology)|Acacallis]] ## Amphithemis (Garamas)<ref>[[Apollonius Rhodius]], ''Argonautica'', 1491 ff</ref> ## Naxos, [[eponym]] of the island [[Naxos (island)|Naxos]]<ref>[[Scholia]] on [[Apollonius Rhodius]], ''Argonautica'', 1491 ff</ref> ## Phylacides ## Phylander<ref>[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'', 10. 16. 5</ref> # [[Aethusa]] ## [[Eleuther]] # [[Aganippe]] ## Chios<ref>[[Pseudo-Plutarch]], ''On Rivers'', 7. 1</ref> # Alciope<ref>[[Photius]], ''Lexicon'' s. v. Linos</ref> ## [[Linus (mythology)|Linus]] (possibly) # [[Amphissa (mythology)|Amphissa / Isse]], daughter of Macareus # Anchiale / [[Acacallis (mythology)|Acacallis]] ## Oaxes<ref>[[Servius]] on [[Virgil]]'s Eclogue 1, 65</ref> # Areia, daughter of Cleochus / [[Acacallis (mythology)|Acacallis]] / Deione ## [[Miletus (mythology)|Miletus]] # Astycome, nymph ## Eumolpus (possibly)<ref>[[Photius]], ''Lexicon'', s. v. ''Eumolpidai''</ref> # Arsinoe, daughter of [[Leucippus]] ## [[Asclepius]] (possibly) ## [[Eriopis]] # Babylo ## Arabus<ref>[[Pliny the Elder]], ''[[Naturalis Historia]]'', 7. 56 - 57 p. 196</ref> # [[Bolina]] # [[Calliope]], Muse ## [[Orpheus]] (possibly) ## [[Linus (mythology)|Linus]] (possibly) ## [[Ialemus]] # [[Cassandra]] # [[Castalia]] # [[Celaeno]], daughter of Hyamus / [[Melaina]] / [[Thyia]] ## [[Delphus]] # [[Chione (daughter of Daedalion)|Chione]] / Philonis / [[Leuconoe]] ## [[Philammon]] # Chrysorthe ## [[Coronus (Greek mythology)|Coronus]] # [[Chrysothemis]] ## Parthenos # [[Coronis (mythology)|Coronis]] ## [[Asclepius]] # [[Corycia|Coryceia]] ## [[Lycorus]] (Lycoreus) # [[Creusa]] ## [[Ion (mythology)|Ion]] # [[Cyrene (mythology)|Cyrene]] ## [[Aristaeus]] ## [[Idmon]] (possibly) ## Autuchus<ref>[[Scholia]] on [[Apollonius Rhodius]], ''Argonautica'', 2. 498</ref> # Danais, Cretan nymph ## The [[Korybantes|Curetes]]<ref>[[Tzetzes]] on [[Lycophron]], 77</ref> # [[Daphne]] # Dia, daughter of [[Lycaon (Arcadia)|Lycaon]] ## Dryops # [[Dryope]] ## Amphissus # Euboea (daughter of Macareus of [[Locris]]) ## [[Agreus]] # [[Evadne]], daughter of Poseidon ## [[Iamus]] # [[Gryne]] # [[Hecate]] ## [[Scylla]] (possibly)<ref>[[Scholia]] on [[Apollonius Rhodius]], ''Argonautica'' 4.828, referring to "[[Hesiod]]", ''[[Megalai Ehoiai]]'' fr.</ref> # [[Hecuba]] ## [[Troilus]] ## [[Hector]] (possibly)<ref>[[Tzetzes]] on [[Lycophron]], 266</ref> # [[Hestia]] (wooed her unsuccessfully) # [[Hypermnestra#Daughter of Thestius and Eurythemis|Hypermnestra]], wife of [[Oicles]] ## [[Amphiaraus]] (possibly) # Hypsipyle<ref>[[Arnobius]], ''Adversus Nationes'', 4. 26; not the same as [[Hypsipyle]] of [[Lemnos]]</ref> # Hyria (Thyria) ## [[Cycnus#Son of Apollo|Cycnus]] # Lycia, nymph or daughter of Xanthus ## Eicadius<ref>[[Servius]] on ''[[Aeneid]]'', 3. 332</ref> ## Patarus<ref>[[Stephanus of Byzantium]] s. v. ''Patara''</ref> # [[Manto (mythology)|Manto]] ## [[Mopsus]] # [[Marpessa]] # [[Melia (Oceanid)|Melia]] ## [[Ismenus]]<ref>[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'', [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+9.10.6 9.10.6].</ref> ## [[Tenerus]]<ref>[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'', [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+9.10.6 9.10.6], [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+9.26.1 26.1].</ref> # [[Ocyrhoe]] # [[Othreis]] ## Phager # Parnethia, nymph ## Cynnes<ref>[[Photius]], Lexicon, s. v. ''Kynneios''</ref> # Parthenope ## [[Lycomedes]] # Phthia ## Dorus ## [[Laodocus]] ## [[Polypoetes]] # Prothoe<ref>[[Arnobius]], ''Adversus Nationes'', 4. 26</ref> # [[Procleia]] ## [[Tenes]] (possibly) # [[Psamathe (Crotopus)|Psamathe]] ## [[Linus (mythology)|Linus]] # [[Rhoeo]] ## [[Anius]] # Rhodoessa, nymph ## Ceos, eponym of the island [[Ceos]]<ref>''[[Etymologicum Magnum]]'' 507, 54, under ''Keios''</ref> # Rhodope ## Cicon, eponym of the tribe [[Cicones]]<ref>''[[Etymologicum Magnum]]'' 513, 37, under ''Kikones''</ref> # [[Sinope (mythology)|Sinope]] ## [[Syrus]] # [[Stilbe]] ## Centaurus ## [[Lapithes (hero)|Lapithes]] ## Aineus # Syllis / Hyllis ## [[Zeuxippus (son of Apollo)|Zeuxippus]] # [[Thaleia]], Muse / Rhetia, nymph ## The [[Corybantes]] # Themisto, daughter of Zabius of [[Hyperborea]]<ref>Stephanus of Byzantium, s. v. ''Galeōtai''</ref> ## Galeotes ## Telmessus (?) # [[Thero (Greek mythology)|Thero]] ## Chaeron # [[Urania]], Muse ## Linus (possibly) # Urea, daughter of Poseidon ## Ileus ([[Oileus]]?) # Wife of [[Erginus]] ## [[Trophonius]] (possibly) # Unknown consorts ## [[Acraepheus]], eponym of the city Acraephia<ref>[[Stephanus of Byzantium]], s. v. ''Akraiphia''</ref> ## [[Chariclo]] (possibly)<ref>[[Scholia]] on [[Pindar]], Pythian Ode 4. 181</ref> ## [[Erymanthus (person)|Erymanthus]] ## Marathus, eponym of [[Marathon]]<ref>[[Suda]] s. v. Marathōn</ref> ## Megarus<ref>[[Stephanus of Byzantium]] s. v ''Megara''</ref> ## [[Melaneus]] ## [[Oncius]]<ref>[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'', 8. 25. 4</ref><ref>[[Stephanus of Byzantium]] s. v. ''Ogkeion''</ref> ## [[Phemonoe]] ## Pisus, founder of [[Pisa]] in [[Etruria]]<ref>[[Servius]] on ''Aeneid'', 10. 179</ref> ## Younger Muses ### [[Cephisso]] ### [[Apollonis]] ### [[Borysthenis]] {{colend}} ====Male lovers==== [[File:Hyacinthus.jpg|thumb|upright|''Apollo and Hyacinthus'', 16th-century Italian engraving by [[Jacopo Caraglio]]]] [[Hyacinth (mythology)|Hyacinth]] or Hyacinthus was one of Apollo's male lovers. He was a [[Sparta]]n prince, beautiful and athletic. The pair was practicing throwing the [[Discus throw|discus]] when a discus thrown by Apollo was blown off course by the jealous [[Zephyrus]] and struck Hyacinthus in the head, killing him instantly. Apollo is said to be filled with grief: out of Hyacinthus' blood, Apollo created a [[hyacinth (plant)|flower]] named after him as a memorial to his death, and his tears stained the flower petals with the interjection {{lang|grc|αἰαῖ}}, meaning ''alas''.<ref>{{LSJ|ai)ai{{=}}|αἰαῖ}}, {{LSJ|ai)/2|αἴ|shortref}}.</ref> The Festival of Hyacinthus was a celebration of Sparta. Another male lover was [[Cyparissus]], a descendant of [[Heracles]]. Apollo gave him a tame deer as a companion but Cyparissus accidentally killed it with a [[Pilum|javelin]] as it lay asleep in the undergrowth. Cyparissus asked Apollo to let his tears fall forever. Apollo granted the request by turning him into the [[Cupressaceae|Cypress]] named after him, which was said to be a sad tree because the sap forms droplets like tears on the trunk. Other male lovers of Apollo include: * [[Admetus]]<ref>[[Callimachus]], Hymn to Apollo, 49.</ref><ref name="Plutarch, Numa" /> * [[Adonis]], who is said to have been the lover of both Apollo and Aphrodite. <ref>Ptolemy Hephaestion, New History Book 4 (summary from Photius, Myriobiblon 190)</ref> * [[Atymnius]],<ref>[[Nonnus]], ''[[Dionysiaca]]'', 11. 258; 19. 181.</ref> otherwise known as a beloved of [[Sarpedon]] * [[Branchus]] (alternately, a son of Apollo) * [[Carnus]] * Hippolytus of [[Sicyon]] (not the same as [[Hippolytus (mythology)|Hippolytus, the son of Theseus]])<ref name="Plutarch, Numa">[[Plutarch]], ''Life of Numa'', 4. 5.</ref> * [[Hymenaios]]<ref>[[Antoninus Liberalis]], ''Metamorphoses'', 23.</ref> * [[Iapis]] * [[Phorbas]] (probably the son of Triopas)<ref>[[Plutarch]], ''Life of Numa'', 4. 5, cf. also [[Hyginus]], ''Poetical Astronomy'', 2. 14.</ref> ===Apollo's lyre=== [[File:Apollo Kitharoidos Antikensammlung Berlin 2.jpg|thumb|upright|Apollo with his [[lyre]]. Statue from [[Pergamon Museum]], Berlin.]] [[File:Attic white-ground kylix, Apollo.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Attic white-ground kylix with depiction of Apollo playing the lyre]] [[Hermes]] was born on [[Mount Kyllini|Mount Cyllene]] in Arcadia. The story is told in the [[Homeric Hymn]] to [[Hermes]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Homeric Hymn to Hermes (IV, 1-506)|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.01.0138%3ahymn%3d4|website=Perseus|accessdate=18 March 2018}}</ref> His mother, [[Maia (mythology)|Maia]], had been secretly impregnated by [[Zeus]]. Maia wrapped the infant in blankets but Hermes escaped while she was asleep. Hermes ran to [[Thessaly]], where Apollo was grazing his cattle. The infant Hermes stole a number of his cows and took them to a cave in the woods near [[Pylos]], covering their tracks. In the cave, he found a [[tortoise]] and killed it, then removed the insides. He used one of the cow's intestines and the tortoise shell and made the first [[lyre]]. Apollo complained to Maia that her son had stolen his cattle, but Hermes had already replaced himself in the blankets she had wrapped him in, so Maia refused to believe Apollo's claim. Zeus intervened and, claiming to have seen the events, sided with Apollo. Hermes then began to play music on the lyre he had invented. Apollo, a god of music, fell in love with the instrument and offered to allow exchange of the cattle for the lyre. Hence, Apollo then became a master of the lyre. ===Apollo in the ''Oresteia''=== In [[Aeschylus]]' ''[[Oresteia]]'' trilogy, [[Clytemnestra]] kills her husband, King [[Agamemnon]] because he had sacrificed their daughter [[Iphigenia]] to proceed forward with the Trojan war, and [[Cassandra]], a prophetess of Apollo. Apollo gives an order through the Oracle at Delphi that Agamemnon's son, [[Orestes]], is to kill Clytemnestra and [[Aegisthus]], her lover. Orestes and Pylades carry out the revenge, and consequently Orestes is pursued by the [[Erinyes]] or Furies (female personifications of [[revenge|vengeance]]). Apollo and the Furies argue about whether the [[matricide]] was justified; Apollo holds that the bond of marriage is sacred and Orestes was avenging his father, whereas the Erinyes say that the bond of blood between mother and son is more meaningful than the bond of marriage. They invade his temple, and he says that the matter should be brought before Athena. Apollo promises to protect Orestes, as Orestes has become Apollo's supplicant. Apollo advocates Orestes at the trial, and ultimately Athena rules in favor of Apollo. ===Other stories=== Apollo killed the [[Aloadae]] when they attempted to storm [[Mount Olympus (Mountain)|Mt. Olympus]]. [[Callimachus]] sang<ref>Callimachus, ''Hymn to Apollo''2.5</ref> that Apollo rode on the back of a swan to the land of the [[Hyperborea]]ns during the winter months. Apollo turned [[Cephissus (mythology)|Cephissus]] into a [[sea monster]]. Another contender for the birthplace of Apollo is the Cretan islands of [[Paximadia (islands)|Paximadia]]. ====Musical contests==== =====Pan===== Once [[Pan (mythology)|Pan]] had the audacity to compare his music with that of Apollo and to challenge Apollo, the god of the [[kithara]], the mountain-god [[Tmolus]] was chosen to umpire. Pan blew on his pipes, and with his rustic melody gave great satisfaction to himself and his faithful follower, [[Midas]], who happened to be present. Then Apollo struck the strings of his lyre. Tmolus at once awarded the victory to Apollo, and all but Midas agreed with the judgment. He dissented and questioned the justice of the award. Apollo would not suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer, and caused them to become the ears of a [[donkey]]. =====Marsyas===== [[File:Marsyas_Istanbul_Archaeological_Museum_-_inv._400_T_01.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Marsyas]] under Apollo's punishment, [[Istanbul Archaeology Museums|İstanbul Archaeology Museum]]]] Apollo has ominous aspects aside from his plague-bringing, death-dealing arrows: [[Marsyas]] was a [[satyr]] who challenged Apollo to a contest of music. He had found an [[aulos]] on the ground, tossed away after being invented by [[Athena]] because it made her cheeks puffy. The contest was judged by the [[Muse]]s. After they each performed, both were deemed equal until Apollo decreed they play and sing at the same time. As Apollo played the [[lyre]], this was easy to do. Marsyas could not do this, as he only knew how to use the flute and could not sing at the same time. Apollo was declared the winner because of this. Apollo [[flaying|flayed]] Marsyas alive in a cave near [[Celaenae]] in [[Phrygia]] for his [[hubris]] to challenge a god. He then nailed Marsyas' shaggy skin to a nearby pine-tree. Marsyas' blood turned into the river [[Marsyas (river)|Marsyas]]. Another variation is that Apollo played his instrument (the lyre) upside down. Marsyas could not do this with his instrument (the [[flute]]), and so Apollo hung him from a tree and flayed him alive.<ref>''Man Myth and Magic'' by Richard Cavendish</ref> =====Cinyras===== Apollo also had a [[lyre]]-playing contest with [[Cinyras]], his son, who committed suicide when he lost. [[File:Apollo Anzio Musei Capitolini MC286.jpg|thumb|upright=.75|right|Head of Apollo, marble, Roman copy of a Greek original of the 4th century BCE, from the collection of [[Cardinal Albani]]]] ===Roman Apollo=== The Roman worship of Apollo was adopted from the Greeks.{{sfn|Freese|1911|p=185}} As a quintessentially [[List of Greek mythological figures|Greek god]], Apollo had no direct Roman equivalent, although later Roman poets often referred to him as '''Phoebus'''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theoi.com/Heroine/Koronis.html |title=Koronis |publisher=Theoi |accessdate=30 July 2013}}</ref> There was a tradition that the Delphic oracle was consulted as early as the period of the [[Roman Kingdom|kings of Rome]] during the reign of [[Tarquinius Superbus]].<ref>[[Livy]] [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Liv.+1.56 1.56].</ref> On the occasion of a pestilence in the 430s BCE, Apollo's [[Temple of Apollo Sosianus|first temple]] at Rome was established in the Flaminian fields, replacing an older cult site there known as the "Apollinare".<ref>Livy [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0026:book=3:chapter=63 3.63.7], [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0145:book=4:chapter=25 4.25.3].</ref> During the [[Second Punic War]] in 212 BCE, the ''[[Ludi Apollinares]]'' ("Apollonian Games") were instituted in his honor, on the instructions of a prophecy attributed to one Marcius.<ref>Livy [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0147:book=25:chapter=12 25.12].</ref> In the time of [[Augustus]], who considered himself under the special protection of Apollo and was even said to be his son, his worship developed and he became one of the chief gods of Rome.<ref>{{cite book |author=J. H. W. G. Liebeschuetz |title=Continuity and Change in Roman Religion |year=1979 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0-19-814822-4 |pages=82–85 }}</ref>{{sfn|Freese|1911|p=185}} After the [[battle of Actium]], which was fought near a sanctuary of Apollo, Augustus enlarged Apollo's temple, dedicated a portion of the spoils to him, and instituted [[quinquennial]] games in his honour.<ref>[[Suetonius]], ''[[On the Life of the Caesars#Life of Augustus|Augustus]]'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#18.2 18.2]; [[Cassius Dio]] [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/51*.html#1 51.1.1–3].</ref> He also erected [[Temple of Apollo (Palatine)|a new temple]] to the god on the [[Palatine Hill|Palatine hill]].<ref>Cassius Dio [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/53*.html#1.3 53.1.3].</ref> Sacrifices and prayers on the Palatine to Apollo and [[Diana (mythology)|Diana]] formed the culmination of the [[Secular Games]], held in 17 BCE to celebrate the dawn of a new era.<ref>''[[Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae]]'' 5050, translated by {{cite book |last1=Beard |first1=Mary |authorlink=Mary Beard (classicist) |last2=North |first2=John |last3=Price |first3=Simon |title=Religions of Rome: Volume 2: A Sourcebook |year=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-45015-2|page=5.7b }}</ref> ==Festivals== The chief Apollonian festival was the [[Pythian Games]] held every four years at Delphi and was one of the four great [[Panhellenic Games]]. Also of major importance was the [[Delia (festival)|Delia]] held every four years on Delos. Athenian annual festivals included the [[Boedromia]], [[Metageitnia]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=William |title=A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890),MACELLUM, MATRA´LIA, METAGEI´TNIA |date=1890 |publisher=John Murray |location=London |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0063%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DM%3Aentry+group%3D2%3Aentry%3Dmetageitnia-cn |accessdate=23 July 2018}}</ref> [[Pyanepsia]], and [[Thargelia]]. Spartan annual festivals were the [[Carneia]] and the [[Hyacinthia]]. [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] every nine years held the [[Daphnephoria]]. ==Attributes and symbols== Apollo's most common attributes were the bow and [[arrow]]. Other attributes of his included the [[kithara]] (an advanced version of the common [[lyre]]), the [[plectrum]] and the sword. Another common emblem was the [[sacrificial tripod]], representing his prophetic powers. The [[Pythian Games]] were held in Apollo's honor every four years at [[Delphi]]. The [[bay laurel]] plant was used in expiatory sacrifices and in making the [[laurel wreath|crown of victory]] at these games.{{sfn|Freese|1911|p=185}} [[File:Ai-Khanoum-gold stater of Antiochos1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Gold stater of the [[Seleucid]] king [[Antiochus I Soter]] (reigned 281–261 BCE) showing on the reverse a nude Apollo holding his key attributes: two arrows and a bow]] The [[palm tree]] was also sacred to Apollo because he had been born under one in [[Delos]]. Animals sacred to Apollo included [[wolf|wolves]], dolphins, [[roe deer]], [[swan]]s, [[cicada]]s (symbolizing music and song), [[hawk]]s, [[raven]]s, [[Corvus (genus)|crow]]s, snakes (referencing Apollo's function as the god of prophecy), mice and [[griffin]]s, mythical eagle–lion hybrids of Eastern origin.{{sfn|Freese|1911|p=185}} [[File:Apolocitaredo8.jpg|thumb|250px|''[[Apollo Citharoedus]]'' ("Apollo with a kithara"), [[Musei Capitolini]], Rome]] As god of colonization, Apollo gave oracular guidance on colonies, especially during the height of colonization, 750–550 BCE. According to Greek tradition, he helped [[Crete|Cretan]] or [[Arcadia]]n colonists found the city of [[Troy]]. However, this story may reflect a cultural influence which had the reverse direction: [[Hittites|Hittite]] [[Cuneiform script|cuneiform]] texts mention a Minor Asian god called ''Appaliunas'' or ''Apalunas'' in connection with the city of [[Wilusa]] attested in Hittite inscriptions, which is now generally regarded as being identical with the Greek [[Troy|Ilion]] by most scholars. In this interpretation, Apollo's title of ''Lykegenes'' can simply be read as "born in Lycia", which effectively severs the god's supposed link with wolves (possibly a [[folk etymology]]). In literary contexts, Apollo represents harmony, order, and reason—characteristics contrasted with those of [[Dionysus]], god of wine, who represents ecstasy and disorder. The contrast between the roles of these gods is reflected in the adjectives [[Apollonian and Dionysian]]. However, the Greeks thought of the two qualities as complementary: the two gods are brothers, and when Apollo at winter left for [[Hyperborea]], he would leave the Delphic oracle to Dionysus. This contrast appears to be shown on the two sides of the [[Borghese Vase]]. Apollo is often associated with the [[Golden mean (philosophy)|Golden Mean]]. This is the Greek [[Ideal (ethics)|ideal]] of [[moderation]] and a [[virtue]] that opposes [[gluttony]]. ==Apollo in the arts== [[File:Apollo Saurocton Louvre.jpg|thumb|180px|The Louvre ''Apollo Sauroctonos'', Roman copy after [[Praxiteles]] (360 BC)]] Apollo is a common theme in Greek and Roman art and also in the art of the [[Renaissance]]. The earliest Greek word for a statue is "delight" ({{lang|grc|ἄγαλμα}}, ''agalma''), and the sculptors tried to create forms which would inspire such guiding vision. Greek art puts into Apollo the highest degree of power and beauty that can be imagined. The sculptors derived this from observations on human beings, but they also embodied in concrete form, issues beyond the reach of ordinary thought. The naked bodies of the statues are associated with the cult of the body that was essentially a religious activity. The muscular frames and limbs combined with slim waists indicate the Greek desire for health, and the physical capacity which was necessary in the hard Greek environment. The statues of Apollo embody beauty, balance and inspire awe before the beauty of the world. The evolution of the Greek sculpture can be observed in his depictions from the almost static formal [[Kouros]] type in [[Archaic period in Greece|early archaic period]], to the representation of motion in a relative harmonious whole in [[Archaic period in Greece|late archaic period]]. In [[classical Greece]] the emphasis is not given to the illusive imaginative reality represented by the ideal forms, but to the analogies and the interaction of the members in the whole, a method created by [[Polykleitos]]. Finally [[Praxiteles]] seems to be released from any art and religious conformities, and his masterpieces are a mixture of [[Realism (arts)|naturalism]] with stylization. ===Art and Greek philosophy=== The evolution of the Greek art seems to go parallel with the Greek philosophical conceptions, which changed from the natural-philosophy of [[Thales]] to the [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] theory of [[Pythagoras]]. Thales searched for a simple material-form directly perceptible by the senses, behind the appearances of things, and his theory is also related to the older [[animism]]. This was paralleled in sculpture by the absolute representation of vigorous life, through unnaturally simplified forms.<ref name="Homann63">E. Homann-Wedeking. Transl. J.R. Foster (1968). ''Art of the world. Archaic Greece'', Methuen & Co Ltd. London, pp. 63–65, 193.</ref> Pythagoras believed that behind the appearance of things, there was the permanent principle of mathematics, and that the forms were based on a transcendental mathematical relation.<ref name="C. M. Bowra 1957 p. 166"/> The forms on earth, are imperfect imitations ({{lang|grc|εἰκόνες}}, ''eikones'', "images") of the celestial world of numbers. His ideas had a great influence on post-Archaic art. The Greek architects and sculptors were always trying to find the mathematical relation, that would lead to the esthetic perfection.<ref name="Carpenter55">R. Carpenter (1975). ''The esthetic basis of Greek art''. Indiana University Press. pp. 55–58.</ref> ([[Aesthetic canon|canon]]). In classical Greece, [[Anaxagoras]] asserted that a divine reason (mind) gave order to the seeds of the universe, and [[Plato]] extended the Greek belief of ''ideal forms'' to his metaphysical theory of ''forms'' (''ideai'', "ideas"). The forms on earth are imperfect duplicates of the intellectual celestial ideas. The Greek words ''oida'' ({{lang|grc|οἶδα}}, "(I) know") and ''eidos'' ({{lang|grc|εἶδος}}, "species"), a thing seen, have the same root as the word ''idea'' ({{lang|grc|ἰδέα}}), a thing ἰδείν to see.<ref>”The same root of looking or seeing” . R. Carpenter (1975). ''The esthetic basis of Greek art''. Indiana University Press. p.107.</ref><ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=idea idea]</ref> indicating how the Greek mind moved from the gift of the senses, to the principles beyond the senses. The artists in Plato's time moved away from his theories and art tends to be a mixture of naturalism with stylization. The Greek sculptors considered the senses more important, and the proportions were used to unite the sensible with the intellectual. ===Archaic sculpture=== [[File:KAMA Kouros Porte Sacrée.jpg|thumb|180px|left|Sacred Gate Kouros, marble (610–600 BC), [[Kerameikos|Kerameikos Archaeological Museum in Athens]]]] [[Kouros]] (''male youth'') is the modern term given to those representations of standing male youths which first appear in the [[archaic period in Greece]]. This type served certain religious needs and was first proposed for what was previously thought to be depictions of ''Apollo''.<ref>V.I. Leonardos(1895). ''Archaelogiki Ephimeris'', Col 75, n 1.</ref><ref>Lechat (1904). ''La sculpture Attic avant Phidias'', p. 23.</ref> The first statues are certainly still and formal. The formality of their stance seems to be related with the [[Egypt]]ian precedent, but it was accepted for a good reason. The sculptors had a clear idea of what a young man is, and embodied the archaic smile of good manners, the firm and springy step, the balance of the body, dignity, and youthful happiness. When they tried to depict the most abiding qualities of men, it was because men had common roots with the unchanging gods.<ref name="Bowra144">C. M. Bowra (1957). ''The Greek experience'', pp. 144–152.</ref> The adoption of a standard recognizable type for a long time, is probably because nature gives preference in survival of a type which has long be adopted by the climatic conditions, and also due to the general Greek belief that nature expresses itself in ''ideal forms'' that can be imagined and represented.<ref name=Carpenter55/> These forms expressed immortality. Apollo was the immortal god of ''ideal balance and order''. His shrine in [[Delphi]], that he shared in winter with Dionysius had the inscriptions: {{lang|grc|γνῶθι σεαυτόν}} (gnōthi seautón="know thyself") and {{lang|grc|μηδὲν ἄγαν}} (''mēdén ágan'', "nothing in excess"), and {{lang|grc|ἐγγύα πάρα δ'ἄτη}} (eggýa pára d'atē, "make a pledge and mischief is nigh").<ref>See {{LSJ|a)/th|ἄτη|shortref}}.</ref> [[File:WLA metmuseum Marble statue of a kouros youth 2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|New York Kouros, Met. Mus. 32.11.1, marble (620–610 BC), [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]]] In the first large-scale depictions during the early archaic period (640–580 BC), the artists tried to draw one's attention to look into the interior of the face and the body which were not represented as lifeless masses, but as being full of life. The Greeks maintained, until late in their civilization, an almost [[animism|animistic]] idea that the statues are in some sense alive. This embodies the belief that the image was somehow the god or man himself.<ref>C.M. Bowra. ''The Greek experience'', p. 159.</ref> A fine example is the statue of the ''[[Sacred Gate]] Kouros'' which was found at the cemetery of [[Dipylon]] in Athens ([[Dipylon Kouros]]). The statue is the "thing in itself", and his slender face with the deep eyes express an intellectual eternity. According to the Greek tradition the [[Dipylon|Dipylon master]] was named [[Daedalus]], and in his statues the limbs were freed from the body, giving the impression that the statues could move. It is considered that he created also the ''New York kouros'', which is the oldest fully preserved statue of ''Kouros'' type, and seems to be the incarnation of the god himself.<ref name=Homann63/> [[File:7262 - Piraeus Arch. Museum, Athens - The Piraeus Apollo - Photo by Giovanni Dall'Orto, Nov 14 2009.jpg|thumb|left|180px|[[Piraeus Apollo]], archaic-style bronze, [[Archaeological Museum of Piraeus]]]] The animistic idea as the representation of the imaginative reality, is sanctified in the [[Homeric]] poems and in Greek myths, in stories of the god [[Hephaestus]] ([[Phaistos]]) and the mythic [[Daedalus]] (the builder of the [[labyrinth]]) that made images which moved of their own accord. This kind of art goes back to the [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] period, when its main theme was the representation of motion in a specific moment.<ref name="Schachermeyer242">F. Schachermeyer (1964). ''Die Minoische Kultur des alten Creta'', Kohlhammer Stuttgart, pp. 242–244.</ref> These free-standing statues were usually marble, but also the form rendered in limestone, bronze, ivory and terracotta. The earliest examples of life-sized statues of Apollo, may be two figures from the [[Ionians|Ionic]] sanctuary on the island of [[Delos]]. Such statues were found across the Greek speaking world, the preponderance of these were found at the sanctuaries of Apollo with more than one hundred from the sanctuary of ''Apollo Ptoios'', [[Boeotia]] alone.<ref>J. Ducat (1971). ''Les Kouroi des Ptoion''.</ref> The last stage in the development of the ''Kouros type'' is the late archaic period (520–485 BC), in which the Greek sculpture attained a full knowledge of human anatomy and used to create a relative harmonious whole. Ranking from the very few bronzes survived to us is the masterpiece bronze [[Piraeus Apollo]]. It was found in [[Piraeus]], the harbour of Athens. The statue originally held the bow in its left hand, and a cup of pouring libation in its right hand. It probably comes from north-eastern [[Peloponnesus]]. The emphasis is given in anatomy, and it is one of the first attempts to represent a kind of motion, and beauty relative to proportions, which appear mostly in post-Archaic art. The statue throws some light on an artistic centre which, with an independently developed harder, simpler and heavier style, restricts [[Ionia]]n influence in Athens. Finally, this is the germ from which the art of [[Polykleitos]] was to grow two or three generations later.<ref name="Homann144">Homann-Wedeking (1966). ''Art of the World. Archaic Greece'', pp. 144–150.</ref> {{clear}} ===Classical sculpture=== [[File:Apollon de Mantoue Louvre MA689.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Apollo of the "Mantoua type", marble Roman copy after a 5th-century BCE Greek original attributed to [[Polykleitos]], Musée du Louvre]] At the beginning of the [[Classical Greece|Classical period]], it was considered that beauty in visible things as in everything else, consisted of symmetry and proportions. The artists tried also to represent motion in a specific moment ([[Myron]]), which may be considered as the reappearance of the dormant [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] element.<ref name=Schachermeyer242/> Anatomy and geometry are fused in one, and each does something to the other. The Greek sculptors tried to clarify it by looking for mathematical proportions, just as they sought some reality behind appearances. [[Polykleitos]] in his ''Canon'' wrote that beauty consists in the proportion not of the elements (materials), but of the parts, that is the interrelation of parts with one another and with the whole. It seems that he was influenced by the theories of [[Pythagoras]].<ref>"Each part (finger, palm, arm, etc.) transmitted its individual existence to the next, and then to the whole" : ''Canon of [[Polykleitos]]'', also [[Plotinus]], ''Ennead'' I vi. i: Nigel Spivey (1997). ''Greek art'', Phaidon Press Ltd. London. pp. 290–294.</ref> The famous ''Apollo of Mantua'' and its variants are early forms of the [[Apollo Citharoedus]] statue type, in which the god holds the [[cithara]] in his left arm. The type is represented by [[neo-Attic]] Imperial Roman copies of the late 1st or early 2nd century, modelled upon a supposed Greek bronze original made in the second quarter of the 5th century BCE, in a style similar to works of [[Polykleitos]] but more archaic. The Apollo held the ''cythara'' against his extended left arm, of which in the Louvre example, a fragment of one twisting scrolling horn upright remains against his biceps. Though the proportions were always important in Greek art, the appeal of the Greek sculptures eludes any explanation by proportion alone. The statues of Apollo were thought to incarnate his living presence, and these representations of illusive imaginative reality had deep roots in the [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] period, and in the beliefs of the first [[Greek language|Greek]] speaking people who entered the region during the bronze-age. Just as the Greeks saw the mountains, forests, sea and rivers as inhabited by concrete beings, so nature in all of its manifestations possesses clear form, and the form of a work of art. Spiritual life is incorporated in matter, when it is given artistic form. Just as in the arts the Greeks sought some reality behind appearances, so in mathematics they sought permanent principles which could be applied wherever the conditions were the same. Artists and sculptors tried to find this ideal order in relation with mathematics, but they believed that this ideal order revealed itself not so much to the dispassionate intellect, as to the whole sentient self.<ref name=Homann63/> Things as we see them, and as they really are, are one, that each stresses the nature of the other in a single unity. ===Pediments and friezes=== [[File:Apollo west pediment Olympia copy MFA Munich.jpg|thumb|upright|Apollo, West Pediment Olympia. Munich, copy from original, 460 BCE at the [[Temple of Zeus, Olympia|Temple of Zeus]], [[Olympia, Greece]].]] In the archaic pediments and friezes of the temples, the artists had a problem to fit a group of figures into an isosceles triangle with acute angles at the base. The [[Siphnian Treasury]] in [[Delphi]] was one of the first Greek buildings utilizing the solution to put the dominating form in the middle, and to complete the descending scale of height with other figures sitting or kneeling. The pediment shows the story of [[Heracles]] stealing Apollo's tripod that was strongly associated with his oracular inspiration. Their two figures hold the centre. In the pediment of the temple of [[Zeus]] in [[Olympia, Greece|Olympia]], the single figure of Apollo is dominating the scene.<ref name=Bowra144/> [[File:Belvedere Apollo Pio-Clementino Inv1015 n3.jpg|175px|thumb|Head of the ''[[Apollo Belvedere]]'']] These representations rely on presenting scenes directly to the eye for their own visible sake. They care for the schematic arrangements of bodies in space, but only as parts in a larger whole. While each scene has its own character and completeness it must fit into the general sequence to which it belongs. In these archaic pediments the sculptors use empty intervals, to suggest a passage to and from a busy battlefield. The artists seem to have been dominated by geometrical pattern and order, and this was improved when classical art brought a greater freedom and economy.<ref name=Bowra144/> ===Hellenistic Greece-Rome=== Apollo as a handsome beardless young man, is often depicted with a [[kithara]] (as [[Apollo Citharoedus]]) or bow in his hand, or reclining on a tree (the [[Apollo Lykeios]] and [[Apollo Sauroctonos]] types). The [[Apollo Belvedere]] is a [[marble]] sculpture that was rediscovered in the late 15th century; for centuries it epitomized the ideals of [[Classical Antiquity]] for Europeans, from the [[Renaissance]] through the 19th century. The marble is a [[Hellenistic Greece|Hellenistic]] or Roman copy of a bronze original by the Greek sculptor [[Leochares]], made between 350 and 325 BCE. The life-size so-called "[[Adonis]]" found in 1780 on the site of a ''[[Roman villa|villa suburbana]]'' near the [[Via Labicana]] in the Roman suburb of Centocelle is identified as an Apollo by modern scholars. In the late 2nd century CE floor mosaic from [[El Djem]], Roman ''Thysdrus'', he is identifiable as [[Helios|Apollo Helios]] by his effulgent [[Halo (religious iconography)|halo]], though now even a god's divine [[nudity|nakedness]] is concealed by his cloak, a mark of increasing conventions of modesty in the later [[Roman Empire|Empire]]. Another haloed Apollo in mosaic, from [[Hadrumentum]], is in the museum at [[Sousse]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tunisiaonline.com/mosaics/mosaic05b.html |title=Mosaics in Tunisia: Apollo and the Muses |publisher=Web.archive.org |date=8 July 2008 |accessdate=30 July 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708143541/http://www.tunisiaonline.com/mosaics/mosaic05b.html |archivedate=8 July 2008 }}</ref> The conventions of this representation, head tilted, lips slightly parted, large-eyed, curling [[Hairstyle|hair cut]] in locks grazing the neck, were developed in the 3rd century BCE to depict [[Alexander the Great]].<ref>Bieber 1964, Yalouris 1980.</ref> Some time after this mosaic was executed, the earliest depictions of Christ would also be beardless and haloed. ==Modern reception== Apollo has often featured in postclassical art and literature. [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]] composed a "Hymn of Apollo" (1820), and the god's instruction of the Muses formed the subject of [[Igor Stravinsky]]'s ''[[Apollon musagète]]'' (1927–1928). In 1978, the Canadian band [[Rush (band)|Rush]] released [[Hemispheres (Rush album)|an album]] with songs [[Cygnus X-1 (song series)#Book II: Hemispheres|"Apollo: Bringer of Wisdom"/"Dionysus: Bringer of Love"]]. In discussion of the arts, a distinction is sometimes made between the [[Apollonian and Dionysian]] impulses where the former is concerned with imposing intellectual order and the latter with chaotic creativity. [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] argued that a fusion of the two was most desirable. [[Carl Jung]]'s [[Apollo archetype]] represents what he saw as the disposition in people to over-intellectualise and maintain emotional distance. [[Charles Handy]], in ''Gods of Management'' (1978) uses Greek gods as a metaphor to portray various types of [[organizational culture|organisational culture]]. Apollo represents a 'role' culture where order, reason, and [[bureaucracy]] prevail.<ref>[[British Library]]: Management and Business Studies Portal, [https://mbsportal.bl.uk/taster/subjareas/busmanhist/mgmtthinkers/handy.aspx Charles Handy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161112144123/https://mbsportal.bl.uk/taster/subjareas/busmanhist/mgmtthinkers/handy.aspx |date=12 November 2016 }}, accessed 12 November 2016</ref> In spaceflight, the [[NASA]] program for landing astronauts on the Moon was named [[Apollo program|Apollo]]. ==Genealogy== [[File:Bodh Gaya quadriga relief of Surya and Classical example Phoebus Apollo on quadriga.jpg|thumb|400px|''Left'': [[Surya]] on a [[quadriga]], [[Bodh Gaya]] relief, [[India]]. ''Right'': Classical example of Phoebus Apollo on quadriga.]] [[File:Onthemorningthomas4.jpg|thumb|''The Overthrow of Apollo and the Pagan Gods'', watercolour from [[William Blake's illustrations of On the Morning of Christ's Nativity|William Blake's illustrations of ''On the Morning of Christ's Nativity'']] (1809)]] {{chart top|Apollo's family tree&nbsp;<ref>This chart is based upon [[Hesiod]]'s ''[[Theogony]]'', unless otherwise noted.</ref>|collapsed=no}} {{chart/start}} {{chart}} {{chart| | | | | | | | |URA |y|GAI |URA=[[Uranus (mythology)|Uranus]]|GAI=[[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]]}} {{chart| | | | | |,|-|-|-|v|-|^|-|v|-|-|-|.}} {{chart|URA| |COE |y|PHO | |CRO |y|RHE |COE=[[Coeus]]|PHO=[[Phoebe (mythology)|Phoebe]]|URA=<small>Uranus'&nbsp;genitals</small>|CRO=[[Cronus]]|RHE=[[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]]}} {{chart| |!| |,|-|-|-|'|,|-|-|-|-|-|-|^|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.}} {{chart| |!|LET|~|y|ZEU |V|~|~|y|~|HER | |POS | |HAD | |DEM | |HES |LET=[[Leto]]|HES=[[Hestia]]|DEM=[[Demeter]]|ZEU=[[Zeus]]|HER=[[Hera]]|HAD=[[Hades]]|POS=[[Poseidon]]}} {{chart| |!| | |,|-|^|-|.| |:| |,|^|-|.| |!}} {{chart| |!| |APO | |ART |:| |!| |AAA |!|APO='''APOLLO'''|ART=[[Artemis]]|AAA=&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;a <ref>According to [[Homer]], ''[[Iliad]]'' [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:1.570 1.570&ndash;579], [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:14.338 14.338], ''[[Odyssey]]'' [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng1:8.312 8.312], Hephaestus was apparently the son of Hera and Zeus, see Gantz, p. 74.</ref>|border_AAA=0}} {{chart|border=0| |!| | | | | | | | |:| |!| | |!|BBB |BBB=&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;b <ref>According to [[Hesiod]], ''[[Theogony]]'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hes.+Th.+927 927&ndash;929], Hephaestus was produced by Hera alone, with no father, see Gantz, p. 74.</ref>}} {{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |:| |!| | |!| |!}} {{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |:|ARE | |HEP |ARE=[[Ares]]|HEP=[[Hephaestus]]}} {{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |D|~|~|~|y|~|~|~|~|MET |MET=[[Metis (mythology)|Metis]]}} {{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |:| | |ATH |ATH=[[Athena]] <ref>According to [[Hesiod]]'s ''[[Theogony]]'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hes.+Th.+886 886&ndash;890], of Zeus' children by his seven wives, Athena was the first to be conceived, but the last to be born; Zeus impregnated Metis then swallowed her, later Zeus himself gave birth to Athena "from his head", see Gantz, pp. 51&ndash;52, 83&ndash;84.</ref>}} {{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |D|~|~|~|y|~|~|~|~|MAI |MAI=[[Maia (mythology)|Maia]]}} {{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |:| | |HER |HER=[[Hermes]]}} {{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |D|~|~|~|y|~|~|~|~|SEM |SEM=[[Semele]]}} {{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |:| | |DIO |DIO=[[Dionysus]]}} {{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |L|~|~|~|~|y|~|~|~|DIO |DIO=[[Dione (Titaness)|Dione]]}} {{chart|border=0|AAA | | | | | | | | | | | |BBB|AAA=&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;a <ref>According to [[Hesiod]], ''[[Theogony]]'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hes.+Th.+183 183&ndash;200], Aphrodite was born from Uranus' severed genitals, see Gantz, pp. 99&ndash;100.</ref>|BBB=&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;b <ref>According to [[Homer]], Aphrodite was the daughter of Zeus (''[[Iliad]]'' [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:3.374 3.374], [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:20.105 20.105]; ''[[Odyssey]]'' [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng1:8.308 8.308], [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng1:8.320 320]) and Dione (''[[Iliad]]'' [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:5.370 5.370&ndash;71]), see Gantz, pp. 99&ndash;100.</ref>}} {{chart| |`|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| |!}} {{chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | |APH |APH=[[Aphrodite]]}} {{chart/end}} {{chart bottom}} ==See also== {{Portal|Greek mythology|Hellenismos}} *[[Dryad]] *[[Epirus]] *[[Pasiphaë]] *[[Phoebus (disambiguation)]] *[[Sibylline oracles]] *[[Tegyra]] *[[Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)]] ==Notes== {{Reflist}} ==References== ===Primary sources=== * [[Hesiod]], ''[[Theogony]]'', in ''The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White'', Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130%3Acard%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. * [[Homer]], ''The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes''. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D1%3Acard%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. * [[Homer]]; ''The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes''. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0136%3Abook%3D1%3Acard%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. * [[Sophocles]], ''Oedipus Rex'' * [[Palaephatus]], ''On Unbelievable Tales'' 46. Hyacinthus (330 BCE) * [[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Apollodorus]], ''Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes.'' Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=C431BA809CA4DEA22A15DA9C666F3400?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.01.0022%3atext%3dLibrary Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. * [[Ovid]], ''Metamorphoses'' 10. 162–219 (1–8 CE) * [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes.'' Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+1.1.1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. * [[Philostratus the Elder]], ''Images'' i.24 Hyacinthus (170–245 CE) * [[Philostratus the Younger]], ''Images'' 14. Hyacinthus (170–245 CE) * [[Lucian]], ''Dialogues of the Gods'' 14 (170 CE) * [[First Vatican Mythographer]], 197. Thamyris et Musae ===Secondary sources=== * M. Bieber, 1964. ''Alexander the Great in Greek and Roman Art''. Chicago. * Hugh Bowden, 2005. ''Classical Athens and the Delphic Oracle: Divination and Democracy''. Cambridge University Press. * [[Walter Burkert]], 1985. ''Greek Religion'' (Harvard University Press) III.2.5 ''passim'' * {{EB1911 | last=Freese |first=John Henry |wstitle=Apollo |volume=2|pages=184–186}} * Gantz, Timothy, ''Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources'', Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: {{ISBN|978-0-8018-5360-9}} (Vol. 1), {{ISBN|978-0-8018-5362-3}} (Vol. 2). * {{cite book| author = Fritz Graf| title = Apollo| year = 2009| publisher = Taylor & Francis US| isbn = 978-0-415-31711-5 }} * [[Robert Graves]], 1960. ''The Greek Myths'', revised edition. Penguin. * Miranda J. Green, 1997. ''Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend'', Thames and Hudson. * [[Karl Kerenyi]], 1953. ''Apollon: Studien über Antiken Religion und Humanität'' revised edition. * Karl Kerenyi, 1951. ''The Gods of the Greeks'' * Mertens, Dieter; Schutzenberger, Margareta. ''Città e monumenti dei Greci d'Occidente: dalla colonizzazione alla crisi di fine V secolo a.C.''. Roma L'Erma di Bretschneider, 2006. {{ISBN|88-8265-367-6}}. * Martin Nilsson, 1955. ''Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion'', vol. I. C.H. Beck. * [[Pauly–Wissowa]], ''Realencyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft'': II, "Apollon". The best repertory of cult sites (Burkert). * Pfeiff, K.A., 1943. ''Apollon: Wandlung seines Bildes in der griechischen Kunst''. Traces the changing iconography of Apollo. * D.S.Robertson (1945) ''A handbook of Greek and Roman Architecture'' Cambridge University Press * [[William Smith (lexicographer)|Smith, William]]; ''[[Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology]]'', London (1873). [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0104:entry=heracles-bio-1&highlight=orthrus "Apollo"] *Spivey Nigel (1997) ''Greek art'' Phaedon Press Ltd. ==External links== {{Commons|Apollo}} {{Wiktionary|Apollo}} * [http://www.maicar.com/GML/Apollo.html Apollo] at the Greek Mythology Link, by Carlos Parada * [http://warburg.sas.ac.uk/vpc/VPC_search/subcats.php?cat_1=5&cat_2=80 The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database: ca 1650 images of Apollo] {{Greek religion}} {{Roman religion}} {{Apollo and Daphne}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Apollo| ]] [[Category:Arts gods]] [[Category:Deities in the Iliad]] [[Category:Dragonslayers]] [[Category:Health gods]] [[Category:Knowledge gods]] [[Category:LGBT themes in mythology]] [[Category:Greek Muses]] [[Category:Temples of Apollo]] [[Category:Mythological Greek archers]] [[Category:Mythological rapists]] [[Category:Oracular gods]] [[Category:Roman gods]] [[Category:Solar gods]] 0meer365fkbbhcj678gybegabbr1lyx 0 595 860669458 859904581 2018-09-22T08:01:21Z Spintendo 3465809 Instance where "deadurl" parameter was marked as "unfit" in the references changed to read as "dead-url=yes" to resolve the resulting [[Category:CS1_maint:_Unfit_url|CS1 maintenance error]]. wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use mdy dates|date=March 2016}} {{Infobox tennis biography | name = Andre Agassi | image = Andre Agassi Indian Wells 2006.jpg | caption = Agassi at the [[2006 Pacific Life Open]] | fullname = Andre Kirk Agassi | country = {{USA}} | residence = [[Las Vegas Valley|Las Vegas]], Nevada | birth_date = {{birth date and age|1970|04|29}} | birth_place = Las Vegas, Nevada | height = 5 ft 11 in | turnedpro = 1986 | retired = 2006 | plays = Right-handed (two-handed backhand) | coach = [[Emmanuel Agassi]] (1970–83)<br />[[Nick Bollettieri]] (1983–93)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/07/10/sports/tennis-agassi-has-streisand-but-loses-bollettieri.html |title=TENNIS; Agassi Has Streisand But Loses Bollettieri |date=July 10, 1993 |publisher=''The New York Times'' |first=Robin |last=Finn |accessdate=July 5, 2014}}</ref><br />[[Brad Gilbert]] (1994–2002)<br />[[Darren Cahill]] (2002–2006) | careerprizemoney = [[United States dollar|US$]] 31,152,975 <small>&nbsp;[[Open Era tennis records – men's singles#Prize money|8th&nbsp;all-time&nbsp;leader&nbsp;in&nbsp;earnings]]</small> | tennishofyear = 2011 | tennishofid = andre-agassi | singlesrecord = {{tennis record|won=870|lost=274}} | singlestitles = 60 <small></small> | highestsinglesranking = No. '''1''' (April 10, 1995) | AustralianOpenresult = '''W''' ([[1995 Australian Open – Men's Singles|1995]], [[2000 Australian Open – Men's Singles|2000]], [[2001 Australian Open – Men's Singles|2001]], [[2003 Australian Open – Men's Singles|2003]]) | FrenchOpenresult = '''W''' ([[1999 French Open – Men's Singles|1999]]) | Wimbledonresult = '''W''' ([[1992 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|1992]]) | USOpenresult = '''W''' ([[1994 US Open – Men's Singles|1994]], [[1999 US Open – Men's Singles|1999]]) |Othertournaments = Yes |MastersCupresult = '''W''' ([[1990 ATP Tour World Championships|1990]]) |Olympicsresult = '''W''' ([[Tennis at the 1996 Summer Olympics – Men's singles|1996]]) |GrandSlamCupresult= F ([[Grand Slam Cup#1998|1998]]) | doublesrecord = 40–42 | doublestitles = 1 | FrenchOpenDoublesresult = QF (1992) | USOpenDoublesresult = 1R (1987) | highestdoublesranking = No. 123 (August 17, 1992) | Team = yes | DavisCupresult = '''W''' (1990, 1992, 1995) |CoachYears = 2017– |CoachPlayers = {{unbulleted list |[[Novak Djokovic]] (May 2017–March 31st, 2018) }} | medaltemplates-expand = yes | medaltemplates = {{MedalCompetition|Olympic Games – [[Tennis at the Summer Olympics|Tennis]]}} {{MedalGold | [[1996 Summer Olympics|1996 Atlanta]] | [[Tennis at the 1996 Summer Olympics – Men's singles|Singles]] }} }} '''Andre Kirk Agassi''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|ɡ|ə|s|i}} {{respell|AG|ə|see}};<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=056sdwRMuiY&t=8s|title=Andre Agassi: from wild child to role model|author=CNN|website=YouTube|date=2016-08-18|accessdate=2018-01-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ayvEi_7O7fg&t=22s|title=Jim Courier, Andre Agassi, and Lara Spencer PUNK'D on 'GMA' {{!}} Good Morning America {{!}} ABC News|author=ABC News|website=YouTube|date=2012-11-13|accessdate=2018-01-09}}</ref> born April 29, 1970) is an American retired professional tennis player and former [[List of ATP number 1 ranked singles players|world No. 1]] who was one of the sport's most dominant players from the early 1990s to the mid-2000s.<ref name="bio">{{cite web|url=http://www.thebiographychannel.co.uk/biographies/andre-agassi.html |title=Bio:Andre Agassi |publisher=[[Biography Channel]] |accessdate=January 27, 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110131010520/http://www.thebiographychannel.co.uk/biographies/andre-agassi.html |archivedate=January 31, 2011 |df= }}</ref> Generally considered by critics and fellow players to be one of the greatest tennis players of all time,<ref name="SI">{{cite web|title=Top 10 Men's Tennis Players of All Time |work=Sports Illustrated |url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/multimedia/photo_gallery/1009/top.ten.tennis/content.4.html |accessdate=July 21, 2012 |dead-url=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100918231717/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/multimedia/photo_gallery/1009/top.ten.tennis/content.4.html |archivedate=September 18, 2010 }}</ref><ref name="tennis">{{cite journal |title=Tennis Magazine: 40 Greatest Players |publisher=Tennis Magazine |date=December 2005}}</ref><ref name="cba">{{cite news |url=http://www.cbc.ca/sports/columns/newsmakers/andre-agassi.html |title=Tennis's love affair with Agassi comes to an end |publisher=[[CBC Sports]] |accessdate=May 15, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090725010912/http://www.cbc.ca/sports/columns/newsmakers/andre-agassi.html |archivedate=July 25, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/tennis/wimbledon/3030108/Grand-slammed.html |title=Grand-slammed |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |accessdate=May 15, 2010 |first=John |last=Parsons |date=June 26, 2002 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100525021835/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/tennis/wimbledon/3030108/Grand-slammed.html |archivedate=May 25, 2010 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref><ref name="stars">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/5113548.stm "Stars pay tribute to Agassi"]. [[BBC]]. Retrieved May 15, 2010.</ref> Agassi has been called the greatest service returner ever to play the game and was described by the [[BBC]] upon his retirement as "perhaps the biggest worldwide star in the sport's history".<ref name="cba" /><ref name="stars" /><ref>[http://uk.eurosport.yahoo.com/tennis/simon-reed/article/1176/ "Reed's shotmakers: Men's return of serve"]. [[Yahoo! Sports]]. Retrieved May 15, 2010.</ref><ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/13/sports/tennis/13tv.html "Adjectives Tangled in the Net"]. ''[[The New York Times]]''. Retrieved May 15, 2010.</ref><ref>[http://articles.latimes.com/1995-03-14/sports/sp-42741_1_andre-agassi?pg=1 "Sampras, Agassi Have Just Begun to Fight"] ''[[Los Angeles Times]]''. Retrieved 15, 2010.</ref> As a result, he is credited for helping to revive the popularity of tennis during the 1990s.<ref name="cba" /><ref name="stars" /><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/tennis/dont-walk-away-andre-charismatic-gifts-of-agassi-should-not-be-allowed-to-slip-through-net-406318.html |title=Don't Walk Away, Andre |work=The Independent |location=UK |date=July 2, 2006 |accessdate=June 6, 2011 |first=Ronald |last=Atkin |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606110540/http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/tennis/dont-walk-away-andre-charismatic-gifts-of-agassi-should-not-be-allowed-to-slip-through-net-406318.html |archivedate=June 6, 2011 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref> In singles tennis, Agassi is an eight-time [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam]] champion and a [[Tennis at the 1996 Summer Olympics|1996 Olympic gold medalist]], as well as being a runner-up in seven other Grand Slam tournaments. During the [[Open Era]], Agassi was the first male player to win four Australian Open titles, a record that was later surpassed by [[Novak Djokovic]] when he won his fifth title in 2015, and then by [[Roger Federer]] in 2017. Agassi is one of five male singles players to achieve the [[Grand Slam (tennis)#Career Grand Slam|Career Grand Slam]] in the Open Era and one of eight in history,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/olympics_blog/2008/08/federer-gets-hi.html |title=Roger Federer gets his gold medal |publisher=Latimesblogs.latimes.com |date=August 16, 2008 |accessdate=June 6, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.atpworldtour.com/News/Tennis/2010/09/36-US-Open-Week-2/US-Open-Monday-Final-Nadal-Completes-Career-Slam.aspx |title=Nadal Completes Career Grand Slam With US Open Title |publisher=ATP Tennis |accessdate=January 27, 2011}}</ref> the first of two to achieve the [[Career Golden Slam]] (Career Grand Slam and Olympic Gold Medal, the other being [[Rafael Nadal]]), and the only man to win the Career Golden Slam and the [[ATP World Tour Finals|ATP Tour World Championships]]: a distinction dubbed as a "Career Super Slam" by ''[[Sports Illustrated]]''.<ref name="SI" /> Agassi was the first male player to win all four Grand Slam tournaments on three different surfaces (hard, clay and grass), and the last American male to win both the French Open (in 1999)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fft.fr/rolandgarros/default_en.asp?ID=1576 |title=Singles winners from 1925 to 2005 |publisher=[[French Open|Roland Garros]] |accessdate=January 26, 2011 }}{{dead link|date=October 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> and the Australian Open (in 2003).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.australianopen.com/en_AU/event_guide/history/players/107.html |title=Australian Open – Past Men's Singles Champions |publisher=Australian Open |accessdate=January 26, 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110122044440/http://www.australianopen.com/en_AU/event_guide/history/players/107.html |archivedate=January 22, 2011 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> He also won 17 [[ATP World Tour Masters 1000|ATP Masters Series]] titles and was part of the winning [[Davis Cup]] teams in [[1990 Davis Cup|1990]], [[1992 Davis Cup|1992]] and [[1995 Davis Cup|1995]].<ref name="tennis" /> Agassi reached the world No. 1 ranking for the first time in 1995 but was troubled by personal issues during the mid-to-late 1990s and sank to No. 141 in 1997, prompting many to believe that his career was over.<ref name="greatath" /> Agassi returned to No. 1 in 1999 and enjoyed the most successful run of his career over the next four years. During his 20-plus year tour career, Agassi was known by the nickname "The Punisher".<ref>Jhabvala, Nick. [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2009/extramustard/10/30/chad-ochocinco-andre-agassi-tale/index.html "Tale of the Tape"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130126063425/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2009/extramustard/10/30/chad-ochocinco-andre-agassi-tale/index.html |date=January 26, 2013 }} ''[[Sports Illustrated]]''. November 2, 2009. Retrieved July 21, 2012.</ref><ref>Mehrotra, Abhishek. [http://www.espnstar.com/editorial/news/detail/item640226/Agassi:-Last-of-the-great-Americans/ "Agassi: Last of the great Americans"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111084538/http://www.espnstar.com/editorial/news/detail/item640226/Agassi%3A-Last-of-the-great-Americans/ |date=January 11, 2012 }} ''[[espnstar.com|ESPN Star]]''. Retrieved July 21, 2012.</ref><ref>[http://sports.in.msn.com/gallery/nickometer-popular-nicknames-in-the-world-of-sport?page=37 "Nickometer: Popular nicknames in the world of sport"]. [[MSN]] Sport. May 3, 2012. Retrieved July 21, 2012.</ref><ref>Calvert, Sean. [http://betting.betfair.com/tennis/australian-open-betting/australian-open-betting-the-best-finals-ever-100111.html "Australian Open Betting: The best finals ever"]. [[Betfair]]. January 10, 2011. Retrieved July 21, 2012.</ref> After suffering from [[sciatica]] caused by two bulging discs in his back, a [[spondylolisthesis]] ([[vertebra]]l displacement) and a [[bone spur]] that interfered with the [[nerve]], Agassi retired from professional tennis on September 3, 2006, after losing in the third round of the [[US Open (tennis)|US Open]] to [[Benjamin Becker]]. He is the founder of the Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.agassifoundation.org/ |title=Andre Agassi Foundation For Education |accessdate=January 26, 2011 |archiveurl=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20021029135656/http://www.agassifoundation.org/ |archivedate=October 29, 2002 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref> which has raised over $60&nbsp;million for at-risk children in Southern Nevada.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atptennis.com/en/players/tribute/agassi/agassi_charity.asp |publisher=ATP Tour, Inc. |title=Tribute to a legend: Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation |accessdate=February 15, 2007 }}{{dead link|date=October 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> In 2001, the Foundation opened the Andre Agassi College Preparatory Academy in Las Vegas, a K-12 public [[charter school]] for at-risk children.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.agassiprep.org |publisher=Andre Agassi Preparatory Academy |title=Homepage of |accessdate=February 15, 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070225092139/http://www.agassiprep.org/ |archivedate=February 25, 2007 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref> He has been married to fellow tennis player [[Steffi Graf]] since 2001. ==1970–1985: Early life== Andre Agassi was born in Las Vegas, Nevada to [[Emmanuel Agassi|Emmanuel "Mike" Agassi]], a former Olympic boxer from Iran<ref>https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2017/mar/20/andre-agassi-life-after-tennis-steffi-graf?CMP=fb_gu</ref> and Elizabeth "Betty" Agassi (née Dudley).<ref name="bio" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.netglimse.com/celebs/bio/andre_agassi.shtml |title=Andre Agassi Biography |publisher=Netglimpse.com |accessdate=August 14, 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070911163118/http://www.netglimse.com/celebs/bio/andre_agassi.shtml |archivedate=September 11, 2007 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref> His father claims to have [[Iranian Armenians|Armenian]] and [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] heritage.<ref name="persianbio">{{cite web|url=http://www.persianmirror.com/culture/famous/bios/andreagassi.cfm |title=Bio:Andre Agassi |publisher=Persian Mirror |accessdate=January 27, 2011 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5gzbWaTky?url=http://www.persianmirror.com/culture/famous/bios/andreagassi.cfm |archivedate=May 23, 2009 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref><ref name="zindamagazine.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.zindamagazine.com/html/archives/1995/zn082895.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010412033524/http://www.zindamagazine.com/html/archives/1995/zn082895.html |dead-url=yes |archive-date=April 12, 2001 |title=400 ASSYRIAN ATHLETES IN THE STATE OLYMPICS |publisher=ZENDA renamed Zinda Magazine in 1999 |date=August 28, 1995 |accessdate=June 6, 2011 }}</ref><ref name="peoplebio">{{cite web|url=http://www.peopleandprofiles.com/ProfilesDet-28/Andre+Agassi.html?profile_id=127 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070708231152/http://www.peopleandprofiles.com/ProfilesDet-28/Andre%2BAgassi.html?profile_id=127 |dead-url=yes |archive-date=July 8, 2007 |title=Andre Agassi Profile |publisher=Peopleandprofiles.com |accessdate=June 6, 2011 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5R1y1nvcWccC&pg=PA278&lpg=PA278&dq=andre+aghassi+Armenian+-wikipedia.org |title=Aramaic (Assyrian/Syriac) dictionary |accessdate=June 6, 2011}}</ref><ref name="The man behind Andre">{{cite web |url=http://www.agassi.fr/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=527 |title=The man behind Andre |accessdate=June 6, 2011}}</ref> One of his ancestors changed his surname from Aghassian to Agassi to avoid persecution.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.armenianweekly.com/2010/04/14/only-in-america-an-interview-with-mike-agassi/ |title=Only in America? An Interview with Mike Agassi |publisher=''The Armenian Weekly'' |first=Frank |last=Nahigian |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> Andre Agassi's mother, Betty, is a breast cancer survivor. He has three older siblings – Rita (last wife to [[Pancho Gonzales]]), Philip and Tami.<ref>{{cite web|title=Andre Agassi |url=http://www.persianmirror.com/culture/famous/bios/andreagassi.cfm |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5gzbWaTky?url=http://www.persianmirror.com/culture/famous/bios/andreagassi.cfm |work=PersianMirror |publisher=PersianMirror |year=2004 |archivedate=May 23, 2009 |accessdate=May 23, 2009 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dcourier.com/main.asp?SectionID=2&SubSectionID=2&ArticleID=127375 |title=Column: Q&A with Rita Agassi; a tennis life and journey |publisher=''The Daily Courier'' |author=Howard, Chris |date=January 14, 2014 |accessdate=January 25, 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140120040638/http://www.dcourier.com/main.asp?SectionID=2&SubSectionID=2&ArticleID=127375 |archivedate=January 20, 2014 |df=mdy }}</ref> Andre was given the middle name Kirk after [[Kirk Kerkorian]], an Armenian American billionaire. Agassi, a waiter at [[Tropicana Las Vegas]], met Kerkorian in 1963.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sassounian|first1=Harut|authorlink1=Harut Sassounian|title=New Biography Portrays Kirk Kerkorian, Not Trump, as ‘the Greatest Deal Maker’|url=https://www.azatutyun.am/a/29007312.html|publisher=[[RFE/RL]] via ''[[The California Courier]]''|date=30 January 2018}}</ref> Agassi at the age of 12 (with his good friend and doubles partner Roddy Parks) won the 1982 National Indoor Boys 14’s Double’s Championship in Chicago, IL. Agassi describes more of his memorable experiences and juvenile pranks with Roddy in his book ''Open''.<ref name=Open>{{cite book |last=Agassi |first=Andre |title=Open: An Autobiography |year=2010 |publisher=Vintage |location=London |isbn=978-0-307-38840-7 |pages=62, 83}}</ref> At the age of 13, Agassi was sent to [[Nick Bollettieri]]'s Tennis Academy in Florida.<ref name="greatath">{{cite book |last1=Jensen |first1=Jeffry |editor1-first=Dawn P |editor1-last=Dawson |title=Great Athletes |edition=Revised |volume=1 |year=2002 |origyear=1992 |publisher=Salem Press |isbn=1-58765-008-8 |pages=17–19}}</ref> He was meant to stay for only 3 months because that was all his father could afford. After thirty minutes of watching Agassi play, Bollettieri called Mike and said: "Take your check back. He's here for free," claiming that Agassi had more natural talent than anyone else he had seen.<ref name="lxbpdn">{{cite news|url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2006/magazine/08/30/agassi0717/index.html |publisher=Gary Smith for Sports Illustrated |title=Coming into Focus |accessdate=February 15, 2007 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5mr2GHwNg?url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2006/magazine/08/30/agassi0717/index.html |archivedate=January 17, 2010 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref> Agassi dropped out of school in the ninth grade.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/12/books/12agassi.html |work=The New York Times |title=A Team, but Watch How You Put It |first=Charles |last=McGrath |date=November 12, 2009 |accessdate=May 5, 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120110114052/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/12/books/12agassi.html |archivedate=January 10, 2012 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref> ==International tennis career biography== ===1986–1993: Breakthrough and the first major title=== Agassi turned professional at the age of 16 and competed in his first tournament at [[La Quinta, California]]. He won his first match against [[John Austin (tennis)|John Austin]], but then lost his second match to [[Mats Wilander]]. By the end of 1986, Agassi was ranked No. 91.<ref name="Tennis28">{{cite web |url=http://www.tennis28.com/rankings/history/agassi.html |title=Tennis28-Bio:Andre Agassi |accessdate=June 12, 2009 |publisher=Tennis28}}</ref> He won his first top-level singles title in 1987 at the [[ATP Itaparica|Sul American Open]] in [[Itaparica]]<ref name="greatath" /> and ended the year ranked No. 25.<ref name="greatath" /> He won six additional tournaments in 1988 (Memphis, [[1988 U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships|U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships]], [[World Championship Tennis#WCT 1988|Forest Hills WCT]], Stuttgart Outdoor, [[1988 Volvo International|Volvo International]] and [[1988 Livingston Open|Livingston Open]]),<ref name="greatath" /> and, by December of that year, he had surpassed US$1&nbsp;million in career prize money after playing in just 43 tournaments—the fastest anyone in history had reached that level.<ref>[https://www.imdb.com/name/nm1152468/bio Andre Agassi – Biography]</ref> During 1988, he also set the open-era record for most consecutive victories by a male teenager (a record that stood for 17 years until [[Rafael Nadal]] broke it in 2005).<ref>{{cite news |title=Teen Nadal gives Spain reign over French Open |date=June 5, 2006 |url=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/tennis/french/2005-06-05-day-14_x.htm |agency=Associated Press (USA Today) |accessdate=April 6, 2010}}</ref> His year-end ranking was No. 3, behind second-ranked [[Ivan Lendl]] and top-ranked [[Mats Wilander]]. Both the [[Association of Tennis Professionals]] and ''Tennis'' magazine named Agassi the Most Improved Player of the Year for 1988.<ref name="greatath" /> In addition to not playing the Australian Open (which later became his best Grand Slam event) for the first eight years of his career, Agassi chose not to play at [[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]] from 1988 through 1990 and publicly stated that he did not wish to play there because of the event's traditionalism, particularly its "predominantly white" dress code to which players at the event are required to conform. Strong performances on the tour meant that Agassi was quickly tipped as a future Grand Slam champion. While still a teenager, he reached the semifinals of both the French Open and the [[US Open (tennis)|US Open]] in 1988 and made the US Open semifinals in 1989. He began the 1990s with a series of near-misses. He reached his first Grand Slam final in 1990 at the French Open, where he was favored before losing in four sets to [[Andrés Gómez]], which he later attributed in his book to worrying about his wig falling off during the match.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/tvshowbiz/article-1224168/Andre-Agassi-admits-I-wore-wig--lost-French-Open.html |title=Andre Agassi admits: 'I wore a wig... and it lost me the French Open' |author =Allan Hall |accessdate=November 11, 2014 |publisher=Daily Mail Online}}</ref> He reached his second Grand Slam final of the year at the US Open, defeating defending champion [[Boris Becker]] in the semifinals. His opponent in the final was [[Pete Sampras]]; a year earlier, Agassi had crushed Sampras, after which time he told his coach that he felt bad for Sampras because he was never going to make it as a pro. Agassi lost the US Open final to Sampras in three sets.<ref name="greatath" /> The rivalry between these two American players became the dominant rivalry in tennis over the rest of the decade. Agassi ended 1990 on high note as he helped the United States win its first [[Davis Cup]] in 8 years and won his only [[Tennis Masters Cup]], beating reigning Wimbledon champion [[Stefan Edberg]] in the final. In 1991, Agassi reached his second consecutive French Open final, where he faced fellow Bollettieri Academy alumnus [[Jim Courier]]. Courier emerged the victor in a five-set final. Agassi decided to play at Wimbledon in 1991, leading to weeks of speculation in the media about the clothes he would wear. He eventually emerged for the first round in a completely white outfit.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1991-06-28/sports/1991179074_1_wimbledon-agassi-centre-court |title=Agassi makes a big splash in white on Centre Court |date=June 28, 1991 |publisher=Baltimore The Sun}}</ref> He reached the quarterfinals on that occasion, losing in five sets to [[David Wheaton]]. Agassi's Grand Slam tournament breakthrough came at Wimbledon, not at the French Open or the US Open, where he had previously enjoyed success. In 1992, he defeated [[Goran Ivanišević]] in a five-set final.<ref name="greatath" /><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/07/06/sports/tennis-on-the-grass-at-wimbledon-agassi-finally-hits-pay-dirt.html |title=On the Grass at Wimbledon, Agassi Finally Hits Pay Dirt |date=July 6, 1992 |publisher=NY Times}}</ref> Along the way, Agassi overcame two former Wimbledon champions: [[Boris Becker]] and [[John McEnroe]]. No other baseliner would triumph at Wimbledon until [[Lleyton Hewitt]] ten years later. Agassi was named the [[BBC Sports Personality of the Year Overseas Personality|BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year]] in 1992. Agassi once again played on the United States' [[Davis Cup]] winning team in 1992. It was their second Davis cup title in three years. In 1993, Agassi won the only doubles title of his career, at the [[Cincinnati Masters]], partnered with [[Petr Korda]]. He missed much of the early part of that year due to injuries. Although he made the quarterfinals in his Wimbledon title defense, he lost to eventual champion and No. 1 Pete Sampras in five sets. Agassi lost in the first round at the US Open to [[Thomas Enqvist]] and required wrist surgery late in the year. ===1994–1997: Rise to the top, Olympic Gold and the fall=== With new coach [[Brad Gilbert]] on board, Agassi began to employ more of a tactical, consistent approach, which fueled his resurgence. He started slowly in 1994, losing in the first week at the French Open and Wimbledon. Nevertheless, he emerged during the hard-court season, winning the [[Canada Masters|Canadian Open]]. His comeback culminated at the [[1994 US Open (tennis)|1994 US Open]] with a five-set fourth-round victory against compatriot [[Michael Chang]]. He then became the first man to capture the US Open as an [[Seed (tennis)|unseeded]] player, beating [[Michael Stich]] in the final.<ref name="greatath" /> Along the way, he beat 5 seeded players. In 1995, Agassi shaved his balding head, breaking with his old "image is everything" style. He competed in the [[1995 Australian Open]] (his first appearance at the event) and won, beating Sampras in a four-set final.<ref name="greatath" /> Agassi and Sampras met in five tournament finals in 1995, all on [[hardcourt]], with Agassi winning three. Agassi won three Masters Series events in 1995 ([[Cincinnati Masters|Cincinnati]], [[Miami Masters|Key Biscayne]], and the Canadian Open) and seven titles total.<ref name="greatath" /> He compiled a career-best 26-match winning streak during the summer hard-court circuit, with the last victory being in an intense late night four-set semifinal of the [[1995 US Open (tennis)|US Open]] against [[Boris Becker]]. The streak ended the next day when Agassi lost the final to Sampras. Agassi reached the [[List of ATP number 1 ranked players|world No. 1]] ranking for the first time in April 1995. He held that ranking until November, for a total of 30 weeks. Agassi skipped most of the fall indoor season which allowed Sampras to surpass him and finish ranked No. 1 at the year-end ranking. In terms of win/loss record, 1995 was Agassi's best year. He won 73 and lost 9 matches, and was also once again a key player on the United States' [[Davis Cup]] winning team—the third and final Davis Cup title of his career. 1996 was a less successful year for Agassi, as he failed to reach any Grand Slam final. He suffered two early-round losses at the hands of compatriots [[Chris Woodruff]] and [[Doug Flach]] at the French Open and Wimbledon, respectively, and lost to Chang in straight sets in the Australian and US Open semifinals. At the time, Agassi blamed the Australian Open loss on the windy conditions, but later said in his biography that he had lost the match on purpose, as he did not want to play Boris Becker, whom he would have faced in that final. The high point for Agassi was winning the men's singles gold medal at the [[1996 Summer Olympics|Olympic Games]] in [[Atlanta]], beating [[Sergi Bruguera]] of Spain in the final.<ref name="greatath" /> Agassi also successfully defended his singles titles in Cincinnati and Key Biscayne. 1997 was the low point of Agassi's career. His wrist injury resurfaced, and he played only 24 matches during the year. He later confessed that he started using [[methamphetamine|crystal methamphetamine]] at that time, allegedly on the urging of a friend.<ref name="sports.espn.go.com">{{cite web |url=http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/tennis/news/story?id=4600027 |title=Andre Agassi book says he used crystal meth |publisher=[[ESPN]] |accessdate=January 27, 2011}}</ref> He failed an ATP drug test, but wrote a letter claiming the same friend had spiked a drink. The ATP dropped the failed drug test as a warning. In his autobiography, Agassi admitted that the letter was a lie.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/8329193.stm |publisher=BBC News |title=Agassi admits use of crystal meth |date=October 28, 2009 |accessdate=March 30, 2010}}</ref> He quit the drug soon after. At this time Agassi was also in a failing marriage with actress [[Brooke Shields]] and had lost interest in the game.<ref>Andre Agassi interview. ''[[The Ellen DeGeneres Show]]''. November 19, 2009.</ref> He won no top-level titles, and his ranking sank to No. 141 on November 10, 1997, prompting many to believe that his run as one of the sport's premier competitors was over and he would never again win any significant championships.<ref name="greatath" /> ===1998–2003: Return to glory and Career Super Slam=== [[File:Agassi-Auopen2005.jpg|thumb|Agassi serving]] In 1998, Agassi began a rigorous conditioning program and worked his way back up the rankings by playing in Challenger Series tournaments, a circuit for pro players ranked outside the world's top 50. After returning to top physical and mental shape, Agassi recorded the most successful period of his tennis career and also played classic matches in that period against [[Pete Sampras]] and [[Patrick Rafter]]. In 1998, Agassi won five titles and leapt from No. 110 to No. 6, the highest jump into the top 10 made by any player during a calendar year.<ref name="atpbio">{{cite web|url=http://www.atptennis.com/5/en/players/playerprofiles/highlights.asp?playernumber=A092 |title=Andre Agassi player profile |publisher=Atptennis.com |accessdate=June 6, 2011 |df=mdy }}{{dead link|date=September 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> At Wimbledon, he had an early loss in the second round to [[Tommy Haas]]. He won five titles in ten finals and was runner-up at the [[Miami Masters|Masters Series tournament in Key Biscayne]], losing to [[Marcelo Ríos]], who became No. 1 as a result. At the year end he was awarded the ATP Most Improved Player of the Year for the second time in his career (the first being 10 years earlier in 1988). Agassi entered the history books in 1999 when he came back from two sets to love down to beat [[Andrei Medvedev]] in a five-set French Open final, becoming, at the time, only the fifth male player (joining [[Rod Laver]], [[Fred Perry]], [[Roy Emerson]] and [[Don Budge]]—these have since been joined by [[Roger Federer]], [[Rafael Nadal]], and [[Novak Djokovic]]) to win all four Grand Slam singles titles during his career. Only Laver, Agassi, Federer, Nadal and Djokovic have achieved this feat during the [[Open Era|open era]]. This win also made him the first (of only four, the next being Federer, Nadal and Djokovic respectively) male player in history to have won all four Grand Slam titles on three different surfaces (clay, grass and hard courts). Agassi also became the only male player to win the [[Career Super Slam]], consisting of all four Grand Slam tournaments plus an Olympic gold medal in singles and a [[ATP World Tour Finals|Year-End Championship]].<ref name="SI" /> Agassi followed his 1999 French Open victory by reaching the Wimbledon final, where he lost to Sampras in straight sets.<ref name="greatath" /> He rebounded from his Wimbledon defeat by winning the [[1999 US Open (tennis)|US Open]], beating [[Todd Martin]] in five sets (rallying from a two sets to one deficit) in the final. Overall during the year Agassi won 5 titles including two majors and the ATP Masters Series in Paris, where he beat [[Marat Safin]]. Agassi ended 1999 as the No. 1, ending Sampras's record of six consecutive year-ending top rankings (1993–98).<ref name="greatath" /> This was the only time Agassi ended the year at No. 1. He began the next year by capturing his second Australian Open title, beating Sampras in a five-set semifinal and [[Yevgeny Kafelnikov]] in a four-set final.<ref name="greatath" /> He was the first male player to have reached four consecutive Grand Slam finals since [[Rod Laver]] achieved the Grand Slam in 1969.{{#tag:ref|[[Roger Federer]] has since surpassed this feat, reaching ten consecutive Grand Slam finals from 2005–2007.|group=lower-alpha}} At the time, Agassi was also only the fourth player since Laver to be the reigning champion of three of four Grand Slam events, missing only the Wimbledon title.{{#tag:ref|[[Pete Sampras]] held the 1993 Wimbledon, [[1993 US Open (tennis)|1993 US Open]] and [[1994 Australian Open]] titles simultaneously. [[Jimmy Connors]] (1974), [[Roger Federer]] (2004, 2006 and 2007) and [[Novak Djokovic]] (2011) won those three Majors in the same year, although Connors' Grand Slam titles were all played on [[Tennis court#Grass courts|grass courts]]. [[Mats Wilander]] won all but Wimbledon in 1988 during his similar rise to the year-end No. 1. [[Rafael Nadal]] won the French Open and Wimbledon "Channel Slam" (2008) and 2009 Australian Open, before replicating the Channel Slam alongside winning the US Open in 2010.|group=lower-alpha}}. 2000 also saw Agassi reach the semifinals at Wimbledon, where he lost in five sets to Rafter in a match considered by many to be one of the best ever at Wimbledon.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/tennis/wimbledon_history/3742067.stm |title=Classic Matches: Rafter v Agassi |date=May 31, 2004 |accessdate=October 25, 2007 |publisher=BBC Sport |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5mr2GUooH?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/tennis/wimbledon_history/3742067.stm |archivedate=January 17, 2010 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref> At the inaugural [[2000 Tennis Masters Cup|Tennis Masters Cup]] in Lisbon, Agassi reached the final after defeating Marat Safin in the semifinals to end the Russian's hopes to become the youngest No. 1 in the history of tennis. Agassi then lost to [[Gustavo Kuerten]] in the final, allowing Kuerten to be crowned year-end No. 1. Agassi opened 2001 by successfully defending his Australian Open title with a straight-sets final win over [[Arnaud Clément]].<ref name="greatath" /> En route, he beat a cramping Rafter in five sets in front of a sell-out crowd in what turned out to be the Aussie's last Australian Open. At Wimbledon, they met again in the semifinals, where Agassi lost another close match to Rafter, 8–6 in the fifth set. In the quarterfinals at the US Open, Agassi lost a 3-hour, 33&nbsp;minute epic match<ref>{{cite news|url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/tennis/2001/us_open/news/2001/09/05/sampras_agassi |title=Believe the hype |work=Sports Illustrated |date=September 6, 2001 |accessdate=June 6, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604013156/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/tennis/2001/us_open/news/2001/09/05/sampras_agassi |archivedate=June 4, 2011 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref> with Sampras, 7–6, 6–7, 6–7, 6–7,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/tennis/2001/us_open/news/2001/09/05/agassi_sidebar_ap |title=Unbreakable |date=September 6, 2001 |work=Sports Illustrated |accessdate=January 26, 2011}}</ref> with no breaks of serve during the 52-game match. Despite the setback, Agassi finished 2001 ranked No. 3, becoming the only male tennis player to finish a year ranked in the top 3 in three different decades<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsline.com/tennis/players/playerpage/201490/2006 |title=SportsLine:Andre Agassi |year=2006 |publisher=Sportsline |accessdate=January 26, 2011}}</ref> (1980s, 1990s, 2000s). He also was the oldest player (age 31) to finish in the top three since 32-year-old Connors finished at No. 2 in 1984.<ref name="atpbio" /> 2002 opened with disappointment for Agassi, as injury forced him to skip the Australian Open, where he was a two-time defending champion. Agassi recovered from the injury and later that year defended his [[Key Biscayne]] title beating then rising Roger Federer in a four-set final. The last duel between Agassi and Sampras came in the final of the US Open, which Sampras won in four sets and left Sampras with a 20–14 edge in their 34 career meetings. The match was the last of Sampras's career. Agassi's US Open finish, along with his Masters Series victories in Key Biscayne, [[Rome Masters|Rome]] and [[Madrid Open (tennis)|Madrid]], helped him finish 2002 as the oldest year-end No. 2 at 32 years and 8 months.<ref name="atpbio" /> In 2003, Agassi won the eighth (and final) Grand Slam title of his career at the Australian Open, where he beat [[Rainer Schüttler]] in straight sets in the final. In March, he won his sixth career and third consecutive [[Key Biscayne]] title, in the process surpassing his wife, [[Steffi Graf]], who was a five-time winner of the event. The final was his 18th straight win in that tournament, which broke the previous record of 17 set by Sampras from 1993–95. (Agassi's winning streak continued to 20 after winning his first two matches at the 2004 edition of that tournament before bowing to [[Agustín Calleri]].) With the victory, Agassi became the youngest (19 years old) and oldest (32) winner of the Key Biscayne tournament. On April 28, 2003, he recaptured the No. 1 ranking after a quarterfinal victory over [[Xavier Malisse]] at the [[Queen's Club Championships]] to become the oldest top-ranked male player since the ATP rankings began at 33 years and 13 days. The record was later surpassed by [[Roger Federer]] in 2018. He had held the No. 1 ranking for two weeks, when [[Lleyton Hewitt]] took it back on May 12, 2003. Agassi then recaptured the No. 1 ranking once again on June 16, 2003, which he held for 12 weeks until September 7, 2003. During his career, Agassi held the No. 1 ranking for a total of 101 weeks. Agassi's ranking slipped when injuries forced him to withdraw from many events. He did manage to reach the US Open semifinals, where he lost to [[Juan Carlos Ferrero]] and surrendered his No. 1 ranking to Ferrero. At the year-end Tennis Masters Cup, Agassi lost in the final to Federer and finished the year ranked No. 4. At age 33, he was the oldest player to rank in the top 5 since Connors, at age 35, was No. 4 in 1987.<ref name="atpbio" /> ===2004–2006: Final years=== In 2004, Agassi began the year with a five-set loss in the semifinals of the Australian Open to [[Marat Safin]]; the loss ended Agassi's 26-match winning streak at the event, a record that still stands. He won the [[Cincinnati Masters|Masters series event in Cincinnati]] to bring his career total to 59 top-level singles titles and a record 17 ATP Masters Series titles, having already won seven of the nine ATP Masters tournament—all except the tournaments in [[Monte Carlo Masters|Monte Carlo]] and [[Hamburg Masters|Hamburg]]. At 34, he became the second-oldest singles champion in Cincinnati tournament history (the tournament began in 1899), surpassed only by [[Ken Rosewall]], who won the title in 1970 at age 35. He finished the year ranked No. 8, the oldest player to finish in the top 10 since the 36-year-old Connors was No. 7 in 1988.<ref name="atpbio" /> Agassi also became only the sixth male player during the [[Tennis open era|open era]] to reach 800 career wins with his first-round victory over [[Alex Bogomolov]] in [[Countrywide Classic]] in Los Angeles. Agassi's 2005 began with a quarterfinal loss to Federer at the Australian Open. Agassi had several other deep runs at tournaments, but had to withdraw from several events due to injury. He lost to [[Jarkko Nieminen]] in the first round of the French Open. He won his fourth title in Los Angeles and reached the final of the [[Canada Masters|Rogers Cup]], before falling to No. 2 [[Rafael Nadal]]. Agassi's 2005 was defined by an improbable run to the US Open final. After beating [[Răzvan Sabău]] and [[Ivo Karlović]] in straight sets and [[Tomáš Berdych]] in four sets, Agassi won three consecutive five-set matches to advance to the final. The most notable of these matches was his quarterfinal victory over [[James Blake (tennis)|James Blake]], where he rallied from two sets down to win in the fifth set tie-breaker. His other five-set victims were [[Xavier Malisse]] in the fourth round and [[Robby Ginepri]] in the semifinals. In the final, Agassi faced Federer, who was seeking his second consecutive US Open title and his sixth Grand Slam title in two years. Federer defeated Agassi in four sets. Agassi finished 2005 ranked No. 7, his 16th time in the year-end top-10 rankings, which tied Connors for the most times ranked in the top 10 at year's end. Agassi had a poor start to 2006. He was still recovering from an ankle injury and also suffering from back and leg pain and lack of match play. Agassi withdrew from the Australian Open because of the ankle injury, and his back injury and other pains forced him to withdraw from several other events, eventually skipping the entire clay-court season including the French Open. This caused his ranking to drop out of the top 10 for the last time. Agassi returned for the grass-court season, playing a tune-up, and then [[2006 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|Wimbledon]]. He was defeated in the third round by world No. 2 (and eventual runner-up) [[Rafael Nadal]]. Against conventions, Agassi, the losing player, was interviewed on court after the match.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/13653101 |title=Upsetting day: Agassi, then Roddick ousted |date=June 1, 2006 |accessdate=October 27, 2007 |agency=Associated Press |publisher=NBC Sports |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071105214848/http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/13653101 |archivedate=November 5, 2007 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref> At Wimbledon, Agassi announced his plans to retire following the US Open. Agassi played only two events during the summer hard-court season with his best result being a quarterfinal loss at the [[Countrywide Classic]] in Los Angeles to [[Fernando González]] of Chile, which resulted in him being unseeded at the US Open. Agassi had a short, but dramatic, run in his final US Open. Because of extreme back pain, Agassi was forced to receive anti-inflammatory injections after every match. After a tough four-set win against [[Andrei Pavel]], Agassi faced eighth-seeded [[Marcos Baghdatis]] in the second round who had earlier advanced to the [[2006 Australian Open]] final and Wimbledon semifinals. Agassi won in five tough sets as the younger Baghdatis succumbed to muscle cramping in the final set. In his last match, Agassi fell to 112th-ranked big-serving [[Benjamin Becker]] of Germany in four sets. Agassi received a four-minute standing ovation from the crowd after the match and delivered a retirement speech. ==Rivalries== ===Agassi vs. Sampras=== {{Main article|Agassi–Sampras rivalry}} The rivalry has been considered the greatest of the generation of players competing in the 90's, as [[Pete Sampras|Sampras]] and Agassi were the most successful players of that decade. They also had very contrasting playing styles, with Sampras being considered the greatest [[serve (tennis)|server]] while Agassi the greatest serve returner of the game. Agassi and Sampras met 34 times on the tour level with Agassi trailing 14–20.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.atptennis.com/3/en/players/headtohead/?player1=Sampras%2C+Pete&player2=agassi |title=Sampras-Agassi Head-to-Head Matches |work=ATP Official website |accessdate=November 28, 2008}}</ref> The [[1990 U.S. Open (tennis)|1990 US Open]] was their first meeting in a Grand Slam tournament final. Agassi was favored as he was ranked No. 4 at the time, compared to the No. 12 ranking of Sampras and because Agassi had defeated Sampras in their only previously completed match. Agassi however lost the final to Sampras in straight sets. Their next meeting in a Grand Slam was at the [[1992 French Open]], where they met in the quarterfinals. Although Sampras was ranked higher, Agassi came out winning in straight sets. They met again on a Grand Slam level at the quarterfinals of Wimbledon in 1993, where Agassi was the defending champion and Sampras was the newly minted world No. 1. Agassi dug out from a two-nothing hole, levelling the match at 2 sets apiece, however Sampras prevailed in five sets, and went on to win his first Wimbledon championship. With both Sampras and Agassi participating, the [[USA Davis Cup team|U.S.]] won the Davis Cup in 1995. The year should be considered the peak of the rivalry as together they won 3 out of 4 major titles, meeting each other twice in the finals, and were occupying top two spots in the rankings for the whole year. They met 5 times during the year, all in the title matches, including the [[1995 Australian Open|Australian Open]], the [[Indian Wells Masters|Newsweek Champions Cup]] (now Indian Wells), the [[Lipton International Players Championships]] (now Miami Open), the [[Canada Masters|Canadian Open]], and the [[1995 US Open (tennis)|US Open]]. Agassi won three of the finals, including the Australian Open, however Sampras took the US Open title, ending Agassi's 26-match winning streak. After Agassi had taken most of the fall season off, Sampras took over the No. 1 ranking for the end of the season. In the following 3 years, while Sampras continued winning Grand Slam titles every season, Agassi slumped in the rankings and struggled in major competitions. The next time Sampras and Agassi met in a Grand Slam final was at Wimbledon in 1999, where Sampras won in straight sets. For both, it was considered a career rejuvenation, as Sampras had suffered a string of disappointments in the previous year while Agassi was regaining his status as a top-ranked player after winning the French Open. Sampras forfeited the No. 1 ranking to Agassi when injury forced him to withdraw from that year's US Open, which Agassi went on to win. They faced each other twice in the season-ending [[Tennis Masters Cup|ATP Tour World Championships]], with Sampras losing the round-robin match, but winning the final. In 2000's they met three more times on the Grand Slam level offering three memorable contests. In 2000, the top-ranked Agassi defeated No. 3 Sampras in the semifinals of the [[2000 Australian Open|Australian Open]] in five sets, which was an important win for Agassi who lost 4 of the previous 5 matches against Sampras. In arguably their most memorable match ever, Sampras defeated Agassi in the [[2001 U.S. Open (tennis)|2001 US Open]] quarterfinals in four sets. There were no breaks of serve during the entire match. Reruns of the match are frequently featured on television, especially during US Open rain delays, and the match is considered one of the best in history because of the level of play presented by both players. Their last meeting was the final of the [[2002 U.S. Open (tennis)|2002 US Open]], which was their third meeting in a US Open final, but first since 1995. The match was also notable because they had defeated several up-and-coming players en route to the final. Sampras had defeated No. 3 [[Tommy Haas]] in the fourth round and future No. 1 [[Andy Roddick]] in the quarterfinals, while Agassi had defeated No. 1 and defending champion [[Lleyton Hewitt]] in the semifinals. Sampras defeated Agassi in four sets. This was the final [[ATP tour]] singles match of Sampras's career.<ref>{{cite web |last=Muir |first=Allan |url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/tennis/2002/us_open/news/2002/09/07/agassi_hewitt/ |title=Breaking news, real-time scores and daily analysis from Sports Illustrated – SI.com |publisher=Sportsillustrated.cnn.com |date= |accessdate=August 3, 2014 |dead-url=yes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021101220644/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/tennis/2002/us_open/news/2002/09/07/agassi_hewitt/ |archive-date=November 1, 2002 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> ===Agassi vs. Chang=== [[Michael Chang]] was the opponent Agassi faced the most frequently from all the players other than Sampras. They met 22 times on the tour level with Agassi leading 15-7. Chang, unlike most of Agassi's big rivals, had a playing style similar to his. Both players preferred to dominate the game from the baseline with Chang being more defensive-minded. The outcome was that most of their meetings were built on long and entertaining rallies. The rivalry began late in the 1980s with both players being considered the prodigies of the next great generation of American tennis players, despite both having a foreign descent. Agassi won first four matches including a straight set victory in the round 16 of the 1988 US Open and defeating Chang, the defending champion, in the 1990 French Open in a four-set quarterfinal. Arguably their best match took place in the round 16 of the 1994 US Open. While both players presented high quality shot-making, the momentum changed from set to set with Agassi eventually prevailing with a five-set victory. It turned out to be the toughest contest on his way to his first US Open title. Their next two Grand Slam meetings came in 1996, with Chang recording easy straight set victories in semifinals of both the Australian Open and the US Open. Years after, Agassi shockingly admitted in his book, that he had lost the first of the matches on purpose as he did not want to face Boris Becker, who was awaiting the winner in the final. Agassi won the final four of their matches, with the last being in 2003 at the Miami Open with Chang being clearly after his prime. ===Agassi vs. Becker=== [[Boris Becker]] and Agassi played 14 times with Agassi leading 10–4. Becker dominated the rivalry early on, winning their first three matches in 1988 and 1989 before Agassi turned the rivalry in 1990, and won 10 of their last 11 matches. They first played at Indian Wells in 1988, with Becker prevailing. Their most notable match was the 1989 [[Davis Cup]] semifinal match, which Becker won in five sets after losing the first two in tiebreaks. Agassi, considered a baseliner with a playing style not suiting grass, shocked Becker, a three-time champion, in a five set quarterfinal at Wimbledon in 1992 on his way to his first Grand Slam title. The intensity of the rivalry peaked in 1995. Becker won that year's Wimbledon semifinal after being down a set and two breaks, to eventually win in four sets. In a highly anticipated rematch in the US Open semifinal, this time it was Agassi who came out victorious in four tight sets. Their final match was played at Hong Kong in 1999, which Agassi won in three sets. ===Agassi vs. Rafter=== Agassi and [[Pat Rafter]] played fifteen times with Agassi leading 10–5. The rivalry has been considered special and delivered memorable encounters, because of the players' contrasting styles of play, with Rafter using traditional serve & volley methods against Agassi's variety of return of serves and passing shots as main weapons. Agassi led 8–2 on hard courts, but Rafter surprisingly won their sole match on clay at the [[1999 Italian Open (tennis)|1999 Rome Masters]]. They played four matches at [[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]] with both winning two matches each. Agassi won the first two in 1993 and 1999, while Rafter took their 2000 and 2001 encounters, both the gruelling 5-setters often being presented on the lists of best matches ever played. Agassi also won both their meetings at the [[Australian Open]], in 1995 and 2001, on his way to the title in both occasions. Rafter however took their only [[US Open]] encounter in 1997 and went on to win the title. ===Agassi vs. Federer=== Agassi and [[Roger Federer]] played 11 times, and Federer led their head-to-head series 8–3. With the retirement of Sampras, the rivalry against 11 years younger Federer, who was another great server like Sampras, became Agassi's main rivalry for the final years of his career. Agassi won their first three matches, but then went on to lose eight consecutive ones. They first met in just the third tournament of Federer's career at the 1998 Swiss Indoors in Federer's hometown, with Agassi prevailing over the 17-year-old. Agassi also defeated Federer at the [[2001 US Open (tennis)|2001 US Open]] and the finals of the [[Miami Open (tennis)|Miami Open]] in 2002. Federer began to turn the tide at the Masters Cup in 2003, when he defeated Agassi in both the round robin and the final. They played a memorable quarterfinal match at the [[2004 US Open (tennis)|2004 US Open]] that spanned over two windy days, with Federer eventually prevailing in five sets. At the 2005 Dubai Championships, Federer and Agassi attracted worldwide headlines with a publicity stunt that saw the two tennis legends play on a helipad almost 220 meters above sea level at the hotel Burj al-Arab. Their final duel took place in the final of the [[2005 US Open (tennis)|2005 US Open]]. In the historic clash of generations, Federer was victorious in four sets in front of a pro-Agassi crowd. The match marked the last final appearance of Agassi's career. ==Earnings== Agassi earned more than $30&nbsp;million in prize-money during his career, sixth only to Djokovic, Federer, Nadal, Sampras and Murray to date (May 2018). He also earned more than $25&nbsp;million a year through endorsements during his career, fourth in all sports at the time.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.forbes.com/lists/2005/53/1YUQ.html |title=Forbes:Andre Agassi |work=Forbes |accessdate=January 26, 2011}}</ref> ==Post-retirement== Since retiring after the [[2006 US Open (tennis)|2006 US Open]], Agassi has participated in a series of charity tournaments and continues his work with his own charity. On September 5, 2007, he was a surprise guest commentator for the [[Andy Roddick]]/[[Roger Federer]] [[2007 US Open (tennis)|US Open]] quarterfinal. He played an exhibition match at Wimbledon, teaming with his wife, Steffi Graf, to play with [[Tim Henman]] and [[Kim Clijsters]]. He played [[World Team Tennis]] for the [[Philadelphia Freedoms]] in the summer of 2009.<ref>[http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2009/tennis/02/26/agassi.ap/index.html Andre Agassi Will Play WTT] SI.com, March 1, 2009 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121026001825/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2009/tennis/02/26/agassi.ap/index.html |date=October 26, 2012 }}</ref> At the [[2009 French Open]], Agassi was on hand to present Roger Federer, who completed his Career Grand Slam by winning the tournament and joined Agassi as one of six men to complete the Career Grand Slam, with the trophy.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2009/jun/07/roger-federer-wins-french-open |title=Roger Federer beats Robin Soderling to win French Open tennis |publisher=The Guardian |date=June 7, 2009 |accessdate=September 7, 2014}}</ref> Also in 2009 Agassi played at the [[Outback Champions Series]] event for the first time. He played the [[Cancer Treatment Centers of America Championship at Surprise|Cancer Treatment Centers of America Tennis Championships]] at [[Surprise, Arizona]], where he reached the final before bowing to eventual champion [[Todd Martin]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.championsseriestennis.com/events/event-results/ |title=Champions Series Tennis – Arizona 2009 |year=2009 |accessdate=April 12, 2012}}</ref> He also announced that he will not be playing the tour on a full-time basis, and played the tournament as a favor to long-time friend [[Jim Courier]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbssports.com/tennis/story/12343241 |title=Agassi reaches Outback Champions Series final |publisher=CBS Sports |accessdate=January 26, 2011}}</ref> Agassi returned to the tour renamed for the PowerShares Series in 2011 and participated in a total of seven events while winning two. Agassi beat Courier in the final of the Staples Champions Cup in [[Boston]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.powersharesseries.com/agassi-thrills-the-crowd-and-wins-staples-champions-cup/ |title=Agassi thrills the crowd and wins Staples Champions Cup |publisher=PowerShares Series |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref> and later defeated Sampras at the CTCA Championships at his hometown Las Vegas.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.powersharesseries.com/vegas-crowd-lifts-hometown-hero-to-victory/ |title=Hometown crowd lifts Agassi to victory in Las Vegas |publisher=PowerShares Series |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref> In 2012, Agassi took part in five tournaments, winning three of those. In November, at first he won BILT Champions Showdown in [[San Jose, California|San Jose]], beating [[John McEnroe]] in the final.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.powersharesseries.com/steve-g-tennis-agassi-defeats-mcenroe-to-win-san-jose-powershares-series-event/ |title=Agassi Defeats McEnroe To Win San Jose Powershares Series Event |publisher=PowerShares Series |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref> The following day, he defended his title of the CTCA Championships, while defeating Courier in the decisive match.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.powersharesseries.com/agassi-beats-mcenroe-and-courier-to-capture-home-town-victory-in-las-vegas/ |title=Agassi Beats McEnroe And Courier To Capture Home Town Victory in Las Vegas |publisher=PowerShares Series |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref> In the series season finale, he beat [[Michael Chang]] for the Acura Champions Cup.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.powersharesseries.com/agassi-wins-final-powershares-event-of-the-season/ |title=Agassi Wins Final Powershares Event of the Season |publisher=PowerShares Series |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref> The series and Agassi came back to action in 2014. Agassi won both tournaments he participated in. At the Camden Wealth Advisors Cup's final in Houston, Agassi beat [[James Blake (tennis)|James Blake]] for a rematch of their 2005 US Open quarterfinal.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.powersharesseries.com/in-reprise-of-2005-u-s-open-epic-andre-agassi-beats-james-blake-to-win/ |title=In Reprise of 2005 U.S. Open Epic, Andre Agassi Beats James Blake to Win |publisher=PowerShares Series |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref> He defeated Blake again in [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]] to win the title of the Cancer Treatment Centers of America Championships.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.powersharesseries.com/agassi-ends-blake-run-with-powershares-series-title-in-portland/ |title=Agassi Ends Blake Run with PowerShares Series Title in Portland |publisher=PowerShares Series |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref> In 2015, Agassi took part in just one event of the PowerShares Series, losing to [[Mark Philippoussis]] in the final of the Champions Shootout.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.powersharesseries.com/mark-philippoussis-defeats-andre-agassi-to-win-15-powershares-series-opener-in-salt-lake-city/ |title=Mark Philippoussis Defeats Andre Agassi to Win '15 PowerShares Series Opener in Salt Lake City |publisher=PowerShares Series |accessdate=September 18, 2015}}</ref> The following year he took part in two events, at first losing to Blake in Chicago, and the next day defeating Mardy Fish, but losing to Roddick in Charleston.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://invescoseries.com/2016-event-results/ |title=2016 Event Results |publisher=PowerShares Series |accessdate=April 4, 2018}}</ref> In 2009, in [[Macau]] Agassi and Sampras met for the first time on court since the 2002 US Open final. Sampras won the exhibition in three sets.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sports.ndtv.com/tennis/news/113944-sampras-beats-agassi-in-macau-exhibition |title=Sampras beats Agassi in Macau exhibition |publisher=NDTV Sports |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref> The rivalry between the former champions headlined sports media again in March 2010 after the two participated in the "Hit for Haiti" charity event organized to raise money for the victims of the [[2010 Haiti earthquake|earthquake]]. Partnered with Roger Federer and [[Rafael Nadal]], the old rivals began making jokes on each other which ended up with Sampras intentionally striking a serve at Agassi's body. After the event Agassi admitted that he had crossed the line with his jokes and publicly apologized to Sampras.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2010/mar/16/andre-agassi-apologises-pete-sampras |title=Andre Agassi apologises for mocking Pete Sampras in charity match |work=The Guardian |location=London |date=March 16, 2010 |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref> Agassi and Sampras met again one year later for an exhibition match at [[Madison Square Garden]] in New York in front of 19 000 spectators as Sampras defeated Agassi in two sets.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/01/sports/tennis/01tennis.html?_r=0 |title=Agassi and Sampras Meet a Year After Flare-Up |publisher=New York Times |date=March 1, 2011 |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref> On March 3, 2014, Agassi and Sampras squared off for an exhibition in London for the annual [[World Tennis Day]]. This time it was Agassi who came out on top in two straight sets.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.stevegtennis.com/2014/03/world-tennis-day-exhibition-showdown-results-from-hong-kong-london-and-new-york/ |title=World Tennis Day Exhibition Showdown Results From Hong Kong, London and New York |publisher=SteveG Tennis |date=March 2014 |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref> He returned to the tour in May 2017 in the position of coach to [[Novak Djokovic]] for the [[French Open]].<ref>https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/21/sports/novak-djokovic-andre-agassi-coach.html</ref> Agassi announced the end of the partnership on March 31, 2018, stating that there were too many disagreements in the relationship. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tennis.com/pro-game/2018/03/novak-djokovic-andre-agassi-coaching-partnership/73034/|title=Novak Djokovic and Andre Agassi end player-coach partnership |publisher=Tennis.com |date=March 31, 2018 |accessdate=March 31, 2018}}</ref> ==Playing style== Early in his career, Agassi would look to end points quickly by playing first-strike tennis, typically by inducing a weak return with a deep, hard shot, and then playing a winner at an extreme angle. His groundstrokes, return of serve, baseline game, anticipation, and [[eye–hand coordination]] were always among the best in the game. On the rare occasion that he charged the net, Agassi liked to take the ball in the air and hit a swinging volley for a winner. His favored groundstroke was his flat, accurate two-handed backhand, hit well cross-court but especially down the line. His forehand was nearly as strong, especially his inside-out to the ad court.<ref>{{cite web |author =Nick Bollettieri |url=http://www.tennisplayer.net/public/tour_strokes/nick_bollettieri/nick_bollet_agassi_backhand_images/nick_bollet_agassi_backhand.html?format=print |title=Building the Agassi Backhand |website=tennisplayer.net |accessdate=June 4, 2014}}</ref> Agassi's strength was in dictating play from the back of the court. While he was growing up, his father and Nick Bollettieri trained him in this way.<ref name="ReferenceA">Open: Andre Agassi HarpersCollins 2009</ref> When in control of a point, Agassi would often pass up an opportunity to attempt a winner and hit a conservative shot to minimize his errors, and to make his opponent run more. This change to more methodical, less aggressive baseline play was largely initiated by his longtime coach, Brad Gilbert, in their first year together in 1994. Gilbert encouraged Agassi to wear out opponents with his deep, flat groundstrokes and to use his fitness to win attrition wars, and noted Agassi's two-handed backhand down the line as his very best shot.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> A signature play later in his career was a change up drop shot to the deuce court after deep penetrating groundstrokes. This would often be followed by a passing shot or lob if the opponent was fast enough to retrieve it. Agassi was raised on hardcourts, but found much of his early major-tournament success on the red clay of Roland Garros, reaching two consecutive finals there early in his career. Despite grass being his worst surface, his first major win was at the slick grass of Wimbledon in 1992, a tournament that he professed to hating at the time.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> His strongest surface over the course of his career, was indeed hardcourt, where he won six of his eight majors. ==Business ventures== Agassi established a [[limited liability company]] named Andre Agassi Ventures (formerly named Agassi Enterprises).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.reviewjournal.com/sports/rogers-steps-down-as-agassi-enterprises-president/ |title=Rogers steps down as Agassi Enterprises president |publisher=''Las Vegas Review Journal'' |date=October 16, 2008 |accessdate=September 9, 2014 |dead-url=yes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180512181941/https://www.reviewjournal.com/sports/rogers-steps-down-as-agassi-enterprises-president/ |archive-date=May 12, 2018 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Agassi, along with five athlete partners (including [[Wayne Gretzky]], [[Joe Montana]], [[Shaquille O'Neal]], [[Ken Griffey, Jr.]], and [[Monica Seles]]) opened a chain of sports-themed restaurant named [[Official All Star Café]] in April 1996. The restaurant closed down in 2001.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lasvegassun.com/news/1999/nov/29/its-official-strips-all-star-cafe-to-close/ |title=It's official: Strip’s All Star Cafe to close |publisher=''Las Vegas Sun'' |date=November 29, 1999 |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> In 1999, he paid $1 million for a 10 percent stake in Nevada First Bank and made a $10 million profit when it was sold to Western Alliance Bancorp in 2006.<ref name="bloomberg2007">{{cite web |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aOozd2LtdR1M |title=Agassi, Graf Stake Tennis Winnings on $600 Million Idaho Resort |publisher=Bloomberg |date=July 26, 2007 |first=Anthony |last=Effinger |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> In 2002, he joined the [[Tennis Channel]] to promote the channel to consumers and cable and satellite industry, and made an equity investment in the network.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pwww.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2002/09/20020909/For-The-Record/Complete-For-The-Record.aspx |title=Complete For the Record |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=September 9, 2002 |accessdate=September 9, 2014 }}{{dead link|date=July 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> After meeting chef [[Michael Mina]] at one of his restaurants in San Francisco, Agassi partnered with him in 2002 to start Mina Group Inc. and opened 18 concept restaurants in San Francisco, [[San Jose, California|San Jose]], [[Dana Point]], [[Atlantic City]] and Las Vegas.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.starchefs.com/cook/chefs/bio/michael-mina |title=Chef Michael Mina of Michael Mina – Biography |publisher=Starchefs.com |date=November 2011 |accessdate=September 11, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.andreagassi.com/michael-mina/ |title=COMMON TASTES |publisher=Andre Agassi Ventures |accessdate=September 11, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140911145117/http://www.andreagassi.com/michael-mina/ |archive-date=September 11, 2014 |dead-url=yes |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Agassi was an equity investor of a group that acquired [[Golden Nugget Las Vegas]] and [[Golden Nugget Laughlin]] from [[Mirage Resorts|MGM Mirage]] for $215 million in 2004.<ref name="bloomberg2007" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lasvegassun.com/news/2004/jan/23/golden-nugget-buyers-land-four-year-license/ |title=Golden Nugget buyers land four-year license |publisher=''Las Vegas Sun'' |date=January 23, 2004 |first=Liz |last=Benston |accessdate=September 11, 2014}}</ref> One year later, the group sold the hotel-casino to [[Landry's, Inc.]] for $163 million in cash and $182 million in assumed debt.<ref name="bloomberg2007" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lasvegassun.com/news/2005/feb/11/golden-nugget-owners-vow-to-return-to-vegas-market/ |title=Golden Nugget owners vow to return to Vegas market |publisher=''Las Vegas Sun'' |date=February 11, 2005 |first=Liz |last=Benston |accessdate=September 11, 2014}}</ref> In 2007, he sat on the board of Meadows Bank, an independent bank in Nevada.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.reviewjournal.com/business/independent-bank-have-agassi-board |title=Independent bank to have Agassi on board |publisher=''Las Vegas Review-Journal'' |date=September 5, 2007 |accessdate=September 11, 2014 |dead-url=yes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140911150759/http://www.reviewjournal.com/business/independent-bank-have-agassi-board |archive-date=September 11, 2014 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> He has invested in start-up companies backed by [[Allen & Company]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2004/03/20040322/SBJ-In-Depth/The-Dealmaker.aspx |title=The dealmaker |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=March 22, 2004 |first=Daniel |last=Kaplan |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> Agassi and Graf formed a company called Agassi Graf Holdings. They invested in PURE, a nightclub at [[Caesars Palace]], which opened in 2004,<ref name="bloomberg2007" /> and sold it to Angel Management Group in 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lasvegassun.com/news/2011/mar/16/agassi-graf-lawsuit-over/ |title=Andre Agassi, Steffi Graf allege default in sale of Pure nightclub stake |publisher=''Las Vegas Sun'' |date=March 16, 2011 |first=Steve |last=Green |accessdate=September 11, 2014}}</ref> In August 2006, Agassi and Graf developed a joint venture with high-end furniture maker Kreiss Enterprises.<ref name="bloomberg2007" /> They launched a furniture line called Agassi Graf Collection.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.apartmenttherapy.com/agassi-graf-furniture-by-kreis-43301 |title=Agassi Graf Furniture by Kreiss |publisher=Apartment therapy |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/24/style/home%20and%20garden/currents-furniture-a-swan-song-for-agassi-but-a-duet.html |title=CURRENTS: FURNITURE; A Swan Song for Agassi, but a Duet With Graf |publisher=''The New York Times'' |date=August 24, 2006 |first=Elaine |last=Louie |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> In September, Agassi and Graf, through their company Agassi Graf Development LLC, along with Bayview Financial LP, finalized an agreement to develop a condominium hotel, Fairmont Tamarack, at [[Tamarack Resort]] in [[Donnelly, Idaho]].<ref name="bloomberg2007" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://tamarackidaho.com/about/media_room/news_releases.php?pressid=141 |title=News Releases |publisher=Tamarack Resort |date=September 6, 2006 |accessdate=September 9, 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140910195719/http://tamarackidaho.com/about/media_room/news_releases.php?pressid=141 |archivedate=September 10, 2014 |df=mdy }}</ref> Due to difficult market conditions and delays, they withdrew from the project in 2009.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usta.com/News/APNews/2008/07/21/Agassi-terminates-contract-to-buy-at-Idaho-resort/ |title=Agassi terminates contract to buy at Idaho resort |publisher=USTA |date=June 6, 2008 |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnbc.com/id/100773005# |title=Andre Agassi: Las Vegas is back in business |publisher=CNBC |date=June 10, 2013 |first=Kiran |last=Moodley |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> The group still owns three small chunks of land.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.idahostatesman.com/2013/12/22/2939882_tamaracks-waiting-game.html?rh=1 |title=Overcoming downhill run, Tamarack plays the waiting game |publisher=''Idaho Statesman'' |date=December 22, 2013 |first=Zach |last=Kyle |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> In September, they collaborated with [[Steve Case]]'s Exclusive Resorts to co-develop luxury resorts and design Agassi-Graf Tennis and Fitness Centers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/andre-agassi-partners-with-exclusive-resorts-57128267.html |title=Andre Agassi Partners with Exclusive Resorts |publisher=PR Newswire |date=September 25, 2006 |accessdate=September 11, 2014}}</ref> They also invested in online ticket reseller [[viagogo]] in 2009 and both serve as board members and advisors of the company.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2009/02/04/andre-agassi-and-steffi-graf-invest-in-online-ticketing/ |title=Andre Agassi and Steffi Graf Invest in Online Ticketing |publisher=''The Wall Street Journal'' |date=February 4, 2009 |first=Ty |last=McMahan |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://techcrunch.com/2009/02/05/viagogo-raises-15-million-round-and-signs-tennis-stars-to-battle-seatwave/ |title=Viagogo Raises $15 million Round And Signs Tennis Stars To Battle Seatwave |publisher=TechCrunch |date=February 5, 2009 |first=Mike |last=Butcher |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> In October 2012, [[Village Roadshow]] and investors including Agassi and Graf announced plans to build new water park called [[Wet'n'Wild Las Vegas]] in Las Vegas. Village Roadshow has a 51% stake in the park while Agassi, Graf, and other private investors hold the remaining 49%.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://blogs.wsj.com/dealjournalaustralia/2012/10/05/agassi-graf-score-aussie-investor-for-vegas-water-park/ |title=Agassi, Graf Score Aussie Investor for Vegas Water Park |publisher=''The Wall Street Journal'' |date=October 5, 2012 |first=Ross |last=Kelly |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lasvegassun.com/news/2012/oct/04/wet-n-wild-water-park-returning-las-vegas/ |title=Wet 'n’ Wild water park coming to Las Vegas |publisher=''Las Vegas Sun'' |date=October 4, 2012 |first=Richard N. |last=Velotta |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> The park opened in May 2013.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lasvegasweekly.com/as-we-see-it/2013/may/17/wet-n-wild-returns-sort-fill-las-vegas-water-park-/ |title=WET 'N’ WILD RETURNS, SORT OF, TO FILL THE LAS VEGAS WATER PARK VOID |publisher=''Las Vegas Weekly'' |date=May 17, 2013 |first=Brock |last=Radke |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> [[IMG (company)|IMG]] managed Agassi from the time he turned pro in 1986 through January 2000 before switching to SFX Sports Group.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/01/12/sports/plus-tennis-atp-tour-agassi-jumps-from-img-to-sfx.html |title=PLUS: TENNIS – ATP TOUR; Agassi Jumps From I.M.G. to SFX |publisher=''The New York Times'' |date=January 12, 2000 |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2001/04/20010409/No-Topic-Name/Shuffled-Exec-Stays-At-SFX-For-Agassi-Account.aspx |title=Shuffled exec stays at SFX for Agassi account |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=April 9, 2001 |first=Daniel |last=Kaplan |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> His business manager, lawyer and agent was childhood friend Perry Rogers, but they have been estranged since 2008.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/tennis/columns/story?id=6695878 |title=Andre Agassi's triumphs are his own |publisher=ESPN |date=July 8, 2011 |first=Joel |last=Drucker |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Daily/Issues/2008/10/Issue-23/Sports-Industrialists/Andre-Agassi-Ends-Business-Relationship-With-Perry-Rogers.aspx |title=Andre Agassi Ends Business Relationship With Perry Rogers |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=October 16, 2008 |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> In 2009, he and Graf signed with [[Creative Artists Agency|CAA]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2009/04/20090406/This-Weeks-News/CAA-Continues-Sports-Push-Signs-Agassi-Graf.aspx |title=CAA continues sports push, signs Agassi, Graf |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=April 6, 2009 |first1=Liz |last1=Mullen |first2=Daniel |last2=Kaplan |accessdate=September 10, 2014}}</ref> ===Equipment and endorsements=== Agassi used [[Prince Sports|Prince]] [[Prince original graphite|Graphite]] rackets early in his career.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tennis.com/pro-game/2012/05/prince-of-a-racquet/37907/#.VA-dyPldUrU |title=Prince of a Racquet |publisher=Tennis.com |date=May 1, 2012 |first=Steve |last=Tignor |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2013/06/03/Marketing-and-Sponsorship/Prince.aspx |title=Racket brand regroups and looks to rebound |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=June 3, 2013 |first=John |last=George |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> He signed a $7 million endorsement contract with Belgian tennis racquet makers [[Donnay (sports)|Donnay]].<ref name="LATimes1990">{{cite web |url=http://articles.latimes.com/1990-06-26/business/fi-640_1_tennis-star |title=Athletic Firms Going to the Net in Quest for Next Tennis Celebrity |publisher=''The Los Angeles Times'' |date=June 26, 1990 |first=Bruce |last=Horovitz |accessdate=September 11, 2014}}</ref> He later switched to [[Head (company)|Head Ti Radical]] racket<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2000/08/20000828/No-Topic-Name/WHAT-THEYRE-WEARING-AND-HITTING-WITH-AT-THE-US-OPEN.aspx |title=WHAT THEY'RE WEARING (AND HITTING WITH) AT THE U.S. OPEN |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=August 28, 2000 |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> and Head's LiquidMetal Radical racket, having signed a multimillion-dollar endorsement deal with Head in 1993.<ref name="head2003">{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2003/11/20031110/Marketingsponsorship/Headpenn-Signs-Agassi-Beyond-Playing-Days.aspx |title=Head/Penn signs Agassi beyond playing days |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=November 10, 2003 |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.head.com/corporate/history.php |title=OUR HISTORY |publisher=HEAD |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> He renewed his contract in 1999 and in November 2003, he signed a lifetime agreement with Head.<ref name="head2003" /><ref name="forbes2004">{{cite web |url=https://www.forbes.com/forbes/2004/0705/093.html |title=King of the Court |publisher=''Forbes'' |date=July 5, 2004 |first=Kurt |last=Badenhausen |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> He also endorses Penn tennis balls. On July 25, 2005, Agassi left [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]] after 17 years and signed an endorsement deal with [[Adidas]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/tennis/news/story?id=2116135 |title=Agassi signs Adidas deal after long-term deal with Nike |author =Darren Rovell |date=July 25, 2005 |publisher=[[ESPN]] |accessdate=January 26, 2011}}</ref> A major reason for Agassi leaving Nike was because Nike refused to donate to Agassi's charities, and Adidas was more than happy to do so. On May 13, 2013, Agassi rejoined Nike.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tennis.si.com/2013/05/14/andre-agassi-nike-commercials/ |title=Andre Agassi re-signs with Nike: A look back at his memorable commercials |publisher=Sports Illustrated |date=May 14, 2013 |accessdate=May 15, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609011401/http://tennis.si.com/2013/05/14/andre-agassi-nike-commercials/ |archivedate=June 9, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nicekicks.com/2013/05/13/andre-agassi-rejoins-nike/ |title=Andre Asassi Rejoins Nike |author =Brittany Shelton |publisher=NiceKicks |date=May 13, 2013 |accessdate=May 15, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Daily/Issues/2013/05/14/Marketing-and-Sponsorship/Agassi.aspx |title=Back Home: Andre Agassi Returns To Nike After Eight Years With Adidas |publisher=Street & Smith |date=May 14, 2013 |accessdate=May 15, 2013}}</ref> Agassi was sponsored by [[DuPont]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://twitter.com/darrenrovell/status/224595325262905344 |title=1989 Andre Agassi ad for DuPont's CoolMax material |publisher=Twitter |date=July 15, 2012 |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/1998/08/19980831/No-Topic-Name/Sponsor-Deals-To-Gauge-Tennis-Appeal.aspx |title=Sponsor deals to gauge tennis' appeal |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=August 31, 1998 |first=Mike |last=Reynolds |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> [[Ebel]],<ref name="LATimes1990" /> [[Mountain Dew]] in 1993,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2002/08/20020812/Special-Report/Soft-Drink-Recasts-Image-To-Mirror-Teen-Spirit.aspx |title=Soft drink recasts image to mirror teen spirit |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=August 12, 2002 |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> [[Mazda]] in 1997,<ref name="kiamotors">{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2002/09/20020930/This-Weeks-Issue/Kia-After-Good-Agassi-Mileage.aspx |title=Kia after good Agassi mileage |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=September 30, 2002 |first=Daniel |last=Kaplan |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> [[Kia Motors]] in 2002,<ref name="forbes2004" /><ref name="kiamotors" /> [[American Express]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2003/08/20030804/Marketingsponsorship/Mastercard-Mounts-Challenge-As-Visas-NFL-Deal-Enters-Final-Year.aspx |title=MasterCard mounts challenge as Visa's NFL deal enters final year |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=August 4, 2003 |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> and [[Deutsche Bank]] in 2003.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/03/03/1046540132230.html |title=Sporting Life |publisher=''The Age'' |date=March 4, 2003 |first=Geoff |last=McClure |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> In 1990, he appeared in a television commercial for [[Canon Inc.]], promoting the [[Canon EOS]] Rebel camera.<ref name="canon2004">{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2004/08/20040809/Marketingsponsorship/Agassi-Still-In-Canons-Picture.aspx |title=Agassi still in Canon's picture |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=August 9, 2004 |first=Daniel |last=Kaplan |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> Between 1999 and 2000, he signed a multimillion-dollar, multiyear endorsement deal with [[Schick (razors)|Schick]] and became the worldwide spokesman for the company.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2000/04/20000410/No-Topic-Name/IMG-SFX-Both-Claim-Deal146s-Theirs.aspx |title=IMG, SFX both claim deal's theirs |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=April 10, 2000 |first=Liz |last=Mullen |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> Agassi signed a multiyear contract with [[Twinlab]] and promoted the company's nutritional supplements.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2000/03/20000313/Marketingsponsorship/Marketingsponsorship.aspx |title=Marketing/Sponsorship |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=March 13, 2000 |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> In mid-2003, he was named the spokesman of Aramis Life, a fragrance by [[Estée Lauder Companies|Aramis]] and signed a five-year deal with the company.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-105786446.html |title=THE AGASSI AND THE FRAGRANCY.(Andre Agassi to market Aramis Life)(Brief Article) |publisher=Daily News Record |date=July 21, 2003 |last=Palmieri |first=Jean E. |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2003/02/20030224/This-Weeks-Issue/Agassi-Sniffs-Out-5-Year-Endorsement.aspx |title=Agassi sniffs out 5-year endorsement |publisher=SportsBusiness Daily |date=February 24, 2003 |first=Liz |last=Mullen |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> In March 2004, he signed a ten-year agreement worth $1.5 million a year with [[24 Hour Fitness]], which will open five Andre Agassi fitness centers by year-end.<ref name="forbes2004" /> Prior to the 2012 Australian Open, Agassi and Australian winemaker [[Jacobs Creek (Australia)|Jacobs Creek]] announced a three-year partnership and created the Open Film Series to "[share] personal stories about the life defining moments that shaped his character on and off the court."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jacobscreek.com/australia/news/australian-open-success! |title=Australian Open Success! |publisher=Jacobs Creek |date=March 20, 2012 |accessdate=September 9, 2014 }}{{dead link|date=October 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> In 2007, watchmaker [[Longines]] named Agassi as their brand ambassador.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.longines.com/ambassadors/andre-agassi |title=AMBASSADORS – Andre Agassi |publisher=Longines |accessdate=September 9, 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140924222916/http://www.longines.com/ambassadors/andre-agassi |archivedate=September 24, 2014 |df=mdy }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://vegasmagazine.com/watches/articles/andre-agassi-teams-with-longines |title=Andre Agassi Teams with Longines |publisher=Vegas Magazine |date= |first=Matt |last=Stewart |accessdate=September 19, 2014}}</ref> Agassi and his mother appeared in a [[Got Milk?]] advertisement in 2002. Agassi has appeared in many advertisements and television commercials with Graf. They both endorsed [[Deutsche Telekom]] in 2002,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2002/04/20020422/This-Weeks-Issue/Newlyweds-Will-Pitch-Cellular-Online-Products.aspx |title=Newlyweds will pitch cellular, online products |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=April 22, 2002 |first=Daniel |last=Kaplan |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> [[Genworth Financial]]<ref name="genworth">{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2004/06/20040607/Marketingsponsorship/Agassi-Graf-United-In-Genworth-Ad-Campaign.aspx |title=Agassi, Graf united in Genworth ad campaign |publisher=Sports |date=June 7, 2004 |first=Daniel |last=Kaplan |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> and [[Canon Inc.]]<ref name="canon2004" /> in 2004, [[LVMH]] in 2007,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/08/business/media/08adco.html?pagewanted=print |title=Mr. Gorbachev, Show Off This Bag |publisher=''The New York Times'' |first=Eric |last=Pfanner |date=August 8, 2007 |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> and [[Nintendo]] [[Wii]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.si.com/tennis/beyond-baseline/2013/11/06/daily-bagel-andre-agassi-steffi-graf-commercial |title=Daily Bagel: Andre Agassi, Steffi Graf star in video-game commercial |publisher=''Sports Illustrated'' |date=November 6, 2013 |first=Courtney |last=Nguyen |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> and [[Wii Fit U]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.videogamer.com/wiiu/wii_fit_u/news/andre_agassi_and_steffi_graf_promote_wii_fit_u.html |title=Andre Agassi and Steffi Graf promote Wii Fit U |website=VideoGamer.com |date=November 13, 2013 |first=James |last=Orry |accessdate=September 9, 2014}}</ref> and [[Longines]] in 2013.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tennis.com/photos-video/2013/05/video-agassi-and-graf-new-longines-watch-ad/47677/#.VBvVmvldUrU |title=Video: Agassi and Graf in new Longines watch ad |publisher=Tennis.com |date=May 29, 2013 |first=Jonathan |last=Scott |accessdate=September 19, 2014}}</ref> ==Personal life== ===Relationships and family=== In the early 1990s Agassi dated American entertainer [[Barbra Streisand]]. He wrote about the relationship in his 2009 autobiography, "We agree that we're good for each other, and so what if she's twenty-eight years older? We're sympatico, and the public outcry only adds spice to our connection. It makes our friendship feel forbidden, taboo – another piece of my overall rebellion. Dating Barbra Streisand is like wearing Hot Lava." He was married to [[Brooke Shields]] from 1997 to 1999.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20128036,00.html |title=Double Fault |publisher=People.com |date=April 26, 2014 |first=Tom |last=Gliatto |accessdate=September 7, 2014}}</ref> He married [[Steffi Graf]] on October 22, 2001 at their [[Las Vegas]] home; the only witnesses were their mothers.<ref>{{cite web|last=Knolle |first=Sharon |url=http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/story?id=101751&page=1 |title=Andre Agassi and Steffi Graf Wed |publisher=Abcnews.go.com |accessdate=17 May 2011}}</ref> They have two children: son Jaden Gil (born 2001) and daughter Jaz Elle (born 2003).<ref>{{cite web|last=Knolle |first=Sharon |url=http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/story?id=101751&page=1 |title=Andre Agassi and Steffi Graf Wed |publisher=Abcnews.go.com |accessdate=June 6, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522145516/http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/story?id=101751&page=1 |archivedate=May 22, 2011 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref> Agassi has said that he and Graf are not pushing their children toward becoming tennis players.<ref>[http://www.nzherald.co.nz/sport/news/article.cfm?c_id=4&objectid=10861440 "Tennis: Agassi taking different tact with fatherhood,"] The New Zealand Herald, January 25, 2013</ref> The Graf-Agassi family resides in [[Summerlin, Nevada|Summerlin]], a community in the [[Las Vegas Valley]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.reviewjournal.com/sports/love-everything-graf-now |title=Love is everything to Graf now |publisher=''Las Vegas Review-Journal'' |date=May 20, 2010 |accessdate=September 18, 2014 |dead-url=yes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025081858/http://www.reviewjournal.com/sports/love-everything-graf-now |archive-date=October 25, 2014 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.reviewjournal.com/sports/love-everything-graf-now |title=Love is everything to Graf now |publisher=''Las Vegas Review-Journal'' |date=20 May 2010 |accessdate=18 September 2014 |dead-url=yes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025081858/http://www.reviewjournal.com/sports/love-everything-graf-now |archive-date=October 25, 2014 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Graf's mother and brother, Michael, with his four children also live there.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hellomagazine.com/celebrities/2014062019501/tennis-legendsteffi-graff-talks-royal-ascot-and-career/|title=Tennis legend Steffi Graf talks Royal Ascot and her career to HELLO! Online|work=hellomagazine.com}}</ref> Long-time trainer [[Gil Reyes (tennis)|Gil Reyes]] has been called one of Agassi's closest friends; some have described him as being a "father figure" to Agassi.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/features/1999/year_in_review/flashbacks/father_best/ |title=Father Knew Best |work=Sports Illustrated |accessdate=January 26, 2011 |dead-url=yes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110217090140/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/features/1999/year_in_review/flashbacks/father_best/ |archive-date=February 17, 2011 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://safinhantuchova.blogspot.com/2008/07/papa-gil.html |title=Peter Bodo Blog: Papa Gil |accessdate=January 26, 2011}}</ref> In 2012, Agassi and Reyes introduced their own line of fitness equipment, BILT By Agassi and Reyes.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thepostgame.com/blog/training-day/201209/bilt-andre-agassi-gil-reyes-fitness-gym-equipment-safety |title=Andre Agassi and Trainer Introduce Their Personalized Fitness Equipment to the Public |work=ThePostGame.com |accessdate=September 7, 2012}}</ref> In December 2008, Agassi's childhood friend and former business manager, Perry Rogers, sued Graf for $50,000 in management fees he claimed that she owed him.<ref>[http://media.lasvegassun.com/media/pdfs/blogs/documents/2008/12/06/Complaint_and_Summons.pdf ''Alliance Sports Management v. Stephanie Graf'' ''[[Las Vegas Sun]]'']. Retrieved October 23, 2009.</ref><ref>[http://www.lvrj.com/news/35674229.html "Ex-manager for Agassi sues Graf" ''[[Las Vegas Review-Journal]]'' December 7, 2008]. Retrieved October 23, 2009.</ref> ===Autobiography=== Agassi's autobiography, ''Open: An Autobiography,'' (written with assistance from [[J. R. Moehringer]]<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/09/books/09book.html?_r=1 "Agassi Basks in His Own Spotlight" by Janet Malin ''New York Times'' November 8, 2009]. Retrieved December 11, 2009.</ref>), was published in November 2009. In it, Agassi admitted that he used and tested positive for [[methamphetamine]] in 1997.<ref name="sports.espn.go.com" /><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nydailynews.com/sports/more_sports/2009/10/27/2009-10-27_agassi.html |location=New York |work=Daily News |title=Andre Agassi admits to using crystal meth in forthcoming autobiography |first=Nathaniel |last=Vinton |date=October 27, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nbcwashington.com/news/sports/NATL-Andre-Agassi-Admits-to-Using-Crystal-Meth-66510482.html |title=Andre Agassi Admits to Using Crystal Meth |date=October 27, 2009 |accessdate=January 26, 2011}}</ref> In response to this revelation, [[Roger Federer]] declared himself shocked and disappointed, while [[Marat Safin]] argued that Agassi should return his prize money and be stripped of his titles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sport.repubblica.it/news/sport/tennis-federer-deluso-e-scioccato-da-agassi/3730572.html |title=TENNIS, FEDERER: DELUSO E SCIOCCATO DA AGASSI |language=it |trans-title=}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2009/nov/10/andre-agassi-marat-safin-drugs |location=London |work=The Guardian |title=Marat Safin tells Andre Agassi to relinquish titles after drug admission |date=November 10, 2009}}</ref> In an interview with CBS, Agassi justified himself and asked for understanding, saying that, "It was a period in my life where I needed help."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportmediaset.mediaset.it/altrisport/articoli/articolo27870.shtml |title=Agassi: "Ora chiedo comprensione". Droga, ex tennista si giustifica in tv |language=it |publisher=Sport-[[Mediaset]] |accessdate=November 22, 2013}}</ref> Agassi said that he had always hated tennis during his career because of the constant pressure it exerted on him. He also said he wore a hairpiece earlier in his career and thought [[Pete Sampras]] was "robotic".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2009/oct/29/andre-agassi-hate-tennis |title=Why did Andre Agassi hate tennis? |first=Stuart |last=Jeffries |work=The Guardian |location=London |date=October 29, 2009 |accessdate=January 25, 2010}}</ref> The book reached No. 1 on the [[New York Times Best Seller list|''New York Times'' Best Seller list]]<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/29/books/bestseller/besthardnonfiction.html?ref=bestseller |work=The New York Times |title=Hardcover Nonfiction |date=November 29, 2009 |accessdate=March 30, 2010 |first=Jennifer |last=Schuessler}}</ref> and received favorable reviews.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/jacketcopy/2009/11/book-reviews-agassi-mayle-mourlevat-palin.html |work=The Los Angeles Times |title=Jacket Copy |date=November 20, 2009}}</ref> It won the Autobiography category of the 2010 [[British Sports Book Awards]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/sport/simonbriggs/100005984/the-british-sports-book-awards-go-global/ |title=Andre Agassi's 'Open' wins at the British Sports Book Awards. Pity about the gloopy speech |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |author =Simon Briggs |date=March 12, 2010 |accessdate=November 26, 2012 |location=London}}</ref> ==In media== In 2017, Agassi appeared in the documentary film ''[[Love Means Zero]]'', which mentioned a troubled relationship between his coach [[Nick Bollettieri]] and him.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ew.com/movies/2017/09/08/love-means-zero-explores-family-drama-between-nick-bollettieri-and-andre-agassi/amp/|title=''Love Means Zero'' explores 'family drama' between Nick Bollettieri and Andre Agassi|website=[[Entertainment Weekly]]|accessdate=July 5, 2018|date=September 8, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/andre-agassi-troubled-relationship-with-his-coach-led-to-powerful-sports-documentary-love-means-zero-2018-6|title=Andre Agassi's troubled relationship with his coach led to a powerful new sports documentary you shouldn't miss|website=[[Business Insider]]|accessdate=July 5, 2018|date=June 22, 2018}}</ref> ==Politics== Agassi has donated more than $100,000 to Democratic candidates, and $2000 to Republicans.<ref>https://www.campaignmoney.com/political/contributions/andre-agassi.asp?cycle=16</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsmeat.com/sports_political_donations/Andre_Agassi.php |title=Andre Agassi's Federal Campaign Contribution Report |publisher=NewsMeat |accessdate=January 26, 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514010427/http://www.newsmeat.com/sports_political_donations/Andre_Agassi.php |archivedate=May 14, 2011 |df= }}</ref> On September 1, 2010, when he appeared on daily WNYC public radio program "The Brian Lehrer Show," he stated that he is a registered Independent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://beta.wnyc.org/shows/bl/2010/sep/01/net-effects/ |title=Andre Agassi: Net Effects |publisher="The Brian Lehrer Show" |accessdate=January 26, 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100907044241/http://beta.wnyc.org/shows/bl/2010/sep/01/net-effects/ |archivedate=September 7, 2010 |df=mdy }}</ref> ==Philanthropy== Agassi founded the Andre Agassi Charitable Association in 1994, which assists Las Vegas' young people. He was awarded the [[ATP Arthur Ashe Humanitarian award]] in 1995 for his efforts to help disadvantaged youth. He is regularly cited as the most charitable and socially involved player in professional tennis. It has also been claimed that he may be the most charitable athlete of his generation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.blackvoices.com/black_sports/columnists/roysjohnson/_a/sportsmanperson-of-the-year/20061002123009990001 |title=Sportsman/Person of the Year |accessdate=January 26, 2011}}</ref> Agassi's charities help in assisting children reach their athletic potential. His Boys & Girls Club sees 2,000 children throughout the year and boasts a world-class junior tennis team. It also has a basketball program (the Agassi Stars) and a rigorous system that encourages a mix of academics and athletics. In 2001, Agassi opened the Andre Agassi College Preparatory Academy<ref name=Prep>{{cite web|url=http://www.agassiprep.org |title=Andre Agassi College Preparatory Academy |accessdate=January 26, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110211235357/http://agassiprep.org/ |archivedate=February 11, 2011 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref> in Las Vegas, a tuition-free charter school for at-risk children in the area. He personally donated $35 million to the school.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2006/03/20060306/Opinion/Stern-NBA-Make-Doing-Well-By-Doing-Good-Contagious.aspx |title=Stern, NBA make doing well by doing good contagious |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=March 6, 2006 |first=Marc |last=Pollick |accessdate=September 10, 2014}}</ref> In 2009, the graduating class had 100 percent graduation rate and expected a 100 percent college acceptance rate.<ref>{{cite web|last=Smith |first=Karen |url=http://www.cw.edu/page.php?subj=about&page=president-blog&id=20 |title=CW President's Blog |publisher=[[College of Westchester]] |date=September 23, 2009 |accessdate=June 6, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719183024/http://www.cw.edu/page.php?subj=about&page=president-blog&id=20 |archivedate=July 19, 2011 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref> Among other child-related programs that Agassi supports through his Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation is Clark County's only residential facility for abused and neglected children, Child Haven. In 1997, Agassi donated funding to Child Haven for a six-room classroom building now named the Agassi Center for Education. His foundation also provided $720,000 to assist in the building of the Andre Agassi Cottage for Medically Fragile Children. This 20-bed facility opened in December 2001, and accommodates developmentally delayed or handicapped children and children quarantined for infectious diseases.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.athlete.com/profile.php?id=351 |title=Andre Agassi |publisher=Athlete.com |accessdate=June 6, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707182451/http://www.athlete.com/profile.php?id=351 |archivedate=July 7, 2011 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> In 2007, along with several other athletes, Agassi founded the charity [[Athletes for Hope]], which helps professional athletes get involved in charitable causes and aims to inspire all people to volunteer and support their communities.<ref>{{cite web |title=History |url=http://www.athletesforhope.org/history.html |publisher=[[Athletes for Hope]]}}</ref> He created the Canyon-Agassi Charter School Facilities Fund, now known as the Turner-Agassi Charter School Facilities Fund. The Fund is an investment initiative for social change, focusing on the "nationwide effort to move charters from stopgap buildings into permanent campuses."{{citation needed|date=November 2017}} In September 2013, the Andre Agassi Foundation for Education formed a partnership with V20 Foods to launch Box Budd!es, a line of kids' healthy snacks. All proceeds go to the Foundation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.reviewjournal.com/business/food-thought-agassis-box-buddes-raises-educations-funds-healthful-snacks |title=Food for thought: Agassi's Box Budd!es raises educations funds with healthful snacks |publisher=''[[Las Vegas Review-Journal]]'' |date=October 7, 2013 |first=Laura |last=Carroll |accessdate=September 11, 2014 |dead-url=yes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140911152745/http://www.reviewjournal.com/business/food-thought-agassis-box-buddes-raises-educations-funds-healthful-snacks |archive-date=September 11, 2014 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.foodnavigator-usa.com/Manufacturers/Andre-Agassi-teams-up-with-V20-Foods-to-launch-Box-Budd!es-snacks-for-kids |title=Andre Agassi teams up with V20 Foods to launch Box Budd!es snacks for kids |publisher=Foodnavigator-usa.com |date=September 25, 2013 |first=Elaine |last=Watson |accessdate=September 11, 2014}}</ref> In February 2014, Agassi remodeled the vacant [[University of Phoenix]] building as a new school called the Doral Academy West through the Canyon-Agassi Charter School Facilities Fund. Doral Academy opened in August 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.reviewjournal.com/news/agassi-school-fund-makes-first-investment-las-vegas |title=Agassi school fund makes first investment in Las Vegas |publisher=''Las Vegas Review-Journal'' |date=February 2, 2014 |first=Jennifer |last=Robinson |accessdate=September 10, 2014 |dead-url=yes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140726215916/http://www.reviewjournal.com/news/agassi-school-fund-makes-first-investment-las-vegas |archive-date=July 26, 2014 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> The Fund purchased a 4.6-acre plot in [[Henderson, Nevada]] to house the Somerset Academy of Las Vegas, which will relocate from its campus inside a church.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.reviewjournal.com/business/canyon-agassi-group-buys-46-acre-plot-academy |title=Canyon-Agassi group buys 4.6-acre plot for academy |publisher=''Las Vegas Review-Journal'' |date=February 7, 2014 |accessdate=September 10, 2014 |dead-url=yes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140910195401/http://www.reviewjournal.com/business/canyon-agassi-group-buys-46-acre-plot-academy |archive-date=September 10, 2014 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> ==Career statistics== {{Main article|Andre Agassi career statistics}} ===Singles timeline overview=== {| class=wikitable style=text-align:center;font-size:95% ! width=100 | Tournament !! 1986 !! 1987 !! 1988 !! 1989 !! 1990 !! 1991 !! 1992 !! 1993 !! 1994 !! 1995 !! 1996 !! 1997 !! 1998 !! 1999 !! 2000 !! 2001 !! 2002 !! 2003 !! 2004 !! 2005 !! 2006 !! {{abbr| SR | Strike Rate}} !! {{abbr| W–L | Win–Loss}} |- | colspan="24" style="text-align:left;"| '''Grand Slams''' |- | align=left | [[Australian Open]] | style=color:#ccc|NH | A | A | A | A | A | A | A | A | style="background:lime;"| [[1995 Australian Open – Men's Singles|'''W''']] | style="background:yellow;"| [[1996 Australian Open – Men's Singles|SF]] | A | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[1998 Australian Open – Men's Singles|4R]] | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[1999 Australian Open – Men's Singles|4R]] | style="background:lime;"| [[2000 Australian Open – Men's Singles|'''W''']] | style="background:lime;"| [[2001 Australian Open – Men's Singles|'''W''']] | A | style="background:lime;"| [[2003 Australian Open – Men's Singles|'''W''']] | style="background:yellow;"| [[2004 Australian Open – Men's Singles|SF]] | style="background:#ffebcd;"| [[2005 Australian Open – Men's Singles|QF]] | A | 4 / 9 | 48–5 |- | align=left | [[French Open]] | A | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[1987 French Open – Men's Singles|2R]] | style="background:yellow;"| [[1988 French Open – Men's Singles|SF]] | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[1989 French Open – Men's Singles|3R]] | style="background:thistle;"| [[1990 French Open – Men's Singles|F]] | style="background:thistle;"| [[1991 French Open – Men's Singles|F]] | style="background:yellow;"| [[1992 French Open – Men's Singles|SF]] | A | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[1994 French Open – Men's Singles|2R]] | style="background:#ffebcd;"| [[1995 French Open – Men's Singles|QF]] | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[1996 French Open – Men's Singles|2R]] | A | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[1998 French Open – Men's Singles|1R]] | style="background:lime;"| [[1999 French Open – Men's Singles|'''W''']] | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[2000 French Open – Men's Singles|2R]] | style="background:#ffebcd;"| [[2001 French Open – Men's Singles|QF]] | style="background:#ffebcd;"| [[2002 French Open – Men's Singles|QF]] | style="background:#ffebcd;"| [[2003 French Open – Men's Singles|QF]] | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[2004 French Open – Men's Singles|1R]] | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[2005 French Open – Men's Singles|1R]] | A | 1 / 17 | 51–16 |- | align=left | [[Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]] | A | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[1987 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|1R]] | A | A | A | style="background:#ffebcd;"| [[1991 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|QF]] | style="background:lime;"| [[1992 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|'''W]] | style="background:#ffebcd;"| [[1993 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|QF]] | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[1994 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|4R]] | style="background:yellow;"| [[1995 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|SF]] | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[1996 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|1R]] | A | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[1998 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|2R]] | style="background:thistle;"| [[1999 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|F]] | style="background:yellow;"| [[2000 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|SF]] | style="background:yellow;"| [[2001 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|SF]] | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[2002 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|2R]] | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[2003 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|4R]] | A | A | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[2006 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|3R]] | 1 / 14 | 46–13 |- | align=left | [[US Open (tennis)|US Open]] | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[1986 US Open – Men's Singles|1R]] | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[1987 US Open – Men's Singles|1R]] | style="background:yellow;"| [[1988 US Open – Men's Singles|SF]] | style="background:yellow;"| [[1989 US Open – Men's Singles|SF]] | style="background:thistle;"| [[1990 US Open – Men's Singles|F]] | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[1991 US Open – Men's Singles|1R]] | style="background:#ffebcd;"| [[1992 US Open – Men's Singles|QF]] | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[1993 US Open – Men's Singles|1R]] | style="background:lime;"| [[1994 US Open – Men's Singles|'''W]] | style="background:thistle;"| [[1995 US Open – Men's Singles|F]] | style="background:yellow;"| [[1996 US Open – Men's Singles|SF]] | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[1997 US Open – Men's Singles|4R]] | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[1998 US Open – Men's Singles|4R]] | style="background:lime;"| [[1999 US Open – Men's Singles|'''W]] | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[2000 US Open – Men's Singles|2R]] | style="background:#ffebcd;"| [[2001 US Open – Men's Singles|QF]] | style="background:thistle;"| [[2002 US Open – Men's Singles|F]] | style="background:yellow;"| [[2003 US Open – Men's Singles|SF]] | style="background:#ffebcd;"| [[2004 US Open – Men's Singles|QF]] | style="background:thistle;"| [[2005 US Open – Men's Singles|F]] | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[2006 US Open – Men's Singles|3R]] | 2 / 21 | 79–19 |- | colspan="24" style="text-align:left;"| '''Year-End Championship |- | align=left | [[Tennis Masters Cup|Masters Cup]] | style=color:#ccc|DNQ | style=color:#ccc|DNQ | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[1988 Nabisco Masters – Singles|RR]] | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[1989 Nabisco Masters – Singles|RR]] | style="background:lime;"| [[1990 ATP Tour World Championships – Singles|'''W]] | style="background:yellow;"| [[1991 ATP Tour World Championships – Singles|SF]] | style=color:#ccc|DNQ | style=color:#ccc|DNQ | style="background:yellow;"| [[1994 ATP Tour World Championships – Singles|SF]] | A | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[1996 ATP Tour World Championships – Singles|RR]] | style=color:#ccc|DNQ | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[1998 ATP Tour World Championships – Singles|RR]] | style="background:thistle;"| [[1999 ATP Tour World Championships – Singles|F]] | style="background:thistle;"| [[2000 Tennis Masters Cup – Singles|F]] | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[2001 Tennis Masters Cup – Singles|RR]] | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[2002 Tennis Masters Cup – Singles|RR]] | style="background:thistle;"| [[2003 Tennis Masters Cup – Singles|F]] | A | style="background:#afeeee;"| [[2005 Tennis Masters Cup – Singles|RR]] | style=color:#ccc|RET | 1 / 13 | 22–20 |- | colspan="24" style="text-align:left;"| '''Overall''' |- ! style=text-align:left|Win–Loss ! 5–6 ! 26–17 ! 63–11 ! 41–19 ! 45–12 ! 39–17 ! 42–15 ! 33–11 ! 52–14 ! 73–9 ! 38–14 ! 12–12 ! 68–18 ! 63–14 ! 40–15 ! 46–15 ! 53–12 ! 47–10 ! 37–13 ! 38–12 ! 10–8 ! colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"| 870–274 |- ! style=text-align:left|Titles ! 0 ! 1 ! 6 ! 1 ! 4 ! 2 ! 3 ! 2 ! 5 ! 7 ! 3 ! 0 ! 5 ! 5 ! 1 ! 4 ! 5 ! 4 ! 1 ! 1 ! 0 ! colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"| 60 / 343 |- | align=left | '''Ranking''' | 91 | 25 | style="background:#9cf;"| '''3''' | style="background:#eee8aa;"| 7 | style="background:#eee8aa;"| 4 | style="background:#eee8aa;"| 10 | style="background:#eee8aa;"| 9 | 24 | style="background:thistle;"| '''2''' | style="background:thistle;"| '''2''' | style="background:#eee8aa;"| 8 | 110 | style="background:#eee8aa;"| 6 | style="background:lime;"| '''1''' | style="background:#eee8aa;"| 6 | style="background:#9cf;"| '''3''' | style="background:thistle;"| '''2''' | style="background:#eee8aa;"| 4 | style="background:#eee8aa;"| 8 | style="background:#eee8aa;"| 7 | 150 ! colspan=2 | {{Tooltip| $31,152,975 | Career Prize Money}} |} ===Grand Slam finals (8 titles, 7 runner-ups)=== By winning the [[1999 French Open]], Agassi completed a men's singles Career Grand Slam. He is the 5th of 8 male players in history (after [[Don Budge|Budge]], [[Fred Perry|Perry]], [[Rod Laver|Laver]], [[Roy Emerson|Emerson]] and before [[Roger Federer|Federer]], [[Rafael Nadal|Nadal]] and [[Novak Djokovic|Djokovic]]) to achieve this. {| class="sortable wikitable" |- !style="width:65px"|Outcome !style="width:35px"|Year !style="width:200px"|Championship !style="width:50px"|Surface !style="width:200px"|Opponent !style="width:230px" class="unsortable"|Score |- style="background:#ebc2af;" | style="background:#ffa07a;"|Runner-up | [[1990 French Open – Men's Singles|1990]] | [[French Open]] | Clay | {{flagicon|ECU}} [[Andrés Gómez]] | 3–6, 6–2, 4–6, 4–6 |- style="background:#ccf;" | style="background:#ffa07a;"|Runner-up | [[1990 US Open – Men's Singles|1990]] | [[US Open (tennis)|US Open]] | Hard | {{flagicon|US}} [[Pete Sampras]] | 4–6, 3–6, 2–6 |- style="background:#ebc2af;" | style="background:#ffa07a;"|Runner-up | [[1991 French Open – Men's Singles|1991]] | French Open | Clay | {{flagicon|US}} [[Jim Courier]] | 6–3, 4–6, 6–2, 1–6, 4–6 |- style="background:#cfc;" | style="background:#98fb98;"|Winner | [[1992 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|1992]] | [[Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]] | Grass | {{flagicon|CRO}} [[Goran Ivanišević]] | 6–7^(8–10), 6–4, 6–4, 1–6, 6–4 |- style="background:#ccf;" | style="background:#98fb98;"|Winner | [[1994 US Open – Men's Singles|1994]] | US Open | Hard | {{flagicon|GER}} [[Michael Stich]] | 6–1, 7–6^(7–5), 7–5 |- style="background:#ffc;" | style="background:#98fb98;"|Winner | [[1995 Australian Open – Men's Singles|1995]] | [[Australian Open]] | Hard | {{flagicon|US}} [[Pete Sampras]] | 4–6, 6–1, 7–6^(8–6), 6–4 |- style="background:#ccf;" | style="background:#ffa07a;"|Runner-up | [[1995 US Open – Men's Singles|1995]] | US Open | Hard | {{flagicon|US}} [[Pete Sampras]] | 4–6, 3–6, 6–4, 5–7 |- style="background:#ebc2af;" | style="background:#98fb98;"|Winner | [[1999 French Open – Men's Singles|1999]] | French Open | Clay | {{flagicon|UKR}} [[Andrei Medvedev]] | 1–6, 2–6, 6–4, 6–3, 6–4 |- style="background:#cfc;" | style="background:#ffa07a;"|Runner-up | [[1999 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|1999]] | Wimbledon | Grass | {{flagicon|US}} [[Pete Sampras]] | 3–6, 4–6, 5–7 |- style="background:#ccf;" | style="background:#98fb98;"|Winner | [[1999 US Open – Men's Singles|1999]] | US Open | Hard | {{flagicon|US}} [[Todd Martin]] | 6–4, 6–7^(5–7), 6–7^(2–7), 6–3, 6–2 |- style="background:#ffc;" | style="background:#98fb98;"|Winner | [[2000 Australian Open – Men's Singles|2000]] | Australian Open | Hard | {{flagicon|RUS}} [[Yevgeny Kafelnikov]] | 3–6, 6–3, 6–2, 6–4 |- style="background:#ffc;" | style="background:#98fb98;"|Winner | [[2001 Australian Open – Men's Singles|2001]] | Australian Open | Hard | {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Arnaud Clément]] | 6–4, 6–2, 6–2 |- style="background:#ccf;" | style="background:#ffa07a;"|Runner-up | [[2002 US Open – Men's Singles|2002]] | US Open | Hard | {{flagicon|US}} [[Pete Sampras]] | 3–6, 4–6, 7–5, 4–6 |- style="background:#ffc;" | style="background:#98fb98;"|Winner | [[2003 Australian Open – Men's Singles|2003]] | Australian Open | Hard | {{flagicon|GER}} [[Rainer Schüttler]] | 6–2, 6–2, 6–1 |- style="background:#ccf;" | style="background:#ffa07a;"|Runner-up | [[2005 US Open – Men's Singles|2005]] | US Open | Hard | {{flagicon|SUI}} [[Roger Federer]] | 3–6, 6–2, 6–7^(1–7), 1–6 |} ==== Open Era records ==== * These records were attained in the [[Open Era]] of tennis and in [[ATP World Tour Masters 1000]] series since 1990. * Records in '''bold''' indicate peer-less achievements. {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" |- ! Time span ! Selected Grand Slam tournament records ! Players matched |- | 1990 YEC{{#tag:ref|Abbreviation for "[[ATP World Tour Finals|Year-End Championship]]".|group=lower-alpha}} —<br /> 1999 French Open || Career "Super Slam"{{#tag:ref|A "Career Super Slam" entails winning all 4 [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Majors]], the [[ATP World Tour Finals|Year-End Championship]] and the [[Tennis at the Summer Olympics|Olympic]] gold medal in singles.|group=lower-alpha}}<ref name="SI" /> || '''Stands alone''' |- | 1992 Wimbledon —<br /> 1999 French Open || Career Golden Slam<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.tsn.ca/tennis/story/?id=333700 |title=Nadal Captures U.S. Open To Complete Career Grand Slam |publisher=The Sports Network (TSN) |date=September 14, 2010 |accessdate=June 12, 2012 |quote=Nadal...also owns an Olympic gold medal, which makes him one of only two men to corral the career Golden Slam, with the great Agassi being the other.}}</ref> || [[Rafael Nadal]] |- | 1992 Wimbledon —<br /> 1999 French Open || Career Grand Slam<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/06/07/sports/tennis-agassi-revival-reaches-a-peak-in-french-open.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm |title=Agassi Revival Reaches a Peak in French Open |first=Robin |last=Finn |newspaper=The New York Times |date=June 7, 1999 |accessdate=July 9, 2012}}</ref> || [[Rod Laver]]<br />[[Roger Federer]]<br />Rafael Nadal<br/>[[Novak Djokovic]] |- | 1996 Olympics —<br /> 1999 US Open || Simultaneous holder of Olympic singles gold medal and Majors on clay & hard court || Rafael Nadal |- | 1996 Olympics —<br /> 2000 Australian Open || Simultaneous holder of Olympic singles gold medal and 3 Majors || Rafael Nadal |} {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" |- ! Grand Slam tournaments ! Time Span ! Records at each Grand Slam tournament ! Players matched |- | Australian Open || 2000–2004 || 26 consecutive match wins || '''Stands alone |- | Australian Open || 1995 || Won tournament on the first attempt || [[Jimmy Connors]]<br />[[Roscoe Tanner]]<br />[[Vitas Gerulaitis]]<br />[[Johan Kriek]] |- | Australian Open || 1995–2005 || 90.57% (48–5) match winning percentage || '''Stands alone |- | Australian Open || 2003 || 71.6% (121–48) games winning percentage in 1 tournament || '''Stands alone |- | US Open || 1986–2006 || 21 consecutive tournaments played<ref>{{cite web|title=US Open Singles Record Book |url=http://www.usopen.org/pdf/Record_Book_Singles_Records.pdf |accessdate=August 26, 2012 |publisher=US Open |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6ALsJvhSv?url=http://www.usopen.org/pdf/Record_Book_Singles_Records.pdf |archivedate=September 1, 2012 |df=mdy }}</ref> || '''Stands alone |} {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" |- ! Time span ! Other selected records ! Players matched |- | 1990–2003 || 6 [[Miami Masters]] titles<ref>{{cite web |title=Sony Open – Records and Stats |url=http://www.sonyopentennis.com/en/the-open/records-and-stats |accessdate=March 29, 2014 |publisher=Sony Open Tennis}}</ref> || Novak Djokovic |- | 2001–2003 || 3 consecutive [[Miami Masters]] titles || Novak Djokovic |- | 1990–2003 || 8 [[Miami Masters]] finals || '''Stands alone |- | 1988–2005 || 63 match wins at [[Miami Masters]] || '''Stands alone |- | 2001–2004 || 19 consecutive wins at [[Miami Masters]] || '''Stands alone |- | 1990–1999 || 5 [[Washington Open (tennis)| Washington Open]] titles || '''Stands alone |- | 1989–1992 || 3 [[Verizon Tennis Challenge]] titles || '''Stands alone |- | 1993–2002 || 4 [[Tennis Channel Open]] titles || '''Stands alone |- | 1993–2002 || 4 [[Los Angeles Open (tennis)| Los Angeles Open]] titles || [[Jimmy Connors]]<br>[[Roy Emerson]]<br>[[Frank Parker]] |- | 1988–2005 || Ended 16 years ranked inside the top 10 || Jimmy Connors |} ==Professional awards== * [[Tennis world champions named by the International Tennis Federation|ITF World Champion]]: 1999. * [[ATP Awards|ATP Player of the Year]]: 1999. * [[ATP Awards|ATP Most Improved Player]]: 1988, 1998 ==Recognition== * In 1992, Agassi was named the [[BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year]]. * In 2010, ''[[Sports Illustrated]]'' named Agassi the 7th greatest male player of all time.<ref name="SI" /> * On July 9, 2011, Agassi was inducted into the [[International Tennis Hall of Fame]] at a ceremony in Newport, Rhode Island.<ref name="tennis" /> ==Video== * ''Wimbledon 2000 Semi-final – Agassi vs. Rafter (2003)'' Starring: Andre Agassi, Patrick Rafter; Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: August 16, 2005, Run Time: 213&nbsp;minutes, {{OCLC|61774054}}. * ''Charlie Rose with Andre Agassi (May 7, 2001)'' Charlie Rose, Inc., DVD Release Date: August 15, 2006, Run Time: 57&nbsp;minutes. * ''Wimbledon: The Record Breakers (2005)'' Starring: Andre Agassi, Boris Becker; Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: August 16, 2005, Run Time: 52&nbsp;minutes, {{OCLC|61658553}}. ==Video games== {{main article|Andre Agassi Tennis}} * ''[[Andre Agassi Tennis]]'' for the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|SNES]], [[Sega Genesis]], [[Sega Game Gear]], [[Master System]], and Mobile phone<ref name="mobygames">[http://www.mobygames.com/game/andre-agassi-tennis ''Andre Agassi Tennis''] at [[MobyGames]]</ref> * ''[[Agassi Tennis Generation]]'' for [[PlayStation 2|PS2]] and [[Game Boy Advance|GBA]] * ''[[Agassi Tennis Generation 2002]]'' for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]<ref name="uvlist.net">[https://www.uvlist.net/game-190548-Agassi+Tennis+Generation+2002 ''Agassi Tennis Generation 2002''] at [[Universal Videogame List]]</ref> * ''Smash Court Pro Tournament'' for PS2 * ''[[Top Spin 4]]'' (On cover of game) for [[Xbox 360]], [[PlayStation 3]] and [[Wii]] ==See also== {{Portal|Biography|Tennis}} * [[List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions]] * [[Agassi–Sampras rivalry]] * [[Tennis male players statistics]] * [[All-time tennis records – men's singles]] * [[Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles]] ==Notes== {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} ==References== {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==Further reading== * {{Cite book |author1=Agassi, Mike |author2=Cobello, Dominic |author3=Welsh, Kate |title=The Agassi Story |publisher=ECW Press |location=Toronto |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-55022-656-0 |oclc=}} * {{Cite book |author =Andre Agassi |title=Open: An Autobiography (Vintage) |publisher=Vintage |location=London |year=2010 |isbn=0-307-38840-9 |oclc=}} ==External links== {{Commons category|Andre Agassi}} {{wikiquote}} * {{ATP}} * {{ITF profile}} * {{DavisCup player}} * {{Tennis Hall of Fame}} * {{Worldcat id|lccn-n92-119422}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20140911194454/http://www.andreagassi.com/ Andre Agassi Ventures] * [http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/andreagassifarewelltotennis.htm Farewell to Tennis Speech at the U.S. Open] * [http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/andreagassistefgrafinduction.htm Agassi's Tennis Hall of Fame Induction for Steffi Graf] * {{IMDb name}} {{Andre Agassi start boxes}} {{navboxes | title = Andre Agassi in the [[grand slam (tennis)|Grand Slam Tournaments]] | list1 = {{Australian Open men's singles champions}} {{French Open men's singles champions}} {{Wimbledon men's singles champions}} {{US Open men's singles champions}} {{Tennis Career Grand Slam Champions}} {{Men's tennis players who won two or more Grand Slam singles titles in one calendar year}} }} {{navboxes | title = Andre Agassi's [[Andre Agassi career statistics|achievements]] | list1 = {{Tennis World Number Ones (men)}} {{Year-End Championships winners}} {{ATP Masters Series tournament winners}} {{ATP Masters Series tournament doubles winners}} {{Footer Olympic Champions Tennis Men}} {{Novak Djokovic}} }} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Agassi, Andre}} [[Category:1970 births]] [[Category:American male tennis 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[[Category:American autobiographers]] [[Category:Writers from Nevada]] [[Category:Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics]] [[Category:American sportspeople in doping cases]] [[Category:20th-century American businesspeople]] [[Category:21st-century American businesspeople]] [[Category:American investors]] [[Category:American real estate businesspeople]] [[Category:Novak Djokovic]] [[Category:Steffi Graf]] [[Category:Armenian-American tennis players]] [[Category:Assyrian-American tennis players]] g4l13huyocb92uoi0fuxvjl7t5g4p8b 0 596 769390340 597922680 2017-03-09T06:22:57Z AddWittyNameHere 19382112 Convert deprecated template. wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Constructed language]] {{Rcat shell| {{R from alternative name}} {{R printworthy}} }} a624w7ziw3do4mw5oybwy9rvtka4zuu 0 597 858536028 858366818 2018-09-07T21:51:55Z Dewritech 11498870 clean up, [[WP:AWB/T|typo(s) fixed]]: well-known → well known, a east → an east wikitext text/x-wiki {{distinguish|Austronesian languages}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2018}} {{Infobox language family | name = Austroasiatic | altname = Mon–Khmer | region = [[South Asia|South]] and [[Southeast Asia]] | familycolor = Austroasiatic | family = One of the world's primary [[language family|language families]] | protoname = [[Proto-Austroasiatic language|Proto-Austroasiatic]] | child1 = [[Munda languages|Munda]] | child2 = [[Khasic languages|Khasi]]–[[Palaungic languages|Palaungic]] | child3 = [[Khmuic languages|Khmuic]] | child4 = [[Mangic languages|Mangic]] (Pakanic) | child5 = [[Vietic languages|Vietic]] | child6 = [[Katuic languages|Katuic]] | child7 = [[Bahnaric languages|Bahnaric]] | child8 = ''[[Khmer language|Khmer]]'' | child9 = [[Pearic languages|Pearic]] | child10 = [[Nicobarese languages|Nicobarese]] | child11 = [[Aslian languages|Aslian]] | child12 = [[Monic languages|Monic]] | child13 = ''[[Shompen language|Shompen]]'' ? | iso5 = aav | glotto = aust1305 | glottorefname = Austroasiatic | map = Austroasiatic-en.svg | mapcaption = Austroasiatic languages }} The '''Austroasiatic languages''',{{refn|group=note|Sometimes also as ''Austro-Asiatic'' or ''Austroasian''}} formerly known as '''Mon–Khmer''',<ref>Bradley (2012) notes, ''MK in the wider sense including the Munda languages of eastern South Asia is also known as Austroasiatic.''</ref> are a large [[language family]] of [[Mainland Southeast Asia]], also scattered throughout [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Nepal]] and the southern border of [[China]], with around 117 million speakers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.languagesgulper.com/eng/Austroasiatic.html|title=Austroasiatic|website=www.languagesgulper.com|language=en|access-date=15 October 2017}}</ref> The name ''Austroasiatic'' comes from the [[Latin]] words for "South" and "Asia", hence "South Asia". Of these languages, only [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], [[Khmer language|Khmer]], and [[Mon language|Mon]] have a long-established recorded history, and only Vietnamese and Khmer have official status as modern [[national language]]s (in [[Vietnam]] and [[Cambodia]], respectively). In [[Myanmar]], the [[Wa language]] is the de facto official language of [[Wa State]]. The rest of the languages are spoken by minority groups and have no official status. ''[[Ethnologue]]'' identifies 168 Austroasiatic languages. These form thirteen established families (plus perhaps [[Shompen language|Shompen]], which is poorly attested, as a fourteenth), which have traditionally been grouped into two, as Mon–Khmer and [[Munda languages|Munda]]. However, one recent classification posits three groups (Munda, Nuclear Mon-Khmer and [[Khasi–Khmuic languages|Khasi–Khmuic]])<ref>Diffloth 2005</ref> while another has abandoned Mon–Khmer as a taxon altogether, making it synonymous with the larger family.<ref>Sidwell 2009</ref> Austroasiatic languages have a disjunct distribution across India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Southeast Asia, separated by regions where other languages are spoken. They appear to be the extant [[autochthonous language]]s of Southeast Asia (if [[Andaman islands]] are not included), with the neighboring [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]], [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra–Dai]], [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]], [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]], and [[Sino-Tibetan languages]] being the result of later migrations.<ref name="SidwellBlench2011" /> A 2015 made analysis using the [[Automated Similarity Judgment Program]] resulted in [[Japonic languages|Japanese]] being grouped with the [[Ainu languages|Ainu]] and the Austroasiatic languages.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Gerhard |last=Jäger |title=Support for linguistic macrofamilies from weighted sequence alignment |journal=PNAS |volume=112 |issue=41 |pages=12752–12757 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1500331112 |pmid=26403857 |pmc=4611657|bibcode=2015PNAS..11212752J }} Published online before print 24 September 2015.</ref> == Typology == Regarding word structure, Austroasiatic languages are well known for having an iambic [[sesquisyllable|"sesquisyllabic"]] pattern, with basic nouns and verbs consisting of an initial, unstressed, reduced [[minor syllable]] followed by a stressed, full syllable.{{sfn|Alves|2014|p=524}} This reduction of presyllables has led to a variety among modern languages of phonological shapes of the same original Proto-Austroasiatic prefixes, such as the causative prefix, ranging from CVC syllables to consonant clusters to single consonants.{{sfn|Alves|2014|p=526}} As for word formation, most Austroasiatic languages have a variety of derivational prefixes, many have [[infix]]es, but suffixes are almost completely non-existent in most branches except Munda, and a few specialized exceptions in other Austroasiatic branches.<ref>Alves 2014, 2015</ref> The Austroasiatic languages are further characterized as having unusually large vowel inventories and employing some sort of [[Register (phonology)|register]] contrast, either between [[modal voice|modal]] (normal) voice and [[breathy voice|breathy]] (lax) voice or between modal voice and [[creaky voice]].<ref>Diffloth, Gérard (1989). [http://www.sealang.net/archives/mks/pdf/15:139-154.pdf "Proto-Austroasiatic creaky voice."]</ref> Languages in the Pearic branch and some in the Vietic branch can have a three- or even four-way voicing contrast. However, some Austroasiatic languages have lost the register contrast by evolving more diphthongs or in a few cases, such as Vietnamese, [[tonogenesis]]. Vietnamese has been so heavily influenced by Chinese that its original Austroasiatic phonological quality is obscured and now resembles that of South Chinese languages, whereas Khmer, which had more influence from Sanskrit, has retained a more typically Austroasiatic structure. == Proto-language == {{Main|Proto-Austroasiatic language}} Much work has been done on the reconstruction of [[Proto-Mon–Khmer]] in [[Harry L. Shorto]]'s ''Mon–Khmer Comparative Dictionary''. Little work has been done on the [[Munda languages]], which are not well documented. With their demotion from a primary branch, Proto-Mon–Khmer becomes synonymous with Proto-Austroasiatic. Paul Sidwell (2005) reconstructs the consonant inventory of Proto-Mon–Khmer as follows: {| class="IPA wikitable" |- | *p || *t || *c || *k || *ʔ |- | *b || *d || *ɟ || *ɡ || |- | *ɓ || *ɗ || *ʄ || || |- | *m || *n || *ɲ || *ŋ || |- | *w || *l, *r || *j || || |- | || *s || || || *h |} This is identical to earlier reconstructions except for {{IPA|*ʄ}}. {{IPA|*ʄ}} is better preserved in the [[Katuic languages]], which Sidwell has specialized in. Sidwell (2011) suggests that the likely homeland of Austroasiatic is the middle [[Mekong]], in the area of the Bahnaric and Katuic languages (approximately where modern Laos, Thailand, and Cambodia come together), and that the family is not as old as frequently assumed, dating to perhaps 2000 BCE.<ref name="SidwellBlench2011" /> A genetic and linguistic research in 2015 about ancient people in East Asia suggest an origin and homeland of Austroasiatic in today [[South China|southern China]] or even further north.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283080042_Y-chromosome_diversity_suggests_southern_origin_and_Paleolithic_backwave_migration_of_Austro-_Asiatic_speakers_from_eastern_Asia_to_the_Indian_subcontinent_OPEN|title=Y-chromosome diversity suggests southern origin and Paleolithic backwave migration of Austro- Asiatic speakers from eastern Asia to the Indian subcontinent OPEN|last=Zhang|first=Xiaoming|last2=Liao|first2=Shiyu|last3=Qi|first3=Xuebin|last4=Liu|first4=Jiewei|last5=Kampuansai|first5=Jatupol|last6=Zhang|first6=Hui|last7=Yang|first7=Zhaohui|last8=Serey|first8=Bun|last9=Tuot|first9=Sovannary|date=2015-10-20|volume=5}}</ref> == Internal classification == Linguists traditionally recognize two primary divisions of Austroasiatic: the [[Mon–Khmer languages]] of [[Southeast Asia]], [[North-East India|Northeast India]] and the [[Nicobar Islands]], and the [[Munda languages]] of [[East India|East]] and [[Central India]] and parts of [[Bangladesh]], parts of [[Nepal]]. However, no evidence for this classification has ever been published. Each of the families that is written in boldface type below is accepted as a valid clade.{{clarify|date=February 2016}} By contrast, the relationships ''between'' these families within Austroasiatic are debated. In addition to the traditional classification, two recent proposals are given, neither of which accepts traditional "Mon–Khmer" as a valid unit. However, little of the data used for competing classifications has ever been published, and therefore cannot be evaluated by peer review. In addition, there are suggestions that additional branches of Austroasiatic might be preserved in substrata of [[Acehnese language|Acehnese]] in Sumatra (Diffloth), the [[Chamic languages]] of Vietnam, and the [[Land Dayak languages]] of Borneo (Adelaar 1995).<ref>Roger Blench, ''2009. Are there four additional unrecognised branches of Austroasiatic?'' Presentation at ICAAL-4, Bangkok, 29–30 October. Summarized in Sidwell and Blench (2011).</ref> === Diffloth (1974) === [[Gérard Diffloth|Diffloth]]'s widely cited original classification, now abandoned by Diffloth himself, is used in ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' and—except for the breakup of Southern Mon–Khmer—in ''Ethnologue.'' * '''[[Munda languages|Munda]]''' ** North Munda *** Korku *** '''Kherwarian''' ** South Munda *** '''Kharia–Juang''' *** '''Koraput Munda''' * Mon–Khmer ** Eastern Mon–Khmer *** '''[[Khmer language|Khmer]]''' (Cambodian) *** '''[[Pearic languages|Pearic]]''' *** '''[[Bahnaric languages|Bahnaric]]''' *** '''[[Katuic languages|Katuic]]''' *** '''[[Vietic languages|Vietic]]''' (includes Vietnamese) ** Northern Mon–Khmer *** '''[[Khasi language|Khasi]]''' ([[Meghalaya]], India) *** '''[[Palaungic languages|Palaungic]]''' *** '''[[Khmuic languages|Khmuic]]''' ** Southern Mon–Khmer *** '''[[Mon language|Mon]]''' *** '''[[Aslian languages|Aslian]]''' ([[Peninsular Malaysia|Malaya]]) *** '''[[Nicobarese languages|Nicobarese]]''' ([[Nicobar Islands]]) === Peiros (2004) === Peiros is a [[lexicostatistics|lexicostatistic]] classification, based on percentages of shared vocabulary. This means that languages can appear to be more distantly related than they actually are due to [[language contact]]. Indeed, when Sidwell (2009) replicated Peiros's study with languages known well enough to account for loans, he did not find the internal (branching) structure below. [[File:AustroAsiatic tree Peiros2004.png|thumb|upright=2.27]] * '''[[Nicobarese languages|Nicobarese]]''' * Munda–Khmer ** '''[[Munda languages|Munda]]''' ** Mon–Khmer *** '''[[Khasi language|Khasi]]''' *** Nuclear Mon–Khmer **** [[Pakanic languages|Mangic]] ([[Mang language|Mang]] + [[Bolyu language|Palyu]]) (perhaps in Northern MK) **** '''[[Vietic languages|Vietic]]''' (perhaps in Northern MK) **** Northern Mon–Khmer ***** '''[[Palaungic languages|Palaungic]]''' ***** '''[[Khmuic languages|Khmuic]]''' **** Central Mon–Khmer ***** '''[[Khmer language|Khmer]]''' dialects ***** '''[[Pearic languages|Pearic]]''' ***** Asli-Bahnaric ****** '''[[Aslian languages|Aslian]]''' ****** Mon–Bahnaric ******* '''[[Monic languages|Monic]]''' ******* Katu–Bahnaric ******** '''[[Katuic languages|Katuic]]''' ******** '''[[Bahnaric languages|Bahnaric]]''' {{Clear}} === Diffloth (2005) === [[Gérard Diffloth|Diffloth]] compares reconstructions of various clades, and attempts to classify them based on shared innovations, though like other classifications the evidence has not been published. As a schematic, we have: {{clade | label1='''Austro&nbsp;-&nbsp;Asiatic'''&nbsp; | 1={{clade | label1=&nbsp;[[Munda languages|Munda]]&nbsp; | 1={{clade |1={{clade |1=[[Bonda language|Remo]] |2=[[Sora language|Savara]] }} |2={{clade |1=[[Kharia language|Kharia]]–[[Juang language|Juang]] |2={{clade |1=[[Korku language|Korku]] |2=Kherwarian }} }} }} | label2=&nbsp;[[Khasi–Khmuic languages|Khasi&nbsp;–&nbsp;Khmuic]]&nbsp; | 2={{clade |2=[[Khasic languages|Khasian]] |1={{clade |1=[[Khmuic languages|Khmuic]] |2={{clade |1=[[Pakanic languages|Pakanic]] |2=[[Palaungic languages|Palaungic]] }} }} }} | label3=&nbsp;(Nuclear)&nbsp;&nbsp;{{nowrap|Mon–Khmer}}&nbsp; | 3={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1=[[Vietic languages|Vietic]] |label2=?<ref name=VK /> |2=[[Katuic languages|Katuic]] }} |2={{clade |1=[[Bahnaric languages|Bahnaric]] |2={{clade |1=[[Khmer language|Khmer]] |2=[[Pearic languages|Pearic]] }} }} }} |2={{clade |1=[[Nicobarese languages|Nicobarese]] |2={{clade |1=[[Aslian languages|Aslian]] |2=[[Monic languages|Monic]] }} }} }} }} }} Or in more detail, * '''[[Munda languages]]''' (India) :* '''Koraput''': 7 languages :*Core Munda languages ::* '''Kharian–Juang''': 2 languages ::*North Munda languages ::: ''[[Korku language|Korku]]'' ::: '''Kherwarian''': 12 languages * [[Khasi–Khmuic languages]] (Northern Mon–Khmer) :* '''[[Khasic languages|Khasian]]''': 3 languages of north eastern India and adjacent region of Bangladesh :*Palaungo-Khmuic languages ::* '''[[Khmuic languages|Khmuic]]''': 13 languages of Laos and Thailand ::*Palaungo-Pakanic languages ::: '''Pakanic''' or '''[[Pakanic languages|Palyu]]''': 4 or 5 languages of southern China and Vietnam ::: '''[[Palaungic languages|Palaungic]]''': 21 languages of Burma, southern China, and Thailand * Nuclear Mon–Khmer languages :* Khmero-Vietic languages (Eastern Mon–Khmer) ::* Vieto-Katuic languages ?<ref name=VK>Sidwell (2005) casts doubt on Diffloth's Vieto-Katuic hypothesis, saying that the evidence is ambiguous, and that it is not clear where Katuic belongs in the family.</ref> ::: '''[[Vietic languages|Vietic]]''': 10 languages of Vietnam and Laos, including the [[Vietnamese language]], which has the most speakers of any Austroasiatic language. ::: '''[[Katuic languages|Katuic]]''': 19 languages of Laos, Vietnam, and Thailand. ::* Khmero-Bahnaric languages :::* '''[[Bahnaric languages|Bahnaric]]''': 40 languages of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. :::*Khmeric languages :::: The '''[[Khmer language|Khmer]]''' dialects of Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam. :::: '''[[Pearic languages|Pearic]]''': 6 languages of Cambodia. :* Nico-Monic languages (Southern Mon–Khmer) ::* '''[[Nicobarese languages|Nicobarese]]''': 6 languages of the [[Nicobar Islands]], a territory of India. ::* Asli-Monic languages ::: '''[[Aslian languages|Aslian]]''': 19 languages of peninsular Malaysia and Thailand. ::: '''[[Monic languages|Monic]]''': 2 languages, the [[Mon language]] of Burma and the [[Nyah Kur language|Nyahkur language]] of Thailand. This family tree is consistent with recent studies of migration of Y-Chromosomal [[Haplogroup O-M95 (Y-DNA)|haplogroup O2a1-M95]]. However, the dates obtained from by [[Zhivotovsky method]] DNA studies are several times older than that given by linguists.<ref name="Kumar">{{cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Vikrant |display-authors=etal |title=Y-chromosome evidence suggests a common paternal heritage of Austroasiatic populations |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |year=2007 |volume=7 |issue=1 |page=47 |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-7-47}}</ref> The route map of the people with haplogroup O2a1-M95, speaking this language can be seen in this link.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/7/47/figure/F1 |title=Figure |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-7-47 |publisher=www.biomedcentral.com |date= |accessdate=11 March 2012}}</ref> Other geneticists criticise the Zhivotovsky method. === Previously existent branches === [[Roger Blench]] (2009)<ref>Blench, Roger. 2009. "[http://icaal.org/abstract/blench-are.html Are there four additional unrecognised branches of Austroasiatic?]."</ref> also proposes that there might have been other primary branches of Austroasiatic that are now extinct, based on [[Stratum (linguistics)|substrate]] evidence in modern-day languages. * '''Pre-[[Chamic language|Chamic]] languages''' (the languages of coastal Vietnam prior to the Chamic migrations). Chamic has various Austroasiatic loanwords that cannot be clearly traced to existing Austroasiatic branches (Sidwell 2006, 2007).<ref name="Sidwell2006">Sidwell, Paul. 2006. "[http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/sidwell2006dating.pdf Dating the Separation of Acehnese and Chamic By Etymological Analysis of the Aceh-Chamic Lexicon] {{webarchive |url=https://www.webcitation.org/6H8pdR68H?url=http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/sidwell2006dating.pdf |date=5 June 2013 }}." In The ''Mon-Khmer Studies Journal'', 36: 187–206.</ref><ref name="Sidwell2007">Sidwell, Paul. 2007. "[http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/sidwell2002mon-khmer.pdf The Mon-Khmer Substrate in Chamic: Chamic, Bahnaric and Katuic Contact]." In SEALS XII Papers from the 12th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society 2002, edited by Ratree Wayland et al.. Canberra, Australia, 113-128. Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, The Australian National University.</ref> * '''[[Acehnese language|Acehnese]] substratum''' (Sidwell 2006).<ref name="Sidwell2006" /> Acehnese has many basic words that are of Austroasiatic origin, suggesting that either Austronesian speakers have absorbed earlier Austroasiatic residents in northern Sumatra, or that words might have been borrowed from Austroasiatic languages in southern Vietnam – or perhaps a combination of both. Sidwell (2006) argues that Acehnese and Chamic had often borrowed Austroasiatic words independently of each other, while some Austroasiatic words can be traced back to Proto-Aceh-Chamic. Sidwell (2006) accepts that Acehnese and Chamic are related, but that they had separated from each other before Chamic had borrowed most of its Austroasiatic lexicon. * '''[[Bornean languages|Bornean]] substrate languages''' (Blench 2010).<ref>Blench, Roger. 2010. "[https://digital.lib.washington.edu/ojs/index.php/BIPPA/article/viewFile/10637/10669 Was there an Austroasiatic Presence in Island Southeast Asia prior to the Austronesian Expansion?]" In ''Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association'', Vol. 30.</ref> Blench cites Austroasiatic-origin words in modern-day Bornean branches such as [[Land Dayak languages|Land Dayak]] ([[Bidayuh languages|Bidayuh]], [[Bakati’ language|Dayak Bakatiq]], etc.), [[Dusunic languages|Dusunic]] ([[Dusun language|Central Dusun]], [[Brunei Bisaya language|Visayan]], etc.), [[Kayan–Murik languages|Kayan]], and [[Kenyah languages|Kenyah]], noting especially resemblances with [[Aslian languages|Aslian]]. As further evidence for his proposal, Blench also cites ethnographic evidence such as musical instruments in Borneo shared in common with Austroasiatic-speaking groups in mainland Southeast Asia. Adelaar (1995)<ref>Adelaar, K.A. 1995. [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.692.6923&rep=rep1&type=pdf Borneo as a cross-roads for comparative Austronesian linguistics]. In P. Bellwood, J.J. Fox and D. Tryon (eds.), The Austronesians, pp. 81-102. Canberra: Australian National University.</ref> has also noticed phonological and lexical similarities between [[Land Dayak languages|Land Dayak]] and [[Aslian languages|Aslian]]. * '''[[Lepcha language|Lepcha]] substratum''' ("'''''Rongic'''''").<ref>Blench, Roger. 2013. [https://www.academia.edu/5562335/Rongic_a_vanished_branch_of_Austroasiatic ''Rongic: a vanished branch of Austroasiatic'']. m.s.</ref> Many words of Austroasiatic origin have been noticed in Lepcha, suggesting a [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] superstrate laid over an Austroasiatic substrate. Blench (2013) calls this branch "''Rongic''" based on the Lepcha autonym ''Róng''. Other languages with proposed Austroasiatic substrata are: * '''[[Jiamao language|Jiamao]]''', based on evidence from the register system of Jiamao, a [[Hlai languages|Hlai]] language (Thurgood 1992).<ref>Thurgood, Graham. 1992. "[http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf4/thurgood1992aberrancy.pdf The aberrancy of the Jiamao dialect of Hlai: speculation on its origins and history]". In Ratliff, Martha S. and Schiller, E. (eds.), ''Papers from the First Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society'', 417–433. Arizona State University, Program for Southeast Asian Studies.</ref> Jiamao is known for its highly aberrant vocabulary in relation to other [[Hlai languages]]. * '''[[Kerinci language|Kerinci]]''': van Reijn (1974)<ref>van Reijn, E. O. (1974). "Some Remarks on the Dialects of North Kerintji: A link with Mon-Khmer Languages." ''Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society'', 31, 2: 130–138. {{JSTOR|41492089}}.</ref> notes that Kerinci, a [[Malayic languages|Malayic]] language of central [[Sumatra]], shares many phonological similarities with Austroasiatic languages, such as [[sesquisyllabic]] word structure and vowel inventory. John Peterson (2017)<ref>Peterson, John (2017). "[http://southasiabibliography.de/uploads/Peterson.pdf The prehistorical spread of Austro-Asiatic in South Asia]". Presented at ICAAL 7, Kiel, Germany.</ref> suggests that "pre-[[Munda languages|Munda]]" languages may have once dominated the eastern [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]], and were then absorbed by Indo-Aryan languages at an early date as Indo-Aryan spread east. Peterson notes that eastern [[Indo-Aryan languages]] display many morphosyntactic features similar to those of Munda languages, while western Indo-Aryan languages do not. === Sidwell (2009, 2011) === [[File:Mekongbasin.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.81|[[Paul Sidwell]] and [[Roger Blench]] propose that the Austroasiatic phylum had dispersed via the [[Mekong]] River [[drainage basin]].]] [[Paul Sidwell]] (2009), in a [[lexicostatistical]] comparison of 36 languages which are well known enough to exclude loan words, finds little evidence for internal branching, though he did find an area of increased contact between the Bahnaric and Katuic languages, such that languages of all branches apart from the geographically distant [[Munda languages|Munda]] and Nicobarese show greater similarity to Bahnaric and Katuic the closer they are to those branches, without any noticeable innovations common to Bahnaric and Katuic. He therefore takes the conservative view that the thirteen branches of Austroasiatic should be treated as equidistant on current evidence. Sidwell & [[Roger Blench|Blench]] (2011) discuss this proposal in more detail, and note that there is good evidence for a Khasi–Palaungic node, which could also possibly be closely related to Khmuic.<ref name="SidwellBlench2011">Sidwell, Paul, and Roger Blench. 2011. "[http://rogerblench.info/Archaeology/SE%20Asia/SR09/Sidwell%20Blench%20offprint.pdf The Austroasiatic Urheimat: the Southeastern Riverine Hypothesis]." Enfield, NJ (ed.) ''Dynamics of Human Diversity'', 317–345. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.</ref> If this would the case, Sidwell & Blench suggest that Khasic may have been an early offshoot of Palaungic that had spread westward. Sidwell & Blench (2011) suggest [[Shompen language|Shompen]] as an additional branch, and believe that a Vieto-Katuic connection is worth investigating. In general, however, the family is thought to have diversified too quickly for a deeply nested structure to have developed, since Proto-Austroasiatic speakers are believed by Sidwell to have radiated out from the central [[Mekong]] river valley relatively quickly. {{clade | label1=Austroasiatic: {{nobreak|Mon–Khmer}} | 1={{clade | 1=[[Munda languages|Munda]] | label2=&nbsp;Khasi–Palaungic&nbsp; | 2={{clade | 1=[[Khasic languages|Khasian]] | 2=[[Palaungic languages|Palaungic]] }} | 3=[[Khmuic languages|Khmuic]] | 4=[[Mangic languages|Mangic]] | 6=[[Vietic languages|Vietic]] | 7=[[Katuic languages|Katuic]] | 8=[[Bahnaric languages|Bahnaric]] | 9=[[Khmer language|Khmer]] | 10=[[Pearic languages|Pearic]] | 11=[[Monic languages|Monic]] | 12=[[Aslian languages|Aslian]] | 13=[[Nicobarese languages|Nicobarese]] | 14=?[[Shompen language|Shompen]] }} }} Subsequently, Sidwell (2015a: 179)<ref>Sidwell, Paul. 2015a. "Austroasiatic classification." In Jenny, Mathias and Paul Sidwell, eds (2015). ''The Handbook of Austroasiatic Languages''. Leiden: Brill.</ref> proposed that [[Nicobarese languages|Nicobarese]] subgroups with [[Aslian languages|Aslian]], just as how Khasian and Palaungic subgroup with each other. A subsequent computational phylogenetic analysis of the Austroasiatic language family by Sidwell (2015b)<ref>Sidwell, Paul. 2015b. [https://www.eva.mpg.de/fileadmin/content_files/linguistics/conferences/2015-diversity-linguistics/Sidwell_slides.pdf A comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of the Austroasiatic languages]. Presented at Diversity Linguistics: Retrospect and Prospect, 1–3 May 2015 (Leipzig, Germany), Closing conference of the Department of Linguistics at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.</ref> suggests that Austroasiatic branches may have a loosely nested structure rather than a completely rake-like structure, with an east-west division (consisting of Munda, Khasic, Palaungic, and Khmuic forming a western group as opposed to all of the other branches) occurring possibly as early as 7,000 years before present. Integrating computational phylogenetic linguistics with recent archaeological findings, Paul Sidwell (2015c)<ref name="Sidwell2015">Sidwell, Paul. 2015c. ''Phylogeny, innovations, and correlations in the prehistory of Austroasiatic''. Paper presented at the workshop ''Integrating inferences about our past: new findings and current issues in the peopling of the Pacific and South East Asia'', June 22nd – June 23rd, 2015, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany.</ref> further expanded his Mekong riverine hypothesis by proposing that Austroasiatic had ultimately expanded into [[Indochina]] from the [[Lingnan]] area of [[southern China]], with the subsequent Mekong riverine dispersal taking place after the initial arrival of Neolithic farmers from southern China. Sidwell (2015c) tentatively suggests that Austroasiatic may have begun to split up 5,000 years B.P. during the [[Neolithic transition]] era of [[mainland Southeast Asia]], with all the major branches of Austroasiatic formed by 4,000 B.P. Austroasiatic would have had two possible dispersal routes from the western periphery of the [[Pearl River (China)|Pearl River]] watershed of [[Lingnan]], which would have been either a coastal route down the coast of Vietnam, or downstream through the [[Mekong River]] via [[Yunnan]].<ref name="Sidwell2015"/> Both the reconstructed lexicon of Proto-Austroasiatic and the archaeological record clearly show that early Austroasiatic speakers around 4,000 B.P. cultivated rice and [[millet]], kept livestock such as dogs, pigs, and chickens, and thrived mostly in estuarine rather than coastal environments.<ref name="Sidwell2015"/> At 4,500 B.P., this "Neolithic package" suddenly arrived in Indochina from the Lingnan area without cereal grains and displaced the earlier pre-Neolithic hunter-gatherer cultures, with grain husks found in northern Indochina by 4,100 B.P. and in southern Indochina by 3,800 B.P.<ref name="Sidwell2015"/> However, Sidwell (2015c) found that iron is not reconstructable in Proto-Austroasiatic, since each Austroasiatic branch has different terms for iron that had been borrowed relatively lately from Tai, Chinese, Tibetan, Malay, and other languages. During the [[Iron Age]] about 2,500 B.P., relatively young Austroasiatic branches in Indochina such as [[Vietic languages|Vietic]], [[Katuic languages|Katuic]], [[Pearic languages|Pearic]], and [[Khmer language|Khmer]] were formed, while the more internally diverse [[Bahnaric languages|Bahnaric]] branch (dating to about 3,000 B.P.) underwent more extensive internal diversification.<ref name="Sidwell2015"/> By the Iron Age, all of the Austroasiatic branches were more or less in their present-day locations, with most of the diversification within Austroasiatic taking place during the Iron Age.<ref name="Sidwell2015"/> Paul Sidwell (2018)<ref>Sidwell, Paul. 2018. ''Austroasiatic deep chronology and the problem of cultural lexicon''. Paper presented at the 28th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society, held May 17–19, 2018 in Kaohsiung, Taiwan.</ref> considers the Austroasiatic language family to have rapidly diversified around 4,000 years B.P. during the arrival of rice agriculture in Indochina, but notes that the origin of Proto-Austroasiatic itself is older than that date. The lexicon of Proto-Austroasiatic can be divided into an early and late stratum. The early stratum consists of basic lexicon including body parts, animal names, natural features, and pronouns, while the names of cultural items (agriculture terms and words for cultural artifacts, which are reconstructable in Proto-Austroasiatic) form part of the later stratum. [[Roger Blench]] (2017)<ref name="Blench2017">Blench, Roger. 2017. ''[http://southasiabibliography.de/uploads/Blench.pdf Waterworld: lexical evidence for aquatic subsistence strategies in Austroasiatic]''. Presented at ICAAL 7, Kiel, Germany.</ref> suggests that vocabulary related to aquatic subsistence strategies (such as boats, waterways, river fauna, and fish capture techniques), can be reconstructed for Proto-Austroasiatic. Blench (2017) finds widespread Austroasiatic roots for 'river, valley', 'boat', 'fish', 'catfish sp.', 'eel', 'prawn', 'shrimp' (Central Austroasiatic), 'crab', 'tortoise', 'turtle', 'otter', 'crocodile', 'heron, fishing bird', and 'fish trap'. Archaeological evidence for the presence of agriculture in northern [[Indochina]] (northern Vietnam, Laos, and other nearby areas) dates back to only about 4,000 years B.P. (2,000 B.C.), with agriculture ultimately being introduced from further up to the north in the Yangtze valley where it has been dated to 6,000 B.P.<ref name="Blench2017"/> Hence, this points to a relatively late riverine dispersal of Austroasiatic as compared to [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]], whose speakers had a distinct non-riverine culture. In addition to living an aquatic-based lifestyle, early Austroasiatic speakers would have also had access to livestock, crops, and newer types of watercraft. As early Austroasiatic speakers dispersed rapidly via waterways, they would have encountered speakers of older language families who were already settled in the area, such as Sino-Tibetan.<ref name="Blench2017"/> == Writing systems == Other than Latin-based alphabets, many Austroasiatic languages are written with the ancient [[Khmer alphabet]], [[Thai alphabet]] and [[Lao alphabet]]. Vietnamese divergently had an indigenous script based on Chinese logographic writing. This has since been supplanted by the Latin alphabet in the 20th century. The following are examples of past-used alphabets or current alphabets of Austroasiatic languages. * [[Chữ Nôm]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/chunom.htm |title=Vietnamese Chu Nom script |publisher=Omniglot.com |date= |accessdate=11 March 2012}}</ref> * [[Khmer alphabet]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/khmer.htm |title=Khmer/Cambodian alphabet, pronunciation and language |publisher=Omniglot.com |date= |accessdate=11 March 2012}}</ref> * [[Khom script]] (used for a short period in the early 20th century for indigenous languages in Laos) * [[Mon script]] * [[Mundari Bani]] ([[Mundari language|Mundari]] alphabet) * [[Ol Chiki alphabet]] ([[Santali language|Santali]] alphabet)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/santali.htm |title=Santali alphabet, pronunciation and language |publisher=Omniglot.com |date= |accessdate=11 March 2012}}</ref> * [[Pahawh Hmong]] was once used to write [[Khmu language|Khmu]], under the name "Pahawh Khmu" * [[Sorang Sompeng alphabet]] ([[Sora language|Sora]] alphabet)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/sorangsompeng.htm |title=Sorang Sompeng script |publisher=Omniglot.com |date=18 June 1936 |accessdate=11 March 2012}}</ref> * [[Tai Le script|Tai Le]] ([[Palaung language|Palaung]], [[Blang language|Blang]]) * [[Tai Tham]] ([[Blang language|Blang]]) * [[Warang Citi]] ([[Ho language|Ho]] alphabet)<ref name="N4259">{{cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2012/12118-n4259-warang-citi.pdf|title=N4259: Final proposal for encoding the Warang Citi script in the SMP of the UCS|last=Everson|first=Michael|authorlink=Michael Everson|date=19 April 2012|accessdate=20 August 2016}}</ref> == Austroasiatic migrations == According to Chaubey et al., "Austro-Asiatic speakers in India today are derived from dispersal from Southeast Asia, followed by extensive sex-specific admixture with local Indian populations."{{sfn|Chaubey|Metspalu|Choi|Magi|2010|p=1013}} According to Riccio et al., the Munda people are likely descended from Austroasiatic migrants from southeast Asia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Riccio |first1=M. E. |display-authors=etal |year=2011 |title=The Austroasiatic Munda population from India and Its enigmatic origin: a HLA diversity study |journal=Human Biology |volume=83 |issue=3 |pages=405–435 |pmid=21740156 |doi=10.3378/027.083.0306}}</ref><ref>The Language Gulper, [http://www.languagesgulper.com/eng/Austroasiatic.html ''Austroasiatic Languages'']</ref> According to Zhang et al., Austroasiatic migrations from southeast Asia into India took place after the last Glacial maximum, circa 10,000 years ago.{{sfn|Zhang|2015}} Arunkumar et al. suggest Austroasiatic migrations from southeast Asia occurred into northeast India 5.2 ± 0.6 kya and into East India 4.3 ± 0.2 kya.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Arunkumar | first1 = G. | display-authors = etal | year = 2015 | title = A late Neolithic expansion of Y chromosomal haplogroup O2a1-M95 from east to west | url = | journal = Journal of Systematics and Evolution | volume = 53 | issue = 6| pages = 546–560 | doi = 10.1111/jse.12147 }}</ref> == See also == * [[Munda languages]] * [[Austric languages]] == Notes == {{reflist|group=note}} == References == {{Reflist}} == Sources == {{refbegin}} * Adams, K. L. (1989). ''Systems of numeral classification in the Mon–Khmer, Nicobarese and Aslian subfamilies of Austroasiatic''. Canberra, A.C.T., Australia: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. {{ISBN|0-85883-373-5}} * {{cite book |last=Alves |first=Mark J. |year=2014 |chapter=Mon-Khmer |editor1=Rochelle Lieber |editor2=Pavel Stekauer |title=The Oxford Handbook of Derivational Morphology |pages=520–544 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |ref=harv}} * Alves, Mark J. (2015). Morphological functions among Mon-Khmer languages: beyond the basics. In N. J. Enfield & Bernard Comrie (eds.), ''Languages of Mainland Southeast Asia: the state of the art''. Berlin: de Gruyter Mouton, 531–557. * Bradley, David (2012). "[https://www.academia.edu/1542763/Languages_and_Language_Families_in_China Languages and Language Families in China]", in Rint Sybesma (ed.), ''Encyclopedia of Chinese Language and Linguistics''. * [[Byomkes Chakrabarti|Chakrabarti, Byomkes]]. (1994). ''A Comparative Study of Santali and Bengali''. * {{Citation |last1=Chaubey|first1=G.|last2=Metspalu|first2=M.|last3=Choi|first3=Y.|last4=Magi|first4=R.|last5=Romero|first5=I. G.|last6=Soares|first6=P.|last7=van Oven|first7=M.|last8=Behar|first8=D. M.|last9=Rootsi|first9=S.|last10=Hudjashov|first10=G.|last11=Mallick|first11=C. B.|last12=Karmin|first12=M.|last13=Nelis|first13=M.|last14=Parik|first14=J.|last15=Reddy|first15=A. G.|last16=Metspalu|first16=E.|last17=van Driem|first17=G.|last18=Xue|first18=Y.|last19=Tyler-Smith|first19=C.|last20=Thangaraj|first20=K.|last21=Singh|first21=L.|last22=Remm|first22=M.|last23=Richards|first23=M. B.|last24=Lahr|first24=M. M.|last25=Kayser|first25=M.|last26=Villems|first26=R.|last27=Kivisild|first27=T.| display-authors = 1| year =2010 | title =Population Genetic Structure in Indian Austroasiatic Speakers: The Role of Landscape Barriers and Sex-Specific Admixture | journal =Mol Biol Evol | doi =10.1093/molbev/msq288| doi-access =free | volume=28 |issue=2| pages=1013–1024 | pmid=20978040 | pmc=3355372}} * Diffloth, Gérard (2005). "The contribution of linguistic palaeontology and Austro-Asiatic". in Laurent Sagart, Roger Blench and Alicia Sanchez-Mazas, eds. ''The Peopling of East Asia: Putting Together Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics.'' 77–80. London: Routledge Curzon. {{ISBN|0-415-32242-1}} * Filbeck, D. (1978). ''T'in: a historical study''. Pacific linguistics, no. 49. Canberra: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. {{ISBN|0-85883-172-4}} * Hemeling, K. (1907). ''Die Nanking Kuanhua''. (German language) * Jenny, Mathias and [[Paul Sidwell]], eds (2015). ''[http://www.brill.com/products/reference-work/handbook-austroasiatic-languages-2-vols The Handbook of Austroasiatic Languages]''. Leiden: Brill. * Peck, B. M., Comp. (1988). ''An Enumerative Bibliography of South Asian Language Dictionaries''. * Peiros, Ilia. 1998. ''Comparative Linguistics in Southeast Asia.'' Pacific Linguistics Series C, No. 142. Canberra: Australian National University. * Shorto, Harry L. edited by Sidwell, Paul, Cooper, Doug and Bauer, Christian (2006). ''[https://www.academia.edu/11344550/A_Mon-Khmer_comparative_dictionary A Mon–Khmer comparative dictionary]''. Canberra: Australian National University. Pacific Linguistics. {{ISBN|0-85883-570-3}} * Shorto, H. L. ''Bibliographies of Mon–Khmer and Tai Linguistics''. London oriental bibliographies, v. 2. London: Oxford University Press, 1963. * Sidwell, Paul (2005). "[http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/sidwell2005proto.pdf Proto-Katuic Phonology and the Sub-grouping of Mon–Khmer Languages]". In Sidwell, ed., ''SEALSXV: papers from the 15th meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistic Society.'' * {{cite journal | surname = Sidwell | given = Paul | title = Classifying the Austroasiatic languages: history and state of the art | series = LINCOM studies in Asian linguistics | volume = 76 | location = Munich | publisher = Lincom Europa | year = 2009 | isbn = 978-3-929075-67-0 | url = https://www.academia.edu/1540105/Classifying_the_Austroasiatic_languages_history_and_state_of_the_art }} * {{cite journal | surname = Sidwell | given = Paul | title = The Austroasiatic central riverine hypothesis | journal = Journal of Language Relationship | volume = 4 | year = 2010 | pages = 117–134 | url = http://www.jolr.ru/files/%2851%29jlr2010-4%28117-134%29.pdf }} * Zide, Norman H., and Milton E. Barker. (1966) ''Studies in Comparative Austroasiatic Linguistics'', The Hague: Mouton (Indo-Iranian monographs, v. 5.). * {{Citation | last1 =Zhang | display-authors =etal | year =2015 | title =Y-chromosome diversity suggests southern origin and Paleolithic backwave migration of Austro-Asiatic speakers from eastern Asia to the Indian subcontinent | journal =Scientific Reports |volume=5 |page=1548 | doi =10.1038/srep15486 | url =http://www.nature.com/articles/srep15486| pmc =4611482 | bibcode =2015NatSR...515486Z | pmid=26482917}} {{refend}} == Further reading == * Mann, Noel, Wendy Smith and Eva Ujlakyova. 2009. ''[http://li.payap.ac.th/images/stories/survey/Linguistic%20Clusters%20of%20Mainland%20Southeast%20Asia%20A%20Description%20of%20the%20Clusters.pdf Linguistic clusters of Mainland Southeast Asia: an overview of the language families.]'' Chiang Mai: Payap University. * {{cite journal | title = The Talaing Language | given = Francis | surname = Mason | author-link = Francis Mason | journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society | volume = 4 | year = 1854 | pages = 277, 279–288 | jstor = 592280 }} * {{cite journal | given = Paul | surname = Sidwell | title = Issues in Austroasiatic Classification | journal = Language and Linguistics Compass | volume = 7 | issue = 8 | year = 2013 | pages = 437–457 | doi = 10.1111/lnc3.12038 }} * Sidwell, Paul. 2016. [https://sites.google.com/view/paulsidwell/bibliography-of-austroasiatic-linguistics Bibliography of Austroasiatic linguistics and related resources]. == External links == {{Commons category|Austroasiatic languages}} * [[wikt:Appendix:Swadesh lists for Austro-Asiatic languages|Swadesh lists for Austro-Asiatic languages]] (from Wiktionary's [[wikt:Appendix:Swadesh lists Swadesh-list appendix]]) * [http://multitree.org/codes/ausa Austro-Asiatic] at the Linguist List MultiTree Project (not functional as of 2014): Genealogical trees attributed to Sebeok 1942, Pinnow 1959, Diffloth 2005, and Matisoff 2006 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110322035535/http://people.anu.edu.au/~u9907217/languages/languages.html Mon–Khmer.com: Lectures by Paul Sidwell] * [http://sealang.net/monkhmer/ Mon–Khmer Languages Project] at SEAlang * [http://sealang.net/munda/ Munda Languages Project] at SEAlang * http://projekt.ht.lu.se/rwaai RWAAI (Repository and Workspace for Austroasiatic Intangible Heritage) * [[hdl:10050/00-0000-0000-0003-66A4-2@view|http://hdl.handle.net/10050/00-0000-0000-0003-66A4-2@view]] RWAAI Digital Archive {{Austroasiatic languages}} {{Language families}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Agglutinative languages]] [[Category:Austroasiatic languages| ]] [[Category:Language families]] [[Category:Sino-Austronesian languages]] bp7nd2atebrrfico70883zji350hbdg 0 598 783824653 308571517 2017-06-04T22:06:24Z Tom.Reding 9784415 +{{R category shell}} using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Afroasiatic languages]] {{Redirect category shell|1= {{R from other capitalisation}} }} pknnpfc447sj1vnps4gwqaqvv4mo9s5 0 599 861576620 861561592 2018-09-28T13:11:48Z Landroving Linguist 3263584 clarified proper standing of Gurage, corrected link so that it does not point to Tigrinya wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|Afro-Asiatic}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox language family |name=Afroasiatic |region=[[Horn of Africa]], [[North Africa]], [[Sahel]], [[West Asia]]<!-- Primary speech area - see map below. Per [[Template:Infobox language]], this parameter is reserved for "geographic region in which it is mainly spoken". --> |familycolor=Afro-Asiatic |family=One of the world's primary [[Language family|language families]] |protoname=[[Proto-Afroasiatic language|Proto-Afroasiatic]] |child1=[[Berber languages|Berber]] |child2=[[Chadic languages|Chadic]] |child4=[[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] |child5=''[[Egyptian language|Egyptian]]'' † |child6=[[Omotic languages|Omotic]] ? <ref name="Sands2009"/> |child7=[[Semitic languages|Semitic]] |iso2=afa |iso5=afa |glotto=afro1255 |glottorefname=Afro-Asiatic |map=Hamito-Semitic languages.jpg |mapcaption=Distribution of the Afro-Asiatic languages; pale yellow signifies areas without any languages in that family <!-- most Berber varieties did not exist 2000 ybp --> }} '''Afroasiatic''' ('''Afro-Asiatic'''), also known as '''Afrasian''' and in older sources as '''Hamito-Semitic''' ('''Chamito-Semitic''')<ref>{{cite book|last1=Katzner|first1=Kenneth|title=The Languages of the World|date=2002|publisher=Routledge|isbn=1134532881|page=27|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=Lm8LFegafGIC&pg=PA27|accessdate=20 December 2017}}</ref> or '''Semito-Hamitic''',<ref>Robert Hetzron, "Afroasiatic Languages" in Bernard Comrie, ''The World's Major Languages'', 2009, {{ISBN|113426156X}}, p. 545</ref> is a large [[language family]] of about 300 languages.<ref name="ethnologue.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=52-16|title=Browse by Language Family|author=|date=|website=ethnologue.com|accessdate=14 April 2018}}</ref> It includes languages spoken predominantly in [[Western Asia|West Asia]], [[North Africa]], the [[Horn of Africa]] and parts of the [[Sahel]]. Afroasiatic languages have over 495 million native speakers, the fourth largest number of any language family (after [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]], [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] and [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/family|title=Summary by language family|author=|date=|website=ethnologue.com|accessdate=14 April 2018}}</ref> The phylum has six branches: [[Berber languages|Berber]], [[Chadic languages|Chadic]], [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]], [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]], [[Omotic languages|Omotic]] and [[Semitic languages|Semitic]]. By far the most widely spoken Afroasiatic language or dialect continuum is [[Arabic]]. A de facto group of distinct [[Varieties of Arabic|language varieties]] within the Semitic branch, the languages that evolved from [[Proto-Arabic]] have around 313 million native speakers, concentrated primarily in West Asia, North Africa and the Horn of Africa.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ara|title=Arabic|author=|date=|website=ethnologue.com|accessdate=14 April 2018}}</ref> Other widely spoken Afroasiatic languages include:<!-- individual languages - descending order number of speakers --> * [[Hausa language|Hausa]] ([[Chadic languages|Chadic]]), the dominant language of northern [[Nigeria]], [[Ghana]], and southern [[Niger]], spoken as a first language by over 40 million people and used as a ''[[lingua franca]]'' by another 20 million across West Africa and the [[Sahel]]<ref name="ethnologue-hau">{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=hau|title=Hausa|author=|date=|website=ethnologue.com|accessdate=14 April 2018}}</ref> * [[Oromo language|Oromo]] ([[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]]), spoken in [[Ethiopia]] and [[Kenya]] by around 34 million people * [[Amharic]] ([[Semitic languages|Semitic]]), spoken in Ethiopia, with over 25 million native speakers in addition to millions of other Ethiopians speaking it as a second language<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/amh|title=Amharic|work=Ethnologue|access-date=2018-08-16|language=en}}</ref> * [[Somali language|Somali]] ([[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]]), spoken by 15 million people in Somalia, [[Djibouti]], [[Somali Region|eastern Ethiopia]] and [[North Eastern Province (Kenya)|northeastern Kenya]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/som|title=Somali|work=Ethnologue|access-date=2018-08-16|language=en}}</ref> *[[Afar language|Afar]] ([[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]]), spoken by around 7.5 million people in Ethiopia, [[Djibouti]], and [[Eritrea]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/aar|title=Afar|work=Ethnologue|access-date=2018-08-16|language=en}}</ref> *[[Shilha language|Shilha]] ([[Berber languages|Berber]]), spoken by around 7 million people in [[Morocco]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/shi|title=Tachelhit|work=Ethnologue|access-date=2018-08-16|language=en}}</ref> * [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] ([[Semitic languages|Semitic]]), spoken by around 6.9 million people in [[Eritrea]] and Ethiopia<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tir|title=Tigrigna|work=Ethnologue|access-date=2018-08-16|language=en}}</ref> *[[Kabyle language|Kabyle]] ([[Berber languages|Berber]]), spoken by around 5.6 million people in [[Algeria]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kab|title=Kabyle|work=Ethnologue|access-date=2018-08-16|language=en}}</ref> *[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ([[Semitic languages|Semitic]]), spoken by around 5 million people native speakers and 4 million second language speakers in [[Israel]] and worldwide<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mj_oBQAAQBAJ|title=Colloquial Israeli Hebrew: A Corpus-based Survey|last=Dekel|first=Nurit|date=2014|publisher=De Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-037725-5|ref=harv}}</ref> *[[Central Atlas Tamazight]] ([[Berber languages|Berber]]), spoken by around 4.6 million people in Morocco<ref>{{cite web |title=Tamazight, Central Atlas |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tzm |publisher=Ethnologue |accessdate=18 October 2017}}</ref> *[[Riffian language|Riffian]] ([[Berber languages|Berber]]), spoken by around 4.2 million people in Morocco<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/rif|title=Tarifit|work=Ethnologue|access-date=2018-08-16|language=en}}</ref> * [[Gurage languages]] ([[Semitic languages|Semitic]]), a group of languages spoken by more than 2 million people in [[Ethiopia]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/sgw|title=one Gurage language|work=Ethnologue|access-date=2018-09-28|language=en}}</ref> In addition to languages spoken today, Afroasiatic includes several important ancient languages, such as [[Egyptian language|Ancient Egyptian]], which forms a distinct branch of the family, and [[Akkadian]], [[Biblical Hebrew]] and [[Old Aramaic language|Old Aramaic]], all of which are from the Semitic branch. The [[Afroasiatic Urheimat|original homeland]] of the Afroasiatic family, and when the parent language (i.e. [[Proto-Afroasiatic]]) was spoken, are yet to be agreed upon by [[historical linguistics|historical linguists]]. Proposed locations include North Africa, the Horn of Africa, the Eastern Sahara and the [[Levant]] (see below). ==Etymology== During the early 1800s, linguists grouped the [[Berber languages|Berber]], [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] and [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] languages within a "Hamitic" phylum, in acknowledgement of these languages' genetic relation with each other and with those in the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] phylum.<ref name="Ruhlen">{{cite book|last1=Merritt|first1=Ruhlen|title=A Guide to the World's Languages: Classification|date=1991|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=0804718946|pages=76 & 87|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=mYwmDE3f6wUC&pg=PA78#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> The terms "Hamitic" and "Semitic" were etymologically derived from the [[Book of Genesis]], which describes various Biblical tribes descended from [[Ham (son of Noah)|Ham]] and [[Shem]], two sons of [[Noah]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gregersen|first1=Edgar A.|title=Language in Africa: An Introductory Survey|date=1977|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=0677043805|page=116|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=w4lytWv1JKAC&pg=PA116#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=1 September 2016}}</ref> By the 1860s, the main constituent elements within the broader Afroasiatic family had been worked out.<ref name="Ruhlen"/> [[Friedrich Müller (linguist)|Friedrich Müller]] introduced the name "Hamito-Semitic" for the entire family in his ''Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft'' (1876).<ref name="Lipiński">{{cite book|last=Lipiński|first=Edward|title=Semitic Languages: Outline of a Comparative Grammar|year=2001|publisher=Peeters Publishers|isbn=90-429-0815-7|pages=21–22|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=IiXVqyEkPKcC&pg=PA21#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> [[Maurice Delafosse]] (1914) later coined the term "Afroasiatic" (often now spelled "Afro-Asiatic"). However, it did not come into general use until [[Joseph Greenberg]] (1950) formally proposed its adoption. In doing so, Greenberg sought to emphasize the fact that Afroasiatic spanned the continents of both Africa and Asia.<ref name="Lipiński" /> Individual scholars have also called the family "Erythraean" (Tucker 1966) and "Lisramic" (Hodge 1972). In lieu of "Hamito-Semitic", the Russian linguist [[Igor Diakonoff]] later suggested the term "Afrasian", meaning "half African, half Asiatic", in reference to the geographic distribution of the family's constituent languages.<ref name=NEB>{{cite book|title=The New Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 8; Volume 22|year=1998|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|isbn=0-85229-633-9|pages=722|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=6-lMAQAAIAAJ}}</ref> The term "Hamito-Semitic" remains in use in the academic traditions of some European countries. ==Distribution and branches== [[File:Interrelations between branches of Afro-Asiatic.svg|thumb|300px|Interrelations between branches of Afroasiatic (Lipiński 2001)]] [[File:afroasiatic.svg|thumb|right|300px|Some linguists' proposals for grouping within Afroasiatic]] Scholars generally treat the Afroasiatic language family as including the following branches: * [[Berber languages|Berber]] * [[Chadic languages|Chadic]] * [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] * [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] * [[Omotic languages|Omotic]] * [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] Although there is general agreement on these six families, [[linguistics|linguists]] who study Afroasiatic raise some points of disagreement, in particular: * The [[Omotic]] language branch is the most controversial member of Afroasiatic, because the grammatical formatives to which most linguists have given the greatest weight in classifying languages in the family "are either absent or distinctly wobbly" (Hayward 1995). Greenberg (1963) and others considered it a subgroup of Cushitic, whereas others have raised doubts about it being part of Afroasiatic at all (e.g. Theil 2006).<ref name="Sands2009">Sands, Bonny (2009). "Africa's Linguistic Diversity". ''Language and Linguistics Compass'' 3/2 (2009): 559–580, 10.1111/j.1749-818x.2008.00124.x</ref> * The Afroasiatic identity of [[Ongota language|Ongota]] is also broadly questioned, as is its position within Afroasiatic among those who accept it, due to the "mixed" appearance of the language and a paucity of research and data. [[Harold C. Fleming |Harold Fleming]] (2006) proposes that Ongota constitutes a separate branch of Afroasiatic.<ref> {{cite web|url= http://www.harrassowitz-verlag.de/pcgi/a.cgi?ausgabe=index&T=1235007315045{haupt_harrassowitz=http://www.harrassowitz-verlag.de/title_3277.ahtml?T=1235007315045} |title= Harrassowitz Verlag - The Harrassowitz Publishing House<!-- Bot generated title -->|author= |date= |website= harrassowitz-verlag.de|accessdate= 14 April 2018}} </ref> Bonny Sands (2009) finds the proposal by Savà and Tosco (2003) the most convincing: namely that Ongota is an East Cushitic language with a [[Nilo-Saharan languages |Nilo-Saharan]] [[substratum]]. In other words, it would appear that the Ongota people once spoke a Nilo-Saharan language but then shifted to speaking a Cushitic language but retained some characteristics of their earlier Nilo-Saharan language.<ref name="Sands2009"/> * [[Beja language|Beja]], sometimes listed as a separate branch of Afroasiatic, is more often included in the Cushitic branch, which has a high degree of internal diversity. * Whether the various branches of Cushitic actually form a language family is sometimes questioned, but not their inclusion in Afroasiatic itself. * There is no consensus on the interrelationships of the five non-Omotic branches of Afroasiatic (see [[# Subgrouping|§ Subgrouping]] below). This situation is not unusual, even among long-established language families: scholars also frequently disagree on the internal classification of the [[Indo-European languages]], for instance. * [[Meroitic language|Meroitic]] has been proposed{{by whom?|date=July 2018}} as an unclassified Afroasiatic language, because it shares the [[phonotactics]] characteristic of the family, but there is not enough evidence to secure a classification. ==Classification history==<!-- This section is linked from [[Berber people]] --> In the 9th century, the Hebrew grammarian [[Judah ibn Kuraish|Judah ibn Quraysh]] of [[Tiaret]] in [[Algeria]] was the first to link two branches of Afroasiatic together; he perceived a relationship between Berber and Semitic. He knew of Semitic through his study of Arabic, Hebrew, and [[Aramaic]].<ref name="Lipiński" /> In the course of the 19th century, Europeans also began suggesting such relationships. In 1844, [[Theodor Benfey]] suggested a language family consisting of Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic (calling the latter "Ethiopic").{{Citation needed|date=September 2018}} In the same year, T.N. Newman suggested a relationship between Semitic and Hausa, but this would long remain a topic of dispute and uncertainty.{{Citation needed|date=September 2018}} [[Friedrich Müller (linguist)|Friedrich Müller]] named the traditional Hamito-Semitic family in 1876 in his ''Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft'' ("Outline of Linguistics"), and defined it as consisting of a Semitic group plus a "Hamitic" group containing Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic; he excluded the Chadic group.{{Citation needed|date=September 2018}} It was the [[Egyptology|Egyptologist]] [[Karl Richard Lepsius]] (1810&ndash;1884) who restricted Hamitic to the non-Semitic languages in Africa, which are characterized by a grammatical [[Grammatical gender|gender system]]. This "Hamitic language group" was proposed to unite various, mainly North-African, languages, including the Ancient [[Egyptian language]], the [[Berber languages]], the [[Cushitic languages]], the [[Beja language]], and the [[Chadic languages]]. Unlike Müller, Lepsius considered that [[Hausa language|Hausa]] and [[Nama language|Nama]] were part of the Hamitic group. These classifications relied in part on non-linguistic anthropological and racial arguments. Both authors used the skin-color, mode of subsistence, and other characteristics of native speakers as part of their arguments that particular languages should be grouped together.<ref name = "mer">Merritt Ruhlen, ''A Guide to the World's Languages: Classification'', Stanford University Press, 1991, pp. 80–1</ref> [[File:Africa ethnic groups 1996.jpg|thumb|Distribution of the Afroasiatic/Hamito-Semitic languages in Africa]] In 1912, [[Carl Meinhof]] published ''Die Sprachen der Hamiten'' ("The Languages of the Hamites"), in which he expanded Lepsius's model, adding the [[Fula language|Fula]], [[Maasai language|Maasai]], [[Bari language|Bari]], [[Nandi languages|Nandi]], [[Sandawe language|Sandawe]] and [[Hadza language|Hadza]] languages to the Hamitic group. Meinhof's model was widely supported into the 1940s.<ref name = "mer"/> Meinhof's system of classification of the Hamitic languages was based on a belief that "speakers of Hamitic became largely coterminous with cattle herding peoples with essentially Caucasian origins, intrinsically different from and superior to the 'Negroes of Africa'."<ref>Kevin Shillington, ''Encyclopedia of African History'', CRC Press, 2005, p.797</ref> However, in the case of the so-called [[Nilo-Hamitic languages]] (a concept he introduced), it was based on the typological feature of gender and a "fallacious theory of [[mixed language|language mixture]]." Meinhof did this although earlier work by scholars such as Lepsius and Johnston had substantiated that the languages which he would later dub "Nilo-Hamitic" were in fact Nilotic languages, with numerous similarities in vocabulary to other Nilotic languages.<ref name="Ruhlen109">Merritt Ruhlen, ''A Guide to the World's Languages'', (Stanford University Press: 1991), p.109</ref> [[Leo Reinisch]] (1909) had already proposed linking Cushitic and Chadic, while urging their more distant affinity with Egyptian and Semitic. However, his suggestion found little acceptance. [[Marcel Cohen]] (1924) rejected the idea of a distinct "Hamitic" subgroup, and included [[Hausa language|Hausa]] (a Chadic language) in his comparative Hamito-Semitic vocabulary. Finally, [[Joseph Greenberg]]'s 1950 work led to the widespread rejection of "Hamitic" as a language category by linguists. Greenberg refuted Meinhof's linguistic theories, and rejected the use of racial and social evidence. In dismissing the notion of a separate "Nilo-Hamitic" language category in particular, Greenberg was "returning to a view widely held a half century earlier." He consequently rejoined Meinhof's so-called Nilo-Hamitic languages with their appropriate Nilotic siblings.<ref name="Ruhlen"/> He also added (and sub-classified) the Chadic languages, and proposed the new name Afroasiatic for the family. Almost all scholars have accepted this classification as the new and continued consensus. Greenberg's model was fully developed in his book ''[[The Languages of Africa]]'' (1963), in which he reassigned most of Meinhof's additions to Hamitic to other language families, notably [[Nilo-Saharan]]. Following [[Isaac Schapera]] and rejecting Meinhof, he classified the [[Hottentot language|Khoekhoe language]] as a member of the [[Khoisan languages]], a grouping that has since proven inaccurate and excessively motivated on the presence of [[Click consonant|click sounds]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sands|first=Bonnie|date=2009|title=Africa's linguistic diversity|url=|journal=Language and Linguistics Compass|volume=3 (2)|pages=559-580|via=}}</ref>. To Khoisan he also added the Tanzanian [[Hadza language|Hadza]] and [[Sandawe language|Sandawe]], though this view has been discredited as linguists working on these languages consider them to be [[Language isolate|linguistic isolates]].<ref>Sands, Bonny E. (1998) 'Eastern and Southern African Khoisan: evaluating claims of distant linguistic relationships.' Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung 14. Köln: Köppe.</ref><ref name="Ruhlen, p.117">Ruhlen, p.117</ref> Despite this, Greenberg's classification remains a starting point for modern work of many languages spoken in Africa, and the Hamitic category (and its extension to Nilo-Hamitic) has no part in this.<ref name="Ruhlen, p.117"/> Since the three traditional branches of the Hamitic languages (Berber, Cushitic and Egyptian) have not been shown to form an exclusive ([[Monophyly|monophyletic]]) phylogenetic unit of their own, separate from other Afroasiatic languages, linguists no longer use the term in this sense. Each of these branches is instead now regarded as an independent subgroup of the larger Afroasiatic family.<ref name="Welmers">{{cite book|last1=Everett Welmers|first1=William|title=African Language Structures|date=1974|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=0520022106|page=16|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=hCxpK-CkdgYC&pg=PA16#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> In 1969, [[Harold C. Fleming|Harold Fleming]] proposed that what had previously been known as Western Cushitic is an independent branch of Afroasiatic, suggesting for it the new name [[Omotic languages|Omotic]]. This proposal and name have met with widespread acceptance. Several scholars, including Harold Fleming and [[Robert Hetzron]], have since questioned the traditional inclusion of Beja in Cushitic. ''[[Glottolog]]'' does not accept that the inclusion or even unity of Omotic has been established, nor that of Ongota or the unclassified Kujarge. It therefore splits off the following groups as small families: [[South Omotic languages|South Omotic]], [[Mao languages|Mao]], [[Dizoid languages|Dizoid]], [[Gonga–Gimojan languages|Gonga–Gimojan]] (North Omotic apart from the preceding), [[Ongota language|Ongota]], [[Kujarge language|Kujarge]]. ===Subgrouping=== {| class="wikitable" style="font-size:smaller; float:right;" |+ Proposed Afroasiatic sub-divisions |- ! Greenberg (1963) !! Newman (1980) !! Fleming (post-1981) !! Ehret (1995) |- style="vertical-align:top;" | * Semitic * Egyptian * Berber * Cushitic ** Northern Cushitic<br />(equals Beja) ** Central Cushitic ** Eastern Cushitic ** Western Cushitic<br />(equals Omotic) ** Southern Cushitic * Chadic | * Berber–Chadic * Egypto-Semitic * Cushitic (excludes Omotic) | * Omotic * Erythraean ** Cushitic ** Ongota ** Non-Ethiopian *** Chadic *** Berber *** Egyptian *** Semitic *** Beja | * Omotic ** North Omotic ** South Omotic * Erythrean ** Cushitic *** Beja *** Agaw *** East–South Cushitic **** Eastern Cushitic **** Southern Cushitic ** North Erythrean *** Chadic *** Boreafrasian **** Egyptian **** Berber **** Semitic |- ! Orel & Stobova (1995) !! Diakonoff (1996) !! Bender (1997) !! Militarev (2000) |- style="vertical-align:top;" | * Berber–Semitic * Chadic–Egyptian * Omotic * Beja * Agaw * Sidamic * East Lowlands * Rift | * East–West Afrasian ** Berber ** Cushitic ** Semitic * North–South Afrasian ** Chadic ** Egyptian (excludes Omotic) | * Omotic * Chadic * Macro-Cushitic ** Berber ** Cushitic ** Semitic | * North Afrasian ** African North Afrasian *** Chado-Berber *** Egyptian ** Semitic * South Afrasian ** Omotic ** Cushitic |} Little agreement exists on the [[subgrouping (linguistics)|subgrouping]] of the five or six branches of Afroasiatic: Semitic, Egyptian, Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, and Omotic. However, [[Christopher Ehret]] (1979), Harold Fleming (1981), and Joseph Greenberg (1981) all agree that the Omotic branch split from the rest first. Otherwise: * [[Paul Newman (linguist)|Paul Newman]] (1980) groups Berber with Chadic and Egyptian with Semitic, while questioning the inclusion of Omotic in Afroasiatic. Rolf Theil (2006) concurs with the exclusion of Omotic, but does not otherwise address the structure of the family.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uio.no/studier/emner/hf/iln/LING2110/v07/THEIL%20Is%20Omotic%20Afroasiatic.pdf|title=Is Omotic Afroasiatic? (In Norwegian)|author=|date=|website=uio.no|accessdate=14 April 2018}}</ref> * Harold Fleming (1981) divides non-Omotic Afroasiatic, or "Erythraean", into three groups, Cushitic, Semitic, and Chadic-Berber-Egyptian. He later added Semitic and Beja to Chadic-Berber-Egyptian and tentatively proposed [[Ongota language|Ongota]] as a new third branch of Erythraean. He thus divided Afroasiatic into two major branches, Omotic and Erythraean, with Erythraean consisting of three sub-branches, Cushitic, Chadic-Berber-Egyptian-Semitic-Beja, and Ongota. * Like Harold Fleming, [[Christopher Ehret]] (1995: 490) divides Afroasiatic into two branches, Omotic and Erythrean. He divides Omotic into two branches, North Omotic and South Omotic. He divides Erythrean into Cushitic, comprising Beja, Agaw, and East-South Cushitic, and North Erythrean, comprising Chadic and "Boreafrasian." According to his classification, Boreafrasian consists of Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic. * [[Vladimir Orel]] and Olga Stolbova (1995) group Berber with Semitic and Chadic with Egyptian. They split up Cushitic into five or more independent branches of Afroasiatic, viewing Cushitic as a [[Sprachbund]] rather than a [[language family]]. * [[Igor M. Diakonoff]] (1996) subdivides Afroasiatic in two, grouping Berber, Cushitic, and Semitic together as East-West Afrasian (ESA), and Chadic with Egyptian as North-South Afrasian (NSA). He excludes Omotic from Afroasiatic. * [[Lionel Bender (linguist)|Lionel Bender]] (1997) groups Berber, Cushitic, and Semitic together as "Macro-Cushitic". He regards Chadic and Omotic as the branches of Afroasiatic most remote from the others. * Alexander Militarev (2000), on the basis of [[lexicostatistics]], groups Berber with Chadic and both more distantly with Semitic, as against Cushitic and Omotic. He places Ongota in South Omotic. ==Position among the world's languages== Afroasiatic is one of the four major [[Languages of Africa|language families]] spoken in Africa identified by Joseph Greenberg in his book ''[[The Languages of Africa]]'' (1963). It is one of the few whose speech area is transcontinental, with languages from Afroasiatic's Semitic branch also spoken in the Middle East and Europe. There are no generally accepted relations between Afroasiatic and any other language family. However, several proposals grouping Afroasiatic with one or more other language families have been made. The best-known of these are the following: * [[Hermann Möller]] (1906) argued for a relation between [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] and the [[Indo-European languages]]. This proposal was accepted by a few linguists (e.g. [[Holger Pedersen (linguist)|Holger Pedersen]] and [[Louis Hjelmslev]]). (For a fuller account, see [[Indo-Semitic languages]].) However, the theory has little currency today, although most linguists do not deny the existence of grammatical similarities between both families (such as grammatical gender, noun-adjective agreement, three-way number distinction, and vowel alternation as a means of derivation). * Apparently influenced by Möller (a colleague of his at the [[University of Copenhagen]]), [[Holger Pedersen (linguist)|Holger Pedersen]] included Hamito-Semitic (the term replaced by Afroasiatic) in his proposed [[Nostratic languages|Nostratic macro-family]] (cf. Pedersen 1931:336–338), also included the Indo-European, [[Uralic languages|Uralic]], [[Altaic languages|Altaic]], [[Yukaghir languages]], and [[Dravidian languages]]. This inclusion was retained by subsequent Nostraticists, starting with [[Vladislav Illich-Svitych]] and [[Aharon Dolgopolsky]]. * [[Joseph Greenberg]] (2000–2002) did not reject a relationship of Afroasiatic to these other languages, but he considered it more distantly related to them than they were to each other, grouping instead these other languages in a separate macro-family, which he called [[Eurasiatic languages|Eurasiatic]], and to which he added [[Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages|Chukotian]], [[Nivkh language|Gilyak]], [[Korean language|Korean]], [[Japonic languages|Japanese-Ryukyuan]], [[Eskimo–Aleut languages|Eskimo–Aleut]], and [[Ainu languages|Ainu]]. * Most recently, [[Sergei Anatolyevich Starostin|Sergei Starostin]]'s school has accepted Eurasiatic as a subgroup of Nostratic, with Afroasiatic, Dravidian and Kartvelian in Nostratic outside of Eurasiatic. The even larger [[Borean languages|Borean super-family]] contains Nostratic as well as [[Dené–Caucasian languages|Dené-Caucasian]] and [[Austric languages|Austric]]. ==Date of Afroasiatic== [[File:Assyriansample.ogg|thumb|right|180px|Speech sample in the Semitic [[Assyrian Neo-Aramaic|Neo-Aramaic]] language, a descendant of [[Old Aramaic]]]] The earliest written evidence of an Afroasiatic language is an [[Egyptian language|Ancient Egyptian]] inscription dated to c. 3400 BC (5,400 years ago).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.archaeology.org/9903/newsbriefs/egypt.html|title=Earliest Egyptian Glyphs - Archaeology Magazine Archive|author=|date=|website=www.archaeology.org|accessdate=14 April 2018}}</ref> Symbols on [[Gerzeh culture|Gerzean]] (Naqada II) pottery resembling [[Egyptian hieroglyphs#History and evolution|Egyptian hieroglyphs]] date back to c. 4000 BC, suggesting an earlier possible dating. This gives us a minimum date for the age of Afroasiatic. However, Ancient Egyptian is highly divergent from [[Proto-Afroasiatic language|Proto-Afroasiatic]] (Trombetti 1905: 1–2), and considerable time must have elapsed in between them. Estimates of the date at which the Proto-Afroasiatic language was spoken vary widely. They fall within a range between approximately 7,500 BC (9,500 years ago), and approximately 16,000 BC (18,000 years ago). According to [[Igor M. Diakonoff]] (1988: 33n), Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken [[circa|c.]] 10,000 BC. Christopher Ehret (2002: 35–36) asserts that Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken c. 11,000 BC at the latest, and possibly as early as c. 16,000 BC. These dates are older than those associated with other [[proto-language]]s. ==Afroasiatic Urheimat== {{main|Afroasiatic Urheimat}} [[File:Expansion of Afroasiatic.svg|thumb|upright|Map showing one of the proposed Afroasiatic Urheimat (Eastern Sahara theory.)]] The term Afroasiatic Urheimat (''Urheimat'' meaning "original homeland" in German) refers to the hypothetical place where [[Proto-Afroasiatic language]] speakers lived in a single linguistic community, or complex of communities, before this original language dispersed geographically and divided into distinct languages. Afroasiatic languages are today primarily spoken in [[Western Asia|West Asia]], [[North Africa]], the [[Horn of Africa]], and parts of the [[Sahel]]. Their distribution seems to have been influenced by the [[Sahara pump theory|Sahara pump]] operating over the last 10,000 years. There is no agreement when or where the original homeland of this language family existed. The main theories of Urheimat are the Levant,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5wKT-5SOAKQC&pg=PA73#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Quantitative Approaches to Linguistic Diversity: Commemorating the Centenary of the Birth of Morris Swadesh|page=73}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lyhvaJq2biEC&pg=PA27#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Transition to Modernity: Essays on Power, Wealth and Belief|author=John A. Hall, I. C. Jarvie|year=2005|page=27}}</ref> the Eastern Sahara,<ref name="blench2006">Blench R (2006) Archaeology, Language, and the African Past, Rowman Altamira, {{ISBN|0-7591-0466-2}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7591-0466-2}}, https://books.google.com/books?id=esFy3Po57A8C</ref><ref name="Ehret2004">Ehret C, Keita SOY, Newman P (2004) The Origins of Afroasiatic a response to Diamond and Bellwood (2003) in the Letters of SCIENCE 306, no. 5702, p. 1680 {{doi|10.1126/science.306.5702.1680c}}</ref><ref name="bernal1987">Bernal M (1987) Black Athena: the Afroasiatic roots of classical civilization, Rutgers University Press, {{ISBN|0-8135-3655-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8135-3655-2}}. https://books.google.com/books?id=yFLm_M_OdK4C</ref><ref name="bender1997">Bender ML (1997), Upside Down Afrasian, Afrikanistische Arbeitspapiere 50, pp. 19-34</ref><ref name="militarev2005">Militarev A (2005) [http://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/fleming.pdf Once more about glottochronology and comparative method: the Omotic-Afrasian case, Аспекты компаративистики - 1 (Aspects of comparative linguistics - 1)]. FS S. Starostin. Orientalia et Classica II (Moscow), p. 339-408.</ref> North Africa and the Horn of Africa. H. Ekkehard Wolff proposes that [[Proto-Afroasiatic]] arose in the Fertile Crescent between 15,000 and 9,000 years BC during the [[Neolithic Revolution|Neolithic revolution]], then migrated to Africa around 8,000 BC to develop into the Egyptian, Chadic, Omotic, Cushitic and Berber branches.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Afro-Asiatic-languages#ref278102|title=Afro-Asiatic languages|work=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-09-02|language=en}}</ref> ==Similarities in grammar and syntax== {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; font-size:smaller;" |+ Verbal paradigms in several Afroasiatic languages: |- ! rowspan="3" | ↓ [[Number (grammar)|Number]] ! Language → ! [[Arabic]] !! [[Coptic language|Coptic]] !! [[Kabyle language|Kabyle]] !! [[Somali language|Somali]] !! [[Beja language|Beja]] !! [[Hausa language|Hausa]] |- ! Verb → | katab || mou || afeg || || || |- ! Meaning → | write || die || fly || come || eat || drink |- |rowspan="5"| singular|| 1 || ''ʼaktubu'' || ''timou'' || ''ttafgeɣ'' | ''imaadaa'' || ''tamáni'' || ''ina shan'' |- | 2f || ''taktubīna'' || ''temou'' ||rowspan="2"| ''tettafgeḍ'' |rowspan="3"| ''timaadaa'' | ''tamtínii'' || ''kina shan'' |- | 2m ||rowspan="2"| ''taktubu'' || ''kmou'' || ''tamtíniya'' || ''kana shan'' |- | 3f || ''smou'' || ''tettafeg'' | ''tamtíni'' || ''tana shan'' |- | 3m || ''yaktubu'' || ''fmou'' || ''yettafeg'' | ''yimaadaa'' || ''tamíni'' || ''yana shan'' |- |rowspan="3"| dual ||2 ||rowspan="2"| ''taktubāni'' ||colspan="5" rowspan="3"| |- | 3f |- | 3m || ''yaktubāni'' |- |rowspan="5"| plural|| 1 || ''naktubu'' || ''tənmou'' || ''nettafeg'' | ''nimaadnaa'' || ''támnay'' || ''muna shan'' |- | 2m || ''taktubūna'' ||rowspan="2"| ''tetənmou'' || ''tettafgem'' |rowspan="2"| ''timaadaan'' ||rowspan="2"| ''támteena'' ||rowspan="2"| ''kuna shan'' |- | 2f || ''taktubna'' || ''tettafgemt'' |- | 3m || ''yaktubūna'' ||rowspan="2"| ''semou'' || ''ttafgen'' |rowspan="2"| ''yimaadaan'' ||rowspan="2"| ''támeen'' ||rowspan="2"| ''suna shan'' |- | 3f || ''yaktubna'' || ''ttafgent'' |} Widespread (though not universal) features of the Afroasiatic languages include: * A set of [[emphatic consonant]]s, variously realized as glottalized, pharyngealized, or implosive. * [[Verb–subject–object|VSO]] [[linguistic typology|typology]] with [[subject–verb–object|SVO]] tendencies. * A two-[[grammatical gender|gender]] system in the singular, with the feminine marked by the sound /t/. * All Afroasiatic subfamilies show evidence of a [[causative]] affix ''s''. * Semitic, Berber, Cushitic (including Beja), and Chadic support [[possessive suffix]]es. * [[Arabic nouns and adjectives#Nisba|Nisba]] derivation in ''-j'' (earlier Egyptian) or ''-ī'' (Semitic)<ref>Carsten Peust, [http://www.peust.de/2012_afroasiatic.pdf "On the subgrouping of Afroasiatic"], ''LingAeg'' 20 (2012), 221-251 (p. 243).</ref> * [[Morphology (linguistics)|Morphology]] in which words inflect by changes within the root (vowel changes or [[gemination]]) as well as with prefixes and suffixes. One of the most remarkable shared features among the Afroasiatic languages is the prefixing verb conjugation (see the table at the start of this section), with a distinctive pattern of prefixes beginning with /ʔ t n y/, and in particular a pattern whereby third-singular masculine /y-/ is opposed to third-singular feminine and second-singular /t-/. According to Ehret (1996), [[tonal language]]s appear in the Omotic and Chadic branches of Afroasiatic, as well as in certain Cushitic languages. The Semitic, Berber and Egyptian branches generally do not use tones [[phoneme|phonemically]]. ==Shared vocabulary== <!-- One sound sample per phylum - alphabetical --> [[File:Tamazightchelha.ogg|thumb|right|180px|Speech sample in [[Shilha language|Shilha]] ([[Berber languages|Berber]] branch)]] [[File:Shaxmednuradc1.ogg|thumb|right|180px|Speech sample in [[Somali language|Somali]] ([[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] branch)]] [[File:Poem by Abu 'ala al-Ma'arri ("I no longer steal from nature") read in Arabic.ogg|thumb|right|180px|Speech sample in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ([[Semitic languages|Semitic]] branch)]] The following are some examples of Afroasiatic [[cognate]]s, including ten [[pronoun]]s, three [[noun]]s, and three [[verb]]s. :''Source:'' Christopher Ehret, ''Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). :''Note:'' Ehret does not make use of Berber in his etymologies, stating (1995: 12): "the kind of extensive reconstruction of proto-Berber lexicon that might help in sorting through alternative possible etymologies is not yet available." The Berber cognates here are taken from previous version of table in this article and need to be completed and referenced. :''Abbreviations:'' NOm = 'North Omotic', SOm = 'South Omotic'. MSA = 'Modern South Arabian', PSC = 'Proto-Southern Cushitic', PSom-II = 'Proto-Somali, stage 2'. masc. = 'masculine', fem. = 'feminine', sing. = 'singular', pl. = 'plural'. 1s. = 'first person singular', 2s. = 'second person singular'. :''Symbols:'' Following Ehret (1995: 70), a [[caron]] ˇ over a vowel indicates rising [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]], and a [[circumflex]] ^ over a vowel indicates falling tone. V indicates a [[vowel]] of unknown quality. Ɂ indicates a [[glottal stop]]. * indicates [[Linguistic reconstruction|reconstructed forms]] based on [[Comparative method (linguistics)|comparison of related languages]]. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Proto-Afroasiatic !! Omotic !! Cushitic !! Chadic !! Egyptian !! Semitic !! Berber |- | '''*Ɂân-''' / '''*Ɂîn-''' or '''*ân-''' / '''*în-''' ‘I’ (independent pronoun) || *'''in-''' ‘I’ ([[Dizin language|Maji]] ([[North Omotic languages|NOm]])) || '''*Ɂâni''' ‘I’ || '''*nV''' ‘I’ || '''ink''', *'''ʲānak''' 'I' || '''*Ɂn''' ‘I’ || '''nek''' / '''nec''' ‘I, me’ |- | '''*i''' or '''*yi''' ‘me, my’ ([[Bound variable pronoun|bound]]) || '''i''' ‘I, me, my’ ([[Aari language|Ari]] ([[South Omotic languages|SOm]])) || '''*i''' or '''*yi''' ‘my’ || '''*i''' ‘me, my’ ([[Bound variable pronoun|bound]]) || '''-i''', *'''-aʲ''' (1s. suffix) || '''*-i''' ‘me, my’ || '''inu''' / '''nnu''' / '''iw''' ‘my’ |- | '''*Ɂǎnn-''' / '''*Ɂǐnn-''' or '''*ǎnn-''' / '''*ǐnn-''' ‘we’ || '''*nona''' / '''*nuna''' / '''*nina''' (NOm) || '''*Ɂǎnn-''' / '''*Ɂǐnn-''' ‘we’ ||—|| '''inn''', *'''ʲānan''' ‘we’ || '''*Ɂnn''' ‘we’ || '''nekni''' / '''necnin''' / '''neccin''' ‘we’ |- | '''*Ɂânt-''' / '''*Ɂînt-''' or '''*ânt-''' / '''*înt-''' ‘you’ (sing.) || '''*int-''' ‘you’ (sing.) || '''*Ɂânt-''' ‘you’ (sing.) ||—|| '''nt-''', *'''ʲānt-''' ‘you’ (sing.) || '''*Ɂnt''' ‘you’ (sing.) || '''netta''' "he" ('''keyy''' / '''cek''' "you" (masc. sing.)) |- | '''*ku''', '''*ka''' ‘you’ (masc. sing., [[Bound variable pronoun|bound]]) ||—|| '''*ku''' ‘your’ (masc. sing.) ([[South Cushitic languages|PSC]]) || '''*ka''', '''*ku''' (masc. sing.) || '''-k''' (2s. masc. suffix) || '''-ka''' (2s. masc. suffix) ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]) || '''inek''' / '''nnek''' / '''-k''' "your" (masc. sing.) |- | '''*ki''' ‘you’ (fem. sing., [[Bound variable pronoun|bound]]) ||—|| '''*ki''' ‘your’ (fem. sing.) || '''*ki''' ‘you’ (fem. sing.) || '''-ṯ''' (fem. sing. suffix, < *''ki'') || '''-ki''' (2s. fem. sing. suffix) (Arabic) || '''-m''' / '''nnem''' / '''inem''' "your" (fem. sing.) |- | '''*kūna''' ‘you’ (plural, [[Bound variable pronoun|bound]]) ||—|| '''*kuna''' ‘your’ (pl.) (PSC) || '''*kun''' ‘you’ (pl.) || '''-ṯn''', *'''-ṯin''' ‘you’ (pl.) || '''*-kn''' ‘you, your’ (fem. pl.) || '''-kent''', '''kennint''' "you" (fem. pl.) |- | '''*si''', '''*isi''' ‘he, she, it’ || '''*is-''' ‘he’ || '''*Ɂusu''' ‘he’, '''*Ɂisi''' ‘she’ || '''*sV''' ‘he’ || '''sw''', *'''suw''' ‘he, him’, '''sy''', *'''siʲ''' ‘she, her’ || '''*-šɁ''' ‘he’, '''*-sɁ''' ‘she’ ([[Modern South Arabian languages|MSA]]) || '''-s''' / '''nnes''' / '''ines''' "his/her/its" |- | '''*ma''', '''*mi''' ‘what?’ || '''*ma-''' ‘what?’ (NOm) || '''*ma''', '''*mi''' (interr. root) || '''*mi''', '''*ma''' ‘what?’ || '''m''' ‘what?’, ‘who?’ || '''mā''' (Arabic, Hebrew) / '''mu?''' (Assyrian) ‘what?’ || '''ma?''' / '''mayen?''' / '''min?''' "what?" |- | '''*wa''', '''*wi''' ‘what?’ || '''*w-''' ‘what?’ || '''*wä''' / '''*wɨ''' ‘what?’ ([[Agaw languages|Agaw]]) || '''*wa''' ‘who?’ || '''wy''' ‘how ...!’ || || '''mamek?''' / '''mamec?''' / '''amek?''' "how? |- | '''*dîm-''' / '''*dâm-''' ‘blood’ || '''*dam-''' ‘blood’ ([[Gonga languages|Gonga]]) || '''*dîm-''' / '''*dâm-''' ‘red’ || '''*d-m-''' ‘blood’ ([[West Chadic languages|West Chadic]]) || '''i-dm-i''' ‘red linen’ || '''*dm''' / '''dǝma''' (Assyrian) / '''dom''' (Hebrew) ‘blood’ || '''idammen''' "bloods" |- | '''*îts''' ‘brother’ || '''*itsim-''' ‘brother’ || '''*itsan''' or '''*isan''' ‘brother’ || '''*sin''' ‘brother’ || '''sn''', *'''san''' ‘brother’ || '''aẖ''' (Hebrew) "brother"|| '''uma''' / '''gʷma''' "brother" |- | '''*sǔm''' / '''*sǐm-''' ‘name’ || '''*sum'''('''ts''')'''-''' ‘name’ (NOm) || '''*sǔm''' / '''*sǐm-''' ‘name’ || '''*ṣǝm''' ‘name’ || '''smi''' ‘to report, announce’ || '''*ism''' (Arabic) / '''shǝma''' (Assyrian) ‘name’ || '''isen''' / '''isem''' "name" |- | '''*-lisʼ-''' ‘to lick’ || '''litsʼ-''' ‘to lick’ ([[Dime language|Dime]] (SOm)) ||—|| '''*alǝsi''' ‘tongue’ || '''ns''', *'''nīs''' ‘tongue’ || '''*lsn''' ‘tongue’ || '''iles''' "tongue" |- | '''*-maaw-''' ‘to die’ ||—|| '''*-umaaw-''' / '''*-am-w'''('''t''')'''-''' ‘to die’ ([[Somali language|PSom-II]]) || '''*mǝtǝ''' ‘to die’ || '''mwt''' ‘to die’ || '''*mwt''' / '''mawta''' (Assyrian) ‘to die’ || '''mmet''' "to die" |- | '''*-bǐn-''' ‘to build, to create; house’ || '''bin-''' ‘to build, create’ (Dime (SOm)) || '''*mǐn-''' / '''*mǎn-''' ‘house’; '''man-''' ‘to create’ ([[Beja language|Beja]]) || '''*bn''' ‘to build’; '''*bǝn-''' ‘house’ ||—|| '''*bnn''' / '''bani''' (Assyrian) / '''bana''' (Hebrew) ‘to build’ || '''*bn'''(?) ('''esk''' "to build") |- |} There are two etymological dictionaries of Afroasiatic, one by Christopher Ehret, and one by Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova. The two dictionaries disagree on almost everything.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}} The following table contains the thirty roots or so (out of thousands) that represent a fragile consensus of present research: <!-- Present in tabular form 1 *ʔab ''Father ''Semitic, Berber, Chadic, Cushitic<br /> 2 (ʔa-)bVr ''Bull'' Semitic, Egyptian, Chadic, Cushitic<br /> 3 (ʔa-)dVm ''Red ; blood ''Semitic, Berber, Chadic, Cushitic<br /> 4 *(ʔa-)dVm ''Land, field, soil'' Semitic, Chadic. <br /> 5 ʔa-pay- ''mouth'' Semitic, Cushitic, Chadic <br /> 6 ʔigar/ *ḳʷar- ''house, enclosure'' Semitic, Berber, Chadic, Cushitic. <br /> 7 *ʔil- ''eye ''Berber, Chadic, Cushitic. <br /> 8 (ʔi-)sim-''name ''Semitic, Berber, Chadic. <br /> 9 *ʕayn- ''eye ''Semitic, Egyptian <br /> 10 *baʔ- ''go'' Semitic, Chadic Cushitic <br /> 11 *bar- ''son ''Semitic, Berber, Chadic <br /> 12 *gamm- ''Mane, beard ''Semitic, Chadic, Cushitic <br /> 13 *gVn ''Cheek, chin'' Semitic, Chadic <br /> 14 *gʷarʕ- ''throat ''Semitic, Chadic, Cushitic <br /> 15 *gʷinaʕ-''Hand ''Chadic, Cushitic <br /> 16 *kVn- ''Co-wife'' Semitic, Berber, Chadic <br /> 17 *kʷaly ''kidney ''Semitic Chadic, Cushitic, Omotic <br /> 18 *ḳa(wa)l-/ *qʷar- ''Say, call'' Semitic, Chadic <br /> 19 *ḳas- ''bone ''Berber, Egyptian, Chadic <br /> 20 *libb ''heart ''Semitic, Chadic, Cushitic <br /> 21 *lis- ''tongue ''Semitic, Berber, Chadic <br /> 22 *maʔ- ''water ''Semitic, Egyptian, Chadic and Berber "''aman''"<br /> 23 *mawVt- ''To die'' Semitic, Berber, Egyptian, Chadic <br /> 24 *sin- ''tooth ''Semitic, Berber, Chadic <br /> 25 *siwan- ''Know ''Berber, Egyptian, Chadic <br /> 26 *inn- ''I, we'' Semitic, Egyptian, Berber, Cushitic <br /> 27 *-k- ''thou ''Semitic, Berber, Chadic, Cushitic <br /> 28 *zwr ''seed ''Semitic, Cushitic <br /> 29 *ŝVr ''root ''Semitic, Chadic <br /> 30 *šun ''to sleep, dream'' Semitic, Chadic --> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Number !! Proto-Afroasiatic Form !! Meaning !! Berber !! Chadic !! Cushitic !! Egyptian !! Omotic !! Semitic |- | 1 || *ʔab || father || ✔ || ✔ || ✔ || || || ✔ |- | 2 || (ʔa-)bVr || bull || || ✔ || ✔ || ✔ || || ✔ |- | 3 || (ʔa-)dVm || red, blood || ✔ || ✔ || ✔ || ✔ | || ✔ |- | 4 || *(ʔa-)dVm || land, field, soil || || ✔ || || || || ✔ |- | 5 || ʔa-pay- || mouth || || ✔ || ✔ || || || ✔ |- | 6 || ʔigar/ *ḳʷar- || house, enclosure || ✔ || ✔ || ✔ || ✔ | || ✔ |- | 7 || *ʔil- || eye || ✔ || ✔ || ✔ || ✔ | || |- | 8 || (ʔi-)sim- || name || ✔ || ✔ || || ✔ | || ✔ |- | 9 || *ʕayn- || eye || || || || ✔ || || ✔ |- | 10 || *baʔ- || go || || ✔ || ✔ || || || ✔ |- | 11 || *bar- || son || ✔ || ✔ || || || || ✔ |- | 12 || *gamm- || mane, beard || || ✔ || ✔ || || || ✔ |- | 13 || *gVn || cheek, chin || || ✔ || || || || ✔ |- | 14 || *gʷarʕ- || throat || || ✔ || ✔ || || || ✔ |- | 15 || *gʷinaʕ- || hand || || ✔ || ✔ || || || |- | 16 || *kVn- || co-wife || ✔ || ✔ || || || || ✔ |- | 17 || *kʷaly || kidney || || ✔ || ✔ || || ✔ || ✔ |- | 18 || *ḳa(wa)l-/ *qʷar- || to say, call || || ✔ || || || || ✔ |- | 19 || *ḳas- || bone || ✔ || ✔ || || ✔ || || |- | 20 || *libb || heart || || ✔ || ✔ || || || ✔ |- | 21 || *lis- || tongue || ✔ || ✔ || || || || ✔ |- | 22 || *maʔ- || water || ✔ || ✔ || || ✔ || || ✔ |- | 23 || *mawVt- || to die || ✔ || ✔ || || ✔ || || ✔ |- | 24 || *sin- || tooth || ✔ || ✔ || || || || ✔ |- | 25 || *siwan- || know || ✔ || ✔ || || ✔ || || |- | 26 || *inn- || I, we || ✔ || || ✔ || ✔ || || ✔ |- | 27 || *-k- || thou || ✔ || ✔ || ✔ || || || ✔ |- | 28 || *zwr || seed || || || ✔ || || || ✔ |- | 29 || *ŝVr || root || || ✔ || || || || ✔ |- | 30 || *šun || to sleep, dream || || ✔ || || || || ✔ |- |} ===Etymological bibliography=== Some of the main sources for Afroasiatic etymologies include: * Cohen, Marcel. 1947. ''Essai comparatif sur le vocabulaire et la phonétique du chamito-sémitique.'' Paris: Champion. * Diakonoff, Igor M. et al. 1993–1997. "Historical-comparative vocabulary of Afrasian", ''St. Petersburg Journal of African Studies'' 2–6. * Ehret, Christopher. 1995. ''Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary'' (= ''University of California Publications in Linguistics'' 126). Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. * Orel, Vladimir E. and Olga V. Stolbova. 1995. ''Hamito-Semitic Etymological Dictionary: Materials for a Reconstruction.'' Leiden: Brill. {{ISBN|90-04-10051-2}}. ==See also== * [[Borean languages]] * [[Indo-European languages]] * [[Indo-Semitic languages]] * [[Languages of Africa]] * [[Languages of Asia]] * [[Languages of Europe]] * [[Nostratic languages]] * [[Proto-Afroasiatic language]] ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Bibliography== {{See also|#Etymological bibliography}} {{more footnotes|date=September 2016}} * Anthony, David. 2007. ''[[The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World]].'' Princeton: Princeton University Press. * Barnett, William and John Hoopes (editors). 1995. ''The Emergence of Pottery.'' Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. {{ISBN|1-56098-517-8}} * Bender, Lionel et al. 2003. ''Selected Comparative-Historical Afro-Asiatic Studies in Memory of Igor M. Diakonoff.'' LINCOM. * Bomhard, Alan R. 1996. ''Indo-European and the Nostratic Hypothesis.'' Signum. * Diakonoff, Igor M. 1988. ''Afrasian Languages.'' Moscow: Nauka. * Diakonoff, Igor M. 1996. "Some reflections on the Afrasian linguistic macrofamily." ''Journal of Near Eastern Studies'' 55, 293. * Diakonoff, Igor M. 1998. "The earliest Semitic society: Linguistic data." ''Journal of Semitic Studies'' 43, 209. * Dimmendaal, Gerrit, and Erhard Voeltz. 2007. "Africa". In Christopher Moseley, ed., ''Encyclopedia of the world's endangered languages''. * Ehret, Christopher. 1995. ''Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary.'' Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. * Ehret, Christopher. 1997. [http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/DEPT/RA/ABZU/NACAL_1997.html Abstract] of "The lessons of deep-time historical-comparative reconstruction in Afroasiatic: reflections on ''Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic: Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary'' (U.C. Press, 1995)", paper delivered at the Twenty-fifth Annual Meeting of the North American Conference on Afro-Asiatic Linguistics, held in Miami, Florida on 21–23 March 1997. * Finnegan, Ruth H. 1970. "Afro-Asiatic languages West Africa". ''Oral Literature in Africa'', pg 558. * Fleming, Harold C. 2006. ''Ongota: A Decisive Language in African Prehistory.'' Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. * Greenberg, Joseph H. 1950. [https://archive.is/20121209090902/http://mc1litvip.jstor.org/pss/3628690 "Studies in African linguistic classification: IV. Hamito-Semitic."] ''Southwestern Journal of Anthropology'' 6, 47-63. * Greenberg, Joseph H. 1955. ''Studies in African Linguistic Classification.'' New Haven: Compass Publishing Company. (Photo-offset reprint of the ''SJA'' articles with minor corrections.) * Greenberg, Joseph H. 1963. ''The Languages of Africa''. Bloomington: Indiana University. (Heavily revised version of Greenberg 1955.) * Greenberg, Joseph H. 1966. ''The Languages of Africa'' (2nd ed. with additions and corrections). Bloomington: Indiana University. * Greenberg, Joseph H. 1981. "African linguistic classification." ''General History of Africa, Volume 1: Methodology and African Prehistory'', edited by Joseph Ki-Zerbo, 292–308. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. * Greenberg, Joseph H. 2000–2002. ''Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family, Volume 1: Grammar, Volume 2: Lexicon.'' Stanford: Stanford University Press. * Hayward, R. J. 1995. "The challenge of Omotic: an inaugural lecture delivered on 17 February 1994". London: School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. * Heine, Bernd and Derek Nurse. 2000. ''African Languages'', Chapter 4. Cambridge University Press. * Hodge, Carleton T. (editor). 1971. ''Afroasiatic: A Survey.'' The Hague – Paris: Mouton. * Hodge, Carleton T. 1991. "Indo-European and Afro-Asiatic." In Sydney M. Lamb and E. Douglas Mitchell (editors), ''Sprung from Some Common Source: Investigations into the Prehistory of Languages'', Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 141–165. * Huehnergard, John. 2004. "Afro-Asiatic." In R.D. Woodard (editor), ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World’s Ancient Languages'', Cambridge – New York, 2004, 138–159. * Militarev, Alexander. "Towards the genetic affiliation of Ongota, a nearly-extinct language of Ethiopia," 60 pp.&nbsp;In ''Orientalia et Classica: Papers of the Institute of Oriental and Classical Studies'', Issue 5. Moscow. (Forthcoming.) * Newman, Paul. 1980. ''The Classification of Chadic within Afroasiatic.'' Leiden: Universitaire Pers Leiden. * Ruhlen, Merritt. 1991. ''A Guide to the World's Languages.'' Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. * Sands, Bonny. 2009. "Africa’s linguistic diversity". In ''Language and Linguistics Compass'' 3.2, 559–580. * Theil, R. 2006. [http://www.uio.no/studier/emner/hf/iln/LING2110/v07/THEIL%20Is%20Omotic%20Afroasiatic.pdf Is Omotic Afro-Asiatic?] Proceedings from the David Dwyer retirement symposium, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 21 October 2006. * Trombetti, Alfredo. 1905. ''L'Unità d'origine del linguaggio.'' Bologna: Luigi Beltrami. * [[Ghil'ad Zuckermann|Zuckermann, Ghil'ad]] 2003. [[Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew]], [[Palgrave Macmillan]]. ==External links== * [https://archive.is/20130113032053/http://multitree.org/codes/afas Afro-Asiatic] at the Linguist List MultiTree Project (not functional as of 2014): Genealogical trees attributed to Delafosse 1914, Greenberg 1950–1955, Greenberg 1963, Fleming 1976, Hodge 1976, Orel & Stolbova 1995, Diakonoff 1996–1998, Ehret 1995–2000, Hayward 2000, Militarev 2005, Blench 2006, and Fleming 2006 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090104234232/http://community.livejournal.com/terra_linguarum/95880.html Afro-Asiatic and Semitic genealogical trees], presented by Alexander Militarev at his talk "Genealogical classification of Afro-Asiatic languages according to the latest data" at the conference on the 70th anniversary of [[V.M. Illich-Svitych]], Moscow, 2004; [https://web.archive.org/web/20100818025156/http://community.livejournal.com/terra_linguarum/95627.html short annotations of the talks given there] {{ru icon}} * [http://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/afrfarm.pdf The prehistory of a dispersal: the Proto-Afrasian (Afroasiatic) farming lexicon], by Alexander Militarev in "Examining the Farming/Language Dispersal Hypothesis", eds. P. Bellwood & C. Renfrew. (McDonald Institute Monographs.) Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 2002, p.&nbsp;135-50. * [http://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/fleming.pdf Once More About Glottochronology And The Comparative Method: The Omotic-Afrasian case], by Alexander Militarev in "Aspects of Comparative Linguistics", v. 1. Moscow: RSUH Publishers, 2005, pp.&nbsp;339–408. * [http://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/semroot.pdf Root Extension And Root Formation In Semitic And Afrasian], by Alexander Militarev in "Proceedings of the Barcelona Symposium on comparative Semitic", 19-20/11/2004. Aula Orientalis 23/1-2, 2005, pp.&nbsp;83–129. * [http://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/akkegypt.pdf Akkadian-Egyptian lexical matches], by Alexander Militarev in "Papers on Semitic and Afroasiatic Linguistics in Honor of Gene B. Gragg." Ed. by Cynthia L. Miller. Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 60. Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 2007, p.&nbsp;139-145. * [http://www.tufs.ac.jp/ts/personal/ratcliffe/comp%20&%20method-Ratcliffe.pdf A comparison of Orel-Stolbova's and Ehret's Afro-Asiatic reconstructions] * [http://www.uio.no/studier/emner/hf/iln/LING2110/v07/THEIL%20Is%20Omotic%20Afroasiatic.pdf "Is Omotic Afro-Asiatic?"] by Rolf Theil (2006) * [http://www.nacal.org NACAL] The North American Conference on Afroasiatic Linguistics, now in its 35th year * [http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Afroasiatic/AAOP.htm Afro-Asiatic webpage] of [[Roger Blench]] (with [http://rogerblench.info/Language/Afroasiatic/General/AALIST.pdf family tree]). {{Afro-Asiatic languages|state=collapse}} {{Language families}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Afroasiatic Languages}} [[Category:Afroasiatic languages| ]] [[Category:Afroasiatic peoples| ]] [[Category:Language families]] j86t7cbxxbm68uydlwb6dmxswz5kdq8 0 600 861698920 861179693 2018-09-29T10:10:01Z Horserice 9136233 infobox native name reformat wikitext text/x-wiki {{distinguish|Andora}} {{other uses}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Use British English|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox country |conventional_long_name = Principality of Andorra |common_name = Andorra |native_name = {{small|{{nobold|{{native name|ca|Principat d'Andorra}}}}}}{{nobold|{{small|^a}}}} |image_flag = Flag of Andorra.svg |image_coat = Coat of arms of Andorra.svg |symbol_type = Coat of arms |national_motto = ''Virtus Unita Fortior''<br/>"{{small|United virtue is stronger}}"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/europe/andorra/adsymbols.htm|title=Andorran Symbols|publisher=WorldAtlas}}</ref> |national_anthem = {{native name|ca|[[El Gran Carlemany]]}}<br/>"{{small|The Great Charlemagne}}"<div style="padding-top:0.5em;">[[File:El Gran Carlemany.ogg|center]]</div> |image_map = Location Andorra Europe.png |map_caption = {{map caption |location_color=center of green circle |region=Europe |region_color=dark grey |legend=Location Andorra Europe.png}} |image_map2 = Andorra - Location Map (2013) - AND - UNOCHA.svg |capital = [[Andorra la Vella]] |coordinates = {{coord|42|30|N|1|31|E|display=inline,title}} |largest_city = capital |official_languages = [[Catalan language|Catalan]]^b |ethnic_groups = 49% [[List of Andorrans|Andorra Catalans]]<br/>24.6% [[Spaniards|Spanish]]<br/>14.3% [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]]<br/>3.9% [[French people|French]]<br/>8.2% others |ethnic_groups_year = 2012<ref name="cia"/> |demonym = [[List of Andorrans|Andorran]] |government_type = {{nowrap|[[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]]}} [[Elective monarchy|semi-elective]] [[diarchy]] |leader_title1 = [[Co-Princes of Andorra|Co-Monarchs]] |leader_name1 = [[Joan Enric Vives Sicília]]<br>[[Emmanuel Macron]] |leader_title2 = [[Governor-general|Representatives]] |leader_name2 = [[Josep Maria Mauri]]<br>[[Patrick Strzoda]] |leader_title3 = [[Head of Government of Andorra|Prime Minister]] |leader_name3 = [[Antoni Martí]] |legislature = [[General Council (Andorra)|General Council]] |sovereignty_type = Independence |established_event1 = from [[Crown of Aragon|Aragon]] |established_date1 = [[Paréage of Andorra 1278|1278]] |established_event2 = from the [[Sègre (department)|French Empire]] |established_date2 = 1814 |established_event3 = [[Constitution of Andorra|Constitution]] |established_date3 = 1993 |area_km2 = 467.63 |area_rank = 180th |area_sq_mi = 180.55 |percent_water = 0.26 (121.4 [[hectares|ha]]<!-- Not including areas of rivers -->)^c |population_estimate = {{UN_Population|Andorra}}{{UN_Population|ref}} |population_estimate_year = {{UN_Population|Year}} |population_census_year = 2014 |population_density_km2 = 179.8 |population_density_sq_mi = 465.7 |population_density_rank = 71st |GDP_nominal = $3.249 billion |GDP_nominal_year = 2016 |GDP_nominal_rank = 162nd |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $36,987 |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 26th |Gini = 27.21 |Gini_year = 2003 |Gini_ref = ^d |HDI = 0.858<!-- number only --> |HDI_year = 2016<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year --> |HDI_change = increase<!-- increase/decrease/steady --> |HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/composite/HDI |title=HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2016 – Statistical annex|year=2016 |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=25 March 2017}}</ref> |HDI_rank = 32nd |currency = [[Euro]]^e |currency_code = EUR |time_zone = [[Central European Time|CET]] |utc_offset = +1 |utc_offset_DST = +2 |time_zone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] |drives_on = right |calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Andorra|+376]] |cctld = [[.ad]]^f |footnote_a = [http://www.andorramania.com/constit_gb.htm Constitution of Andorra]. In [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''Principado de Andorra'', in [[French language|French]]: ''Principauté d'Andorre''. |footnote_b = [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and [[French language|French]] are also each natively spoken by a significant minority |footnote_c = {{fr icon}} Girard P & Gomez P (2009), [http://www.lacsdespyrenees.com/vallee-Andorre.html Lacs des Pyrénées: Andorre]. {{cite web |url=http://www.estadistica.ad/serveiestudis/publicacions/CD/Anuari/cat/pdf/xifres.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091113203301/http://www.estadistica.ad/serveiestudis/publicacions/CD/Anuari/cat/pdf/xifres.PDF |dead-url=yes |archive-date=13 November 2009 |title=Andorra en xifres 2007: Situació geogràfica, Departament d'Estadística, Govern d'Andorra |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=26 August 2012 }} |footnote_d = {{cite web |url=http://www.estadistica.ad/serveiestudis/publicacions/Publicacions/Pobresa.pdf |title=Informe sobre l'estat de la pobresa i la desigualtat al Principal d'Andorra (2003) |publisher=Estadistica.ad |accessdate=25 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130810122415/http://www.estadistica.ad/serveiestudis/publicacions/Publicacions/Pobresa.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2013 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }} |footnote_e = Before 1999, the [[French franc]] and [[Spanish peseta]]; the coins and notes of both currencies, however, remained legal tender until 2002. Small amounts of [[Andorran diner]]s (divided into 100 centim) were minted after 1982. |footnote_f = Also [[.cat]], shared with [[Països Catalans|Catalan-speaking territories]]. }} '''Andorra''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=en-us-Andorra.ogg|æ|n|ˈ|d|ɔːr|ə|,_|-|ˈ|d|ɒr|ə}}; {{IPA-ca|ənˈdorə|lang}}), officially the '''Principality of Andorra''' ({{lang-ca|Principat d'Andorra}}), also called the '''Principality of the Valleys of Andorra'''<ref>Funk and Wagnalls Encyclopedia, 1993</ref> ({{lang-ca|Principat de les Valls d'Andorra|links=no}}), is a [[Sovereignty|sovereign]] landlocked [[microstate]] on the [[Iberian Peninsula]], in the eastern [[Pyrenees]], bordered by [[France]] in the north and [[Spain]] in the south. Believed to have been created by [[Charlemagne]], Andorra was ruled by the [[Count of Urgell]] until 988 when it was transferred to the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Urgell|Diocese of Urgell]], and the present principality was formed by [[Paréage of Andorra 1278|a charter in 1278]]. It is known as a [[principality]] as it is a [[diarchy]] headed by two [[Co-Princes of Andorra|Co-Princes]]: the Catholic [[Bishop of Urgell]] in Spain and the [[President of France|President of the Republic of France]]. Andorra is the [[European microstates|sixth-smallest nation in Europe]], having an area of {{convert|468|km2}} and a population of approximately {{UN_Population|Andorra}}.{{UN_Population|ref}} The [[Andorran people|Andorrans]] are a [[Italic peoples|Romance]] ethnic group of originally [[Catalans|Catalan]] descent.<ref name="Minahan">{{cite book |last=Minahan |first=James |author-link= |title=One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC |date=2000 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |location= |page=47 |isbn=0313309841}}</ref> Andorra is the 16th-smallest country in the world by land and 11th-smallest country by population.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://tellmenothing.com/2017/04/18/andorra-unusual-facts-european/|title=Andorra: 10 Unusual Facts About The Tiny European Principality|last=Malankar|first=Nikhil|date=2017-04-18|website=Tell Me Nothing|access-date=2017-06-13}}</ref> Its capital [[Andorra la Vella]] is the highest capital city in Europe, at an elevation of {{convert|1,023|m|abbr=off}} [[above mean sea level|above sea level]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fallingrain.com/world/AN/0/Andorra_la_Vella.html|title=Maps, Weather, and Airports for Andorra la Vella, Andorra |publisher=Fallingrain.com |date= |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref> The official language is [[Catalan language|Catalan]], although Spanish, Portuguese, and French are also commonly spoken.<ref name="cia"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Background Note: Andorra|url=https://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3164.htm|publisher=State.gov|accessdate=2015-05-14}}</ref> [[Tourism in Andorra|Andorra's tourism]] services an estimated 10.2 million visitors annually.<ref name="es2">{{cite web|url=http://www.estadistica.ad/serveiestudis/web/exportar_banc_dades_csv.asp?formules=anualinici&any1=01/01/2008&any2=01/01/2008&codi_divisio=380&lang=1&codi_subtemes=59&codi_tema=10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912144822/http://www.estadistica.ad/serveiestudis/web/exportar_banc_dades_csv.asp?formules=anualinici&any1=01%2F01%2F2008&any2=01%2F01%2F2008&codi_divisio=380&lang=1&codi_subtemes=59&codi_tema=10|dead-url=yes|archive-date=12 September 2017|title=HOTELERIA I TURISME|accessdate=14 May 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> It is not a member of the [[European Union]], but the [[euro]] is its official currency. It has been a member of the [[United Nations]] since 1993.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/members/ |title=United Nations Member States |publisher=Un.org |date= |accessdate=2015-05-14}}</ref> In 2013, the people of Andorra had [[List of countries by life expectancy|the highest life expectancy in the world]] at 81 years, according to the [[Global Burden of Disease Study]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=GBD 2013 Mortality and Causes of Death|first1=Collaborators.|title=Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013.|journal=Lancet|date=10 January 2015|volume=385|issue=9963|pages=117–71|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61682-2|pmid=25530442|pmc=4340604}}</ref> ==Etymology== The origin of the word ''Andorra'' is unknown, although several hypotheses have been formulated. The oldest derivation of the word ''Andorra'' is from the Greek historian [[Polybius]] (''[[The Histories (Polybius)|The Histories]]'' III, 35, 1) who describes the ''Andosins'', an [[Iberians|Iberian]] [[Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula|Pre-Roman tribe]], as historically located in the valleys of Andorra and facing the [[Ancient Carthage|Carthaginian]] army in its passage through the Pyrenees during the [[Punic Wars]]. The word ''Andosini'' or ''Andosins'' (Ἀνδοσίνοι) may derive from the [[Basque language|Basque]] ''handia'' whose meaning is "big" or "giant".<ref name="Diccionari">''Diccionari d'Història de Catalunya''; ed. 62; Barcelona; 1998; {{ISBN|84-297-3521-6}}; p. 42; entrada "Andorra"</ref> The Andorran [[toponymy]] shows evidence of [[Basque language]] in the area. Another theory suggests that the word ''Andorra'' may derive from the old word ''Anorra'' that contains the Basque word ''ur'' (water).<ref>{{cite book|last=Font Rius |first=José María |title=Estudis sobre els drets i institucions locals en la Catalunya medieval |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JQL6rtB8VtQC&pg=PA743&dq=Anorra+andorra&hl=ca&sa=X&ei=DcwZT6_ALYzs-gaKmt3OCg&ved=0CFAQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Anorra%20andorra&f=false |publisher=Edicions Universitat Barcelona |year=1985 |page=743 |isbn=8475281745 }}</ref> Another theory suggests that ''Andorra'' may derive from [[Arabic]] ''al-durra'', meaning "The forest" (الدرة). When the [[Moors]] colonized the [[Iberian Peninsula]], the valleys of the Pyrenees were covered by large tracts of forest, and other regions and towns, also administered by Muslims, received this designation.<ref>{{cite book|title=Andorra, the Hidden Republic: Its Origin and Institutions, and the Record of a Journey Thither|year=1912|page=9|last=Gaston|first=L. L.|publisher=McBridge, Nast & Co|location=New York, USA}}</ref> Other theories suggest that the term derives from the [[Navarro-Aragonese]] ''andurrial'', which means "land covered with bushes" or "scrubland".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Andorra |title=Online Etymology Dictionary |publisher=Etymonline.com |date= |accessdate=2015-05-14}}</ref> The [[folk etymology]] holds that [[Charlemagne]] had named the region as a reference to the [[Biblical]] [[Cannan|Canaanite]] valley of ''[[Endor (village)|Endor]]'' or ''[[Endor (village)|Andor]]'' (where the [[Midianites]] had been defeated), a name also bestowed by his heir and son [[Louis le Debonnaire]] after defeating the Moors in the "wild valleys of Hell".<ref>{{cite book|title=Images of the Medieval Peasant|page=189|last=Freedman|first=Paul|publisher=Stanford University Press|location=CA, USA|year=1999|isbn=9780804733731}}</ref> ==History== {{Main|History of Andorra}} === Prehistory === [[File:Gravats_del_Roc_de_les_Bruixes.JPG|left|thumb|''Roc de les Bruixes'' prehistorical sanctuary located in [[Canillo]] (detail)]] [[File:Ann%C3%ADbal,_andosins.png|right|thumb|[[Hannibal]]'s route (in red) during the [[Second Punic War]]. The Iberian tribes (in green) fought against the [[Ancient Carthage|Carthaginian]] army in the Pyrenees.]] ''La Balma de la [[La Margineda|Margineda]]'', found by [[archaeologist]]s at [[Sant Julia de Loria]], was first settled in 9,500 BC as a passing place between the two sides of the Pyrenees. The seasonal camp was perfectly located for hunting and fishing by the groups of hunter-gatherers from [[Ariège (river)|Ariege]] and [[Segre (river)|Segre]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elcami.cat/principat-andorra/andorra/andorra-vella/margineda|title=La Margineda - El Camí|date=21 April 2014|publisher=|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141015125705/http://elcami.cat/principat-andorra/andorra/andorra-vella/margineda|archivedate=15 October 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref> During the [[Neolithic Age]] a group of people moved to the [[Madriu-Perafita-Claror Valley|Valley of Madriu]] (nowadays Natural Parc located in [[Escaldes-Engordany]] declared [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]) as a permanent camp in 6640 BC. The population of the valley grew cereals, raised domestic livestock and developed a commercial trade with people from the [[Sègre (department)|Segre]] and [[Occitania]].{{sfn|Guillamet Antoni|2009|p = 32, 33}}{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009|p = 44 a 92}} Other archaeological deposits include the ''Tombs of [[Segudet]]'' ([[Ordino]]) and ''Feixa del Moro'' (Sant Julia de Loria) both dated in 490–4300 BC as an example of the [[Urnfield culture|Urn culture]] in Andorra.{{sfn|Guillamet Antoni|2009|p = 32, 33}}{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009|p = 44 a 92}} The model of small settlements begin to evolved as a complex urbanism during the [[Bronze Age]]. [[Metallurgy|Metallurgical]] items of iron, ancient coins and relicaries can be found in the [[Sanctuary|ancient sanctuaries]] scattered around the country. The [[sanctuary]] of ''Roc de les Bruixes'' (Stone of the Witches) is maybe the most important archeological complex of this age in Andorra, located in the parish of [[Canillo]], about the rituals of funerals, ancient scripture and engraved stone [[mural]]s.{{sfn|Guillamet Antoni|2009|p = 34, 35, 38, 39}}{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009|p = 44 a 92}} ===The Iberian and Roman Andorra=== The inhabitants of the valleys were traditionally associated with the [[Iberians]] and historically located in Andorra as the Iberian tribe ''Andosins'' or ''Andosini'' (Ἀνδοσίνους) during the 7th and 2nd centuries BC. Influenced by [[Aquitanian language|Aquitanias]], [[Basque language|Basque]] and [[Iberian languages]] the locals developed some current toponyms. Early writings and documents relating this group of people goes back to the second century BC by the Greek writer [[Polybius]] in his ''Histories'' during the [[Punic Wars]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www15.gencat.net/pres_casa_llengues/mapes/mapes.html?idioma=1&start=cercador|title=Mapes Vius - Linguamon. Casa de les Llengües|date=22 May 2010|publisher=|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100522044257/http://www15.gencat.net/pres_casa_llengues/mapes/mapes.html?idioma=1&start=cercador|archivedate=22 May 2010|df=dmy-all}}</ref>{{sfn|Guillamet Antoni|2009|p = 43}}{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009|p = 44 a 92}}{{sfn|Guillamet Antoni|2009|p = 37, 36}} Some of the most significant remains of this era are the Castle of the ''Roc d'Enclar'' (part of the early [[Marca Hispanica]]),{{sfn|Guillamet Antoni|2009|p = 44, 45, 46, 47}} ''l'Anxiu'' in [[Les Escaldes]] and ''Roc de L'Oral'' in [[Encamp]].{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009|p = 44 a 92}}{{sfn|Guillamet Antoni|2009|p = 37, 36}} The presence of [[Roman Empire|Roman]] influence is recorded from the 2nd century BC to the 5th century AD. The places found with more Roman presence are in ''Camp Vermell'' (Red Field) in Sant Julia de Loria and in some places in Encamp as well as in the ''Roc d'Enclar''. People continued trading, mainly with wine and cereals, with the Roman cities of [[Urgellet]] (nowaday [[La Seu d'Urgell]]) and all across Segre through the ''[[Roman roads|Via Romana]] Strata Ceretana'' (also known as ''Strata Confluetana'').{{sfn|Guillamet Antoni|2009|p = 52, 53}}{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009|p = 44 a 92}} {{sfn|Guillamet Antoni|2009|p = 44, 45, 46, 47}}{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009|p = 44 a 92}} ===The Visigoths and Carolingians: the legend of Charlemagne=== [[File:Charlemagne_et_Louis_le_Pieux.jpg|right|thumb|[[Charlemagne]] instructing his son [[Louis the Pious]]]] After the [[fall of the Roman Empire]] Andorra came under the influence of the [[Visigothic Kingdom|Visigoths]], not remotely from the [[History of Toledo, Spain#Visigothic Toledo|Kingdom of Toledo]], but locally from the [[Diocese of Urgell]]. The Visigoths remained in the valleys for 200 years, during which time [[Gothic Christianity|Christianity]] spread. When the [[Al-Andalus|Muslim Empire]] and its [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|conquest]] of the Iberian Peninsula replaced the ruling Visigoths, Andorra was sheltered from these invaders by the [[Francia|Franks]].{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009}} Tradition holds that ''Charles the Great'' ([[Charlemagne]]) granted a charter to the Andorran people for a contingent of five thousand soldiers under the command of ''Marc Almugaver'', in return for fighting against the [[Moors]] near [[Porté-Puymorens]] ([[Cerdanya]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://turisme.andorralavella.ad/llegendes-tradicionals/pas-carlemany|title=El pas de Carlemany - Turisme Andorra la Vella|website=turisme.andorralavella.ad|accessdate=3 August 2017}}</ref> [[File:Parr%C3%B2quies_andorra.png|left|thumb|The six old parishes named by their [[patron saint]] as depicted in the ''Acta de Consagració i Dotació de la Catedral de la Seu d'Urgell'' (839)]] Andorra remained part of the Marca Hispanica of the [[Frankish Empire]] being part of the territory ruled by the [[Count of Urgell]] and eventually by the [[Bishop of Urgel|bishop]] of the Diocese of Urgell. Also tradition holds that it was guaranteed by the son of Charlemagne, [[Louis the Pious]], writing the ''Carta de Poblament'' or a local [[municipal charter]] circa 805.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elpuntavui.cat/article/19-cultura/933027-andorra-mira-els-arxius.html|title=Andorra mira els arxius|first=Jaume|last=Vidal|website=Elpuntavui.cat|accessdate=3 August 2017}}</ref> In 988, [[Borrell II]], Count of Urgell, gave the Andorran valleys to the Diocese of Urgell in exchange for land in Cerdanya.<ref name="histo1">{{Cite GREC|title=La formació d'Andorra|NDCHEC=0003864|en=1}}</ref> Since then the Bishop of Urgell, based in Seu d'Urgell, has been [[Co-Princes of Andorra|Co-prince]] of Andorra.<ref name=elements>{{cite web|url=http://www.coprince-fr.ad/catala/elements.htm |title=Elements de la història del Principat d'Andorra |language=Catalan |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20100209181327/http://www.coprince-fr.ad/catala/elements.htm |archivedate= 9 February 2010 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy }}</ref> The first document that mentions ''Andorra'' as a territory is the ''Acta de Consagració i Dotació de la Catedral de la Seu d'Urgell'' (Deed of Consecration and Endowment of the Cathedral of La Seu d'Urgell). The old document dated from 839 depicts the six old [[Parishes of Andorra|parishes]] of the Andorran valleys and therefore the administrative division of the country.{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009|p = 96 a 146}} ===Medieval Age: The Paréages and the founding of the Co-Principality=== [[File:Esgl%C3%A9sia_de_Sant_Joan_de_Caselles_-_7.jpg|thumb|[[Sant Joan de Caselles]] church, dating from the 11th century, part of the Andorran Romanesque heritage]] Before 1095, Andorra did not have any type of military protection and the Bishop of Urgell, who knew that the Count of Urgell wanted to reclaim the Andorran valleys,<ref name=elements/> asked the [[Lord of Caboet]] for help and protection. In 1095 the Lord of Caboet and the Bishop of Urgell signed under oath a declaration of their co-sovereignty over Andorra. Arnalda, daughter of Arnau of Caboet, married the Viscount of Castellbò and both became Viscounts of Castellbò and Cerdanya. Years later their daughter, Ermessenda,<ref>{{Cite GREC|title=Ermessenda de Castellbò|NDCHEC=0024413|en=1}}</ref> married [[Roger-Bernard II, Count of Foix|Roger Bernat II]], the French [[Count of Foix]]. They became Roger Bernat II and Ermessenda I, Counts of Foix, Viscounts of Castellbò and Cerdanya, and co-sovereigns of Andorra (shared with the Bishop of Urgell). In the 13th century, a military dispute arose between the Bishop of Urgell and the Count of Foix as aftermath of the [[Cathar Crusade]]. The conflict was resolved in 1278 with the mediation of the king of [[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]], [[Pere el Gran|Pere II]] between the Bishop and the Count, by the signing of the [[Paréage of Andorra 1278|first paréage]] which provided that Andorra's sovereignty be shared between the count of Foix<ref name=elements/> (whose title would ultimately transfer to the French head of state) and the Bishop of Urgell, in [[Catalonia]]. This gave the [[principality]] its territory and political form.{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009|p = 96 a 146}}{{sfn|Guillamet Anton|2009}}{{sfn|Jordi Planellas|2013}} [[File:Casa_de_la_Vall_-_14.jpg|right|thumb|Monument commemorating in 1978 the 700th anniversary of the Paréages, located outside [[Casa de la Vall]] in the capital city of [[Andorra la Vella]]]] [[File:065_Absis_de_Sant_Miquel_d%27Engolasters.jpg|right|thumb|Apse fresco of [[Església de Sant Miquel d'Engolasters|Sant Miquel d'Engolasters]] church, painted by ''Mestre de Santa Coloma'' during the 12th century<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.museunacional.cat/ca/colleccio/absis-dengolasters/mestre-de-santa-coloma-dandorra/015972-000|title=Absis d'Engolasters - Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya|website=www.museunacional.cat|accessdate=3 August 2017}}</ref>]] A second paréage was signed in 1288 after a dispute when the [[Roger-Bernard III, Count of Foix|Count of Foix]] ordered the construction of a castle in ''Roc d'Enclar''.{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009|p = 96 a 146}}{{sfn|Guillamet Anton|2009}}{{sfn|Jordi Planellas|2013}} The document was ratified by the noble notary [[County of Cerdanya|Jaume Orig of Puigcerdà]] and the construction of military structures in the country was prohibited.{{sfn|Guillamet Anton|2009|p = 60, 61}}{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009|p = 96 a 146}} In 1364 the political organization of the country named the figure of the [[syndic]] (now spokesman and president of the parliament) as representative of the Andorrans to their co-princes making possible the creation of [[Parishes of Andorra|local departments]] (''comuns'', ''quarts'' and ''veïnats''). After being ratified by the Bishop Francesc Tovia and the Count [[John I, Count of Foix|Jean I]], the ''Consell de la Terra'' or [[General Council (Andorra)|Consell General de les Valls]] (General Council of the Valleys) was founded in 1419, the second oldest parliament in Europe. The syndic Andreu d'Alàs and the General Council organized the creation of the [[Politics of Andorra#Judicial branch|Justice Courts]] (''La Cort de Justicia'') in 1433 with the Co-Princes and the collection of taxes like ''foc i lloc'' (literally ''fire and site'', a national tax active since then).{{sfn|Guillamet Antoni|2009|p = 78, 79, 80, 81, 88, 89}}{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009}} Although we can find remains of ecclesiastical works dating before the 9th century (''Sant Vicenç d'Enclar'' or [[Església de Santa Coloma]]), Andorra developed exquisite [[Romanesque Art and Architecture|Romanesque Art]] during the 9th through 14th centuries, as much in the construction of churches, bridges, religious murals and statues of the [[Virgin and Child]] (being the most important the [[Our Lady of Meritxell]]).{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009}} Nowadays, the [[List of regional characteristics of Romanesque churches#Romanesque churches in Spain.2C Portugal and Andorra|Romanesque]] buildings that form part of [[Cultural Heritage of Andorra|Andorra's cultural heritage]] stand out in a remarkable way, with an emphasis on [[Església de Sant Esteve]], [[Sant Joan de Caselles]], [[Església de Sant Miquel d'Engolasters]], [[Sant Martí de la Cortinada]] and the medieval bridges of [[Pont de la Margineda|Margineda]] and [[Pont dels Escalls|Escalls]] among many others.{{sfn|Guillamet Antoni|2009|p = 48, 49,}}{{sfn|Garcia|2011}}{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009|p = 150 a 194}} While the Catalan Pyrenees were embryonic of the [[Catalan language]] at the end of the 11th century Andorra was influenced by the appearance of that language where it was adopted by proximity and influence even decades before it was expanded by the rest of the Kingdom of Aragon.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://webs.racocatala.cat/cat1714/d/histcat.pdf|format=PDF|title=HISTÒRIA DE LA LLENGUA CATALANA|website=Racocatala.cat|accessdate=2017-08-03}}</ref> The local population based its economy during the Middle Ages in the livestock and agriculture, as well as in furs and weavers. Later, at the end of the 11th century, the first [[Bloomery#Medieval Europe|foundries of iron]] began to appear in Northern Parishes like [[Ordino]], much appreciated by the master artisans who developed the art of the forges, an important economic activity in the country from the 15th century.{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009}}{{sfn|Anne Doustaly-Dunyach|2011}} ===16th to 18th centuries=== [[File:Tribunal_de_Corts_d%27Andorra.JPG|right|thumb|Main hall of [[Andorra#Law and criminal justice|''Tribunal de Corts'']] (High Court of Justice) inside [[Casa de la Vall]], the central Judiciary Court of Andorra]] In 1601 the [[Andorra#Law and criminal justice|Tribunal de Corts]] (High Court of Justice) was created as a result of [[Huguenot rebellions]] from France, [[Spanish Inquisition|Inquisition]] courts coming from Spain and [[Catalan mythology about witches|indigenous witchcraft]] experienced in the country due to the [[Reformation]] and [[Counter-Reformation]].{{sfn|Llop Rovira|1998|p=44, 45, 47, 48, 50}}{{sfn|Guillamet Anton|2009|p = 108, 109}}{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009|p = 238, 239}}{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009|p = 238, 239}} With the passage of time, the co-title to Andorra passed to the kings of [[Kingdom of Navarre|Navarre]]. After Henry of Navarre became King [[Henry IV of France]], he issued an edict in 1607, that established the head of the French state and the Bishop of Urgell as [[Co-Princes of Andorra]]. During 1617 communal councils form the ''sometent'' (popular militia or army) to deal with the rise of ''bandolerisme'' ([[brigandage]]) and the Consell de la Terra was defined and structured in terms of its composition, organization and competences current today .{{sfn|Llop Rovira|1998|p=44, 45, 47, 48, 50}}{{sfn|Jordi Planellas|2013|p = 42}}{{sfn|Llop Rovira|1998|p = 53, 54, 56}} Andorra continued with the same economic system that it had during the 12th-14th centuries with a large production of metallurgy (''fargues'', a system similar to ''Farga catalana'') and with the introduction of [[tobacco]] circa 1692 and import trade. The [[fair]] of Andorra la Vella was ratified by the co-princes in 1371 and 1448 being the most important annual national festival commercially ever since.{{sfn|Llop Rovira|1998|p=14}}{{sfn|Llop Rovira|1998|p=15}}{{sfn|Guillamet Anton|2009|p = 134}} [[File:Building_in_Ordino._Andorra_216.jpg|left|thumb|[[Manor house]] of Rossell family in [[Ordino]], ''[[Casa Rossell]]'', built in 1611. The family owned in 1619 also the largest ironwork forges in Andorra as ''Farga Rossell'' and ''Farga del Serrat''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bondia.ad/cultura/390000-euros-rehabilitar-lexterior-i-obrir-els-jardins-de-la-casa-rossell|title=390.000 euros per rehabilitar l'exterior i obrir els jardins de la Casa Rossell - BonDia Diari digital d'Andorra.|date=9 August 2016|publisher=|deadurl=bot: unknown|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160809133417/http://www.bondia.ad/cultura/390000-euros-rehabilitar-lexterior-i-obrir-els-jardins-de-la-casa-rossell|archivedate=9 August 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref>]] The country had a unique and experienced [[guild]] of weavers, ''Confraria de Paraires i Teixidors'', located in [[Escaldes-Engordany]] founded in 1604 taking advantage of the thermal waters of the area. By that time the country was characterized by the social system of ''prohoms'' (wealthy society) and ''casalers'' (rest of the population with smaller economic acquisition), deriving from the tradition of ''[[pubilla]]'' and [[Heir|''hereu'']].{{sfn|Llop Rovira|1998|p=20, 21}}{{sfn|Guillamet Antoni|2009|p=106, 107}}{{sfn|Guillamet Anton|2009|p = 105, 106, 107, 140, 141}}{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009|p = 263 a 270}} Three centuries after its foundation the Consell de la Terra located its headquarters and the Tribunal de Corts in [[Casa de la Vall]] in 1702. The [[manor house]] built in 1580 served as a noble fortress of the Busquets family. Inside the parliament was placed the ''Closet of the six keys'' (''Armari de les sis claus'') representative of each Andorran parish and where the [[Andorran constitution]] and other documents and laws were kept later on.{{sfn|Llop Rovira|1998|p=60}}{{sfn|Guillamet Antoni|2009|p = 82}} In both [[Guerra dels Segadors]] and [[Guerra de Sucesión Española]] conflicts, the Andorran people (although with the statement neutral country) supported the [[Catalans]] who saw their [[Catalan constitutions|rights]] reduced in [[Nueva Planta decrees|1716]]. The reaction was the promotion of Catalan writings in Andorra, with cultural works such as the ''Book of Privileges'' (''Llibre de Privilegis de 1674''), ''Manual Digest'' (1748) by Antoni Fiter i Rossell or the ''Polità andorrà'' (1763) by Antoni Puig.{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009|p = 229}}{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009|p = 229}}{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009|p = 229}}{{sfn|Llop Rovira|1998|p = 49 a 52, i 57, 58}} ===19th century: the New Reform and the Andorran Question=== [[File:Guillem_d%27Areny-Plandolit.png|left|thumb|Portrait of [[Guillem d'Areny-Plandolit]], nobleman and politician who promoted the ''New Reform'' in 1866.]] After the French Revolution, in 1809, Napoleon I reestablished the Co-Principate and deleted the French medieval tithe. However, in 1812–13, the [[First French Empire]] annexed Catalonia during the [[Peninsular War]] (''Guerra del francés''). They divided it into four [[département]]s, with Andorra being made part of the district of [[Puigcerdà]] (département of [[Sègre]]). In 1814 a royal decree reestablished the independence and economy of Andorra.{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009|p = 172}}{{sfn|Guillamet Anton|2009|p = 172}}{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009|p = 342, 343}} During this period, Andorra's late medieval institutions and rural culture remained largely unchanged. In 1866 the syndic [[Guillem d'Areny-Plandolit]] led the ''reformist'' group in a Council General of 24 members, elected by suffrage limited to heads of families, replaced the aristocratic oligarchy that previously ruled the state.<ref name="ReferenceA">Page 966, Volume 1, [[Encyclopædia Britannica]], Eleventh Edition 1910–1911</ref> The New Reform (''Nova Reforma'' or ''Pla de Reforma'') began after being ratified by both Co-Princes and established the basis of the [[Constitution of Andorra|constitution]] and symbols (such as the [[Flag of Andorra|tricolor flag]]) of Andorra. A new [[service economy]] arose as a demand of the inhabitants of the valleys and began to build infrastructures such as hotels, spa resorts, roads and telegraph lines.{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009|p = 192, 193}}{{sfn|Guillamet Anton|2009|p = 191, 192, 193}}{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009|p = 345 a 347}}{{sfn|Segalàs|2012|p = 93 a 95}} [[File:Revoluci%C3%B3_de_1881_d%27Andorra.jpg|right|thumb|Illustration of a scene from the streets of [[Canillo]] during the ''Revolution of 1881''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wdl.org/es/item/18266/|title=Saqueo de Canillo por las fuerzas del gobierno revolucionario tras el sitio de la aldea|date=12 March 1881|website=Wdl.org|accessdate=3 August 2017}}</ref>]] The authorities of the Co-Princes (''veguer'') banned casinos and betting houses throughout the country by establishing an economic conflict with the demand of the Andorran people. The conflict led to the so-called ''Revolution of 1881'' or ''Troubles of Andorra'', when revolutionaries assaulted the house of the syndic during 8 December 1880 and established the ''Provisional Revolutionary Council'' led by Joan Pla i Calvo and Pere Baró i Mas, who granted the construction of casinos and spas to foreign companies.{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009|p = 198, 199, 203}} During 7 and 9 June 1881, the loyalists of [[Canillo]] and [[Encamp]] reconquered the parishes of [[Ordino]] and [[Massana]] by establishing contact with the revolutionary forces in [[Escaldes-Engordany]].{{sfn|Peruga Guerrero|1998|p = 59, 60, 63}} After a day of combat finally the [[Pont dels Escalls|Treaty of the Bridge of Escalls]] was signed on 10 June.{{sfn|Ministeri d'Educació, Joventut i Esports|1996|p = 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65}}{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009|p = 194, 195}}{{sfn|Guillamet Anton|2009|p = 194, 195}}{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009|p = 348 a 350}}{{sfn|Segalàs|2012|p = 95}} The Council was replaced and new elections were held. But the economic situation worsened, as society was divided over the ''Qüestió d'Andorra'' (the ''Andorran Question'' in relation to the [[Eastern Question]]).{{sfn|Peruga Guerrero|1998|p = 64, 65, 66, 67, 68}} The struggles continued between pro-bishops, pro-French and nationalists who derived the troubles of Canillo in 1882 and 1885.{{sfn|Ministeri d'Educació, Joventut i Esports|1996|p = 67 a 70}}{{sfn|Guillamet Anton|2009|p = 198, 199, 202, 203}}{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009|p = 352, 353}} Andorra participated in the cultural movement of the Catalan [[Renaixença]]. Between 1882 and 1887 the first academic schools were formed where trilingualism coexists with the knowledge of the official language, Catalan. Some [[Romanticism|romantic]] authors from both France and Spain reported the awakening of the [[Romantic nationalism|national consciousness]] of the country. [[Jacint Verdaguer]] lived in Ordino during the 1880s where he wrote and share works related to the Renaixença with [[Casa Rossell|Joaquim de Riba]], writer and photographer. [[Fromental Halévy]], for his part, had already premiered in 1848 the opera ''[[Le val d'Andorre|Le Val d'Andorre]]'' of great success in Europe, where the national consciousness of the valleys during the [[Peninsular War]] was exposed in the romantic work.{{sfn|Peruga Guerrero|1998|p = 78, 79, 80, 81}}{{sfn|Ministeri d'Educació, Joventut i Esports|1996|p = 74}}{{sfn|Armengol Aleix|2009|p = 354, 355, 356, 357}}{{sfn|Àrea de Recerca Històrica del Govern d'Andorra|2006|p = 33}}{{sfn|Segalàs|2012}} ===20th century: Modernization of the country and the Constitutional Andorra=== [[File:Borís Skósyrev.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|[[Boris Skossyreff]], briefly self-proclaimed "King of Andorra" in 1934.]] Andorra declared war on [[Imperial Germany]] during World War I, but did not take part directly in the fighting. It is known that some Andorrans volunteered to take part in the conflict as part of the [[Marching Regiment of the Foreign Legion|French Legions]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://andorradifusio.ad/noticies/andorra-va-declarar-guerra-alemanya-1914|title=Andorra va declarar la guerra a Alemanya el 1914? - Andorra Difusió|first=Andorra Difusió.|last=RTVA.|website=andorradifusio.ad}}</ref> It remained in an official state of [[belligerency]] until 1958 as it was not included in the [[Treaty of Versailles]].<ref name="DYKAndorra">{{cite news |title=World War I Ends in Andorra |newspaper=New York Times |date=25 September 1958 |page=66 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1958/09/25/archives/world-war-i-ends-in-andorra.html }}</ref> In 1933, France occupied Andorra following social unrest which occurred before elections due the ''Revolution of 1933'' and the ''FHASA strikes'' (''Vagues de FHASA''); the revolt led by ''Joves Andorrans'' (a [[Trade union|labour union group]] related to the Spanish [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]] and [[Federación Anarquista Ibérica|FAI]]) called for political reforms,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.international-club-andorra.com/andorra-club-intercomm/historical-andorra-articles/rebellion-in-andorra-1933/|title=Rebellion in Andorra 1933 – International Club of Andorra|website=www.international-club-andorra.com}}</ref> the [[universal suffrage|universal suffrage vote]] of all Andorrans and acted in defense of the rights of local and foreign workers during the construction of FHASA's hydroelectric power station in [[Encamp]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bondia.ad/cultura/1933-la-republica-que-quasi-va-ser|title=1933: la República que quasi va ser|publisher=}}</ref> The 5th April 1933 ''Joves Andorrans'' took the Andorran Parlamient under their custody in rebellion to their requests.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pressreader.com/spain/la-vanguardia-1%C2%AA-edici%C3%B3n/20170604/282071981866496|title=PressReader.com - Connecting People Through News|website=www.pressreader.com}}</ref> These actions were preceded by the arrival of Colonel René-Jules Baulard with 50 [[National Gendarmerie|gendarmes]] and the mobilization of 200 local militias or ''sometent'' led by the Síndic Francesc Cairat.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bondia.ad/cultura/quan-vam-treure-lescopeta|title=Quan vam treure l'escopeta|publisher=}}</ref> On 12 July 1934, adventurer [[Boris Skossyreff]] issued a proclamation in Urgell, declaring himself "Boris I, King of Andorra", simultaneously declaring war on the Bishop of Urgell. He was arrested by the Spanish authorities on 20 July and ultimately expelled from [[Spain]]. From 1936 until 1940, a French military detachment was garrisoned in Andorra to secure the principality against disruption from the [[Spanish Civil War]] and [[Francoist Spain]]. Francoist troops reached the Andorran border in the later stages of the war. During World War II, Andorra remained neutral and was an important smuggling route between [[Vichy France]] and [[Spain]]. Given its relative isolation, Andorra has existed outside the mainstream of European history, with few ties to countries other than [[France]], [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]. In recent times, however, its thriving tourist industry along with developments in transport and communications have removed the country from its isolation. Since 1976 the country sees the need to reform Andorran institutions due to the anachronisms in the field of sovereignty, human rights and the balance of powers as well as the need to adapt legislation to modern demands. In 1982 a first separation of powers took place when instituting the ''Govern d'Andorra'', under the name of ''Executive Board'' (''Consell Executiu''), chaired by the first prime minister [[Òscar Ribas Reig]] with the approval of the Co-Princes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.elnacional.cat/ca/efemerides/marc-pons-andorra-primer-cap-govern_227061_102.html|title=Andorra tria el primer cap de govern de la seva història|website=ElNacional.cat}}</ref> In 1989 the Principality signed an agreement with the [[European Economic Community]] to regularize trade relations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:21990A1231(02)|title=EUR-Lex - 21990A1231(02) - EN - EUR-Lex|website=eur-lex.europa.eu}}</ref> Its political system was modernized in 1993 after the [[Andorran constitutional referendum, 1993|Andorran constitutional referendum]], when the [[Constitution of Andorra|constitution]] was drafted by the Co-Princes and the General Council and approved on 14 March<ref name=NS>[[Dieter Nohlen|Nohlen, D]] & Stöver, P (2010) ''Elections in Europe: A data handbook'', p160 {{ISBN|978-3-8329-5609-7}}</ref> by 74.2% of voters, with a 76% turnout.<ref>Nohlen & Stöver, p162</ref> The [[Andorran parliamentary election, 1993|first elections]] under the new constitution were held later in the year.<ref name=NS/> The same year Andorra became a member of the [[United Nations]] and the [[Council of Europe]]. ==Politics== {{Main|Politics of Andorra}}<!--Pls add new info to relevant articles of the series--> {{Main|Co-princes of Andorra}} {{multiple image |align = left | direction = | width = |image1 = Mons. Vives (30612833490).jpg |width1 = 150 |caption1 = '''[[Joan Enric Vives i Sicília]]'''<br/>{{snd}} current [[List of Co-Princes of Andorra|Catalan episcopal Co-Prince of Andorra]] since 12 May 2003 |image2 = Emmanuel Macron in Tallinn Digital Summit. Welcome dinner hosted by HE Donald Tusk. Handshake (36669381364) (cropped 2).jpg |width2 = 132 |caption2 = '''[[Emmanuel Macron]]'''<br/>{{snd}} current [[List of Co-Princes of Andorra|French Co-Prince of Andorra]] since 14 May 2017 }} Andorra is a parliamentary [[co-principality]] with the [[President of the French Republic|President of France]] and the [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[Bishop of Urgell]] ([[Catalonia]], [[Spain]]) as [[List of Co-Princes of Andorra|Co-Princes]]. This peculiarity makes the President of France, in his capacity as [[Prince of Andorra]], an elected reigning monarch, although he is not elected by a popular vote of the Andorran people. The politics of Andorra take place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy]], whereby the [[List of heads of government of Andorra|Head of Government]] is the [[head of government|chief executive]], and of a [[wiktionary:pluriform|pluriform]] multi-party system. The current Head of Government is [[Antoni Martí]] of the [[Democrats for Andorra]] (DA). [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both government and parliament. The Parliament of Andorra is known as the General Council. The General Council consists of between 28 and 42 Councillors. The Councillors serve for four-year terms, and elections are held between the 30th and 40th days following the dissolution of the previous Council. [[File:Casa de la Vall - 18.jpg|thumb|Casa de la Vall, Historical and Ceremonial Andorran Parliament.]] [[File:Casa de la Vall, Andorra la Vieja, Andorra, 2013-12-30, DD 03.JPG|thumb|The [[New Parliament of Andorra]], [[General Council of Andorra|General Council]] headquarter since 2011, next to [[Casa de la Vall]].]] [[File:Els 7 poetes, Casa de la Vall, Consell General.JPG|thumb|The centre of government in [[Andorra la Vella]].]] Half are elected in equal numbers by each of the seven administrative parishes, and the other half of the Councillors are elected in a single national constituency. Fifteen days after the election, the Councillors hold their inauguration. During this session, the Syndic General, who is the head of the General Council, and the Subsyndic General, his assistant, are elected. Eight days later, the Council convenes once more. During this session the Head of Government is chosen from among the Councillors. Candidates can be proposed by a minimum of one-fifth of the Councillors. The Council then elects the candidate with the absolute majority of votes to be Head of Government. The Syndic General then notifies the Co-Princes, who in turn appoint the elected candidate as the Head of Government of Andorra. The General Council is also responsible for proposing and passing laws. Bills may be presented to the Council as Private Members' Bills by three of the local Parish Councils jointly or by at least one tenth of the citizens of Andorra. The Council also approves the annual budget of the principality. The government must submit the proposed budget for parliamentary approval at least two months before the previous budget expires. If the budget is not approved by the first day of the next year, the previous budget is extended until a new one is approved. Once any bill is approved, the Syndic General is responsible for presenting it to the Co-Princes so that they may sign and enact it. If the Head of Government is not satisfied with the Council, he may request that the Co-Princes dissolve the Council and order new elections. In turn, the Councillors have the power to remove the Head of Government from office. After a motion of censure is approved by at least one-fifth of the Councillors, the Council will vote and if it receives the absolute majority of votes, the Head of Government is removed. ==Law and criminal justice== {{Main|Law of Andorra}} The judiciary is composed of the Magistrates Court, the Criminal Law Court, the High Court of Andorra, and the Constitutional Court. The High Court of Justice is composed of five judges: one appointed by the Head of Government, one each by the Co-Princes, one by the Syndic General, and one by the Judges and Magistrates. It is presided over by the member appointed by the Syndic General and the judges hold office for six-year terms. The Magistrates and Judges are appointed by the High Court, as is the President of the Criminal Law Court. The High Court also appoints members of the Office of the Attorney General. The Constitutional Court is responsible for interpreting the Constitution and reviewing all appeals of unconstitutionality against laws and treaties. It is composed of four judges, one appointed by each of the Co-Princes and two by the General Council. They serve eight-year terms. The Court is presided over by one of the Judges on a two-year rotation so that each judge at one point will preside over the Court. ==Foreign relations, defence, and security== {{Main|Foreign relations of Andorra}} [[File:Bruxelles rue de la Montagne 10.jpg|thumb|The embassy of Andorra in [[Brussels]] ]] Andorra does not have its own armed forces,<ref name="cia"/> although there is a small ceremonial army. Responsibility for defending the nation rests primarily with [[France]] and [[Spain]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-1993-16868 |title=Documento BOE-A-1993-16868 |publisher=BOE.es |date=30 June 1993 |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref> However, in case of emergencies or natural disasters, the ''Sometent'' (an alarm) is called and all able-bodied men between 21 and 60 of Andorran nationality must serve.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://turisme.andorralavella.ad/?q=en/node/281 |title=El Sometent &#124; Tourism |publisher=Turisme.andorralavella.ad |date=17 May 2011 |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref><ref name="recarrega.net">{{cite web|url=http://recarrega.net/arxius/Decret%20veguers%20Sometent,%20del%2023%20d%27octubre%20de%201984.pdf |title=Decret veguers Sometent, del 23 d'octubre de 1984 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref> This is why all Andorrans, and especially the head of each house (usually the eldest able-bodied man of a house) should, by law, keep a rifle, even though the law also states that the police will offer a firearm in case of need.<ref name="recarrega.net"/> Andorra is a full member of the United Nations (UN), the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]] (OSCE), and has a special agreement with the European Union (EU). ===Military=== Andorra has a small army, which has historically been raised or reconstituted at various dates, but has never in modern times amounted to a standing army. The basic principle of Andorran defence is that all able-bodied men are available to fight if called upon by the sounding of the ''Sometent''. Being a [[landlocked country]], Andorra has no [[navy]]. Prior to World War I, Andorra maintained an armed force of about 600 part-time militiamen. This body was not liable for service outside the principality and was commanded by two officials (''viguiers'') appointed by France and the Bishop of Urgell.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Despite not being involved in any fighting during the [[World War I|First World War]], Andorra was technically the longest combatant, as the country was left out of the [[Versailles Peace Conference]], [[de jure|technically]] remaining at war with Germany from its original declaration of war in 1914 until 24 September 1958 when Andorra officially declared peace with Germany.<ref name="DYKAndorra"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Reich |first=Herb |date=2012 |title=Lies They Teach in School: Exposing the Myths Behind 250 Commonly Believed Fallacies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NsI_ub0Vh7EC |location=New York |publisher=Skyhorse Publishing, Inc.|page=52 |isbn=9781620873458}}</ref> In the modern era, the army has consisted of a very small body of volunteers willing to undertake ceremonial duties. Uniforms were handed down from generation to generation within families and communities.{{citation needed|date=December 2017}} The army's role in internal security was largely taken over by the formation of the [[Police Corps of Andorra]] in 1931. Brief civil disorder associated with the elections of 1933 led to assistance being sought from the French [[National Gendarmerie]],<!-- Reference removed, as site quoted is currently on WP blacklist --> with a detachment resident in Andorra for two months under the command of René-Jules Baulard.<ref>{{cite web|author=Ben Cahoon |url=http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Andorra.html |title=Andorra |publisher=Worldstatesmen.org |date= |access-date=26 August 2012}}</ref> The Andorran Army was reformed in the following year, with eleven soldiers appointed to supervisory roles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article1157484 |title=Andorra's 'ARMY' – Eleven Permanent Troops! |work=The Times |date=5 January 1934 |access-date=26 August 2012}}</ref> The force consisted of six [[Corporal]]s, one for each parish (although there are currently seven parishes, there were only six until 1978), plus four junior staff officers to co-ordinate action, and a commander with the rank of major. It was the responsibility of the six corporals, each in his own parish, to be able to raise a fighting force from among the able-bodied men of the parish. Today a small, twelve-man ceremonial unit remains the only permanent section of the Andorran Army, but all able-bodied men remain technically available for military service,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3164.htm |title=Andorra |publisher=State.gov |date=20 April 2012 |access-date=26 August 2012}}</ref><!--Can't locate that in the source, but it links to the CIA World factbook, that says: no regular military forces, Police Service of Andorra (2011) Military - note: defense is the responsibility of [[France]] and [[Spain]]--> with a requirement for each family to have access to a firearm. The army has not fought for more than 700 years, and its main responsibility is to present the [[flag of Andorra]] at official ceremonial functions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aire.ad/documents/10200707_BOP14073Reglament_atm.pdf |title=Bop14073 |format=PDF |date= |access-date=26 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.andorramania.com/histoire_gb.htm |title=History of the Principality of Andorra |publisher=Andorramania.com |date=11 December 1997 |access-date=26 August 2012}}</ref> According to [[Marc Forné Molné]], Andorra's military budget is strictly from voluntary donations, and the availability of full-time volunteers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/webcast/ga/58/statements/andoeng030925.htm |title=Andorra |publisher=Un.org |date=25 September 2003 |access-date=26 August 2012}}</ref> The myth that all members of the Andorran Army are ranked as officers is popularly maintained in many works of reference.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3164.htm |title=Andorra |publisher=State.gov |date=2013-09-13 |access-date=2015-05-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Europe/Andorra-POLITICS-GOVERNMENT-AND-TAXATION.html |title=Andorra Politics, government, and taxation, Information about Politics, government, and taxation in Andorra |publisher=Nationsencyclopedia.com |date= |access-date=2015-05-14}}</ref> In reality, all those serving in the permanent ceremonial reserve hold ranks as [[Officer (armed forces)|officers]], or [[non-commissioned officer]]s, because the [[Enlisted rank|other ranks]] are considered to be the rest of the able-bodied male population, who may still be called upon by the ''Sometent'' to serve, although such a call has not been made in modern times. ===Police Corps=== {{Main|Police Corps of Andorra}} Andorra maintains a small but modern and well-equipped internal police force, with around 240 police officers supported by civilian assistants. The principal services supplied by the corps are uniformed community policing, criminal detection, border control, and traffic policing. There are also small specialist units including police dogs, mountain rescue, and a bomb disposal team.<ref>{{cite web|author=Carles Iglesias Carril |url=http://www.policia.ad/ |title=Andorran Police Service website |publisher=Policia.ad |date= |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref> ====GIPA==== The ''Grup d'Intervenció Policia d'Andorra'' (GIPA) is a small special forces unit trained in [[counter-terrorism]], and [[Hostage negotiator|hostage recovery]] tasks. Although it is the closest in style to an active military force, it is part of the [[Police Corps of Andorra|Police Corps]], and not the [[Military of Andorra|army]]. As terrorist and hostage situations are a rare threat to the country, the GIPA is commonly assigned to prisoner escort duties, and at other times to routine policing.<ref>{{cite web|author=Carles Iglesias Carril |url=http://www.policia.ad/estructura.html |title=Cos de Policia – Estructura organitzativa |publisher=Policia.ad |date= |accessdate=2015-05-14}}</ref> ===Fire brigade=== The ''Andorran Fire Brigade'', with headquarters at [[Santa Coloma d'Andorra|Santa Coloma]], operates from four modern fire stations, and has a staff of around 120 firefighters. The service is equipped with 16 heavy appliances (fire tenders, turntable ladders, and specialist four-wheel drive vehicles), four light support vehicles (cars and vans) and four ambulances.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bombers.ad/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=80&Itemid=64 |archive-url=https://archive.is/20120722172143/http://www.bombers.ad/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=80&Itemid=64 |dead-url=yes |archive-date=22 July 2012 |title=Vehicle details with extensive photo gallery here |publisher=Bombers.ad |date= |accessdate=26 August 2012 }}</ref> Historically, the families of the six ancient parishes of Andorra maintained local arrangements to assist each other in fighting fires. The first fire pump purchased by the government was acquired in 1943. Serious fires which lasted for two days in December 1959 led to calls for a permanent fire service, and the ''Andorran Fire Brigade'' was formed on 21 April 1961.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bombers.ad/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=83&Itemid=44 |title=Fire Brigade history here (in Catalan) |publisher=Bombers.ad |date= |accessdate=26 August 2012 |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20120801135702/http://www.bombers.ad/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=83&Itemid=44 |archivedate=August 1, 2012}}</ref> The fire service maintains full-time cover with five fire crews on duty at any time: two at the brigade's headquarters in Santa Coloma, and one crew at each of the other three fire stations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bombers.ad |title=Andorran Fire Service site |publisher=Bombers.ad |date=17 August 2012 |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref> ==Geography== [[File:Andorramap.png|thumb|right|Map of Andorra with its seven parishes labelled.]] [[File:Andorra topographic map-en.svg|thumb|Topographic map of Andorra.]] {{Main|Geography of Andorra|Geology of Andorra}} ===Parishes=== {{Main|Parishes of Andorra}} Andorra consists of seven parishes: * [[Andorra la Vella]] * [[Canillo]] * [[Encamp]] * [[Escaldes-Engordany]] * [[La Massana]] * [[Ordino]] * [[Sant Julià de Lòria]] ===Physical geography=== Due to its location in the eastern [[Pyrenees]] mountain range, Andorra consists predominantly of rugged mountains, the highest being the [[Coma Pedrosa]] at {{convert|2942|m|ft|0}}, and the average elevation of Andorra is {{convert|1996|m|ft|0}}.<ref>Atlas of Andorra (1991), Andorran Government. {{oclc|801960401}}. {{ca icon}}</ref> These are dissected by three narrow valleys in a Y shape that combine into one as the main stream, the [[Gran Valira]] river, leaves the country for [[Spain]] (at Andorra's lowest point of {{convert|840|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}). Andorra's land area is {{convert|468|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|0}}. [[Phytogeography|Phytogeographically]], Andorra belongs to the Atlantic European province of the [[Circumboreal Region]] within the [[Boreal Kingdom]]. According to the [[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]], the territory of Andorra belongs to the [[ecoregion]] of Pyrenees conifer and mixed forests. ===Climate=== Andorra has an [[alpine climate]] and [[continental climate]]. Its higher elevation means there is, on average, more snow in winter, lower humidity, and it is slightly cooler in summer. ==Economy== {{Main|Economy of Andorra}} [[File:Tree map export 2009 Andorra.jpeg|thumb|Exports in 2009]] [[File:Grandvalira ski resort, Andorra5.jpg|thumb|right|Scenery of Andorran mountains in ''Grand Valira'' ski resort, [[Soldeu]].]] [[File:Caldea des de dins.JPG|thumb|left|[[Caldea]] thermal spa, [[Escaldes-Engordany]], the biggest thermoludic center in Southern Europe.]] Tourism, the mainstay of Andorra's tiny, well-to-do economy, accounts for roughly 80% of GDP. An estimated 10.2&nbsp;million tourists visit annually,<ref name="es2"/> attracted by Andorra's duty-free status and by its summer and winter resorts. One of the main sources of income in Andorra is tourism from ski resorts which total over {{convert|175|km|0|abbr=on}} of ski ground. The sport brings in over 10 million visitors annually and an estimated 340 million euros per year, sustaining 2,000 direct and 10,000 indirect jobs at present since 2007.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://offshorelicense-regulatory.com/about-andorra/|title=About Andorra - Valsen Fiduciaries|publisher=}}</ref> The banking sector, with its [[tax haven]] status, also contributes substantially to the economy (the financial and insurance sector accounts for approximately 19% of GDP<ref name="fs2013">{{cite web|url=http://www.aba.ad/pub/publicaciones/financial_system_2013.pdf|format=PDF|title=Andorra and its financial system 2013|publisher=Aba.ad|accessdate=14 May 2015|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151214121805/http://www.aba.ad/pub/publicaciones/financial_system_2013.pdf|archivedate=14 December 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref>). The financial system comprises five banking groups,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thebanks.eu/banks-by-country/Andorra |title=List of Banks in Andorra |publisher=Thebanks.eu |date= |accessdate=2015-05-14}}</ref> one specialised credit entity, 8 investment undertaking management entities, 3 asset management companies and 29 insurance companies, 14 of which are branches of foreign insurance companies authorised to operate in the principality.<ref name="fs2013"/> Agricultural production is limited, only 2% of the land is arable, and most food has to be imported. Some tobacco is grown locally. The principal livestock activity is domestic sheep raising. Manufacturing output consists mainly of cigarettes, cigars, and furniture. Andorra's natural resources include hydroelectric power, mineral water, timber, iron ore, and lead.<ref name="cia">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/an.html |title=CIA World Factbook entry: Andorra |publisher=Cia.gov |date= |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref> Andorra is not a member of the European Union, but enjoys a [[Andorra–European Union relations|special relationship]] with it, such as being treated as an EU member for trade in manufactured goods (no tariffs) and as a non-EU member for agricultural products. Andorra lacked a currency of its own and used both the [[French franc]] and the [[Spanish peseta]] in banking transactions until 31 December 1999, when both currencies were replaced by the EU's single currency, the euro. Coins and notes of both the franc and the peseta remained legal tender in Andorra until 31 December 2002. Andorra negotiated to issue its own euro coins, beginning in 2014. Andorra has traditionally had one of the world's lowest unemployment rates. In 2009 it stood at 2.9%.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2129rank.html |title=CIA World Factbook: Andorra |accessdate=5 June 2013}}</ref> Andorra has long benefited from its status as a tax haven, with revenues raised exclusively through import tariffs. However, during the [[European sovereign-debt crisis]] of the 21st century, its tourist economy suffered a decline, partly caused by a drop in the prices of goods in [[Spain]], which undercut Andorran [[duty-free shop]]ping. This led to a growth in unemployment. On 1 January 2012, a business tax of 10% was introduced,<ref>{{cite web|title=Andorra gets a taste of taxation|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/dec/27/andorra-financial-crisis-tax|work=The guardian|accessdate=30 March 2013|date=27 December 2011}}</ref> followed by a [[sales tax]] of 2% a year later, which raised just over 14 million euros in its first quarter.<ref>{{cite news|title=Andorra Unveils First Indirect Tax Revenue Figures|url=http://www.tax-news.com/news/Andorra_Unveils_First_Indirect_Tax_Revenue_Figures____60703.html|newspaper=Tax News|date=9 May 2013}}</ref> On 31 May 2013, it was announced that Andorra intended to legislate for the introduction of an [[income tax]] by the end of June, against a background of increasing dissatisfaction with the existence of tax havens among EU members.<ref>{{cite news|title=Andorra to introduce income tax for first time|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-22745895|newspaper=BBC News|date=2 June 2013}}</ref> The announcement was made following a meeting in Paris between the Head of Government [[Antoni Marti]] and the French President and Prince of Andorra, [[François Hollande]]. Hollande welcomed the move as part of a process of Andorra "bringing its taxation in line with international standards".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.notretemps.com/argent/andorre-aligne-progressivement-sa,i29431|title=Andorre aligne progressivement sa fiscalité sur les standards internationaux (Elysée)|newspaper=Notre Temps|date=31 May 2011|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616031601/http://www.notretemps.com/argent/andorre-aligne-progressivement-sa,i29431|archivedate=16 June 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> ==Demographics== [[File:Andorra Vall dels Cortals 05 JMM.JPG|thumb|The town of Encamp, Andorra, as seen from the Vall dels Cortals]] {{Main|Demographics of Andorra}} ===Population=== {{Historical populations |title = Historical populations |align = right |shading = off |percentages = pagr |source = Departament d'Estadística d'Andorra<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.estadistica.ad/serveiestudis/web/banc_dades4.asp?tipus_grafic=&check=0&bGrafic=&formules=inici&any1=01/01/1947&any2=01/01/2015&codi_divisio=8&lang=1&codi_subtemes=8&codi_tema=2&chkseries=|title=Departament d'Estadística|website=www.estadistica.ad}}</ref> |1950|6176 |1960|8392 |1970|19545 |1980|35460 |1990|54507 |2000|65844 |2010|85015 |2015|78014 }} The population of Andorra is estimated at {{UN_Population|Andorra}} ({{UN_Population|Year}}).{{UN_Population|ref}} The [[Andorran people|Andorrans]] are a [[Italic peoples|Romance]] [[ethnic group]] of originally [[Catalans|Catalan]] descent.<ref name="Minahan"/> The population has grown from 5,000 in 1900. Two-thirds of residents lack Andorran nationality and do not have the right to vote in communal elections. Moreover, they are not allowed to be elected as prime minister<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/160178.pdf |title=Andorra |publisher=U.S. Department of State |accessdate=2017-11-11}}</ref> or to own more than 33% of the capital stock of a privately held company.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/ANDORRA/Parlamento/andorrano/facilita/hijos/residentes/adquisicion/nacionalidad/elpepiint/19850801elpepiint_23/Tes/ |title=El Parlamento andorrano facilita a los hijos de los residentes la adquisición de la nacionalidad &#124; Edición impresa &#124; EL PAÍS |publisher=Elpais.com |date= |accessdate=2015-05-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/ANDORRA/examen/ser/andorrano/elpepiint/19851027elpepiint_18/Tes/ |title=Un examen para ser andorrano &#124; Edición impresa &#124; EL PAÍS |publisher=Elpais.com |date=1985-10-27 |accessdate=2015-05-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/RIBAS/_oSCAR/MARTi_ALANiS/_JOAN_/ARZOBISPO_DE_URGELL/ANDORRA/Constitucion/Andorra/seguira/limitando/derechos/poblacion/elpepiint/19920509elpepiint_5/Tes/ |title=La Constitución de Andorra seguirá limitando los derechos del 70% de la población &#124; Edición impresa &#124; EL PAÍS |publisher=Elpais.com |date=1992-05-09 |accessdate=2015-05-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elpais.com/articulo/sociedad/Andorra/solo/inmigrantes/sanos/elpporint/20060714elpepisoc_8/Tes/ |title=Andorra, sólo inmigrantes sanos &#124; Edición impresa &#124; EL PAÍS |publisher=Elpais.com |date=2006-07-14 |accessdate=2015-05-14}}</ref> ===Languages=== {{Main|Languages of Andorra}} The historic and [[official language]] is [[Catalan language|Catalan]], a [[Romance language]]. The Andorran government encourages the use of Catalan. It funds a Commission for Catalan [[Toponymy]] in Andorra (Catalan: ''la Comissió de Toponímia d'Andorra''), and provides free Catalan classes to assist immigrants. Andorran television and radio stations use Catalan. Because of immigration, historical links, and close geographic proximity, [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and [[French language|French]] are also commonly spoken. Most Andorran residents can speak one or more of these, in addition to Catalan. English is less commonly spoken among the general population, though it is understood to varying degrees in the major tourist resorts. Andorra is one of only four European countries (together with France, Monaco, and Turkey)<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/minorities/default_en.asp |title=Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (FCNM) : National Minorities, '&#39;Council of Europe'&#39;, 14 September 2010 |publisher=Coe.int |date= |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref> that have never signed the [[Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities|Council of Europe Framework Convention on National Minorities]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ChercheSig.asp?NT=157&CM=&DF=&CL=ENG|title=Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities CETS No. 157 |publisher=Conventions.coe.int |accessdate=25 November 2012}}</ref> According to the ''Observatori Social d'Andorra'', the linguistic usage in Andorra is as follows:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iea.ad/cres/observatori/temes/llengua3trimestre2005.htm |archive-url=https://archive.is/20070717032526/http://www.iea.ad/cres/observatori/temes/llengua3trimestre2005.htm |dead-url=yes |archive-date=17 July 2007 |title=Observatori de l'Institut d'Estudis Andorrans|language=Catalan |accessdate=5 June 2013}}</ref> {| border="0" style="border:1px solid #999; background:#fff;" |- style="text-align:center;" ! style="background:#ccc;"|Mother tongue || % |- style="text-align:center;" | style="background:#ccc;"|[[Catalan language|Catalan]] || 38.8% |- style="text-align:center;" | style="background:#ccc;"|Spanish || 35.4% |- style="text-align:center;" | style="background:#ccc;"|[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] || 15% |- style="text-align:center;" | style="background:#ccc;"|French || 5.4% |- style="text-align:center;" | style="background:#ccc;"|Others || 5.5% |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan="2" |<small>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130822055051/http://www.iea.ad/images/stories/Documents/CRES/Observatoris/2005/2005_3_PoliticaLinguistica.pdf 2005 3 PoliticaLinguistica.pdf]</small> |} ===Religion=== The population of Andorra is predominantly (88.2%) Catholic.<ref>[http://www.pewforum.org/2011/12/19/table-christian-population-as-percentages-of-total-population-by-country/ PEW 2011]. Pewforum.org (2011-12-19). Retrieved on 2015-12-30.</ref> Their patron saint is [[Our Lady of Meritxell]]. Though it is not an official state religion, the constitution acknowledges a special relationship with the Catholic Church, offering some special privileges to that group{{clarify|date=August 2014}}. Other Christian denominations include the [[Anglican Church]], the [[Unification Church]], the [[New Apostolic Church]], and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]. The small [[Islam in Andorra|Muslim community]] is primarily made up of North African immigrants.<ref>{{cite web|title=Andorra facts|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/places/spain-portugal-italy-greece-and-balkans/spanish-and-portuguese-political-geography/andorra|website=Encyclopedia.com|publisher=Encyclopedia.com|accessdate=November 22, 2016}}</ref> There is a small community of [[Hinduism|Hindus]] and [[Bahá'í Faith in Andorra|Bahá'ís]],<ref name="ARDA05">{{cite web| title = Andorra | work = International – Regions – Southern Europe | publisher = The Association of Religion Data Archives | year = 2005| url =http://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_6_2.asp | accessdate = 4 July 2009}}</ref><ref name="Wolfram">{{Cite encyclopedia | title = Andorra: population, capital, cities, GDP, map, flag, currency, languages, ... | encyclopedia = [[Wolfram Alpha]] | volume = Online | publisher = Wolfram – Alpha (curated data) | date = 13 March 2010 | url =http://www.wolframalpha.com/entities/countries/andorra/xy/p0/k6/| archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20120308145150/http://www.wolframalpha.com/entities/countries/andorra/xy/p0/k6/| archivedate =2012-03-08}}</ref> and roughly 100 Jews live in Andorra.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51537.htm |title=US Dept of State information |publisher=State.gov |date=8 November 2005 |accessdate=9 August 2013}}</ref> (See [[History of the Jews in Andorra]].) ==Statistics== ===Largest cities=== {{main|List of cities in Andorra}} {{Largest cities of Andorra}} ==Education== ===Schools=== Children between the ages of 6 and 16 are required by law to have full-time education. Education up to secondary level is provided free of charge by the government. There are three systems of school, Andorran, French and Spanish, which use Catalan, French and Spanish languages respectively, as the main language of instruction. Parents may choose which system their children attend. All schools are built and maintained by Andorran authorities, but teachers in the French and Spanish schools are paid for the most part by [[France]] and [[Spain]]. 39% of Andorran children attend Andorran schools, 33% attend French schools, and 28% Spanish schools.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://andorraguides.com/school/system/|title=Andorra's School System {{!}} Andorra Guides|date=2018-05-03|work=Andorra Guides|access-date=2018-05-09|language=en-US}}</ref> ===University of Andorra=== The [[Universitat d'Andorra]] (UdA) is the state public university and is the only university in Andorra. It was established in 1997. The university provides first-level degrees in nursing, computer science, business administration, and educational sciences, in addition to higher professional education courses. The only two graduate schools in Andorra are the Nursing School and the School of Computer Science, the latter having a PhD programme. ====Virtual Studies Centre==== The geographical complexity of the country as well as the small number of students prevents the University of Andorra from developing a full academic programme, and it serves principally as a centre for virtual studies, connected to Spanish and French universities. The Virtual Studies Centre (''Centre d'Estudis Virtuals'') at the University runs approximately twenty different academic degrees at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels in fields including tourism, law, Catalan philology, humanities, psychology, political sciences, audiovisual communication, telecommunications engineering, and East Asia studies. The Centre also runs various postgraduate programmes and continuing-education courses for professionals. ==Healthcare== Healthcare in Andorra is provided to all employed persons and their families by the government-run social security system, ''[[Caixa Andorrana de Seguretat Social]]'' (CASS), which is funded by employer and employee contributions in respect of salaries. The cost of healthcare is covered by CASS at rates of 75% for out-patient expenses such as medicines and hospital visits, 90% for hospitalisation, and 100% for work-related accidents. The remainder of the costs may be covered by private health insurance. Other residents and tourists require full private health insurance.<ref name="travenand">''Travailler en Andorre'' (May 2006), ''Govern d'Andorra, Servei d'Ocupació, p.30.'' {{fr icon}}</ref> The main hospital, Meritxell, is in [[Escaldes-Engordany]]. There are also 12 primary health care centres in various locations around the principality.<ref name="cassps">{{cite web |url=http://online.cass.ad/web/lacass/professionalSalut/hospitals/Andorra |title=List of specialties with coverage by CASS at the ''Hospital Nostra Senyora de Meritxell'' (2009) |publisher=Online.cass.ad |date= |accessdate=26 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121129121812/http://online.cass.ad/web/lacass/professionalSalut/hospitals/Andorra |archive-date=29 November 2012 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref> ==Transport== {{Main|Transport in Andorra}} {{See also|Andorra–La Seu d'Urgell Airport}} [[File:AGC Z 27500.jpg|thumb|A train at [[Latour-de-Carol]] (''La Tor de Querol''), one of the two stations serving Andorra. Andorra has no railways, although the line connecting Latour-de-Carol and [[Toulouse]], which in turn connects to France's [[TGV]]s at Toulouse, runs within {{convert|2|km|spell=in|abbr=off}} of the Andorran border.]] Until the 20th century, Andorra had very limited transport links to the outside world, and development of the country was affected by its physical isolation. Even now, the nearest major airports at Toulouse and Barcelona are both three hours' drive from Andorra. Andorra has a road network of {{convert|279|km|0|abbr=on}}, of which {{convert|76|km|0|abbr=on}} is unpaved. The two main roads out of [[Andorra la Vella]] are the CG-1 to the Spanish border, and the CG-2 to the French border via the Envalira Tunnel near [[El Pas de la Casa]].<ref name="mobi">{{cite web|url=http://www.mobilitat.ad/CA/default.asp|archive-url=http://wayback.vefsafn.is/wayback/20130317185954/http://www.mobilitat.ad/CA/default.asp|dead-url=yes|archive-date=2013-03-17|title=Agència de Mobilitat, Govern d'Andorra |publisher=Mobilitat.ad}}</ref> Bus services cover all metropolitan areas and many rural communities, with services on most major routes running half-hourly or more frequently during peak travel times. There are frequent long-distance bus services from Andorra to [[Barcelona]] and [[Toulouse]], plus a daily tour from the former city. Bus services are mostly run by private companies, but some local ones are operated by the government. There are no airports for fixed-wing aircraft within Andorra's borders but there are, however, heliports in [[La Massana]] (Camí Heliport), [[Arinsal]] and [[Escaldes-Engordany]] with commercial helicopter services<ref name="heliand">{{cite web|url=http://www.heliand.com/ |title=Inici – Heliand – Helicopters a Andorra |publisher=Heliand |date= |accessdate=2015-05-14}}</ref><ref name="helitrans">[http://www.helitrans.ad/] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090715233032/http://www.helitrans.ad/|date=15 July 2009}}</ref> and an airport located in the neighbouring Spanish comarca of [[Alt Urgell]], {{convert|12|km|abbr=off}} south of the Andorran-Spanish border.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.gencat.cat/en/actualitat/detall/Aeroport-public-i-comercial-dAndorra-la-Seu-dUrgell-00002|title=Public and regional airport of Andorra-la Seu d'Urgell}}</ref> Since July 2015, [[Andorra–La Seu d'Urgell Airport]] has operated commercial flights to [[Adolfo Suárez Madrid–Barajas Airport|Madrid]] and [[Palma de Mallorca Airport|Palma de Mallorca]], and is the [[airline hub|main hub]] for [[Air Andorra]] and [[Andorra Airlines]]. Nearby airports located in [[Spain]] and [[France]] provide access to international flights for the principality. The nearest airports are at [[Perpignan–Rivesaltes Airport|Perpignan]], France ({{convert|156|km|disp=or|abbr=off}} from Andorra) and [[Lleida-Alguaire Airport|Lleida]], [[Spain]] ({{convert|160|km|disp=or|abbr=off}} from Andorra). The largest nearby airports are at [[Toulouse–Blagnac Airport|Toulouse]], France ({{convert|165|disp=or|km|abbr=off}} from Andorra) and [[Barcelona Airport|Barcelona]], [[Spain]] ({{convert|215|km|disp=or|abbr=off}} from Andorra). There are hourly bus services from both Barcelona and Toulouse airports to Andorra. The nearest railway station is [[L'Hospitalet-près-l'Andorre]] {{convert|10|km|0|abbr=on}} east of Andorra which is on the {{RailGauge|1435mm}}[[Standard gauge|-gauge]] line from [[Latour-de-Carol]] ({{convert|25|km|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) southeast of Andorra, to [[Toulouse]] and on to Paris by the French [[TGV|high-speed trains]]. This line is operated by the [[SNCF]]. Latour-de-Carol has a scenic {{RailGauge|1000mm|allk=on}} [[Yellow Train|trainline]] to [[Villefranche-de-Conflent]], as well as the SNCF's {{RailGauge|1435mm|disp=1}} gauge line connecting to [[Perpignan]], and the [[RENFE|RENFE's]] {{RailGauge|1668mm}} [[Iberian gauge|-gauge]] line to [[Barcelona]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bueker.net/trainspotting/map.php?file=maps/french-network/french-network.gif|title=Sncf Map |language=de |publisher=Bueker.net |date= |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.maplandia.com/france/languedoc-roussillon/pyrenees-orientales/prades/latour-de-carol/ |title=Google map |publisher=Maplandia.com |date= |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref> There are also direct [[Intercités#Night trains|Intercités de Nuit]] trains between L'Hospitalet-près-l'Andorre and Paris on certain dates.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.seat61.com/Andorra.htm|title=How to travel by train from London to Andorra}}</ref> ==Media and telecommunications== {{Main|Telecommunications in Andorra}} {{See also|Andorra Telecom}} {{update|section|date=November 2015}} In Andorra, mobile and fixed telephone and internet services are operated exclusively by the Andorran national telecommunications company, SOM, also known as [[Andorra Telecom]] (STA). The same company also manages the technical infrastructure for national broadcasting of digital television and radio. By the end of 2010, it was planned that every home in the country would have fibre-to-the-home for internet access at a minimum speed of 100&nbsp;Mbit/s,<ref name="somfo">SOM Newsletter, March 2009.</ref> and the availability was complete in June 2012. There is only one Andorran television station, ''[[Ràdio i Televisió d'Andorra]]'' (RTVA). ''Radio Nacional d'Andorra'' operates two radio stations, ''[[Radio Andorra]]'' and ''Andorra Música''. There are three national newspapers, ''[[Diari d'Andorra]]'', ''[[El Periòdic d'Andorra]]'', and ''[[Bondia (newspaper)|Bondia]]'' as well as several local newspapers. There is also an [[amateur radio]] society.<ref>[http://www.ura.ad/ Unió de Radioaficionats Andorra]. Ura.ad. Retrieved on 2015-12-30.</ref> Additional TV and radio stations from [[Spain]] and [[France]] are available via digital terrestrial television and IPTV. ==Culture== {{Main|Culture of Andorra}} {{See also|Music of Andorra}} [[File:HPIM0309.JPG|thumb|right|Andorran flag on balcony, Ordino]] The official and historic language is Catalan. Thus the culture is Catalan, with its own specificity. Andorra is home to folk dances like the contrapàs and marratxa, which survive in [[Sant Julià de Lòria]] especially. Andorran folk music has similarities to the music of its neighbours, but is especially [[music of Catalonia|Catalan]] in character, especially in the presence of dances such as the [[sardana]]. Other Andorran folk dances include contrapàs in [[Andorra la Vella]] and Saint Anne's dance in Escaldes-Engordany. Andorra's national holiday is [[Our Lady of Meritxell]] Day, 8 September.<ref name="cia"/> American folk artist [[Malvina Reynolds]], intrigued by its defence budget of $4.90, wrote a song "Andorra". [[Pete Seeger]] added verses, and sang "Andorra" on his 1962 album ''The Bitter and the Sweet''. ==Sports== Andorra is famous for the practice of [[winter sports]]. Popular sports played in Andorra include [[Association football|football]], [[rugby union]], [[basketball]] and [[Roller hockey (quad)|roller hockey]]. In [[Roller hockey (quad)|roller hockey]] Andorra usually plays in [[CERH European Roller Hockey Championship|CERH Euro Cup]] and in [[FIRS Roller Hockey World Cup]]. In 2011, Andorra was the host country to the [[2011 European League Final Eight]]. [[File:Estadi Comunal Vella.jpg|thumb|[[Estadi Comunal d'Andorra la Vella]] ]] The country is represented in association football by the [[Andorra national football team]]. However, the team has had little success internationally because of Andorra's small population.<ref name="fifa">{{cite web|url=https://www.fifa.com/associations/association=and/ranking/gender=m/index.html |title=FIFA Rankings – Andorra |publisher=Fifa.com |date= |accessdate=26 August 2012}}</ref> Football is governed in Andorra by the [[Andorran Football Federation]] - founded in 1994, it organizes the national competitions of association football ([[Primera Divisió]], [[Copa Constitució]] and [[Andorran Supercup|Supercopa]]) and [[futsal]]. Andorra was admitted to [[UEFA]] and [[FIFA]] in the same year, 1996. [[FC Andorra]], a club based in [[Andorra la Vella]] founded in 1942, compete in the [[Spanish football league system]]. [[Rugby union|Rugby]] is a traditional sport in Andorra, mainly influenced by the popularity in southern France. The [[Andorra national rugby union team]], nicknamed "''Els Isards''", has impressed on the international stage in [[rugby union]] and [[rugby sevens]].<ref>[http://www.irb.com/rankings/sportid=1/news/newsid=2070876.html#usa+andorra+improve+rating+rankings] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140522033240/http://www.irb.com/rankings/sportid%3D1/news/newsid%3D2070876.html|date=22 May 2014}}</ref> [[VPC Andorra XV]] is a rugby team based in [[Andorra la Vella]] actually playing in the French championship. Basketball popularity has increased in the country since the 1990s, when the Andorran team [[BC Andorra]] played in the top league of [[Spain]] ([[Liga ACB]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marca.com/2012/11/13/baloncesto/basketfeb/1352828175.html |title=El BC Andorra quiere volver a la Liga más bella |publisher=MARCA.com |date= |accessdate=2015-05-14}}</ref> After 18 years the club returned to the top league in 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elmundo.es/deportes/2014/03/22/532e12b2e2704e1a3d8b457f.html |title=El River Andorra regresa a la ACB 18 años después &#124; Baloncesto &#124; EL MUNDO |publisher=Elmundo.es |date=2014-03-22 |accessdate=2015-05-14}}</ref> Other sports practised in Andorra include [[cycling]], volleyball, [[judo]], [[Australian Rules football]], [[handball]], swimming, gymnastics, tennis and [[motorsports]]. In 2012, Andorra raised its first national [[cricket]] team and played a home match against the Dutch Fellowship of Fairly Odd Places Cricket Club, the first match played in the history of Andorra at an altitude of {{convert|1300|m}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=Netherlands Based FFOP CC Beats Andorra National Team|url=http://www.cricketworld.com/netherlands-based-ffop-cc-beats-andorra-xi/32216.htm|work=Cricket World|accessdate=18 December 2012|date=3 September 2012}}</ref> Andorra first participated at the [[Olympic Games]] in 1976. The country has also appeared in every [[Winter Olympic]] Games since [[1976 Winter Olympics|1976]]. Andorra competes in the [[Games of the Small States of Europe]] being twice the host country in [[1991 Games of the Small States of Europe|1991]] and [[2005 Games of the Small States of Europe|2005]]. As part of the Catalan cultural ambit, Andorra is home to a team of [[castell]]ers, or Catalan human tower builders. The {{ill|Castellers d'Andorra|ca}}, based in the town of [[Santa Coloma d'Andorra]], are recognized by the [[:ca:Coordinadora de Colles Castelleres de Catalunya|Coordinadora de Colles Castelleres de Catalunya]], the governing body of castells. ===Major achievements=== [[Ariadna Tudel Cuberes]] and [[Sophie Dusautoir Bertrand]] earned the bronze medal in the women's team competition at the [[2009 European Championship of Ski Mountaineering]]. [[Joan Verdu Sanchez]] earned a bronze medal in [[Alpine skiing at the 2012 Winter Youth Olympics|Alpine Skiing at the 2012 Winter Youth Olympics]]. In 2015, [[Marc Oliveras]] earned a silver medal in [[Alpine skiing at the 2015 Winter Universiade|Alpine Skiing at the 2015 Winter Universiade]], while [[Carmina Pallas]] earned a silver and a bronze medal in the same competition. ==See also== {{Portal|Andorra|Catalan-speaking countries}} {{Wikipedia books|Andorra}} * [[Index of Andorra-related articles]] * [[Outline of Andorra]] * [[Bibliography of Andorra]] {{-}} ==References== {{Reflist}} ==External links== {{Wikibooks|Wikijunior:Countries A-Z|voy=Andorra|Andorra}} {{Wikisource|Portal:Andorra|Andorra Portal}} {{Sister project links|voy=Andorra|d=Q228}} * [http://www.govern.ad/ Govern d'Andorra]{{snd}} Official governmental site {{ca icon}} * {{CIA World Factbook link|an|Andorra}} * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/international/hispanic/andorra/andorra.html Portals to the World] from the United States [[Library of Congress]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090227101123/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/andorra.htm Andorra] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{dmoz|Regional/Europe/Andorra}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17028050 Andorra] from the [[BBC News]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20141018002545/http://bloggordo.com/andorra-guia-turismo-y-de-viajes/ Andorra – Guía, turismo y de viajes] * [http://eudocs.lib.byu.edu/index.php/History_of_Andorra:_Primary_Documents History of Andorra: Primary Documents] from ''EuroDocs'' * [https://www.nytimes.com/slideshow/2010/08/27/business/global/28andorra-slideshow.html A New Path for Andorra] – slideshow by ''[[The New York Times]]'' * {{osmrelation-inline|9407|bullet=no}} * {{Wikiatlas|Andorra}} {{Andorra topics}} {{Navboxes | title = Geographic locale | list = {{Countries of Europe}} }} {{Navboxes | title = International membership | list = {{Monarchies}} {{Council of Europe}} {{La Francophonie |state=collapsed}} }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Andorra| ]]<!--please leave the empty space as standard--> [[Category:Diarchies]] [[Category:Duty-free zones of Europe]] [[Category:French-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Iberian Peninsula]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] [[Category:Member states of the Council of Europe]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Monarchies of Europe]] [[Category:Països Catalans]] [[Category:Prince-Bishoprics]] [[Category:Pyrenees]] [[Category:Romance countries and territories]] [[Category:Southwestern European countries]] [[Category:Spanish-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Special economic zones]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1278]] [[Category:1278 establishments in Europe]] [[Category:Southern European countries]] [[Category:Principalities]] bap92fneh2or17atku0je4wgeth16h0 0 609 783825978 783824686 2017-06-04T22:17:44Z Tom.Reding 9784415 Fix wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Andorra]] {{Redirect category shell|1= {{R from subpage}} }} {{nahmc||Foreign relations of Andorra}} 6zs4dav8o915j1j8k1rcgiulpdp8l55 0 612 860619677 860616447 2018-09-21T22:49:39Z Wcherowi 13428914 /* Definition */ change "containing" to "consisting of" for correctness wikitext text/x-wiki {{broader|Mean}} {{more citations needed|date=July 2013}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} In [[mathematics]] and [[statistics]], the '''arithmetic mean''' ({{IPAc-en|pron|ˌ|æ|r|ɪ|θ|ˈ|m|ɛ|t|ɪ|k|_|ˈ|m|iː|n}}, stress on third syllable of "arithmetic"), or simply the [[mean]] or '''average''' when the context is clear, is the sum of a collection of numbers divided by the number of numbers in the collection.<ref>{{cite book | last = Jacobs | first = Harold R. | title = Mathematics: A Human Endeavor | edition = Third | year = 1994 | publisher = [[W. H. Freeman]] | page = 547 | isbn = 0-7167-2426-X}}</ref> The collection is often a set of results of an [[experiment]] or an [[observational study]], or frequently a set of results from a [[Survey (statistics)|survey]]. The term "arithmetic mean" is preferred in some contexts in mathematics and statistics because it helps distinguish it from other [[average|mean]]s, such as the [[geometric mean]] and the [[harmonic mean]]. In addition to mathematics and statistics, the arithmetic mean is used frequently in many diverse fields such as [[economics]], [[anthropology]], and [[history]], and it is used in almost every academic field to some extent. For example, [[per capita income]] is the arithmetic average income of a nation's population. While the arithmetic mean is often used to report [[central tendency|central tendencies]], it is not a [[robust statistic]], meaning that it is greatly influenced by [[outlier]]s (values that are very much larger or smaller than most of the values). Notably, for [[skewed distribution]]s, such as the [[distribution of income]] for which a few people's incomes are substantially greater than most people's, the arithmetic mean may not coincide with one's notion of "middle", and robust statistics, such as the [[median]], may be a better description of central tendency. ==Definition== The '''arithmetic mean''' (or '''mean''' or '''average''') is the most commonly used and readily understood measure of central tendency in a [[data set]]. In statistics, the term average refers to any of the measures of central tendency. The arithmetic mean of a set of observed data is defined as being equal to the sum of the numerical values of each and every observation divided by the total number of observations. Symbolically, if we have a data set consisting of the values <math>a_1, a_2, \ldots, a_n</math>, then the arithmetic mean <math>A</math> is defined by the formula: :<math>A=\frac{1}{n}\sum_{i=1}^n a_i=\frac{a_1+a_2+\cdots+a_n}{n}</math> (See [[summation]] for an explanation of the [[summation operator]]). For example, let us consider the monthly salary of 10 employees of a firm: 2500, 2700, 2400, 2300, 2550, 2650, 2750, 2450, 2600, 2400. The arithmetic mean is : <math>\frac{ 2500+ 2700+ 2400+ 2300+ 2550+ 2650+ 2750+ 2450+ 2600+ 2400}{10}=2530.</math> If the data set is a [[statistical population]] (i.e., consists of every possible observation and not just a subset of them), then the mean of that population is called the '''population mean'''. If the data set is a [[sampling (statistics)|statistical sample]] (a subset of the population), we call the statistic resulting from this calculation a '''sample mean'''. The arithmetic mean of a discrete variable is often denoted by a bar, for example as in <math>\bar{x}</math> (read <math>x</math> ''bar''), which is the mean of the <math>n</math> values <math>x_1,x_2,\ldots,x_n</math>.<ref name="JM">{{cite book| last = Medhi| first = Jyotiprasad| title = Statistical Methods: An Introductory Text| url = https://books.google.com/?id=bRUwgf_q5RsC| year = 1992| publisher = New Age International| isbn = 9788122404197| pages = 53–58 }}</ref> ==Motivating properties== The arithmetic mean has several properties that make it useful, especially as a measure of central tendency. These include: * If numbers <math>x_1,\dotsc,x_n</math> have mean <math>\bar{x}</math>, then <math>(x_1-\bar{x}) + \dotsb + (x_n-\bar{x}) = 0</math>. Since <math>x_i-\bar{x}</math> is the distance from a given number to the mean, one way to interpret this property is as saying that the numbers to the left of the mean are balanced by the numbers to the right of the mean. The mean is the only single number for which the [[errors and residuals in statistics|residuals]] (deviations from the estimate) sum to zero. * If it is required to use a single number as a "typical" value for a set of known numbers <math>x_1,\dotsc,x_n</math>, then the arithmetic mean of the numbers does this best, in the sense of minimizing the sum of squared deviations from the typical value: the sum of <math>(x_i-\bar{x})^2</math>. (It follows that the sample mean is also the best single predictor in the sense of having the lowest [[root mean squared error]].)<ref name="JM"/> If the arithmetic mean of a population of numbers is desired, then the estimate of it that is [[unbiased estimate|unbiased]] is the arithmetic mean of a sample drawn from the population. ==Contrast with median== The arithmetic mean may be contrasted with the median. The median is defined such that no more than half the values are larger than, and no more than half are smaller than, the median. If elements in the data [[arithmetic progression|increase arithmetically]], when placed in some order, then the median and arithmetic average are equal. For example, consider the data sample <math>{1,2,3,4}</math>. The average is <math>2.5</math>, as is the median. However, when we consider a sample that cannot be arranged so as to increase arithmetically, such as <math>{1,2,4,8,16}</math>, the median and arithmetic average can differ significantly. In this case, the arithmetic average is 6.2 and the median is 4. In general, the average value can vary significantly from most values in the sample, and can be larger or smaller than most of them. There are applications of this phenomenon in many fields. For example, since the 1980s, the median income in the United States has increased more slowly than the arithmetic average of income.<ref>{{cite magazine |first=Paul |last=Krugman |url=http://prospect.org/article/rich-right-and-facts-deconstructing-inequality-debate |title=The Rich, the Right, and the Facts: Deconstructing the Income Distribution Debate |work=The American Prospect |date=June 4, 2014 |orig-year=Fall 1992}}</ref> ==Generalizations== ===Weighted average=== {{main|Weighted average}} A weighted average, or weighted mean, is an average in which some data points count more heavily than others, in that they are given more weight in the calculation. For example, the arithmetic mean of <math>3</math> and <math>5</math> is <math>\frac{(3+5)}{2} = 4</math>, or equivalently <math>\left( \frac{1}{2} \cdot 3\right) + \left( \frac{1}{2} \cdot 5\right) = 4</math>. In contrast, a ''weighted'' mean in which the first number receives, for example, twice as much weight as the second (perhaps because it is assumed to appear twice as often in the general population from which these numbers were sampled) would be calculated as <math>\left( \frac{2}{3} \cdot 3\right) + \left(\frac{1}{3} \cdot 5\right) = \frac{11}{3}</math>. Here the weights, which necessarily sum to the value one, are <math>(2/3)</math> and <math>(1/3)</math>, the former being twice the latter. Note that the arithmetic mean (sometimes called the "unweighted average" or "equally weighted average") can be interpreted as a special case of a weighted average in which all the weights are equal to each other (equal to <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> in the above example, and equal to <math>\frac{1}{n}</math> in a situation with <math>n</math> numbers being averaged). ===Continuous probability distributions=== [[File:Comparison mean median mode.svg|thumb|300px|Comparison of mean, [[median]] and [[mode (statistics)|mode]] of two [[log-normal distribution]]s with different [[skewness]].]] When a population of numbers, and any sample of data from it, could take on any of a continuous range of numbers, instead of for example just integers, then the [[probability]] of a number falling into one range of possible values could differ from the probability of falling into a different range of possible values, even if the lengths of both ranges are the same. In such a case, the set of probabilities can be described using a [[continuous probability distribution]]. The analog of a weighted average in this context, in which there are an infinitude of possibilities for the precise value of the variable, is called the ''mean of the probability distribution''. The most widely encountered probability distribution is called the [[normal distribution]]; it has the property that all measures of its central tendency, including not just the mean but also the aforementioned median and the [[Mode (statistics)|mode]], are equal to each other. This property does not hold however, in the cases of a great many probability distributions, such as the [[lognormal distribution]] illustrated here. ==Angles== {{Main|Mean of circular quantities}} Particular care must be taken when using cyclic data, such as phases or [[angle]]s. Naïvely taking the arithmetic mean of 1° and 359° yields a result of 180°. This is incorrect for two reasons: * Firstly, angle measurements are only defined up to an additive constant of [[degree (angle)|360°]] (or 2π, if measuring in [[radian]]s). Thus one could as easily call these 1° and −1°, or 361° and 719°, each of which gives a different average. * Secondly, in this situation, 0° (equivalently, 360°) is geometrically a better ''average'' value: there is lower [[statistical dispersion|dispersion]] about it (the points are both 1° from it, and 179° from 180°, the putative average). In general application, such an oversight will lead to the average value artificially moving towards the middle of the numerical range. A solution to this problem is to use the optimization formulation ([[viz.]], define the mean as the central point: the point about which one has the lowest dispersion), and redefine the difference as a modular distance (i.e., the distance on the circle: so the modular distance between 1° and 359° is 2°, not 358°). ==See also== * [[Average]] * [[Fréchet mean]] * [[Generalized mean]] * [[Geometric mean]] * [[Harmonic mean]] * [[Mode (statistics)|Mode]] * [[Sample mean and covariance]] * [[Standard error of the mean]] * [[Summary statistics]] ==References== {{reflist}} ==Further reading== * {{cite book| last = Huff| first = Darrell| title = How to Lie with Statistics| year = 1993| publisher = W. W. Norton| isbn = 978-0-393-31072-6 }} ==External links== * [http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-geommean.htm Calculations and comparisons between arithmetic and geometric mean of two numbers] * {{MathWorld | urlname= ArithmeticMean | title= Arithmetic Mean}} * [http://www.fxsolver.com/browse/formulas/Arithmetic+Mean Calculate the arithmetic mean of a series of numbers on fxSolver] {{Statistics|descriptive}} {{Portal bar|Statistics}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Arithmetic Mean}} [[Category:Means]] m870wr0fcogiksn7lcvwav9rt5eigv3 0 615 861465196 861465019 2018-09-27T16:45:07Z 72.90.69.91 The previous edit did not correctly re-arrange all four teams in the NFC East 2017 standings wikitext text/x-wiki {{more citations needed|date=September 2014}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox sports conference | title = American Football Conference | league = [[National Football League]] | logo = American Football Conference logo.svg | caption = American Football Conference logo (2010–present) | pixels = 150 px | formerly = [[American Football League]] (AFL) | sport = [[American football]] | founded = 1970 | teams = 16 | champion = <!--NOTE: This lists AFC titles only, NOT Super Bowl titles-->[[New England Patriots]]<br />(10th title) | most_champs = <!--NOTE: This lists AFC titles only, NOT Super Bowl titles-->[[New England Patriots]]<br />(10 titles) }} The '''American Football Conference''' ('''AFC''') is one of the two [[Conference (sports)|conferences]] of the [[National Football League]] (NFL), the highest professional level of American football in the United States. This conference and its counterpart, the [[National Football Conference]] (NFC), currently contain 16 teams each, making up the 32 teams of the NFL. Both conferences were created as part of the [[AFL–NFL merger|1970 merger]] with the rival [[American Football League]] (AFL), with all ten of the former AFL teams and three NFL teams forming the AFC, and the remaining thirteen NFL clubs forming the NFC. A series of league expansions and division realignments have occurred since the merger, thus making the current total of 16 clubs in each conference. ==Current teams== Since 2002, like the NFC, the AFC has 16 teams, organized into four [[Division (sport)|divisions]] each with four teams: [[AFC East|East]], [[AFC North|North]], [[AFC South|South]] and [[AFC West|West]]. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left" ! Division ! Team ! Location ! Stadium |- ! style=background:white rowspan=4 | [[AFC East|East]] | '''[[Buffalo Bills]]''' | [[Orchard Park (town), New York|Orchard Park, New York]] | [[New Era Field]] |- | '''[[Miami Dolphins]]''' | [[Miami Gardens, Florida]] | [[Hard Rock Stadium]] |- | '''[[New England Patriots]]''' | [[Foxborough, Massachusetts]] | [[Gillette Stadium]] |- | '''[[New York Jets]]''' | [[East Rutherford, New Jersey]] | [[MetLife Stadium]] |- ! style=background:white rowspan=4 | [[AFC North|North]] | '''[[Baltimore Ravens]]''' | [[Baltimore|Baltimore, Maryland]] | [[M&T Bank Stadium]] |- | '''[[Cincinnati Bengals]]''' | [[Cincinnati|Cincinnati, Ohio]] | [[Paul Brown Stadium]] |- | '''[[Cleveland Browns]]''' | [[Cleveland|Cleveland, Ohio]] | [[FirstEnergy Stadium (Cleveland)|FirstEnergy Stadium]] |- | '''[[Pittsburgh Steelers]]''' | [[Pittsburgh|Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]] | [[Heinz Field]] |- ! style=background:white rowspan=4 | [[AFC South|South]] | '''[[Houston Texans]]''' | [[Houston|Houston, Texas]] | [[NRG Stadium]] |- | '''[[Indianapolis Colts]]''' | [[Indianapolis|Indianapolis, Indiana]] | [[Lucas Oil Stadium]] |- | '''[[Jacksonville Jaguars]]''' | [[Jacksonville, Florida]] | [[TIAA Bank Field]] |- | '''[[Tennessee Titans]]''' | [[Nashville, Tennessee]] | [[Nissan Stadium]] |- ! style=background:white rowspan=4 | [[AFC West|West]] | '''[[Denver Broncos]]''' | [[Denver|Denver, Colorado]] | [[Broncos Stadium at Mile High]] |- | '''[[Kansas City Chiefs]]''' | [[Kansas City, Missouri]] | [[Arrowhead Stadium]] |- | '''[[Los Angeles Chargers]]''' | [[Carson, California]] | [[StubHub Center]] |- | '''[[Oakland Raiders]]''' | [[Oakland, California]] | [[Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum]] |} ==Season structure== {{Unreferenced section|date=September 2014}} {{Main|NFL regular season|NFL playoffs}} <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:350px;"> {| class="wikitable" |- ! {{abbr|POS|Position}} !! AFC East !! AFC North !! AFC South !! AFC West |- | 1st || style="background-color:#00ff00"| [[New England Patriots|Patriots]] || style="background-color:#ffaa00"| [[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]] || style="background-color:#ffff00"| [[Jacksonville Jaguars|Jaguars]] || style="background-color:#ffaa00"| [[Kansas City Chiefs|Chiefs]] |- | 2nd || style="background-color:#add8e6"| [[Buffalo Bills|Bills]] || [[Baltimore Ravens|Ravens]] || style="background-color:#ffff00"| [[Tennessee Titans|Titans]] || [[Los Angeles Chargers|Chargers]] |- | 3rd || style="background-color:#add8e6"| [[Miami Dolphins|Dolphins]] || [[Cincinnati Bengals|Bengals]] || style="background-color:#ffff00"| [[Indianapolis Colts|Colts]] || [[Oakland Raiders|Raiders]] |- | 4th || style="background-color:#add8e6"| [[New York Jets|Jets]] || [[Cleveland Browns|Browns]] || style="background-color:#ffff00"| [[Houston Texans|Texans]] || [[Denver Broncos|Broncos]] |- |colspan=5| |- ! {{abbr|POS|Position}} !! NFC East !! NFC North !! NFC South !! NFC West |- | 1st ||[[Philadelphia Eagles|Eagles]]|| style="background-color:#ffff00" |[[Green Bay Packers|Packers]] || [[Atlanta Falcons|Falcons]] || [[Seattle Seahawks|Seahawks]] |- | 2nd ||[[Dallas Cowboys|Cowboys]]|| style="background-color:#ffff00" |[[Detroit Lions|Lions]] || [[Tampa Bay Buccaneers|Buccaneers]] || [[Arizona Cardinals|Cardinals]] |- | 3rd ||[[Washington Redskins|Redskins]]|| style="background-color:#ffff00" |[[Minnesota Vikings|Vikings]] || [[New Orleans Saints|Saints]] || [[Los Angeles Rams|Rams]] |- | 4th ||[[New York Giants|Giants]]|| style="background-color:#ffff00" |[[Chicago Bears|Bears]] || [[Carolina Panthers|Panthers]] || [[San Francisco 49ers|49ers]] |} <div class="thumbcaption"> This chart of the [[2017 NFL season#Regular season standings|2017 season standings]] displays an application of the NFL scheduling formula. The [[2017 New England Patriots season|Patriots in 2017]] (highlighted in green) finished in first place in the [[AFC East]]. Thus, [[2018 New England Patriots season|in 2018]], the Patriots will play two games against each of its division rivals (highlighted in light blue), one game against each team in the [[AFC South]] and [[NFC North]] (highlighted in yellow), and one game each against the first-place finishers in the [[AFC North]] and [[AFC West]] (highlighted in orange).</div> </div> </div> Currently, the thirteen opponents each team faces over the 16-game regular season schedule are set using a pre-determined formula:<ref>{{cite web|title=2012 Opponents Determined|url=http://nfllabor.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/2012-opponents-determined.pdf|publisher=[[National Football League|NFL]]|accessdate=January 23, 2012|date=January 2, 2012}}</ref> Each AFC team plays the other teams in their respective division twice (home and away) during the regular season, in addition to 10 other games assigned to their schedule by the NFL. Two of these games are assigned on the basis of a particular team's final divisional standing from the previous season. The remaining 8 games are split between the roster of two other NFL divisions. This assignment shifts each year and will follow a standard cycle. Using the 2012 regular season schedule as an example, each team in the AFC West plays against every team in the AFC North and NFC South. In this way, non-divisional competition will be mostly among common opponents – the exception being the two games assigned based on the team's prior-season divisional standing. At the end of each season, the winner of each division, in addition to the two remaining conference teams with the highest regular season records, proceed into the [[National Football League playoffs|playoffs]]. These teams consist of the four division winners and the top two [[Wild card (sports)|wild card]] teams. The AFC playoffs culminate in the [[AFC Championship Game]] with the winner receiving the [[Lamar Hunt]] Trophy. The AFC Champion then plays the [[National Football Conference|NFC]] Champion in the [[Super Bowl]]. ==History== {{refimprove section|date=September 2014}} [[File:Oldafclogo.JPG|thumb|right|150px|Original American Football Conference logo, based on the AFL logo with blue stars]] Both the AFC and the NFC were created after the NFL [[AFL–NFL merger|merged]] with the [[American Football League]] (AFL) in 1970.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldalmanacforkids.com/WAKI-ViewArticle.aspx?pin=x-fo055624a&article_id=608&chapter_id=13&chapter_title=Sports&article_title=Pro_Football_History|title=Pro Football – History|access-date=3 April 2009}}</ref> The AFL began play in 1960 with eight teams, and added two more expansion clubs (the [[Miami Dolphins]] in 1966 and the [[Cincinnati Bengals]] in 1968) before the merger. In order to equalize the number of teams in each conference, three NFL teams that predated the AFL's launch (the [[Cleveland Browns]], [[Pittsburgh Steelers]], and the then-[[Baltimore Colts]]) joined the ten former AFL teams to form the AFC. The two AFL divisions [[AFL East]] and [[AFL West]] were more or less intact, while the Century Division, in which the Browns and the Steelers had played since 1967, was moved from the NFL to become the new AFC Central. Since the merger, five expansion teams have joined the AFC and two have left, thus making the current total 16. When the [[Seattle Seahawks]] and the [[Tampa Bay Buccaneers]] joined the league in 1976, they were temporarily placed in the NFC and AFC respectively. This arrangement lasted for one season only before the two teams switched conferences. The Seahawks eventually returned to the NFC as a result of the [[2002 NFL season#Expansion and realignment|2002 realignment]]. The expansion [[Jacksonville Jaguars]] joined the AFC in 1995. There have been five teams that have relocated at least once. In 1984, the [[History of the Baltimore Colts|Baltimore Colts]] [[Baltimore Colts relocation to Indianapolis|relocated]] to Indianapolis in 1984. In 1995, the [[Cleveland Browns]] had attempted to move to Baltimore; the resulting [[Cleveland Browns relocation controversy|dispute]] between Cleveland and the team led to Modell establishing the [[Baltimore Ravens]] with the players and personnel from the Browns, while the Browns were placed in suspended operations before they were reinstated by the NFL. The Ravens were treated as an expansion team. In California, the [[Oakland Raiders]] relocated to Los Angeles in 1982, and back to Oakland in 1995, while the [[History of the San Diego Chargers|San Diego Chargers]] moved to Los Angeles in 2017. The [[History of the Houston Oilers|Houston Oilers]] moved to [[Tennessee]] in 1997, where they were renamed the Tennessee Oilers. The team would change its name again, two years later, to the [[Tennessee Titans]]. The NFL would again expand in 2002, adding the [[Houston Texans]] to the AFC. Between 1995 and 2017, the AFC has sent less than half of the 16 AFC teams to the [[Super Bowl]] with only 7 of the 16 individual teams making it. [[New England Patriots]] (9 times), [[Denver Broncos]] (4 times), [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] (4 times), [[Baltimore Ravens]] (2 times), [[Indianapolis Colts]] (2 times), [[Oakland Raiders]] (1 time), and [[Tennessee Titans]] (1 time). By contrast, the [[National Football Conference|NFC]] has sent 13 of the 16 NFC teams during that same time frame with only the [[Detroit Lions]], [[Minnesota Vikings]], and [[Washington Redskins]] missing out on an appearance in the [[Super Bowl]]. 15 of the last 17 AFC champions have started one of just three quarterbacks - [[Tom Brady]], [[Peyton Manning]], and [[Ben Roethlisberger]] - in the Super Bowl. ==Logo== [[Image:American Football Conference logo old.svg|right|thumb|2nd American Football Conference logo used from 1970 to 2009|216x216px]] The merged league created a new logo for the AFC that took elements of the old AFL logo, specifically the "A" and the six stars surrounding it. The AFC logo basically remained unchanged from 1970 to 2009. The 2010 NFL season introduced an updated AFC logo, with the most notable revision being the removal of two stars (leaving four representing the four divisions of the AFC), and moving the stars inside the letter, similar to the NFC logo.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uniwatchblog.com/2010/03/02/but-i-absolutely-refuse-to-write-about-the-draft-caps/ |title=But I Absolutely Refuse to Write About the Draft Caps |author=Paul Lukas |publisher=Uni Watch blog |access-date=16 April 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100506134900/http://www.uniwatchblog.com/2010/03/02/but-i-absolutely-refuse-to-write-about-the-draft-caps/ |archivedate=6 May 2010 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy }}</ref> ==References== {{reflist}} {{NFL}} {{Navboxes|list= {{Baltimore Ravens}} {{Buffalo Bills}} {{Cincinnati Bengals}} {{Cleveland Browns}} {{Denver Broncos}} {{Houston Texans}} {{Indianapolis Colts}} {{Jacksonville Jaguars}} {{Kansas City Chiefs}} {{Los Angeles Chargers}} {{Miami Dolphins}} {{New England Patriots}} {{New York Jets}} {{Oakland Raiders}} {{Pittsburgh Steelers}} {{Tennessee Titans}} }} [[Category:National Football League]] [[Category:American Football League|Conference]] [[Category:Sports organisations established in 1970]] 0ep856dtu2cqf6pccmcknpvfpcctdx7 0 617 783824698 332508764 2017-06-04T22:06:44Z Tom.Reding 9784415 +{{R category shell}} using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki #redirect [[Al Gore]] {{Redirect category shell|1= {{R from full name}} }} qqxhnykrdapjtt7nxre5y7neguz3bjx 0 618 783824707 427328657 2017-06-04T22:06:49Z Tom.Reding 9784415 +{{R category shell}} using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding]] {{Redirect category shell|1= {{R from CamelCase}} }} oe9jtpfh7qyawpzt0zv3ridkfl9snvk 0 620 861940166 861896206 2018-10-01T03:26:51Z XYZtSpace 33536410 Reverted [[WP:AGF|good faith]] edits by [[Special:Contributions/MrTugg27|MrTugg27]] ([[User talk:MrTugg27|talk]]): Unsourced. ([[WP:TW|TW]]) wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|the novel by George Orwell}} {{Pp-semi-indef}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2017}} {{Use British English|date=June 2011}} {{Infobox book | name = Animal Farm | title_orig = Animal Farm: A Fairy Story | image = Animal Farm - 1st edition.jpg | caption = First edition cover | author = [[George Orwell]] | illustrator = | cover_artist = | country = United Kingdom | language = English | genre = Political satire | published = 17 August 1945 ([[Secker and Warburg]], London, England) | media_type = Print (hardback & paperback) | pages = 112 (UK paperback edition) <!-- First edition page count preferred --> | isbn = <!-- First released before ISBN system implemented --> | dewey = 823/.912 20 | congress = PR6029.R8 A63 2003b | oclc = 53163540 }} '''''Animal Farm''''' is an [[allegory|allegorical]] novella by [[George Orwell]], first published in England on 17 August 1945.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bynum |first=Helen |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |isbn=9780199542055 |title=Spitting Blood: The History of Tuberculosis |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cVih-ivuiiwC&pg=PR13 |p=xiii}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://metro.co.uk/2015/08/17/12-things-you-may-not-know-about-animal-farm-for-17th-5317058/|title=12 Things You May Not Know About Animal Farm|newspaper=Metro|date=17 August 2015|accessdate=16 August 2018}}</ref> According to Orwell, the book reflects events leading up to the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]] and then on into the [[History of the Soviet Union (1927–53)|Stalinist era]] of the [[Soviet Union]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningzone/clips/george-orwells-animal-farm-historical-context-pt-1-3/8177.html |title=GCSE English Literature – ''Animal Farm'' – historical context (pt 1/3) |website=[[BBC]] |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103211528/http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningzone/clips/george-orwells-animal-farm-historical-context-pt-1-3/8177.html |archivedate=3 January 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Orwell, a [[democratic socialism|democratic socialist]],<ref>Orwell, George. "[[Why I Write]]" (1936) (''The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell Volume 1 – An Age Like This 1945–1950'' p.&nbsp;23 (Penguin))</ref> was a critic of [[Joseph Stalin]] and hostile to Moscow-directed [[Stalinism]], an attitude that was critically shaped by his experiences during the [[Spanish Civil War]].<ref>Gordon Bowker, ''Orwell'' p.&nbsp;224 ; Orwell, writing in his review of [[Franz Borkenau]]'s ''The Spanish Cockpit'' in ''[[Time and Tide (magazine)|Time and Tide]]'', 31 July 1937, and "Spilling the Spanish Beans", ''New English Weekly'', 29 July 1937</ref> The Soviet Union, he believed, had become a brutal [[dictatorship]], built upon a [[cult of personality]] and enforced by [[great purge|a reign of terror]]. In a letter to Yvonne Davet, Orwell described ''Animal Farm'' as a [[satire|satirical]] tale against Stalin ("''{{lang|fr|un conte satirique contre Staline}}''"),{{sfn|Davison|2000|p=}} and in his essay "[[Why I Write]]" (1946), wrote that ''Animal Farm'' was the first book in which he tried, with full consciousness of what he was doing, "to fuse political purpose and artistic purpose into one whole". The original title was ''Animal Farm: A Fairy Story,'' but U.S. publishers dropped the subtitle when it was published in 1946, and only one of the translations during Orwell's lifetime kept it. Other titular variations include subtitles like "A Satire" and "A Contemporary Satire".{{sfn|Davison|2000|p=}} Orwell suggested the title ''{{lang|fr|Union des républiques socialistes animales}}'' for the French translation, which abbreviates to URSA, the [[Latin]] word for "bear", a [[Russian bear|symbol of Russia]]. It also played on the French name of the Soviet Union, ''{{lang|fr|Union des républiques socialistes soviétiques}}''.{{sfn|Davison|2000|p=}} Orwell wrote the book between November 1943 and February 1944, when the UK was in its wartime alliance with the Soviet Union and the British people and intelligentsia held Stalin in high esteem, a phenomenon Orwell hated.<ref>[[Bradbury, Malcolm]], Introduction, p.&nbsp;vi, ''Animal Farm'', Penguin edition, 1989</ref> The manuscript was initially rejected by a number of British and American publishers,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.historytoday.com/robert-pearce/animal-farm-sixty-years |title=''Animal Farm'': Sixty Years On |website=[[History Today]] |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171108041135/http://www.historytoday.com/robert-pearce/animal-farm-sixty-years |archivedate=8 November 2017 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> including one of Orwell's own, [[Victor Gollancz]], which delayed its publication. It became a great commercial success when it did appear partly because international relations were transformed as the wartime alliance gave way to the [[Cold War]].<ref>Dickstein, Morris. ''Cambridge Companion to Orwell'', p.&nbsp;134</ref> ''Time'' magazine chose the book as one of the 100 best English-language novels (1923 to 2005);{{sfn|Grossman|Lacayo|2005|p=}} it also featured at number 31 on the [[Modern Library List of Best 20th-Century Novels]]. It won a Retrospective [[Hugo Award]] in 1996 and is included in the [[Great Books of the Western World]] selection. ==Plot summary== [[Old Major]], the old boar on the Manor Farm, summons the animals on the farm together for a meeting, during which he refers to humans as "enemies" and teaches the animals a revolutionary song called "[[Beasts of England]]". When Major dies, two young pigs, [[Snowball (Animal Farm)|Snowball]] and [[Napoleon (Animal Farm)|Napoleon]], assume command and consider it a duty to prepare for the Rebellion. The animals revolt, driving the drunken, irresponsible farmer [[Jones (Animal Farm)|Mr. Jones]], as well as Mrs. Jones and the other human caretakers and employees, off the farm, renaming it "Animal Farm". They adopt the Seven Commandments of Animalism, the most important of which is, "All animals are equal". The decree is painted in large letters on one side of the barn. Snowball teaches the animals to read and write, while Napoleon educates young puppies on the principles of [[#Animalism|Animalism]]. Food is plentiful, and the farm runs smoothly. The pigs elevate themselves to positions of leadership and set aside special food items, ostensibly for their personal health. Some time later, several men attack Animal Farm. Jones and his men are making an attempt to recapture the farm, aided by several other farmers who are terrified of similar animal revolts. Snowball and the animals, who are hiding in ambush, defeat the men by launching a surprise attack as soon as they enter the farmyard. Snowball's popularity soars, and this event is proclaimed "The Battle of the Cowshed". It is celebrated annually with the firing of a gun, on the anniversary of the Revolution. Napoleon and Snowball vie for pre-eminence. When Snowball announces his plans to modernize the farm by building a [[windmill]], Napoleon has his dogs chase Snowball away and declares himself leader. Napoleon enacts changes to the governance structure of the farm, replacing meetings with a committee of pigs who will run the farm. Through a young pig named [[Squealer (Animal Farm)|Squealer]], Napoleon claims credit for the windmill idea. The animals work harder with the promise of easier lives with the windmill. When the animals find the windmill collapsed after a violent storm, Napoleon and Squealer convince the animals that Snowball is trying to sabotage their project. Once Snowball becomes a [[scapegoating|scapegoat]], Napoleon begins to [[purge]] the farm with his dogs, killing animals he accuses of consorting with his old rival. When some animals recall the Battle of the Cowshed, Napoleon (who was nowhere to be found during the battle) frequently smears Snowball as a collaborator of Farmer Jones', while falsely representing himself as the hero of the battle. "Beasts of England" is replaced with an anthem glorifying Napoleon, who appears to be adopting the lifestyle of a man. The animals remain convinced that they are better off than they were under Mr. Jones. [[Frederick (Animal Farm)|Mr. Frederick]], a neighbouring farmer, attacks the farm, using [[Explosive material|blasting powder]] to blow up the restored windmill. Although the animals win the battle, they do so [[Pyrrhic victory|at great cost]], as many, including [[Boxer (Animal Farm)|Boxer, the workhorse]], are wounded. Despite his injuries, Boxer continues working harder and harder, until he collapses while working on the windmill. Napoleon sends for a van to purportedly take Boxer to a veterinary surgeon, explaining that better care can be given there. Benjamin, the cynical donkey who "could read as well as any pig",<ref>{{cite book|author=Orwell, George|date=1946|title=Animal Farm|location=London|publisher=Penguin Group|page=21}}</ref> notices that the van belongs to a [[knacker]] and attempts a futile rescue. Squealer quickly assures the animals that the van had been purchased from the knacker by an animal hospital, and the previous owner's signboard had not been repainted. In a subsequent report, Squealer reports sadly to the animals that Boxer died peacefully at the animal hospital. The pigs hold a festival one day after Boxer's death to further praise the glories of Animal Farm and have the animals work harder by taking on Boxer's ways. However, the truth was that Napoleon had engineered the sale of Boxer to the knacker, allowing Napoleon and his inner circle to acquire money to buy [[whisky]] for themselves. (In [[1940s]] England, one way for farms to make money was to sell large animals to a knacker, who would kill the animal and boil its remains into [[animal glue]].) {{anchor|moreEqual}} Years pass, the windmill is rebuilt, and another windmill is constructed, which makes the farm a good amount of income. However, the ideals which Snowball discussed, including stalls with electric lighting, heating, and running water are forgotten, with Napoleon advocating that the happiest animals live simple lives. In addition to Boxer, many of the animals who participated in the Revolution are dead, as is Farmer Jones, who died in another part of England. The pigs start to resemble humans, as they walk upright, carry whips, and wear clothes. The Seven Commandments are abridged to a single phrase: '''''"All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others."''''' Napoleon holds a dinner party for the pigs and local farmers, with whom he celebrates a new alliance. He abolishes the practice of the revolutionary traditions and restores the name "The Manor Farm". As the animals outside gaze at the scene and look from pig to man, and from man to pig, and from pig to man again, they can no longer distinguish between the two. ==Characters== ===Pigs=== *'''[[Old Major]]''' – An aged prize [[Middle White|Middle White boar]] provides the inspiration that fuels the rebellion. He is an allegorical combination of [[Karl Marx]], one of the creators of communism, and [[Vladimir Lenin]], the communist leader of the [[Russian Revolution]] and the early Soviet nation, in that he draws up the principles of the revolution. His skull being put on revered public display recalls Lenin, whose [[Lenin's Mausoleum|embalmed body was put on display]].<ref name=RoddenIntro/><ref name=Hitchens/> *'''[[Napoleon (Animal Farm)|Napoleon]]''' – "A large, rather fierce-looking [[Berkshire pig|Berkshire]] boar, the only Berkshire on the farm, not much of a talker, but with a reputation for getting his own way".{{sfn|Orwell|1979|loc=chapter II|p=15}} An allegory of [[Joseph Stalin]],<ref name=RoddenIntro/> Napoleon is the main villain of ''Animal Farm''. In the first French version of ''Animal Farm'', Napoleon is called ''{{lang|fr|César}}'', the French form of [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]],{{sfn|Davison|2000|p=}} although another translation has him as ''{{lang|fr|Napoléon}}''.<ref name=NapoleonInFrench/> *'''[[Snowball (Animal Farm)|Snowball]]''' – Napoleon's rival and original head of the farm after Jones' overthrow. He is mainly based on [[Leon Trotsky]],<ref name=RoddenIntro/> but also combines elements from Lenin.<ref name=Hitchens/> *'''[[Squealer (Animal Farm)|Squealer]]''' – A small, white, fat porker who serves as Napoleon's second-in-command and minister of propaganda, holding a position similar to that of [[Vyacheslav Molotov]].<ref name=RoddenIntro/> *'''Minimus''' – A poetic pig who writes the second and third national anthems of Animal Farm after the singing of "Beasts of England" is banned. *'''The piglets''' – Hinted to be the children of Napoleon and are the first generation of animals subjugated to his idea of animal inequality. *'''The young pigs''' – Four pigs who complain about Napoleon's takeover of the farm but are quickly silenced and later executed, the first animals killed in Napoleon's farm purge. Based on the [[Great Purge]] of [[Grigori Zinoviev]], [[Lev Kamenev]], [[Nikolai Bukharin]], and [[Alexei Rykov]]. *'''Pinkeye''' – A minor pig who is mentioned only once; he is the pig that tastes Napoleon's food to make sure it is not poisoned, in response to rumours about an assassination attempt on Napoleon. ===Humans=== *'''[[Jones (Animal Farm)|Mr. Jones]]''' – A heavy drinker who is the original owner of Manor Farm, a farm in disrepair with farmhands who often loaf on the job. He is an allegory of Russian [[Tsar Nicholas II]],<ref>{{cite web| last=| first=| url=http://www.shmoop.com/animal-farm/fall-mister-jones-russian-revolution-1917-symbol.html| title=The Fall of Mister Jones and the Russian Revolution of 1917| publisher=Shmoop University| accessdate=13 May 2013| deadurl=no| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202221910/http://www.shmoop.com/animal-farm/fall-mister-jones-russian-revolution-1917-symbol.html| archivedate=2 December 2013| df=dmy-all}}</ref> who abdicated following the [[February Revolution]] of 1917 and was murdered, along with the rest of his family, by the [[Bolsheviks]] on 17 July 1918. The animals revolt after Jones drinks so much he does not care for the animals. *'''Mr. Frederick''' – The tough owner of Pinchfield, a small but well-kept neighbouring farm, who briefly enters into an alliance with Napoleon.<ref>{{cite web| last=| first=| url=http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/animalfarm/section8.rhtml| title=SparkNotes " Literature Study Guides " Animal Farm " Chapter VIII| publisher=SparkNotes LLC| accessdate=13 May 2013| deadurl=no| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518124512/http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/animalfarm/section8.rhtml| archivedate=18 May 2013| df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| last=| first=| url=http://www.shmoop.com/animal-farm/scheming-frederick-how-hitler-broke-non-aggression-pact-symbol.html| title=The Scheming Frederick and how Hitler Broke the Non-Aggression Pact| publisher=Shmoop University| accessdate=13 May 2013| deadurl=no| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202221757/http://www.shmoop.com/animal-farm/scheming-frederick-how-hitler-broke-non-aggression-pact-symbol.html| archivedate=2 December 2013| df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="Meyers, p. 141">Meyers, ''Readers Guide to Orwell'', p.&nbsp;141</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bloom |first=Harold |authorlink=Harold Bloom |year=2009 |title=Bloom's Modern Critical Interpretations: Animal Farm – New Edition |edition=1st |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V7C4bXGsrc8C&pg=PA70&dq=Mr+Frederick+allegory+hitler&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ICqRUdK7EcK14ASjkYGYDA&ved=0CEAQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Mr%20Frederick%20allegory%20hitler&f=false |accessdate=13 May 2013 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=1604135824 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122174908/https://books.google.com/books?id=V7C4bXGsrc8C&pg=PA70&dq=Mr+Frederick+allegory+hitler&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ICqRUdK7EcK14ASjkYGYDA&ved=0CEAQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Mr%20Frederick%20allegory%20hitler&f=false |archivedate=22 November 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Animal Farm shares land boundaries with Pinchfield on one side and Foxwood on another, making Animal Farm a "buffer zone" between the two bickering farmers. The animals of Animal Farm are terrified of Frederick, as rumours abound of him abusing his animals and entertaining himself with [[cockfighting]] (a likely allegory for the human rights abuses of [[Adolf Hitler]]). Napoleon enters into an alliance with Frederick in order to sell surplus timber that Pilkington also sought, but is enraged to learn Frederick paid him in counterfeit money. Shortly after the swindling, Frederick and his men invade Animal Farm, killing many animals and detonating the windmill. The brief alliance and subsequent invasion may allude to the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]] and [[Operation Barbarossa]]. *'''[[Pilkington (Animal Farm)|Mr. Pilkington]]''' – The easy-going but crafty and well-to-do owner of Foxwood, a large neighbouring farm overgrown with weeds. Unlike Frederick, Pilkington is wealthier and owns more land, but his farm is in need of care as opposed to Frederick's smaller but more efficiently-run farm. Although on bad terms with Frederick, Pilkington is also concerned about the animal revolution that deposed Jones, and worried that this could also happen to him. *'''Mr. Whymper''' – A man hired by Napoleon to act as the liaison between Animal Farm and human society. At first he is used to acquire necessities that cannot be produced on the farm, such as dog biscuits and [[paraffin wax]], but later he procures luxuries like alcohol for the pigs. ===Horses and donkeys === *'''[[Boxer (Animal Farm)|Boxer]]''' – A loyal, kind, dedicated, extremely strong, hard working, and respectable cart-horse, although quite naive and gullible. Boxer does a large share of the physical labour on the farm. He is shown to hold the belief that 'Napoleon is always right'. At one point, he had challenged Squealer's statement that Snowball was always against the welfare of the farm, earning him an attack from Napoleon's dogs. But Boxer's immense strength repels the attack, worrying the pigs that their authority can be challenged. Boxer has been compared to the [[Stakhanovite movement]]. He has been described as "faithful and strong";<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=30047391|pages=17–19|last1=Sutherland|first1=T.|title=Speaking My Mind: Orwell Farmed for Education|volume=95|issue=1|journal=The English Journal|year=2005}}</ref> he believes any problem can be solved if he works harder.<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=40176954|pages=11–63|last1=Roper|first1=D.|title=Viewpoint 2: The Boxer Mentality|volume=9|issue=11|journal=Change|year=1977|doi=10.1080/00091383.1977.10569271}}</ref> When Boxer is injured, Napoleon sells him to a local [[knacker]] to buy himself whisky, and Squealer gives a moving account falsifying Boxer's death. *'''Mollie''' – A self-centred, self-indulgent and vain young white mare who quickly leaves for another farm after the revolution, in a manner similar to those who left Russia after the fall of the Tsar. She is only once mentioned again. *'''Clover''' – A gentle, caring female horse, who shows concern especially for Boxer, who often pushes himself too hard. Clover can read all the letters of the alphabet, but cannot "put words together". She seems to catch on to the sly tricks and schemes set up by Napoleon and Squealer. *'''[[Benjamin (Animal Farm)|Benjamin]]''' – A donkey, one of the oldest, wisest animals on the farm, and one of the few who can read properly. He is sceptical, temperamental and cynical: his most frequent remark is, "Life will go on as it has always gone on—that is, badly."<ref name="Orwell 1946 40" /> The academic Morris Dickstein has suggested there is "a touch of Orwell himself in this creature's timeless skepticism"<ref name=Dickstein141>''Cambridge Companion to Orwell'', p.&nbsp;141</ref> and indeed, friends called Orwell "Donkey George", "after his grumbling donkey Benjamin, in ''Animal Farm''."<ref>''The Lost Orwell'', p.&nbsp;236</ref> ===Other animals=== *'''Muriel''' – A wise old goat who is friends with all of the animals on the farm. She, like Benjamin and Snowball, is one of the few animals on the farm who can read. *'''The puppies''' – Offspring of Jessie and Bluebell, they were taken away at birth by Napoleon and reared by him to be his security force. *'''Moses''' – The raven, "Mr Jones's especial pet, was a spy and a tale-bearer, but he was also a clever talker." Initially following Mrs Jones into exile, he reappears several years later and resumes his role of talking but not working. He regales Animal Farm's denizens with tales of a wondrous place beyond the clouds called "Sugarcandy Mountain, that happy country where we poor animals shall rest forever from our labours!" Orwell portrays [[Religion and politics|established religion]] as "the black raven of priestcraft—promising pie in the sky when you die, and faithfully serving whoever happens to be in power." Napoleon brings the raven back (Ch. IX), as Stalin brought back the [[Russian Orthodox Church]].<ref name=Dickstein141/> *'''The sheep''' – They show limited understanding of Animalism and the political atmosphere of the farm; yet nonetheless they blindly support Napoleon's ideals with vocal jingles during his speeches and meetings with Snowball. Some commentators<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b07wgkz4 Professor Robert Colls (Cultural History, De Montfort University) BBC In Our Time's episode on Animal Farm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160929084512/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b07wgkz4|date=29 September 2016}}</ref> have compared the sheep to representations of state controlled press. Their constant bleating of "four legs good, two legs bad" was used as a device to drown out any opposition; analogous to simplistic headlines used in printed media of the age. Towards the latter section of the book, Squealer (the propagandist) trains the sheep to alter their slogan to "four legs good, two legs better", which they dutifully do, symbolizing the state manipulation of media. *'''The hens''' – The hens are promised at the start of the revolution that they will get to keep their eggs, which are stolen from them under Mr Jones. However their eggs are soon taken from them under the premise of buying goods from outside Animal Farm. The hens are among the first to rebel, albeit unsuccessfully, against Napoleon. *'''The cows''' – The cows are enticed into the revolution by promises that their milk will not be stolen, but can be used to raise their own calves. Their milk is then stolen by the pigs, who learn to milk them. The milk is stirred into the pigs' mash every day, while the other animals are denied such luxuries. *'''The cat''' – Never seen to carry out any work, the cat is absent for long periods and is forgiven; because her excuses are so convincing and she "purred so affectionately that it was impossible not to believe in her good intentions."<ref name=autogenerated1/> She has no interest in the politics of the farm, and the only time she is recorded as having participated in an election, she is found to have actually "voted on both sides."<ref name=autogenerated1/> ==Composition and publication== ===Origin=== George Orwell wrote the manuscript in 1943 and 1944 subsequent to his experiences during the [[Spanish Civil War]], which he described in ''[[Homage to Catalonia]]'' (1938). In the preface of a 1947 Ukrainian edition of ''Animal Farm'', he explained how escaping the communist purges in Spain taught him "how easily totalitarian propaganda can control the opinion of enlightened people in democratic countries". This motivated Orwell to expose and strongly condemn what he saw as the [[Stalinist]] corruption of the original socialist ideals.{{sfn|Orwell|1947|p=}} Immediately prior to writing the book, Orwell had quit the [[BBC]]. He was also upset about a booklet for propagandists the Ministry of Information had put out. The booklet included instructions on how to quell ideological fears of the Soviet Union, such as directions to claim that the Red Terror was a figment of Nazi imagination.<ref>[[Overy, Richard]], ''Why the Allies Won'', p.&nbsp;297 {{ISBN|0-393-03925-0}}</ref> In the preface, Orwell also described the source of the idea of setting the book on a farm:{{sfn|Orwell|1947|p=}} {{quote | ...I saw a little boy, perhaps ten years old, driving a huge carthorse along a narrow path, whipping it whenever it tried to turn. It struck me that if only such animals became aware of their strength we should have no power over them, and that men exploit animals in much the same way as the rich exploit the proletariat. }} ===Efforts to find a publisher=== Orwell initially encountered difficulty getting the manuscript published, largely due to fears that the book might upset the alliance between Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union. Four publishers refused; one had initially accepted the work but declined it after consulting the [[Ministry of Information (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Information]].{{sfn|Dag|2004|p=}}<ref>[[#GOIT|Orwell 1976 page 25 ''La libertà di stampa'']]</ref> Eventually, [[Secker and Warburg]] published the first edition in 1945. During the [[World War II|Second World War]], it became clear to Orwell that anti-Soviet literature was not something which most major publishing houses would touch—including his regular publisher [[Victor Gollancz Ltd|Gollancz]]. He also submitted the manuscript to [[Faber and Faber]], where the poet [[T. S. Eliot]] (who was a director of the firm) rejected it; Eliot wrote back to Orwell praising the book's "good writing" and "fundamental integrity", but declared that they would only accept it for publication if they had some sympathy for the viewpoint "which I take to be generally [[Deformed workers' state|Trotskyite]]". Eliot said he found the view "not convincing", and contended that the pigs were made out to be the best to run the farm; he posited that someone might argue "what was needed... was not more communism but more public-spirited pigs".<ref name=Eliot/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://archive.timesonline.co.uk/tol/viewArticle.arc?articleId=ARCHIVE-The_Times-1969-01-06-09-004&pageId=ARCHIVE-The_Times-1969-01-06-09|title=T.S. Eliot and Animal Farm: Reasons for Rejection|last=Eliot|first=Valery|date=6 January 1969|work=The Times|location=UK|accessdate=8 April 2009|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091015180725/http://archive.timesonline.co.uk/tol/viewArticle.arc?articleId=ARCHIVE-The_Times-1969-01-06-09-004&pageId=ARCHIVE-The_Times-1969-01-06-09|archivedate=15 October 2009|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Orwell let [[André Deutsch]], who was working for Nicholson & Watson in 1944, read the typescript, and Deutsch was convinced that Nicholson & Watson would want to publish it; however, they did not, and "lectured Orwell on what they perceived to be errors in ''Animal Farm''."<ref>Peter Davison, editorial note, Orwell, Collected Works, ''I Have Tried to Tell the Truth'', p. 156</ref> In his ''London Letter'' on 17 April 1944 for ''[[Partisan Review]]'', Orwell wrote that it was "now next door to impossible to get anything overtly anti-Russian printed. Anti-Russian books do appear, but mostly from Catholic publishing firms and always from a religious or frankly reactionary angle." The publisher [[Jonathan Cape]], who had initially accepted ''Animal Farm'', subsequently rejected the book after an official at the British Ministry of Information warned him off<ref name=bbc/>—although the civil servant who it is assumed gave the order was later found to be a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] spy.{{sfn|Taylor|2003|p=337}} Writing to [[Leonard Moore (literary agent)|Leonard Moore]], a partner in the literary agency of Christy & Moore, publisher Jonathan Cape explained that the decision had been taken on the advice of a senior official in the Ministry of Information. Such flagrant anti-Soviet bias was unacceptable, and the choice of pigs as the dominant class was thought to be especially offensive. It may reasonably be assumed that the 'important official' was a man named [[Peter Smollett]], who was later unmasked as a Soviet agent.<ref name="Orwell Subverted p.3">''Orwell Subverted'', Daniel J. Leab, Penn State Press, 2007 p.&nbsp;3</ref> Orwell was suspicious of Smollett/Smolka, and he would be one of the names Orwell [[Orwell's list|included in his list]] of Crypto-Communists and Fellow-Travellers sent to the Information Research Department in 1949. Born Hans Peter Smolka in Vienna in 1912, he came to Britain in 1933 as an [[NKVD]] agent with the codename 'Abo',<ref>''The Lost Orwell'', p.&nbsp;210; The Mitrokhin Archive, The KGB in Europe and the West, Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, p.&nbsp;158</ref> became a naturalised British subject in 1938, changed his name, and after the outbreak of World War II joined the Ministry of Information where he organised pro-Soviet propaganda, working with [[Kim Philby]] in 1943–45.<ref>[[Gordievsky, Oleg]]. ''KGB: The Inside Story'', 1991, p.&nbsp;325</ref> Smollett's family have rejected the accusation that he was a spy.<ref name="Orwell Subverted p.3"/> The publisher wrote to Orwell, saying:<ref name=bbc/> {{quote | If the fable were addressed generally to dictators and dictatorships at large then publication would be all right, but the fable does follow, as I see now, so completely the progress of the Russian Soviets and their two dictators [Lenin and Stalin], that it can apply only to Russia, to the exclusion of the other dictatorships. Another thing: it would be less offensive if the predominant caste in the fable were not pigs. I think the choice of pigs as the ruling caste will no doubt give offence to many people, and particularly to anyone who is a bit touchy, as undoubtedly the Russians are. }} [[Frederic Warburg]] also faced pressures against publication, even from people in his own office and from his wife Pamela, who felt that it was not the moment for ingratitude towards Stalin and the heroic [[Red Army]],<ref>''George Orwell, A Personal Memoir'', T. R. Fyvel, p.&nbsp;139</ref> which had played a major part in defeating Hitler. A Russian translation was printed in the paper ''Posev'', and in giving permission for a Russian translation of ''Animal Farm'', Orwell refused in advance all royalties. A translation in Ukrainian, which was produced in Germany, was confiscated in large part by the American wartime authorities and handed over to the Soviet repatriation commission.<ref>[[Struve, Gleb]]. ''Telling the Russians'', written for the Russian journal ''New Russian Wind'', reprinted in Remembering Orwell, pp.260–61</ref> In October 1945, Orwell wrote to Frederic Warburg expressing interest in pursuing the possibility that the political cartoonist [[David Low (cartoonist)|David Low]] might illustrate ''Animal Farm''. Low had written a letter saying that he had had "a good time with ''ANIMAL FARM''—an excellent bit of satire—it would illustrate perfectly." Nothing came of this, and a trial issue produced by Secker & Warburg in 1956 illustrated by John Driver was abandoned, but the [[Folio Society]] published an edition in 1984 illustrated by [[Quentin Blake]] and an edition illustrated by the cartoonist [[Ralph Steadman]] was published by Secker & Warburg in 1995 to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the first edition of ''Animal Farm''.<ref>Smothered Under Journalism, p. 123 & I Belong to the Left, pp. 313–14</ref> ===Preface=== Orwell originally wrote a preface complaining about British [[self-censorship]] and how the British people were suppressing criticism of the USSR, their World War II ally: {{quote|The sinister fact about literary censorship in England is that it is largely voluntary.... Things are kept right out of the British press, not because the Government intervenes but because of a general tacit agreement that 'it wouldn't do' to mention that particular fact.}} Although the first edition allowed space for the preface, it was not included,{{sfn|Dag|2004|p=}} and as of June 2009 most editions of the book have not included it.<ref>[[#Ba|Bailey83221]] (Bailey83221 includes a preface and two cites: 26 August 1995 ''The Guardian'' p. 28; 26 August 1995 ''New Statesman & Society'' 8 (366): 11. {{ISSN|0954-2361}})</ref> Secker and Warburg published the first edition of ''Animal Farm'' in 1945 without an introduction. However, the publisher had provided space for a preface in the author's proof composited from the manuscript. For reasons unknown, no preface was supplied, and the page numbers had to be renumbered at the last minute.<ref name=GOIT15/><ref name=TFOTP/> In 1972, [[Ian Angus (librarian)|Ian Angus]] found the original typescript titled "The Freedom of the Press", and [[Bernard Crick]] published it, together with his own introduction, in ''[[The Times Literary Supplement]]'' on 15 September 1972<ref name=GOIT15/> as "How the essay came to be written".<ref name=TFOTP/><ref name=Crick/> Orwell's essay criticised British self-censorship by the press, specifically the suppression of unflattering descriptions of Stalin and the Soviet government.<ref name=TFOTP/> The same essay also appeared in the Italian 1976 edition of ''Animal Farm'' with another introduction by Crick, claiming to be the first edition with the preface.<ref name=GOIT15/> Other publishers were still declining to publish it.{{Clarify|date=March 2010|reason=more details needed, were some actively refusing, unaware of the preface?}} ==Critical response== Contemporary reviews of the work were not universally positive. Writing in the American ''[[The New Republic|New Republic]]'' magazine, George Soule expressed his disappointment in the book, writing that it "puzzled and saddened me. It seemed on the whole dull. The allegory turned out to be a creaking machine for saying in a clumsy way things that have been said better directly." Soule believed that the animals were not consistent enough with their real world inspirations, and said, "It seems to me that the failure of this book (commercially it is already assured of tremendous success) arises from the fact that the satire deals not with something the author has experienced, but rather with stereotyped ideas about a country which he probably does not know very well".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://newrepublic.com/article/114852/1946-review-george-orwells-animal-farm|title=1946 Review of George Orwell's 'Animal Farm'|author=George Soule|work=The New Republic|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170114001741/https://newrepublic.com/article/114852/1946-review-george-orwells-animal-farm|archivedate=14 January 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> ''[[The Guardian]]'' on 24 August 1945 called ''Animal Farm'' "a delightfully humorous and caustic satire on the rule of the many by the few".<ref name="guardian19450824">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/1945/aug/24/georgeorwell.classics|title=Books of the day – Animal Farm|work=The Guardian|date=24 August 1945|accessdate=17 July 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730154211/https://www.theguardian.com/books/1945/aug/24/georgeorwell.classics|archivedate=30 July 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[Tosco Fyvel]], writing in ''[[Tribune (magazine)|Tribune]]'' on the same day, called the book "a gentle satire on a certain State and on the illusions of an age which may already be behind us." [[Julian Symons]] responded, on 7 September, "Should we not expect, in ''Tribune'' at least, acknowledgement of the fact that it is a satire not at all gentle upon a particular State—Soviet Russia? It seems to me that a reviewer should have the courage to identify Napoleon with Stalin, and Snowball with Trotsky, and express an opinion favourable or unfavourable to the author, upon a political ground. In a hundred years time perhaps, ''Animal Farm'' may be simply a fairy story, today it is a political satire with a good deal of point." ''Animal Farm'' has been subject to much comment in the decades since these early remarks.<ref>Orwell, ''Collected Works, I Belong to the Left'', p. 253</ref> ==Analysis== ===Animalism=== {{redirect|Seven Commandments|the Noahide code|Seven Laws of Noah}} The pigs Snowball, Napoleon, and Squealer adapt Old Major's ideas into "a complete system of thought", which they formally name Animalism, an allegoric reference to [[Communism]], not to be confused with [[Animalism (philosophy)|the philosophy Animalism]]. Soon after, Napoleon and Squealer partake in activities associated with the humans (drinking alcohol, sleeping in beds, trading), which were explicitly prohibited by the Seven Commandments. Squealer is employed to alter the Seven Commandments to account for this humanisation, an [[allusion]] to the Soviet government's revising of history in order to exercise control of the people's beliefs about themselves and their society.<ref name=Rodden1999/> [[File:Animal Farm artwork.jpg|thumb|Squealer sprawls at the foot of the end wall of the big barn where the Seven Commandments were written (ch. viii) – preliminary artwork for a 1950 strip cartoon by [[Norman Pett]] and Donald Freeman]] The original commandments are: # Whatever goes upon two legs is an enemy. # Whatever goes upon four legs, or has wings, is a friend. # No animal shall wear clothes. # No animal shall sleep in a bed. # No animal shall drink alcohol. # No animal shall kill any other animal. # All animals are equal. These commandments are also distilled into the maxim "Four legs good, two legs '''bad!'''" which is primarily used by the sheep on the farm, often to disrupt discussions and disagreements between animals on the nature of Animalism. Later, Napoleon and his pigs secretly revise some commandments to clear themselves of accusations of law-breaking. The changed commandments are as follows, with the changes bolded: <ol start="4"> <li>No animal shall sleep in a bed '''with sheets.'''</li> <li>No animal shall drink alcohol '''to excess.'''</li> <li>No animal shall kill any other animal '''without cause.'''</li> </ol> Eventually, these are replaced with the maxims, "All animals are equal, '''but some animals are more equal than others'''", and "Four legs good, two legs '''better!'''" as the pigs become more human. This is an [[Irony|ironic]] twist to the original purpose of the Seven Commandments, which were supposed to keep order within Animal Farm by uniting the animals together against the humans and preventing animals from following the humans' evil habits. Through the revision of the commandments, Orwell demonstrates how simply political [[dogma]] can be turned into malleable [[propaganda]].<ref name=Carr2010/> ===Significance and allegory=== [[File:Animalism flag.svg|thumb|left|The Horn and Hoof Flag described in the book appears to be based on the [[hammer and sickle]], the Communist symbol.]] Orwell biographer Jeffrey Meyers has written, "virtually every detail has political significance in this allegory." Orwell himself wrote in 1946, "Of course I intended it primarily as a satire on the Russian revolution..[and] ''that kind'' of revolution (violent conspiratorial revolution, led by unconsciously power hungry people) can only lead to a change of masters [-] revolutions only effect a radical improvement when the masses are alert."<ref name=OrwellLIL334/> In a preface for a 1947 Ukrainian edition, he stated, "...&nbsp;for the past ten years I have been convinced that the destruction of the Soviet myth was essential if we wanted a revival of the socialist movement. On my return from Spain [in 1937] I thought of exposing the Soviet myth in a story that could be easily understood by almost anyone and which could be easily translated into other languages."<ref>Crick, Bernard. ''Orwell, A Life'', p.&nbsp;450</ref> The revolt of the animals against Farmer Jones is Orwell's analogy with the [[October Revolution|October 1917 Bolshevik Revolution]]. The ''Battle of the Cowshed'' has been said to represent the [[Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War|allied invasion]] of [[Russian SFSR|Soviet Russia]] in 1918,<ref name="Peter Hobley Davison 1996" /> and the defeat of the [[White movement|White Russians]] in the [[Russian Civil War]].<ref name="Peter Edgerly Firchow 2008" /> The pigs' rise to pre-eminence mirrors the rise of a Stalinist bureaucracy in the USSR, just as Napoleon's emergence as the farm's sole leader reflects Stalin's emergence. The pigs' appropriation of milk and apples for their own use, "the turning point of the story" as Orwell termed it in a letter to [[Dwight Macdonald]],<ref name=OrwellLIL334>Orwell, George. ''A Life in Letters'', Penguin {{ISBN|978-0-141-19263-5}} p.&nbsp;334</ref> stands as an analogy for the crushing of the left-wing 1921 [[Kronstadt rebellion|Kronstadt revolt]] against the Bolsheviks,<ref>Orwell, Letter to Dwight Macdonald, 5 December 1946, ''A Life in Letters'', p.334 Penguin 2011</ref> and the difficult efforts of the animals to build the windmill suggest the various [[Five-Year Plans for the National Economy of the Soviet Union|Five Year Plans]]. The puppies controlled by Napoleon parallel the nurture of the secret police in the Stalinist structure, and the pigs' treatment of the other animals on the farm recalls the internal terror faced by the populace in the 1930s.<ref>''Orwell Subverted'', 6–7 Daniel Leab, Penn State Press 2007</ref> In chapter seven, when the animals confess their nonexistent crimes and are killed, Orwell directly alludes to the purges, confessions and [[Moscow show trials|show trials]] of the late 1930s. These contributed to Orwell's conviction that the Bolshevik revolution had been corrupted and the Soviet system become rotten.<ref>Cambridge Companion to George Orwell, p.&nbsp;135, CUP 2007</ref> [[Peter Edgerly Firchow]] and [[Peter Davison (professor)|Peter Davison]] consider that the ''Battle of the Windmill'' represents the [[Great Patriotic War]] ([[World War II]]),<ref name="Peter Edgerly Firchow 2008" /> especially the [[Battle of Stalingrad]] and the [[Battle of Moscow]].<ref name="Peter Hobley Davison 1996" /> During the battle, Orwell first wrote, "All the animals, including Napoleon" took cover. Orwell had the publisher alter this to "All the animals except Napoleon" in recognition of Stalin's decision to remain in Moscow during the German advance.<ref>A Reader's Guide to George Orwell, Jeffrey Meyers, Thames & Hudson, p.&nbsp;142</ref> Orwell requested the change after he met Joseph Czapski in Paris in March 1945. Czapski, a survivor of the [[Katyn Massacre]] and an opponent of the Soviet regime, told Orwell, as Orwell wrote to [[Arthur Koestler]], that it had been "the character [and] greatness of Stalin" that saved Russia from the German invasion.<ref>A Note on the Text, Peter Davison, ''Animal Farm'', Penguin edition 1989, p.&nbsp;xx</ref> [[File:15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks).jpg|thumb|Front row (left to right): [[Alexey Rykov|Rykov]], [[Mykola Skrypnyk|Skrypnyk]], and [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] – 'When Snowball comes to the crucial points in his speeches he is drowned out by the sheep (Ch. V), just as in the [[15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)|party Congress in 1927]] [above], at Stalin's instigation 'pleas for the opposition were drowned in the continual, hysterically intolerant uproar from the floor'.<ref>[[Isaac Deutscher]], Stalin, p.&nbsp;311, Jeffrey Meyers, ''A Readers Guide to George Orwell'', p.&nbsp;138</ref>]] Other connections that writers have suggested illustrate Orwell's telescoping of Russian history from 1917 to 1943<ref>Jeffrey Meyers, ''A Readers Guide to George Orwell'', p.&nbsp;135. In the Preface to ''Animal Farm'' Orwell noted however, 'although various episodes are taken from the actual history of the Russian Revolution, they are dealt with schematically and their chronological order is changed.'</ref> include the wave of rebelliousness that ran through the countryside after the Rebellion, which stands for the abortive revolutions [[Hungarian Revolution of 1919|in Hungary]] and [[German Revolution of 1918–19|in Germany]] (Ch IV); the conflict between Napoleon and Snowball (Ch V), paralleling "the two rival and quasi-Messianic beliefs that seemed pitted against one another: [[Trotskyism]], with its faith in the [[Permanent revolution|revolutionary vocation]] of the proletariat of the West; and Stalinism with its glorification of [[socialism in one country|Russia's socialist destiny]]";<ref>Isaac Deutscher, quoted in Jeffrey Meyers, ''Readers Guide to George Orwell'', p.&nbsp;138</ref> Napoleon's dealings with Whymper and the Willingdon markets (Ch VI), paralleling the [[Treaty of Rapallo (1922)|Treaty of Rapallo]]; and Frederick's forged bank notes, paralleling the [[Treaty of Non-Aggression between Germany and the Soviet Union|Hitler-Stalin pact of August 1939]], after which Frederick attacks Animal Farm without warning and destroys the windmill.<ref name="Meyers, p. 141"/> The book's close, with the pigs and men in a kind of [[rapprochement]], reflected Orwell's view of the 1943 [[Teheran Conference]]<ref>Preface to the Ukrainian edition of ''Animal Farm'', reprinted in Orwell:Collected Works, ''It Is What I Think'' p. 89</ref> that seemed to display the establishment of "the best possible relations between the USSR and the West"—but in reality were destined, as Orwell presciently predicted, to continue to unravel.<ref>''Orwell Subverted'', p.&nbsp;7, Daniel J. Leab, Penn State Press 2007.</ref> The disagreement between the allies and the start of the [[Cold War]] is suggested when Napoleon and Pilkington, both suspicious, "played an ace of spades simultaneously".<ref>Jeffrey Meyers, ''A Reader's Guide to George Orwell'' p.&nbsp;142</ref> Similarly, the music in the novel, starting with ''Beasts of England'' and the later anthems, parallels ''[[The Internationale]]'' and its adoption and repudiation by the Soviet authorities as the Anthem of the USSR in the 1920s and 1930s. In addition to the book's political symbolism, some critics have argued that ''Animal Farm'' can also be read as a more straightforward story about farm animals, reflecting Orwell's concern for the treatment of animals.<ref name=''McHugh''>Susan McHugh (2009). [https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ed16/3f6ca7a39ede032787c02f401cf0806ae52b.pdf ''Animal farm''’s lessons for literary (and) animal studies] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180327084239/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ed16/3f6ca7a39ede032787c02f401cf0806ae52b.pdf |date=27 March 2018 }}. ''Humanimalia: a journal of human/animal interface studies'', 1(2009), 1.</ref><ref>Jill Bough (2010). [http://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/1/1/56/htm The mirror has two faces: Contradictory reflections of donkeys in Western literature from Lucius to Balthazar] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180327084327/http://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/1/1/56/htm |date=27 March 2018 }}. ''Animals'', 1(1), 56-68.</ref> Critics supporting such readings, beginning in the 1970s with Marxist scholar [[Raymond Williams]] and later including [[Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson]] and [[Helen Tiffin]], cite [[#Origin|Orwell's description of his inspiration for setting the story on a farm]], in which he writes that, "from the animals’ point of view,"{{blockquote|"To them it is clear that the concept of a class struggle between humans was pure illusion, since whenever it was necessary to exploit animals, all humans united against them: the true struggle is between animals and humans."<ref name=''McHugh''/>{{sfn|Orwell|1947|p=}}}} ==Adaptations== ===Films=== ''Animal Farm'' has been adapted to film twice. Both differ from the novel and have been accused of taking significant liberties, including sanitising some aspects. *[[Animal Farm (1954 film)|''Animal Farm'']] (1954) is an animated feature in which Napoleon is apparently overthrown in a second revolution. In 1974, [[E. Howard Hunt]] revealed that he had been sent by the [[CIA]]'s [[Psychological Warfare]] department to obtain the film rights from Orwell's widow, and the resulting 1954 animation was funded by the agency.<ref>{{cite web |author=Martin Chilton |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/books/authors/how-cia-brought-animal-farm-to-the-screen/ |title=How the CIA brought Animal Farm to the screen |newspaper=The Telegraph |date=21 January 2016 |accessdate=27 October 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161026174651/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/books/authors/how-cia-brought-animal-farm-to-the-screen/ |archivedate=26 October 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> *[[Animal Farm (1999 film)|''Animal Farm'']] (1999) is a TV live action version that shows Napoleon's regime collapsing in on itself, with the farm having new human owners, reflecting the collapse of Soviet communism. In 2012, a HFR-3D version of ''Animal Farm'', potentially directed by [[Andy Serkis]], was announced.<ref>{{cite news |last=Giardina |first=Carolyn |title=Andy Serkis to Direct Adaptation of 'Animal Farm' |date=19 October 2012 |work=hollywoodreporter.com |publisher=The Hollywood Reporter |url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/andy-serkis-animal-farm-381314 |accessdate=26 August 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113074010/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/andy-serkis-animal-farm-381314 |archivedate=13 November 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> ===Radio dramatizations=== A BBC radio version, produced by [[Rayner Heppenstall]], was broadcast in January 1947. Orwell listened to the production at his home in Canonbury Square, London, with [[Hugh Gordon Porteus|Hugh Gordon Porteous]], amongst others. Orwell later wrote to Heppenstall that Porteous, "who had not read the book, grasped what was happening after a few minutes."<ref>{{cite book|author=Davison, Peter (Editor)|title=The Lost Orwell|page=112}}</ref> A further radio production, again using Orwell's own dramatisation of the book, was broadcast in January 2013 on BBC [[Radio Four|Radio 4]]. [[Tamsin Greig]] narrated, and the cast included [[Nicky Henson]] as Napoleon, [[Toby Jones]] as the propagandist Squealer, and [[Ralph Ineson]] as Boxer.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01q7fzf|title=The Real George Orwell, Animal Farm|website=BBC Radio 4|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127033407/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01q7fzf|archivedate=27 January 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> ===Stage productions=== A theatrical version, with music by Richard Peaslee and lyrics by [[Adrian Mitchell]], was staged at the [[Royal National Theatre|National Theatre]] London on 25 April 1984, directed by [[Peter Hall (director)|Peter Hall]]. It toured nine cities in 1985.<ref>{{cite book|author=Orwell, George|title=A Life in Letters|publisher= Penguin Books|date= 2011|page=341}}</ref> A solo version, adapted and performed by Guy Masterson, premièred at the [[Traverse Theatre]] Edinburgh in January 1995 and has toured worldwide since.<ref>{{cite news|work=Lancashire Telegraph|date=25 January 2013|url=http://www.lancashiretelegraph.co.uk/leisure/whats_on/10187002.One_man_Animal_Farm_show_on_the_way_to_Darwen/|title=One man ''Animal Farm'' Show On the Way to Darwen|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106181013/http://www.lancashiretelegraph.co.uk/leisure/whats_on/10187002.One_man_Animal_Farm_show_on_the_way_to_Darwen/|archivedate=6 January 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|website=Theatre Tours International |url=http://www.theatretoursinternational.com/PastShows/PSDomestic/PSAFgm.html |title=Animal Farm |edition=Archived copy |accessdate=2 February 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090630061940/http://www.theatretoursinternational.com/PastShows/PSDomestic/PSAFgm.html |archivedate=30 June 2009 |df=dmy }}</ref> ===Comic strip=== In 1950 [[Norman Pett]] and his writing partner [[Don Freeman]] were secretly hired by the [[British Foreign Office]] to adapt ''Animal Farm'' into a comic strip. This comic was not published in the U.K., but ran in Brazilian and Burmese newspapers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lambiek.net/artists/p/pett_norman.htm|title=Norman Pett|author=|date=|website=lambiek.net|accessdate=8 May 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171217014058/https://www.lambiek.net/artists/p/pett_norman.htm|archivedate=17 December 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> ==Popular culture== ===Music=== (Alphabetical by artist) *The [[Boston Crusaders Drum and Bugle Corps]]' 2014 show was titled Animal Farm, based on the novel.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.post-gazette.com/ae/music/2014/07/27/Phantom-Regiment-among-eight-drum-corps-to-perform-at-DCI-event-at-Baldwin/stories/201407270012 | title=Phantom Regiment among nine drum corps to perform at DCI event at Baldwin | publisher=PG Publishing Co., Inc. | date=27 July 2014 | accessdate=23 August 2014 | author=Mrazik, Ken | deadurl=no | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728103025/http://www.post-gazette.com/ae/music/2014/07/27/Phantom-Regiment-among-eight-drum-corps-to-perform-at-DCI-event-at-Baldwin/stories/201407270012 | archivedate=28 July 2014 | df=dmy-all }}</ref> *Canadian-based band [[Boxer the Horse]] takes its name from a character in the novel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://music.cbc.ca/#/blogs/2012/3/-QA-with-Boxer-the-Horse-5-PEI-artists-you-should-be-listening-to/ |title=Q&A with Boxer the Horse |publisher=cbcmusic.com |date=13 March 2012 |accessdate=22 October 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160301002442/http://music.cbc.ca/ |archivedate= 1 March 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> *[[Dead prez]] based a song on their album ''[[Let's Get Free]]'' (2000), called "Animal in Man", on the novella, putting emphasis on how the other animals should not trust the pigs during a revolution.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.songmeanings.net/songs/view/3530822107858616165/ |title=Lyrics &#124; Dead Prez – Animal in Man |publisher=SongMeanings |date= |accessdate=4 January 2012 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110831155951/http://www.songmeanings.net/songs/view/3530822107858616165/ |archivedate=31 August 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://rapgenius.com/Dead-prez-animal-in-man-lyrics |title=Dead Prez – Animal in Man Lyrics |publisher=Rap Genius |date= |accessdate=4 January 2012 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111126060939/http://rapgenius.com/Dead-prez-animal-in-man-lyrics |archivedate=26 November 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://monsterpiggymonkeybubble.com/animal-in-man-dead-prez/ |title=Animal in Man Dead Prez |publisher=monsterpiggymonkeybubble.com |date=11 July 2011 |accessdate=4 January 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425080127/http://monsterpiggymonkeybubble.com/animal-in-man-dead-prez/ |archivedate=25 April 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> *The lyrics of the song ″Arthur's Farm″ from the [[Half Man Half Biscuit]] album ''[[Back Again in the DHSS]]'' (1987) tell the story of [[Douglas Bader]] and [[Arthur Askey]] visiting Animal Farm. The song features the line "Four legs good, but no legs best" in apparent tribute to the two famous amputees.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chrisrand.com/hmhb/back-again-in-the-dhss/arthurs-farm/|title="Arthur’s Farm" – Lyrics and Videos|author=Chris Rand|work=The Half Man Half Biscuit Lyrics Project|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140817081509/http://www.chrisrand.com/hmhb/back-again-in-the-dhss/arthurs-farm/|archivedate=17 August 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref> *The song, "The Nature of the Beast", by the American [[metalcore]] band, [[Ice Nine Kills]], was inspired by ''Animal Farm''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EKLSKaHKXe4|title=Ice Nine Kills – Nature of the Beast|accessdate=4 February 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151217134336/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EKLSKaHKXe4|archivedate=17 December 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> * [[Pink Floyd]]'s album ''[[Animals (Pink Floyd album)|Animals]]'' (1977) was partially inspired by ''Animal Farm''.<ref>Schaffner, Nicholas (1991), Saucerful of Secrets (1 ed.), London : Sidgwick & Jackson, {{ISBN|0-283-06127-8}}, p. 199</ref> It categorises people as pigs, dogs, or sheep. * [[R.E.M.]]'s song "Disturbance at the Heron House" is based on ''Animal Farm''.{{clarify|date=September 2011}}<ref>33 Revolutions Per Minute: A History of Protest Songs, from Billie Holiday to Green Day, Dorian Lynskey, HarperCollins, 2011, unpaginated</ref> *[[Radiohead]]'s song "Optimistic" contains a lyric mentioning Animal Farm.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rock.rapgenius.com/Radiohead-optimistic-lyrics#note-248844|title=Radiohead – Optimistic|work=Genius|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206190035/http://rock.rapgenius.com/Radiohead-optimistic-lyrics#note-248844|archivedate=6 December 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> *[[The Clash]] used an image from the animated movie ''[[Animal Farm (1954 film)|Animal Farm]]'' (1954) on their single "[[English Civil War (song)|English Civil War]]".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.endlessgroove.com/issue6/nwgal01.htm |title=New Wave Single Sleeve Gallery – 1 |work=endlessgroove.com |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924000458/http://www.endlessgroove.com/issue6/nwgal01.htm |archivedate=24 September 2015 }}</ref> ===Television=== (Alphabetical by program) * In ''[[The Daleks' Master Plan]]'' (1966), an episode of the long-running British science fiction show ''[[Doctor Who]],'' a character references the modified seventh commandment of ''Animal Farm'', saying: "Though we are all equal partners with the Daleks on this great conquest, some of us are more equal than others."<ref>{{cite web |first=Dennis |last=Spooner, from an idea by Terry Nation |url=http://homepages.bw.edu/~jcurtis/Scripts/DMP/dmp11.html |title=The Daleks Master Plan – Episode 11 – The Abandoned Planet |work=The Doctor Who Scripts Project |date=22 January 1966 |accessdate=30 March 2011 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728074312/http://homepages.bw.edu/~jcurtis/Scripts/DMP/dmp11.html |archivedate=28 July 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> * In the tenth episode of [[List of Johnny Bravo episodes#Season 2: 1999-2000|the second season]] of ''[[Johnny Bravo]]'', "Aunt Katie's Farm" (1999), Johnny, while dressed in a pig costume, yells, "Four feet good! Two feet bad!".<ref>{{cite web |author=TV.com |url=http://www.tv.com/shows/johnny-bravo/man-with-the-golden-gut-welcome-back-bravo-aunt-kates-farm-118154/ |title=Johnny Bravo: Man with The Golden Gut / Welcome Back, Bravo / Aunt Kate's Farm – Season 2, Episode 10 |publisher=TV.com |date= |accessdate=4 January 2012 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131028072242/http://www.tv.com/shows/johnny-bravo/man-with-the-golden-gut-welcome-back-bravo-aunt-kates-farm-118154/ |archivedate=28 October 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=eeggs.com |url=http://www.eeggs.com/items/49638.html |title=Johnny Bravo Easter Egg – Animal Farm Reference |publisher=Eeggs.com |date=16 April 2007 |accessdate=4 January 2012 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111219024248/http://eeggs.com/items/49638.html |archivedate=19 December 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> * The ''[[Lost (TV series)|Lost]]'' episode [[Exposé (Lost)|"Exposé"]] (2007), in season three, involves flashbacks with Nikki and Paulo involving an argument with Kate about the handgun case. During this scene, Dr. Leslie Arzt yells at Kate: "The pigs are walking," a reference to ''Animal Farm'' where Napoleon and his generals begin to adapt human characteristics and change their oath from "Four legs good, two legs bad" to "Four legs good, two legs better."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://thelibrary.org/booklist/titles_jackets.cfm?catid=727 |title=LOST! Quoted Books (want more LOST? attend our LOST in the Library Program) |publisher=Thelibrary.org |date= |accessdate=4 January 2012 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016185352/http://thelibrary.org/booklist/titles_jackets.cfm?catid=727 |archivedate=16 October 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.losttvfans.com/page/Literary+Allusions |title=Literary Allusions – LOST |publisher=Losttvfans.com |date= |accessdate=4 January 2012 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104060609/http://www.losttvfans.com/page/Literary+Allusions |archivedate=4 January 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> * The seventh episode (1998) of the [[Oz (TV series) (season 2)|second season]] of the [[HBO]] series ''[[Oz (TV Series)|Oz]]'' is titled "Animal Farm" in reference to the conniving and manipulation of the characters vying for control, similar to the characters of the novella.<ref>{{cite web |date=24 August 1998 |title=Episode 7 of Season 2 of HBO's OZ (1997–2003) |publisher=[[Internet Movie Database]] |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0668286 |accessdate=1 June 2011 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110907135006/http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0668286/ |archivedate=7 September 2011 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=TV.com |url=http://www.tv.com/oz/animal-farm/episode/61328/summary.html?tag=ep_guide;summary |title=OZ: Animal Farm – Season 2, Episode 7 |publisher=TV.com |date=19 July 2006 |accessdate=4 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hbo.com/#/schedule/detail/Oz+15%3A+Animal+Farm/78280|title=HBO|work=hbo.com|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100201172253/http://www.hbo.com/#/schedule/detail/Oz+15%3A+Animal+Farm/78280|archivedate=1 February 2010|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.answers.com/topic/oz-animal-farm-tv-episode |title=Animal Farm: Oz (TV Episode): Information from |publisher=Answers.com |date= |accessdate=4 January 2012 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110111443/http://www.answers.com/topic/oz-animal-farm-tv-episode |archivedate=10 November 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> *In the ninth episode of the [[List of Sex and the City episodes#Season 4: 2001–2002|fourth season]] of ''[[Sex and the City]]'', "Sex and the Country" (2001), Carrie goes with her new boyfriend Aidan to his cottage, and informs her friends that it reminds her of ''Animal Farm'', and would not be surprised to hear an outburst of "four legs good, two legs bad!"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sexandthecityscripts.com/S04E09_Sex-and-the-Country.php |title=Sex and the City Scripts |publisher=Sex and the City Scripts |date= |accessdate=4 January 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110913181848/http://www.sexandthecityscripts.com/S04E09_Sex-and-the-Country.php |archivedate=13 September 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.satctranscripts.com/2008/08/sex-and-city-season-4-episode-9.html |title=Sex and the City Season 4 Episode 9 &#124; Sex and the City Transcripts |publisher=Satctranscripts.com |date= |accessdate=4 January 2012 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114174613/http://www.satctranscripts.com/2008/08/sex-and-city-season-4-episode-9.html |archivedate=14 January 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> * In the third episode of the first season of the ''[[X-Men (TV series)|X-Men]]'' animated series, "[[Enter Magneto]]" (1992), [[Beast (comics)|Beast]] is seen reading a copy of ''Animal Farm'', is mocked by the prison guards for "reading a picture book", and is asked if he "sees any relatives in there" because they assume he is an illiterate animal.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://persephonemagazine.com/2011/06/animated-ladyghosts-x-men-s1-night-of-the-sentinels-1 |title=Animated Ladyghosts: X-Men, S1, "Enter Magneto" |publisher=Persephone Magazine |date=9 June 2011 |accessdate=4 January 2012 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111012093813/http://persephonemagazine.com/2011/06/animated-ladyghosts-x-men-s1-night-of-the-sentinels-1/ |archivedate=12 October 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=TV.com |url=http://www.tv.com/shows/xmen/enter-magneto-1-56106 |title=X-Men: Enter Magneto (1) – Season 1, Episode 3 |publisher=TV.com |date= |accessdate=4 January 2012 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106142631/http://www.tv.com/shows/xmen/enter-magneto-1-56106/ |archivedate=6 November 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> === Video game === A video game adaptation of ''Animal Farm'' was announced in August 2017.<ref name="vg-1">{{Cite web |url=https://www.polygon.com/2017/9/6/16262886/animal-farm-video-game-george-orwell |title=George Orwell's Animal Farm is becoming a video game |last=Frank |first=Allegra |date=2017-09-06 |website=Polygon |access-date=2017-09-15 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170916010935/https://www.polygon.com/2017/9/6/16262886/animal-farm-video-game-george-orwell |archivedate=16 September 2017 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Fully authorised by the estate of [[George Orwell]],<ref name="vg-2">{{Cite web |url=https://www.engadget.com/2017/09/06/george-orwell-animal-farm-video-game/ |title=George Orwell's 'Animal Farm' will soon be a video game |website=Engadget |language=en-US |access-date=2017-09-15 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170916010726/https://www.engadget.com/2017/09/06/george-orwell-animal-farm-video-game/ |archivedate=16 September 2017 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> ''Animal Farm'' is created by an independent team formed specifically to deliver Orwell’s vision in an interactive format.<ref name="vg-3">{{Cite web |url=http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2017-09-06-official-animal-farm-game-is-an-adventure-tycoon |title=Official Animal Farm game is an adventure-tycoon |last=Yin-Poole |first=Wesley |date=2017-09-06 |website=Eurogamer |language=en-UK |access-date=2017-09-15 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913183509/http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2017-09-06-official-animal-farm-game-is-an-adventure-tycoon |archivedate=13 September 2017 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref name="vg-4">{{Cite web |url=http://www.gamesindustry.biz/articles/2017-09-06-the-animal-farm-game-were-adapting-one-of-the-most-important-literary-works-of-human-history |title=Animal Farm developer: "I wish more games made a statement" |website=GamesIndustry.biz |language=en |access-date=2017-09-15 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170914122707/http://www.gamesindustry.biz/articles/2017-09-06-the-animal-farm-game-were-adapting-one-of-the-most-important-literary-works-of-human-history |archivedate=14 September 2017 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> ==Editions== * [https://archive.is/20121212075701/http://lccn.loc.gov/46006290 LCCN 46006290] (hardcover, 1946, First American Edition) * {{ISBN|0-451-51679-6}} (paperback, 1956, Signet Classic) * {{ISBN|0-582-02173-1}} (paper text, 1989) * {{ISBN|0-15-107255-8}} (hardcover, 1990) * {{ISBN|0-582-06010-9}} (paper text, 1991) * {{ISBN|0-679-42039-8}} (hardcover, 1993) * {{ISBN|0-606-00102-6}} ([[prebound]], 1996) * {{ISBN|0-15-100217-7}} (hardcover, 1996, Anniversary Edition) * {{ISBN|0-452-27750-7}} (paperback, 1996, Anniversary Edition) * {{ISBN|0-451-52634-1}} ([[mass market paperback]], 1996, Anniversary Edition) * {{ISBN|0-582-53008-3}} (1996) * {{ISBN|1-56000-520-3}} (cloth text, 1998, Large Type Edition) * {{ISBN|0-7910-4774-1}} (hardcover, 1999) * {{ISBN|0-451-52536-1}} (paperback, 1999) * {{ISBN|0-7641-0819-0}} (paperback, 1999) * {{ISBN|0-8220-7009-X}} ([[e-book]], 1999) * {{ISBN|0-7587-7843-0}} (hardcover, 2002) * {{ISBN|0-15-101026-9}} (hardcover, 2003, with ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'') * {{ISBN|0-452-28424-4}} (paperback, 2003, Centennial Edition) * {{ISBN|0-8488-0120-2}} (hardcover) * {{ISBN|0-03-055434-9}} (hardcover) Animal Farm with Connections * {{ISBN|0-395-79677-6}} (hardcover) Animal Farm & Related Readings, 1997 * {{ISBN|0-582-43447-5}} (hardcover, 2007) * {{ISBN|0-14-103349-5}} (paperback, 2007) * {{ISBN|978-0-141-03613-7}} (paperback, 2008) * {{ISBN|978-0-141-39305-6}} (paperback, 2013, puffin books edition) * {{ISBN|978-8-193-36962-3}} (paperback, 2017, Pirates Enhanced Edition, India) On 17 July 2009, [[Amazon.com]] withdrew certain [[Amazon Kindle]] titles, including ''Animal Farm'' and ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'' by [[George Orwell]], from sale, refunded buyers, and remotely deleted items from purchasers' devices after discovering that the publisher lacked rights to publish the titles in question.<ref>{{cite news |last=Pogue |first=David |url=http://pogue.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/07/17/some-e-books-are-more-equal-than-others/ |title=Some E-Books Are More Equal Than Others |publisher=Pogue.blogs.nytimes.com |date=17 July 2009 |accessdate=24 October 2010 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709143707/http://pogue.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/07/17/some-e-books-are-more-equal-than-others/ |archivedate=9 July 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Notes and annotations for the books made by users on their devices were also deleted.<ref name=Stone/> After the move prompted outcry and comparisons to ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'' itself, Amazon spokesman Drew Herdener stated that the company is "[c]hanging our systems so that in the future we will not remove books from customers' devices in these circumstances."<ref name=statement/> ==See also== * [[Authoritarian personality]] * [[Bandwagon effect]] * [[History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)]] * [[History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)]] * [[Ideocracy]] * [[New class]] * [[Anthems in Animal Farm|Anthems in ''Animal Farm'']] * [[Władysław Reymont]], Polish [[Nobel laureate]] who anticipated by two decades Orwell's ''Animal Farm'' with his book ''[[Revolt (book)|Revolt]]''. === Books === * ''[[Gulliver's Travels]]'', a favourite book of Orwell's—[[Jonathan Swift|Swift]] reverses the role of horses and human beings in the fourth book—Orwell brought also to ''Animal Farm'' "a dose of ''Swiftian misanthropy, looking ahead to a time 'when the human race had finally been overthrown.'"<ref>''Cambridge Companion to Orwell'', p.&nbsp;135</ref> * ''[[Revolt (book)|Bunt]]'' (Revolt), published in 1924, is a book by Polish [[Nobel laureate]] [[Władysław Reymont]] with a theme similar to ''Animal Farm''{{'}}s. * ''[[White Acre vs. Black Acre]]'', published in 1856 and written by William M. Burwell, is a satirical novel that features allegories for [[slavery in the United States]] similar to ''Animal Farm''{{'}}s portrayal of Soviet history. * George Orwell's own ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'', a classic [[dystopian novel]] about [[totalitarianism]]. ==Notes== {{reflist | colwidth = 30em | refs = <ref name=Rodden1999> {{cite book | last = Rodden | first = John | year = 1999 | title = Understanding Animal Farm: A Student Casebook to Issues, Sources, and Historical Documents | publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group | isbn = 978-0-313-30201-5 | pages = 48–49 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=TG-YpkczTjEC&pg=PA40 | accessdate = 9 June 2012 }} </ref><ref name=Carr2010> {{cite book | last = Carr | first = Craig L. | date = 14 October 2010 | title = Orwell, Politics, and Power | publisher = Continuum International Publishing Group | isbn = 978-1-4411-5854-3 | pages = 78–79 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=V1GCAqNSlYwC&pg=PA78 | accessdate = 9 June 2012 }} </ref><ref name=RoddenIntro> Rodden, John "Introduction", in: John Rodden (ed.), ''Understanding Animal Farm'', Westport/London (1999), p.&nbsp;5f. </ref><ref name=Hitchens> According to [[Christopher Hitchens]], "the persons of Lenin and Trotsky are combined into one [i.e., Snowball], or, it might even be [...] to say, there is no Lenin at all." (Hitchens, Christopher. ''Why Orwell Matters'', Basic Books (2002), p.&nbsp;186f). </ref><ref name=NapoleonInFrench> {{cite book | last = Quéval | first = Jean | year = 1981 | title = La ferme des animaux | language = French | publisher = Edition Gallimard | edition = Folio | isbn = 978-2-07-037516-5 }} </ref><ref name="Orwell 1946 40"> {{cite book | last = Orwell | first = George | authorlink = George Orwell | year = 1946 | title = Animal Farm | publisher = The New American Library | location = New York | page = 40 | isbn = 978-1-4193-6524-9 }} </ref><ref name=autogenerated1> p.&nbsp;47 of book </ref><ref name="Peter Edgerly Firchow 2008"> Peter Edgerly Firchow, ''Modern Utopian Fictions from H.G. Wells to Iris Murdoch'' (2008), 102. </ref><ref name="Peter Hobley Davison 1996"> Peter Hobley Davison, ''George Orwell'' (1996), 161. </ref><ref name=Eliot> Richard Brooks, "[http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/books/article5993099.ece TS Eliot's snort of rejection for Animal Farm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090702141840/http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/books/article5993099.ece |date=2 July 2009 }}", ''Sunday Times'', 29 March 2009. </ref><ref name=bbc> {{cite news |publisher = BBC News |date = 11 November 2008 |title = The whitewashing of Stalin |url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/7719633.stm |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20081112021024/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/7719633.stm |archivedate = 12 November 2008 |df = dmy-all }} </ref><ref name=GOIT15> [[#GOIT|Orwell page 15]]. introduction by Bernard Crick </ref><ref name=TFOTP>{{cite web |last=Orwell |first=George |title=The Freedom of the Press: Orwell's Proposed Preface to 'Animal Farm' |url=http://www.orwell.ru/library/novels/Animal_Farm/english/efp_go |accessdate=9 January 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116052227/http://orwell.ru/library/novels/Animal_Farm/english/efp_go |archivedate=16 January 2013 |df=dmy-all }} </ref><ref name=Stone> {{cite news |last = Stone |first = Brad |authorlink = Brad Stone (journalist) |date = 18 July 2009 |title = Amazon Erases Orwell Books From Kindle |newspaper = [[The New York Times]] |pages = B1 |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/18/technology/companies/18amazon.html?_r=1 |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160914153440/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/18/technology/companies/18amazon.html?_r=1 |archivedate = 14 September 2016 |df = dmy-all }} </ref><ref name=statement> {{cite news |last = Fried |first = Ina |date = 17 July 2009 |title = Amazon says it won't repeat Kindle book recall |publisher = News.cnet.com |url = http://news.cnet.com/8301-13860_3-10290047-56.html |accessdate = 24 October 2010 |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20110617035241/http://news.cnet.com/8301-13860_3-10290047-56.html |archivedate = 17 June 2011 |df = dmy-all }} </ref><ref name=Crick> Bernard Crick, "[https://www.nytimes.com/1972/10/08/archives/how-the-essay-came-to-be-written.html How the essay came to be written] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116195621/http://www.nytimes.com/1972/10/08/archives/how-the-essay-came-to-be-written.html |date=16 November 2017 }}", ''New York Times'', 8 October 1972. </ref> }} ==References== <!-- in alphabetical order by last name or organisation name --> {{refbegin}} *{{cite book | ref = harv | title = Selected Writings | last = Bott | first = George | year = 1968 | origyear = 1958 | publisher = Heinemann Educational Books | location = London, Melbourne, Toronto, Singapore, Johannesburg, Hong Kong, Nairobi, Auckland, Ibadan | isbn = 978-0-435-13675-8 | pages = 13–14, 23 }} *{{cite web | ref = harv | last = Dag | first = O. | title = George Orwell: The Freedom of the Press | date = 19 December 2004 | work = orwell.ru | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20050306021634/http://orwell.ru/library/novels/Animal_Farm/english/efp_go | archivedate = 6 March 2005 | url = http://orwell.ru/library/novels/Animal_Farm/english/efp_go | accessdate = 31 July 2008 }} *{{cite web | ref = harv | title = George Orwell: Animal Farm: A Fairy Story: A Note on the Text | last = Davison | first = Peter | year = 2000 | publisher = [[Penguin Books]] | location = England | isbn = | url = http://www.orwell.ru/library/novels/Animal_Farm/english/eint_pd | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20061212041856/http://www.orwell.ru/library/novels/Animal_Farm/english/eint_pd | archivedate = 12 December 2006 }} *{{cite web | ref = harv |author=doollee.com |title=Wooldridge Ian – playwright |url=http://www.doollee.com/PlaywrightsW/WooldridgeIan.htm |accessdate=31 July 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080507231220/http://www.doollee.com/PlaywrightsW/WooldridgeIan.htm |archivedate=7 May 2008 }} *{{cite news | ref = harv | last1 = Grossman | first1 = Lev | authorlink1 = Lev Grossman | last2 = Lacayo | first2 = Richard |authorlink2 = Richard Lacayo | title = All-Time 100 Novels | publisher = TIME magazine | url = http://www.time.com/time/2005/100books/the_complete_list.html | accessdate = 31 August 2008 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080913100321/http://www.time.com/time/2005/100books/the_complete_list.html | archivedate = 13 September 2008 | deadurl = no | date=16 October 2005 }} *{{cite book | ref = harv | last = Hitchens | first = Christopher | authorlink = Christopher Hitchens | year = 2000 | page = 38 | title = Unacknowledged Legislation: Writers in the Public Sphere | publisher = Verso | isbn = 978-1-85984-786-2 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=RBGmrDnBs8UC | accessdate = 26 September 2008 }} *{{cite web | ref = harv |editor-last=Lowe |editor-first=Christian |title=Defense Tech: CIA, Movie Producer |date=10 March 2006 |url=http://defensetech.org/2006/03/10/cia-movie-producer/ |accessdate=31 July 2008 }} *{{cite book | ref = harv |title = Critical Essays: Animal Farm and the Russian Revolution |publisher = [[CliffsNotes]] |url = http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/literature/animal-farm/critical-essays/russian-revolution.html |accessdate = 9 January 2013 }} *{{cite book|author=Menchhofer, Robert W. |title=Animal Farm|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GhvjsczkdBIC&pg=PA1|year=1990|publisher=Lorenz Educational Press|pages=1–8|ref=harv}} *{{cite web |ref=harv |last=Orwell |first=George |authorlink=George Orwell |title=Preface to the Ukrainian Edition of Animal Farm |date=March 1947 |url=http://www.netcharles.com/orwell/essays/ukrainian-af-pref.htm |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20051024074027/http://www.netcharles.com/orwell/essays/ukrainian-af-pref.htm |archivedate=24 October 2005 |df=dmy-all }} *{{cite book | ref = harv | last = Orwell | first = George | authorlink = George Orwell | year = 1979 | origyear = First published by Martin Secker & Warburg 1945; published in Penguin Books 1951 | title = Animal Farm | publisher = [[Penguin Books]] | location = England | isbn = 978-0-14-000838-8 }} *{{cite journal | ref = harv | first = George | last = Orwell | authorlink = George Orwell | others = Bruno Tasso (translator) | date=June 1976 | pages = 15, 20 | language = Italian | title = La fattoria degli animali | publisher = [[Oscar Mondadori]] | edition = 1st | location = Italy | url = https://repozitorij.uni-lj.si/IzpisGradiva.php?id=35972 }} ([[Bernard Crick]]'s preface quotes Orwell writing to T. S. Eliot about Cape's suggestion to find another animal than pigs to represent the Bolsheviks) *{{cite book | ref = harv | last = Taylor | first = David John | authorlink = D. J. Taylor | year = 2003 | title = Orwell: The Life | page = 197 | publisher = H. Holt | isbn = 978-0-8050-7473-4 }} *{{cite web |ref = harv |last = Wooldridge |first = Ian |authorlink = Ian Wooldridge |title = Ian Wooldridge – Animal Farm |url = http://www.ian-wooldridge.com/animalfarm.php |accessdate = 31 July 2008 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080627113655/http://www.ian-wooldridge.com/animalfarm.php |archivedate = 27 June 2008 |deadurl = yes |df = dmy-all }} {{refend}} ==External links== {{Bibliowiki|Animal Farm|''Animal Farm''}} {{sisterlinks|d=Q1396889|c=category:Animal Farm|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=no|s=no|species=no|display=''Animal Farm''}} *[http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/o/orwell/george/o79a/index.html ''Animal Farm'' full text at eBooks@Adelaide] *{{FadedPage|id=201410E7|name=Animal Farm}} *{{Gutenberg Australia |id=plusfifty-n-z.html#orwell |name=Animal Farm}} *[http://literapedia.wikispaces.com/Animal+Farm ''Animal Farm'' Book Notes from Literapedia] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20051024060250/http://www.netcharles.com/orwell/essays/letters-agent-af.htm Excerpts from Orwell's letters to his agent concerning ''Animal Farm''] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20070108225314/http://www.antigonishreview.com/bi-111/111-pyle.html Literary Journal review] *[http://home.iprimus.com.au/korob/Orwell.html Orwell's original preface to the book] *[https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/writers/molyneux/1989/xx/orwell.html ''Animal Farm Revisited''] by [[John Molyneux (academic)|John Molyneux]], ''International Socialism'', 44 (1989) *[http://www.bl.uk/works/animal-farm ''Animal Farm''] at the British Library {{Animal Farm|state=expanded}} {{George Orwell}} {{Hugo Award Best Novella}} {{Portal bar|England|Novels|Communism|Soviet Union}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:1945 British novels]] [[Category:Allegory]] [[Category:Animal Farm| ]] [[Category:Dystopian novels]] [[Category:English novels]] [[Category:Hugo Award for Best Novella winning works]] [[Category:Prometheus Award-winning works]] [[Category:Literature featuring anthropomorphic characters]] [[Category:British novellas]] [[Category:Novels by George Orwell]] [[Category:Political literature]] [[Category:British political novels]] [[Category:Roman à clef novels]] [[Category:Satirical novels]] [[Category:Novels about revolutionaries]] [[Category:Novels about totalitarianism]] [[Category:Novels about propaganda]] [[Category:British satirical novels]] [[Category:Novels about animals]] [[Category:Secker & Warburg books]] [[Category:Pigs in literature]] [[Category:Cattle in literature]] [[Category:Cats in literature]] [[Category:Dogs in literature]] [[Category:British novels adapted into films]] [[Category:British novels adapted into plays]] [[Category:Novels adapted into radio programs]] [[Category:Novels adapted into television programs]] [[Category:Novels adapted into comics]] [[Category:Censored books]] 8zkbgcl514zo2j9eea5fgkmfuf3ljkf 0 621 859176335 859169339 2018-09-12T07:34:51Z Chiswick Chap 2666701 sorry but one is enough here, the section is getting cramped with images and files wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|A class of ectothermic tetrapods, which typically breed in water}} {{other uses|Amphibian (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} {{automatic taxobox | name = Amphibians | fossil_range = [[Late Devonian]]–[[present]], {{fossil range|370|0}} | image = Amphibians.png | image_upright = 1.15 | image_alt = Collage of amphibians | image_caption = Clockwise from top right: ''[[Seymouria]]'', [[Mexican burrowing caecilian]], [[eastern newt]] and [[leaf green tree frog]] | taxon = Amphibia | authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]] 1825<ref name=BlackburnWake/> | subdivision_ranks = Subclasses | subdivision = * {{extinct}}[[Temnospondyli]] * [[Lissamphibia]] (modern amphibians) }} '''Amphibians''' are [[ectotherm]]ic, [[tetrapod]] [[vertebrate]]s of the [[Class (biology)|class]] '''Amphibia'''. Modern amphibians are all [[Lissamphibia]]. They inhabit a wide variety of [[habitat]]s, with most species living within [[terrestrial animal|terrestrial]], [[fossorial]], [[arboreal]] or freshwater [[aquatic ecosystems]]. Thus amphibians typically start out as [[larva]]e living in water, but some species have developed behavioural adaptations to bypass this. The young generally undergo [[metamorphosis]] from larva with gills to an adult air-breathing form with [[lung]]s. Amphibians use their skin as a secondary respiratory surface and some small terrestrial [[salamander]]s and [[frog]]s lack lungs and rely entirely on their skin. They are superficially similar to [[lizard]]s but, along with mammals and birds, reptiles are [[amniote]]s and do not require water bodies in which to breed. With their complex reproductive needs and permeable skins, amphibians are often [[ecological indicator]]s; in recent decades there has been a dramatic [[decline in amphibian populations]] for many species around the globe. The earliest amphibians [[evolution of tetrapods|evolved]] in the [[Devonian]] period from [[sarcopterygian]] fish with lungs and bony-limbed fins, features that were helpful in adapting to dry land. They diversified and became dominant during the [[Carboniferous]] and [[Permian]] periods, but were later displaced by reptiles and other vertebrates. Over time, amphibians shrank in size and decreased in diversity, leaving only the modern subclass Lissamphibia. The three modern orders of amphibians are [[Anura (frog)|Anura]] (the frogs and toads), [[Urodela]] (the salamanders), and [[caecilian|Apoda]] (the caecilians). The number of known amphibian species is approximately 7,000, of which nearly 90% are frogs. The smallest amphibian (and vertebrate) in the world is a frog from [[New Guinea]] (''[[Paedophryne amauensis]]'') with a length of just {{convert|7.7|mm|in|abbr=on}}. The largest living amphibian is the {{convert|1.8|m|0|abbr=on}} [[Chinese giant salamander]] (''Andrias davidianus''), but this is dwarfed by the extinct {{convert|9|m|0|abbr=on}} ''[[Prionosuchus]]'' from the middle Permian of Brazil. The study of amphibians is called [[batrachology]], while the study of both reptiles and amphibians is called [[herpetology]]. == Classification == {{see also|List of amphibians}} [[File:Paratype of Paedophryne amauensis (LSUMZ 95004).png|thumb|alt=World's smallest vertebrate|The world's smallest known vertebrate, ''[[Paedophryne amauensis]]'', sitting on a [[Dime (United States coin)|U.S. dime]], which is 17.9&nbsp;mm in diameter, for scale]] The word "amphibian" is derived from the [[Ancient Greek]] term ἀμφίβιος (''amphíbios''), which means "both kinds of life", ''ἀμφί'' meaning "of both kinds" and ''βιος'' meaning "life". The term was initially used as a general adjective for animals that could live on land or in water, including seals and otters.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Concise Etymological Dictionary of the English Language |last=Skeat |first=Walter W. |year=1897 |publisher=Clarendon Press |page=39 }}</ref> Traditionally, the class Amphibia includes all tetrapod vertebrates that are not amniotes. Amphibia in its widest sense (''[[sensu lato]]'') was divided into three [[Class (biology)|subclasses]], two of which are extinct:<ref>{{cite journal |author=Baird, Donald |date=May 1965 |title=Paleozoic lepospondyl amphibians |journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=287–294 |doi=10.1093/icb/5.2.287 }}</ref> *Subclass [[Lepospondyli]]† (small Paleozoic group, which may actually be more closely related to amniotes than Lissamphibia) * Subclass [[Temnospondyli]]† (diverse Paleozoic and early Mesozoic grade) * Subclass [[Lissamphibia]] (all modern amphibians, including frogs, toads, salamanders, newts and caecilians) ** Salientia ([[frog]]s, [[toad]]s and relatives): Jurassic to present—6,200 current species in 53 families ** Caudata ([[salamander]]s, [[newt]]s and relatives): Jurassic to present—652 current species in 9 families ** Gymnophiona ([[caecilian]]s and relatives): Jurassic to present—192 current species in 10 families [[File:Triadobatrachus.jpg|thumb|alt=''Triadobatrachus massinoti''|''[[Triadobatrachus|Triadobatrachus massinoti]]'', a proto-frog from the Early Triassic of Madagascar]] The actual number of species in each group depends on the taxonomic classification followed. The two most common systems are the classification adopted by the website AmphibiaWeb, [[University of California, Berkeley]] and the classification by [[Herpetology|herpetologist]] [[Darrel Frost]] and the [[American Museum of Natural History]], available as the online reference database "Amphibian Species of the World".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://research.amnh.org/vz/herpetology/amphibia/ |title= American Museum of Natural History: Amphibian Species of the World 5.6, an Online Reference |author=Frost, Darrel |year=2013 |publisher=The American Museum of Natural History |accessdate=October 24, 2013}}</ref> The numbers of species cited above follows Frost and the total number of known amphibian species is over 7,000, of which nearly 90% are frogs.<ref name="species">{{cite journal|author=Crump, Martha L. |year=2009 |title=Amphibian diversity and life history |journal=Amphibian Ecology and Conservation. A Handbook of Techniques |pages=3–20 |url=http://fds.oup.com/www.oup.com/pdf/13/9780199541188_chapter1.pdf |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715022035/http://fds.oup.com/www.oup.com/pdf/13/9780199541188_chapter1.pdf |archivedate=July 15, 2011 |df=mdy }}</ref> With the [[Phylogenetics|phylogenetic]] classification, the taxon [[Labyrinthodontia]] has been discarded as it is a [[Paraphyly|polyparaphyletic]] group without unique defining features apart from [[Cladistics#plesiomorphy|shared primitive characteristics]]. Classification varies according to the preferred phylogeny of the author and whether they use a [[Cladistics#Three definitions of clade|stem-based or a node-based]] classification. Traditionally, amphibians as a class are defined as all tetrapods with a larval stage, while the group that includes the common ancestors of all living amphibians (frogs, salamanders and caecilians) and all their descendants is called Lissamphibia. The phylogeny of Paleozoic amphibians is uncertain, and Lissamphibia may possibly fall within extinct groups, like the Temnospondyli (traditionally placed in the subclass Labyrinthodontia) or the Lepospondyli, and in some analyses even in the amniotes. This means that advocates of [[phylogenetic nomenclature]] have removed a large number of [[basal (phylogenetics)|basal]] Devonian and Carboniferous amphibian-type tetrapod groups that were formerly placed in Amphibia in [[Linnaean taxonomy]], and included them elsewhere under [[cladistic taxonomy]].<ref name=BlackburnWake>{{cite journal|author1=Blackburn, D. C. |author2=Wake, D. B. | title=Class Amphibia Gray, 1825. In: Zhang, Z.-Q. (Ed.) Animal biodiversity: An outline of higher-level classification and survey of taxonomic richness | journal=Zootaxa| volume=3148| year=2011| pages=39–55| url=http://mapress.com/zootaxa/2011/f/zt03148p055.pdf}}</ref> If the common ancestor of amphibians and amniotes is included in Amphibia, it becomes a paraphyletic group.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/tetrapods/amphibsy.html |title=Amphibia: Systematics |author1=Speer, B. W. |author2=Waggoner, Ben |year=1995 |publisher=University of California Museum of Paleontology |accessdate=December 13, 2012}}</ref> All modern amphibians are included in the subclass Lissamphibia, which is usually considered a [[clade]], a group of species that have evolved from a common ancestor. The three modern orders are Anura (the frogs and toads), Caudata (or Urodela, the salamanders), and Gymnophiona (or Apoda, the caecilians).{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | p=3 }} It has been suggested that salamanders arose separately from a Temnospondyl-like ancestor, and even that caecilians are the sister group of the advanced [[reptiliomorpha|reptiliomorph]] amphibians, and thus of amniotes.<ref name="Anderson" /> Although the fossils of several older proto-frogs with primitive characteristics are known, the oldest "true frog" is ''[[Prosalirus bitis]]'', from the [[Early Jurassic]] [[Kayenta Formation]] of Arizona. It is anatomically very similar to modern frogs.<ref>{{cite book | title=Amphibian Biology: Paleontology: The Evolutionary History of Amphibians | editor1-last=Heatwole | editor1-first=H. | editor2-last=Carroll | editor2-first=R. L. | year=2000 | volume=4 | publisher=Surrey Beatty & Sons | isbn=978-0-949324-87-0 | chapter=14. Mesozoic Amphibians | last1=Roček | first1=Z. | pages=1295–1331 | url=http://rocek.gli.cas.cz/Reprints/AmphBiol3.pdf}}</ref> The oldest known caecilian is another Early Jurassic species, ''[[Eocaecilia micropodia]]'', also from Arizona.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Jenkins, Farish A. Jr. |author2=Walsh, Denis M. |author3=Carroll, Robert L. |year=2007 |title=Anatomy of ''Eocaecilia micropodia'', a limbed caecilian of the Early Jurassic |journal=Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology |volume=158 |issue=6 |pages=285–365 |doi=10.3099/0027-4100(2007)158[285:AOEMAL]2.0.CO;2 }}</ref> The earliest salamander is ''[[Beiyanerpeton jianpingensis]]'' from the [[Late Jurassic]] of northeastern China.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Gaoa, Ke-Qin |author2=Shubin, Neil H. |year=2012 |title=Late Jurassic salamandroid from western Liaoning, China |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=109 |issue=15 |pages=5767–5772 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1009828109 |pmid=22411790 |pmc=3326464 |bibcode=2012PNAS..109.5767G }}</ref> Authorities disagree as to whether Salientia is a superorder that includes the order Anura, or whether Anura is a sub-order of the order Salientia. The Lissamphibia are traditionally divided into three [[Order (biology)|orders]], but an extinct salamander-like family, the [[Albanerpetontidae]], is now considered part of Lissamphibia alongside the superorder Salientia. Furthermore, Salientia includes all three recent orders plus the Triassic proto-frog, ''[[Triadobatrachus]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tolweb.org/Salientia/14938 |title=Salientia |author=Cannatella, David |year=2008 |work=Tree of Life Web Project |accessdate=August 31, 2012}}</ref> == Evolutionary history == {{Main|Evolution of tetrapods}} {{see also|List of prehistoric amphibians}} {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | header = | width = 220 | image1 = Eusthenopteron BW.jpg | alt1 = | caption1 = | image2 = Tiktaalik BW.jpg | alt2 = | caption2 = '''Top:''' Restoration of ''[[Eusthenopteron]]'', a fully aquatic lobe-finned fish '''Bottom:''' Restoration of ''[[Tiktaalik]]'', an advanced tetrapodomorph fish }} The first major groups of amphibians developed in the [[Devonian]] period, around 370 million years ago, from [[Sarcopterygii|lobe-finned fish]] which were similar to the modern [[coelacanth]] and [[lungfish]].<ref name="evoamphib">{{cite web |url=http://sci.waikato.ac.nz/evolution/AnimalEvolution.shtml#evolutionofamphibian |title=Evolution of amphibians |publisher=University of Waikato: Plant and animal evolution |accessdate=September 30, 2012}}</ref> These ancient lobe-finned fish had evolved multi-jointed leg-like fins with digits that enabled them to crawl along the sea bottom. Some fish had developed primitive lungs to help them breathe air when the stagnant pools of the Devonian swamps were low in oxygen. They could also use their strong fins to hoist themselves out of the water and onto dry land if circumstances so required. Eventually, their bony fins would [[evolution|evolve]] into limbs and they would become the ancestors to all [[tetrapod]]s, including modern amphibians, reptiles, birds, and [[mammal]]s. Despite being able to crawl on land, many of these prehistoric [[tetrapodomorph]] fish still spent most of their time in the water. They had started to develop lungs, but still breathed predominantly with gills.<ref name="Carroll">{{cite book |title=Patterns of Evolution, as Illustrated by the Fossil Record |last=Carroll |first=Robert L. |editor=Hallam, Anthony |editor-link= Anthony Hallam|year=1977 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-444-41142-6 |pages=405–420 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=q7GjDIyyWegC&pg=PA405&dq=Amphibian+evolution#v=onepage&q=Amphibian%20evolution&f=false }}</ref> Many examples of species showing [[transitional fossil|transitional features]] have been discovered. ''[[Ichthyostega]]'' was one of the first primitive amphibians, with nostrils and more efficient lungs. It had four sturdy limbs, a neck, a tail with fins and a skull very similar to that of the lobe-finned fish, ''[[Eusthenopteron]]''.<ref name="evoamphib" /> Amphibians evolved adaptations that allowed them to stay out of the water for longer periods. Their lungs improved and their skeletons became heavier and stronger, better able to support the weight of their bodies on land.<!--'cope with the increased gravitational effect of life' - The gravitational force is effectively the same on the surface of the land as in the sea; however, in water, a body experiences a buoyancy force.--> They developed "hands" and "feet" with five or more digits;<ref name="Ichthyostega" /> the skin became more capable of retaining body fluids and resisting desiccation.<ref name="Carroll" /> The fish's [[hyomandibula]] bone in the [[hyoid bone|hyoid]] region behind the gills diminished in size and became the [[stapes]] of the amphibian ear, an adaptation necessary for hearing on dry land.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Lombard, R. E. |author2=Bolt, J. R. |year=1979 |title=Evolution of the tetrapod ear: an analysis and reinterpretation |journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=19–76 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.1979.tb00027.x |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230169547 }}</ref> An affinity between the amphibians and the [[teleost]] fish is the multi-folded structure of the teeth and the paired [[Occipital bone|supra-occipital bones]] at the back of the head, neither of these features being found elsewhere in the animal kingdom.<ref name="Spoczynska" /> [[File:Diplocaulus vale21DB.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=''Diplocaulus''|The Permian lepospondyl ''[[Diplocaulus]]'' was largely aquatic]] At the end of the Devonian period (360 million years ago), the seas, rivers and lakes were teeming with life while the land was the realm of early plants and devoid of vertebrates,<ref name="Spoczynska"/> though some, such as ''Ichthyostega'', may have sometimes hauled themselves out of the water. It is thought they may have propelled themselves with their forelimbs, dragging their hindquarters in a similar manner to that used by the [[elephant seal]].<ref name="Ichthyostega">{{cite web |url=http://tolweb.org/Ichthyostega |title=''Ichthyostega'' |author=Clack, Jennifer A. |year=2006 |work=Tree of Life Web Project |accessdate=September 29, 2012}}</ref> In the early [[Carboniferous]] (360 to 345 million years ago), the climate became wet and warm. Extensive swamps developed with [[moss]]es, [[fern]]s, [[horsetail]]s and [[calamites]]. Air-breathing [[arthropod]]s evolved and invaded the land where they provided food for the [[Carnivore|carnivorous]] amphibians that began to adapt to the terrestrial environment. There were no other tetrapods on the land and the amphibians were at the top of the food chain, occupying the ecological position currently held by the crocodile. Though equipped with limbs and the ability to breathe air, most still had a long tapering body and strong tail.<ref name="Spoczynska">{{cite book |title=Fossils: A Study in Evolution |last=Spoczynska |first=J. O. I. |year=1971 |publisher=Frederick Muller Ltd |isbn=978-0-584-10093-8 |pages=120–125 }}</ref> They were the top land predators, sometimes reaching several metres in length, preying on the large insects of the period and the many types of fish in the water. They still needed to return to water to lay their shell-less eggs, and even most modern amphibians have a fully aquatic larval stage with gills like their fish ancestors. It was the development of the [[amniote|amniotic]] egg, which prevents the developing embryo from drying out, that enabled the reptiles to reproduce on land and which led to their [[Dominance (ecology)|dominance]] in the period that followed.<ref name="evoamphib"/> After the [[Carboniferous rainforest collapse]] amphibian dominance gave way to reptiles,<ref name="SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates">{{cite journal | url=http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/6/4/544.full.pdf+html | author=Sahney, S. |author2=Benton, M.J. |author3=Ferry, P.A. |last-author-amp=yes | year=2010 | title=Links between global taxonomic diversity, ecological diversity and the expansion of vertebrates on land | journal=Biology Letters | doi=10.1098/rsbl.2009.1024 | volume = 6 | pages = 544–547 |format=PDF | issue=4 | pmid=20106856 | pmc=2936204}}</ref> and amphibians were further devastated by the [[Permian–Triassic extinction event]].<ref name="SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction">{{cite journal | url=http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/275/1636/759.full.pdf |author1=Sahney, S. |author2=Benton, M.J. | year=2008 | title=Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time | journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences | doi=10.1098/rspb.2007.1370 | volume = 275 | pages = 759–65|format=PDF | pmid=18198148 | issue=1636 | pmc=2596898}}</ref> During the [[Triassic|Triassic Period]] (250 to 200 million years ago), the reptiles continued to out-compete the amphibians, leading to a reduction in both the amphibians' size and their importance in the [[biosphere]]. According to the fossil record, [[Lissamphibia]], which includes all modern amphibians and is the only surviving lineage, may have branched off from the extinct groups [[Temnospondyli]] and [[Lepospondyli]] at some period between the Late Carboniferous and the Early Triassic. The relative scarcity of fossil evidence precludes precise dating,<ref name="Carroll" /> but the most recent molecular study, based on [[multilocus sequence typing]], suggests a Late Carboniferous/Early [[Permian]] origin for extant amphibians.<ref>{{cite journal|last=San Mauro|first=D. |year=2010|title=A multilocus timescale for the origin of extant amphibians|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=56 |pages=554–561 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2010.04.019 |pmid=20399871|issue=2|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/43182452}}</ref> [[File:Eryops - National Museum of Natural History - IMG 1974.JPG|thumb|alt=''Eryops''|The temnospondyl ''[[Eryops]]'' had sturdy limbs to support its body on land]] The origins and evolutionary relationships between the three main groups of amphibians is a matter of debate. A 2005 molecular phylogeny, based on [[Ribosomal DNA|rDNA]] analysis, suggests that salamanders and caecilians are more closely related to each other than they are to frogs. It also appears that the divergence of the three groups took place in the [[Paleozoic]] or early [[Mesozoic]] (around 250 million years ago), before the breakup of the supercontinent [[Pangaea]] and soon after their divergence from the lobe-finned fish. The briefness of this period, and the swiftness with which radiation took place, would help account for the relative scarcity of primitive amphibian fossils.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=San Mauro, Diego |author2=Vences, Miguel |author3=Alcobendas, Marina |author4=Zardoya, Rafael |author5=Meyer, Axel |year=2005 |title=Initial diversification of living amphibians predated the breakup of Pangaea |journal=The American Naturalist |volume=165 |issue=5 |pages=590–599 |doi=10.1086/429523 |pmid=15795855 |url=http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:352-opus-33053 }}</ref> There are large gaps in the [[fossil record]], but the discovery of a [[Gerobatrachus hottoni]] from the Early Permian in Texas in 2008 provided a missing link with many of the characteristics of modern frogs.<ref name="Anderson">{{cite journal |author1=Anderson, J. |author2=Reisz, R. |author3=Scott, D. |author4=Fröbisch, N. |author5=Sumida, S. |year=2008 |title=A stem batrachian from the Early Permian of Texas and the origin of frogs and salamanders |journal=Nature |volume=453 |issue= 7194|pages=515–518 |doi=10.1038/nature06865 |pmid= 18497824 |bibcode = 2008Natur.453..515A |url=https://www.academia.edu/13288317 }}</ref> [[Molecular phylogenetics|Molecular analysis]] suggests that the frog–salamander divergence took place considerably earlier than the [[Paleontology|palaeontological]] evidence indicates.<ref name="Anderson" /> Newer research indicates that the common ancestor of all Lissamphibians lived about 315 million years ago, and that [[Stereospondyli|stereospondyls]] are the closest relatives to the caecilians.<ref>[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/06/170619151534.htm Tiny fossils reveal backstory of the most mysterious amphibian alive]</ref> As they evolved from lunged fish, amphibians had to make certain adaptations for living on land, including the need to develop new means of locomotion. In the water, the sideways thrusts of their tails had propelled them forward, but on land, quite different mechanisms were required. Their vertebral columns, limbs, limb girdles and musculature needed to be strong enough to raise them off the ground for locomotion and feeding. Terrestrial adults discarded their [[lateral line]] systems and adapted their sensory systems to receive stimuli via the medium of the air. They needed to develop new methods to regulate their body heat to cope with fluctuations in ambient temperature. They developed behaviours suitable for reproduction in a terrestrial environment. Their skins were exposed to harmful [[ultraviolet]] rays that had previously been absorbed by the water. The skin changed to become more protective and prevent excessive water loss.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | pp=843–859 }} == Characteristics == The superclass [[Tetrapoda]] is divided into four classes of vertebrate animals with four limbs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tolweb.org/Terrestrial_Vertebrates/14952 |title=Terrestrial Vertebrates |author=Laurin, Michel |year=2011 |work=Tree of Life Web Project |accessdate=September 16, 2012}}</ref> Reptiles, birds and mammals are amniotes, the eggs of which are either laid or carried by the female and are surrounded by several membranes, some of which are impervious.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tolweb.org/Amniota/14990 |title=Amniota |author1=Laurin, Michel |author2=Gauthier, Jacques A. |year=2012 |work=Tree of Life Web Project |accessdate=September 16, 2012}}</ref> Lacking these membranes, amphibians require water bodies for reproduction, although some species have developed various strategies for protecting or bypassing the vulnerable aquatic larval stage.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | pp=843–859 }} They are not found in the sea with the exception of one or two frogs that live in [[brackish water]] in [[mangrove]] swamps;<ref>{{cite book |title=Introduction to the Biology of Marine Life |last=Sumich |first=James L. |author2= Morrissey, John F. |year=2004 |publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning |isbn=978-0-7637-3313-1 |page=171 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Y8vTCze3dHgC&dq=%22+amphibians+in+the+sea%3F%22&q=Amphibians#v=snippet&q=Amphibians&f=false }}</ref> the [[Anderson's salamander]] meanwhile occurs in brackish or salt water lakes.<ref>Brad Shaffer; Oscar Flores-Villela; Gabriela Parra-Olea; David Wake (2004). "Ambystoma andersoni". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature</ref> On land, amphibians are restricted to moist habitats because of the need to keep their skin damp.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | pp=843–859 }} The smallest amphibian (and vertebrate) in the world is a [[microhylid]] frog from [[New Guinea]] (''[[Paedophryne amauensis]]'') first discovered in 2012. It has an average length of {{convert|7.7|mm|in|abbr=on}} and is part of a genus that contains four of the world's ten smallest frog species.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rittmeyer|first1=Eric N. |last2=Allison |first2=Allen |last3=Gründler |first3=Michael C. |last4=Thompson |first4=Derrick K. |last5=Austin |first5=Christopher C. |year=2012 |title=Ecological guild evolution and the discovery of the world's smallest vertebrate |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages= e29797 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0029797 |pmid=22253785 |pmc=3256195|bibcode = 2012PLoSO...729797R }}</ref> The largest living amphibian is the {{convert|1.8|m|0|abbr=on}} [[Chinese giant salamander]] (''Andrias davidianus'')<ref name="Amphibianfacts">{{cite web|url=http://amphibiaweb.org/amphibian/facts.html|title=Amphibian Facts |author1=Nguyen, Brent |author2=Cavagnaro, John |date=July 2012 |publisher=AmphibiaWeb |accessdate=November 9, 2012}}</ref> but this is a great deal smaller than the largest amphibian that ever existed—the extinct {{convert|9|m|0|abbr=on}} ''[[Prionosuchus]]'', a crocodile-like temnospondyl dating to 270 million years ago from the middle Permian of Brazil!<ref>{{cite journal|author=Price, L. I.|year=1948 |title=Um anfibio Labirinthodonte da formacao Pedra de Fogo, Estado do Maranhao |journal=Boletim |volume=24 |pages=7–32 |publisher=Ministerio da Agricultura, Departamento Nacional da Producao ineral Divisao de Geologia e Mineralogia}}</ref> The largest frog is the African [[Goliath frog]] (''Conraua goliath''), which can reach {{convert|32|cm|0|abbr=on}} and weigh {{convert|3|kg|1|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Amphibianfacts" /> Amphibians are ectothermic (cold-blooded) vertebrates that do not maintain their body temperature through internal [[Physiology|physiological]] processes. Their [[Basal metabolic rate|metabolic rate]] is low and as a result, their food and energy requirements are limited. In the adult state, they have tear ducts and movable eyelids, and most species have ears that can detect airborne or ground vibrations. They have muscular tongues, which in many species can be protruded. Modern amphibians have fully [[Ossification|ossified]] vertebrae with [[articular processes]]. Their ribs are usually short and may be fused to the vertebrae. Their skulls are mostly broad and short, and are often incompletely ossified. Their skin contains little [[keratin]] and lacks scales, apart from a few fish-like scales in certain caecilians. The skin contains many [[mucous gland]]s and in some species, [[Skin|poison glands]] (a type of granular gland). The hearts of amphibians have three chambers, two [[atrium (heart)|atria]] and one [[ventricle (heart)|ventricle]]. They have a [[urinary bladder]] and nitrogenous waste products are excreted primarily as [[urea]]. Most amphibians lay their eggs in water and have aquatic larvae that undergo metamorphosis to become terrestrial adults. Amphibians breathe by means of a pump action in which air is first drawn into the [[Buccopharyngeal membrane|buccopharyngeal]] region through the nostrils. These are then closed and the air is forced into the lungs by contraction of the throat.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | pp=24–25 }} They supplement this with [[gas exchange]] through the skin.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | pp=843–859 }} === Anura === [[File:Red eyed tree frog edit2.jpg|thumb|alt=Red-eyed tree frog|[[Agalychnis callidryas|Red-eyed tree frog]] (''Agalychnis callidryas'') with limbs and feet specialised for climbing]] The order [[Anura (frog)|Anura]] (from the Ancient Greek ''[[Privative a|a(n)-]]'' meaning "without" and ''oura'' meaning "tail") comprises the frogs and toads. They usually have long hind limbs that fold underneath them, shorter forelimbs, webbed toes with no claws, no tails, large eyes and glandular moist skin.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | p=3 }} Members of this order with smooth skins are commonly referred to as frogs, while those with [[wikt:warty|warty]] skins are known as toads. The difference is not a formal one taxonomically and there are numerous exceptions to this rule. Members of the family [[Bufonidae]] are known as the "true toads".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tolweb.org/Bufonidae |title=Bufonidae, True Toads |author1=Cannatella, David |author2=Graybeal, Anna |year=2008 |work=Tree of Life Web Project |accessdate=December 1, 2012}}</ref> Frogs range in size from the {{convert|30|cm|adj=on}} [[Goliath frog]] (''Conraua goliath'') of West Africa<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/past-exhibitions/frogs-a-chorus-of-colors/frog-fun-facts|title=Frog fun facts |date=January 12, 2010 |publisher=American Museum of Natural History |accessdate=August 29, 2012}}</ref> to the {{convert|7.7|mm|adj=on}} ''[[Paedophryne amauensis]]'', first described in Papua New Guinea in 2012, which is also the smallest known vertebrate.<ref>{{cite news |title=World's smallest frog discovered in Papua New Guinea |author=Challenger, David |url=http://articles.cnn.com/2012-01-12/asia/world_asia_new-frogs_1_frog-papua-new-guinea-body-size?_s=PM:ASIA |newspaper=CNN |date=January 12, 2012 |accessdate=August 29, 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120420193348/http://articles.cnn.com/2012-01-12/asia/world_asia_new-frogs_1_frog-papua-new-guinea-body-size?_s=PM:ASIA |archivedate=April 20, 2012 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Although most species are associated with water and damp habitats, some are specialised to live in trees or in deserts. They are found worldwide except for polar areas.<ref name="Collins">{{cite book |title=Reptiles and Amphibians of Britain and Europe |last1=Arnold |first1=Nicholas |last2=Ovenden |first2= Denys |year=2002 |publisher=Harper Collins Publishers |isbn=978-0-00-219318-4 |pages=13–18}}</ref> Anura is divided into three suborders that are broadly accepted by the scientific community, but the relationships between some families remain unclear. Future [[molecular genetics|molecular]] studies should provide further insights into their evolutionary relationships.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Faivovich| first=J.|author2=Haddad, C. F. B.|author3= Garcia, P. C. A.|author4= Frost, D. R.|author5= Campbell, J. A.|author6= Wheeler, W. C.| title=Systematic review of the frog family Hylidae, with special reference to Hylinae: Phylogenetic analysis and revision| journal=Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History| volume=294| pages=1–240| doi=10.1206/0003-0090(2005)294[0001:SROTFF]2.0.CO;2| year=2005|citeseerx=10.1.1.470.2967}}</ref> The suborder [[Archaeobatrachia]] contains four families of primitive frogs. These are [[Ascaphidae]], [[Bombinatoridae]], [[Discoglossidae]] and [[Leiopelmatidae]] which have few derived features and are probably paraphyletic with regard to other frog lineages.<ref name="Ford">{{cite journal|last=Ford| first=L. S.|author2=Cannatella, D. C.| year=1993| title=The major clades of frogs| journal=Herpetological Monographs| volume=7| pages=94–117| doi=10.2307/1466954| jstor=1466954| url=https://www.academia.edu/11966468}}</ref> The six families in the more evolutionarily advanced suborder [[Mesobatrachia]] are the [[fossorial]] [[Megophryidae]], [[Pelobatidae]], [[Pelodytidae]], [[Scaphiopodidae]] and [[Rhinophrynidae]] and the obligatorily aquatic [[Pipidae]]. These have certain characteristics that are intermediate between the two other suborders.<ref name="Ford" /> [[Neobatrachia]] is by far the largest suborder and includes the remaining families of modern frogs, including most common species. Ninety-six percent of the over 5,000 extant species of frog are neobatrachians.<ref>{{cite journal | last=San Mauro | first=Diego | title=Initial diversification of living amphibians predated the breakup of Pangaea | journal=American Naturalist | volume=165 | pages=590–599 | year=2005 |author2=Vences, Miguel|author3= Alcobendas, Marina|author4= Zardoya, Rafael|author5= Meyer, Axel | doi=10.1086/429523 | issue=5 | pmid=15795855 |url=http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:352-opus-33053 }}</ref> === Caudata === [[File:Cryptobranchus japonicus.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=Japanese giant salamander|[[Japanese giant salamander]] <br>(''Andrias japonicus''), a primitive salamander]] The order [[Caudata]] (from the Latin ''cauda'' meaning "tail") consists of the salamanders—elongated, low-slung animals that mostly resemble lizards in form. This is a [[Symplesiomorphy|symplesiomorphic trait]] and they are no more closely related to lizards than they are to mammals.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/trait-evolution-on-a-phylogenetic-tree-relatedness-41936|title=Trait Evolution on a Phylogenetic Tree: Relatedness, Similarity, and the Myth of Evolutionary Advancement |author=Baum, David |year=2008 |publisher=Nature Education |accessdate=December 1, 2012}}</ref> Salamanders lack claws, have scale-free skins, either smooth or covered with [[tubercle]]s, and tails that are usually flattened from side to side and often finned. They range in size from the [[Chinese giant salamander]] (''Andrias davidianus''), which has been reported to grow to a length of {{convert|1.8|m}},<ref>{{cite web|url=http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi/amphib_query?where-genus=Andrias&where-species=davidianus|title=''Andrias davidianus'' Chinese giant salamander |author=Sparreboom, Max |date=February 7, 2000 |publisher=AmphibiaWeb |accessdate=December 1, 2012}}</ref> to the diminutive ''[[Thorius pennatulus]]'' from Mexico which seldom exceeds {{convert|20|mm|1|abbr=on}} in length.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi/amphib_query?where-genus=Thorius&where-species=pennatulus|title=''Thorius pennatulus'' |author=Wake, David B. |date=November 8, 2000 |publisher=AmphibiaWeb |accessdate=August 25, 2012}}</ref> Salamanders have a mostly [[Laurasia]]n distribution, being present in much of the [[Holarctic]] region of the northern hemisphere. The family [[Plethodontidae]] is also found in Central America and South America north of the [[Amazon basin]];<ref name="Collins" /> South America was apparently invaded from Central America by about the start of the [[Miocene]], 23 million years ago.<ref name="Elmer2013">{{cite journal|last1=Elmer|first1=K. R.|last2=Bonett|first2=R. M.|last3=Wake|first3=D. B.|last4=Lougheed|first4=S. C.|title=Early Miocene origin and cryptic diversification of South American salamanders|journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology|volume= 13|issue=1|date= 2013-03-04|pages= 59|doi= 10.1186/1471-2148-13-59|pmid=23497060|pmc=3602097}}</ref> Urodela is a name sometimes used for all the [[extant taxon|extant]] species of salamanders.<ref name="larson">{{Cite journal| last=Larson | first=A. | last2=Dimmick | first2=W. | year=1993 | title=Phylogenetic relationships of the salamander families: an analysis of the congruence among morphological and molecular characters | journal=Herpetological Monographs | volume=7 | issue=7 | pages=77–93 | doi =10.2307/1466953 | jstor=1466953}}</ref> Members of several salamander families have become [[Neoteny|paedomorphic]] and either fail to complete their metamorphosis or retain some larval characteristics as adults.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | p=852}} Most salamanders are under {{convert|15|cm|0|abbr=on}} long. They may be terrestrial or aquatic and many spend part of the year in each habitat. When on land, they mostly spend the day hidden under stones or logs or in dense vegetation, emerging in the evening and night to forage for worms, insects and other invertebrates.<ref name="Collins" /> [[File:Triturus dobrogicus dunai tarajosgőte.jpg|thumb|alt=Danube crested newt|[[Danube crested newt]] <br>(''Triturus dobrogicus''), an advanced salamander]] The suborder [[Cryptobranchoidea]] contains the primitive salamanders. A number of fossil cryptobranchids have been found, but there are only three living species, the Chinese giant salamander (''Andrias davidianus''), the [[Japanese giant salamander]] (''Andrias japonicus'') and the [[hellbender]] (''Cryptobranchus alleganiensis'') from North America. These large amphibians retain several larval characteristics in their adult state; gills slits are present and the eyes are unlidded. A unique feature is their ability to feed by suction, depressing either the left side of their lower jaw or the right.<ref name="ADWCrypto">{{cite web | url=http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cryptobranchidae.html | title=Cryptobranchidae | author=Heying, Heather | year=2003 | work=Animal Diversity Web | publisher=University of Michigan | accessdate=August 25, 2012 }}</ref> The males excavate nests, persuade females to lay their egg strings inside them, and guard them. As well as breathing with lungs, they respire through the many folds in their thin skin, which has [[Capillary|capillaries]] close to the surface.<ref name="EHSAR">{{cite web | url=http://www.fws.gov/midwest/es/soc/amphibians/eahe-sa.pdf | title=Eastern Hellbender Status Assessment Report |author1=Mayasich, J. |author2=Grandmaison, D. |author3=Phillips, C. | date=June 1, 2003 | publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service | accessdate=August 25, 2012 }}</ref> The suborder [[Salamandroidea]] contains the advanced salamanders. They differ from the cryptobranchids by having fused [[Mandible|prearticular bones]] in the lower jaw, and by using internal fertilisation. In salamandrids, the male deposits a bundle of sperm, the [[spermatophore]], and the female picks it up and inserts it into her cloaca where the sperm is stored until the eggs are laid.<ref name="BritCaudata">{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/100353/Caudata |title=Caudata |author=Wake, David B |work=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=August 25, 2012}}</ref> The largest family in this group is Plethodontidae, the lungless salamanders, which includes 60% of all salamander species. The [[Family (biology)|family]] [[Salamandridae]] includes the true salamanders and the name "[[newt]]" is given to members of its subfamily [[Pleurodelinae]].{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | p=3 }} The third suborder, [[Sirenoidea]], contains the four species of sirens, which are in a single family, [[Sirenidae]]. Members of this order are [[eel]]-like aquatic salamanders with much reduced forelimbs and no hind limbs. Some of their features are primitive while others are derived.<ref>{{cite book |author=Cogger, H. G. |editor=Zweifel, R. G |year=1998 |title=Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians |publisher= Academic Press |pages= 69–70 |isbn=978-0-12-178560-4}}</ref> Fertilisation is likely to be external as sirenids lack the cloacal glands used by male salamandrids to produce spermatophores and the females lack [[spermatheca]]e for sperm storage. Despite this, the eggs are laid singly, a behaviour not conducive for external fertilisation.<ref name="BritCaudata" /> === Gymnophiona === [[File:Siphonops paulensis02.jpg|thumb|alt=''Siphonops paulensis''|The limbless South American caecilian ''[[Siphonops paulensis]]'']] The order [[Gymnophiona]] (from the Greek ''gymnos'' meaning "naked" and ''ophis'' meaning "serpent") or Apoda (from the Latin ''an-'' meaning "without" and the Greek ''poda'' meaning "legs") comprises the caecilians. These are long, cylindrical, limbless animals with a snake- or [[Annelid|worm-like]] form. The adults vary in length from 8 to 75 centimetres (3 to 30 inches) with the exception of [[Caecilia thompsoni|Thomson's caecilian]] (''Caecilia thompsoni''), which can reach {{convert|150|cm|ft|abbr=off}}. A caecilian's skin has a large number of transverse folds and in some species contains tiny embedded dermal scales. It has rudimentary eyes covered in skin, which are probably limited to discerning differences in light intensity. It also has a pair of short [[tentacle]]s near the eye that can be extended and which have [[Somatosensory system|tactile]] and [[Olfaction|olfactory]] functions. Most caecilians live underground in burrows in damp soil, in rotten wood and under plant debris, but some are aquatic.{{sfn| Stebbins| Cohen | 1995 | p=4}} Most species lay their eggs underground and when the larvae hatch, they make their way to adjacent bodies of water. Others brood their eggs and the larvae undergo metamorphosis before the eggs hatch. A few species give birth to live young, nourishing them with glandular secretions while they are in the oviduct.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | p=858}} Caecilians have a mostly [[Gondwana]]n distribution, being found in tropical regions of Africa, Asia and Central and South America.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/29797/Gymnophiona |title=Gymnophiona |author=Duellman, William E. |work=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=September 30, 2012}}</ref> == Anatomy and physiology == === Skin === [[File:Tree frog congo.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=Common reed frog|The [[Aposematism|bright colours]] of the [[common reed frog]] (''Hyperolius viridiflavus'') are typical of a toxic species]] The [[Wikt:integument|integumentary]] structure contains some typical characteristics common to terrestrial vertebrates, such as the presence of highly [[Keratin#Cornification|cornified]] outer layers, renewed periodically through a moulting process controlled by the [[pituitary gland|pituitary]] and [[thyroid]] glands. Local thickenings (often called warts) are common, such as those found on toads. The outside of the skin is shed periodically mostly in one piece, in contrast to mammals and birds where it is shed in flakes. Amphibians often eat the sloughed skin.<ref name="Collins" /> Caecilians are unique among amphibians in having mineralized dermal scales embedded in the [[dermis]] between the furrows in the skin. The similarity of these to the scales of bony fish is largely superficial. [[Squamata|Lizards]] and some frogs have somewhat similar [[osteoderm]]s forming bony deposits in the dermis, but this is an example of [[convergent evolution]] with similar structures having arisen independently in diverse vertebrate lineages.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Zylberberg, Louise |author2=Wake, Marvalee H. |year=1990 |title=Structure of the scales of ''Dermophis'' and ''Microcaecilia'' (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), and a comparison to dermal ossifications of other vertebrates |journal=Journal of Morphology |volume=206 |issue=1 |pages=25–43 |doi=10.1002/jmor.1052060104 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227806326 }}</ref> [[File:FrogSkin.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Cross section of frog skin. A: Mucus gland, B: Chromatophore, C: Granular poison gland, D: [[Connective tissue]], E: [[Stratum corneum]], F: Transition zone, G: [[Epidermis]], H: [[Dermis]]]] Amphibian skin is permeable to water. Gas exchange can take place through the skin ([[cutaneous respiration]]) and this allows adult amphibians to respire without rising to the surface of water and to hibernate at the bottom of ponds.<ref name="Collins" /> To compensate for their thin and delicate skin, amphibians have evolved mucous glands, principally on their heads, backs and tails. The secretions produced by these help keep the skin moist. In addition, most species of amphibian have granular glands that secrete distasteful or poisonous substances. Some amphibian toxins can be lethal to humans while others have little effect.<ref name="amphibfacts">{{cite web|url=http://www.eoearth.org/article/Amphibian_morphology_and_reproduction |title=Amphibian morphology and reproduction |date=October 12, 2008 |authors=Biodiversity Institute of Ontario; Hebert, Paul D. N. |work=Encyclopedia of Earth |accessdate=August 15, 2012}}</ref> The main poison-producing glands, the [[Parotoid gland|paratoids]], produce the neurotoxin [[bufotoxin]] and are located behind the ears of toads, along the backs of frogs, behind the eyes of salamanders and on the upper surface of caecilians.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | pp=10–11 }} The skin colour of amphibians is produced by three layers of pigment cells called [[chromatophore]]s. These three cell layers consist of the melanophores (occupying the deepest layer), the guanophores (forming an intermediate layer and containing many granules, producing a blue-green colour) and the lipophores (yellow, the most superficial layer). The colour change displayed by many species is initiated by [[hormone]]s secreted by the pituitary gland. Unlike bony fish, there is no direct control of the pigment cells by the nervous system, and this results in the colour change taking place more slowly than happens in fish. A vividly coloured skin usually indicates that the species is toxic and is a warning sign to predators.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Integument: A Textbook of Skin Biology |last=Spearman |first=R. I. C. |year=1973 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-20048-6 |page=81 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=F7A8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA81&lpg=PA81&dq=Amphibian+%22skin+colour%22#v=onepage&q=Amphibian%20%22skin%20colour%22&f=false }}</ref> === Skeletal system and locomotion === Amphibians have a skeletal system that is structurally [[Homology (biology)|homologous]] to other tetrapods, though with a number of variations. They all have four limbs except for the legless caecilians and a few species of salamander with reduced or no limbs. The bones are hollow and lightweight. The musculoskeletal system is strong to enable it to support the head and body. The bones are fully [[ossification|ossified]] and the vertebrae interlock with each other by means of overlapping processes. The [[pectoral girdle]] is supported by muscle, and the well-developed [[pelvic girdle]] is attached to the backbone by a pair of sacral ribs. The [[ilium (bone)|ilium]] slopes forward and the body is held closer to the ground than is the case in mammals.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | p=846 }} [[File:Ceratophrys cornuta skeleton front.jpg|thumb|alt=Frog skeleton|Skeleton of the [[Surinam horned frog]]<br>(''Ceratophrys cornuta'')]] In most amphibians, there are four digits on the fore foot and five on the hind foot, but no claws on either. Some salamanders have fewer digits and the [[amphiuma]]s are eel-like in appearance with tiny, stubby legs. The [[Siren (genus)|sirens]] are aquatic salamanders with stumpy forelimbs and no hind limbs. The caecilians are limbless. They burrow in the manner of earthworms with zones of muscle contractions moving along the body. On the surface of the ground or in water they move by undulating their body from side to side.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | pp=26–36 }} In frogs, the hind legs are larger than the fore legs, especially so in those species that principally move by jumping or swimming. In the walkers and runners the hind limbs are not so large, and the burrowers mostly have short limbs and broad bodies. The feet have adaptations for the way of life, with webbing between the toes for swimming, broad adhesive toe pads for climbing, and keratinised tubercles on the hind feet for digging (frogs usually dig backwards into the soil). In most salamanders, the limbs are short and more or less the same length and project at right angles from the body. Locomotion on land is by walking and the tail often swings from side to side or is used as a prop, particularly when climbing. In their normal gait, only one leg is advanced at a time in the manner adopted by their ancestors, the lobe-finned fish.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | p=846 }} Some salamanders in the genus ''[[Aneides]]'' and certain [[lungless salamander|plethodontids]] climb trees and have long limbs, large toepads and prehensile tails.<ref name="BritCaudata" /> In aquatic salamanders and in frog tadpoles, the tail has [[dorsal fin|dorsal]] and [[ventral fin|ventral]] fins and is moved from side to side as a means of propulsion. Adult frogs do not have tails and caecilians have only very short ones.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | pp=26–36 }} Salamanders use their tails in defence and some are prepared to jettison them to save their lives in a process known as [[autotomy]]. Certain species in the Plethodontidae have a weak zone at the base of the tail and use this strategy readily. The tail often continues to twitch after separation which may distract the attacker and allow the salamander to escape. Both tails and limbs can be regenerated.<ref name="Beneski">{{cite journal | author=Beneski, John T. Jr. | date=September 1989 | title=Adaptive significance of tail autotomy in the salamander, ''Ensatina'' | journal=Journal of Herpetology | volume=23 | issue=3 | pages=322–324 | doi=10.2307/1564465 | jstor=1564465 }}</ref> Adult frogs are unable to regrow limbs but tadpoles can do so.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | pp=26–36 }} === Circulatory system === [[File:Didactic model of a amphibian heart-FMVZ USP-14.jpeg|thumb|left|upright=0.65|[[Educational toy|Didactic model]] of an amphibian heart.]] [[File:Juvenile Amphibian Circulatory System.svg|thumb|Juvenile amphibian circulatory systems are single loop systems which resemble fish.<br> 1 – Internal gills where the blood is reoxygenated<br>2 – Point where the blood is depleted of oxygen and returns to the heart via veins<br>3 – Two chambered heart.<br>Red indicates oxygenated blood, and blue represents oxygen depleted blood.]] Amphibians have a juvenile stage and an adult stage, and the circulatory systems of the two are distinct. In the juvenile (or tadpole) stage, the circulation is similar to that of a fish; the two-chambered heart pumps the blood through the gills where it is oxygenated, and is spread around the body and back to the heart in a single loop. In the adult stage, amphibians (especially frogs) lose their gills and develop lungs. They have a heart that consists of a single ventricle and two atria. When the ventricle starts contracting, deoxygenated blood is pumped through the [[pulmonary artery]] to the lungs. Continued contraction then pumps oxygenated blood around the rest of the body. Mixing of the two bloodstreams is minimized by the anatomy of the chambers.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | p=306 }} === Nervous and sensory systems === The [[nervous system]] is basically the same as in other vertebrates, with a central brain, a spinal cord, and nerves throughout the body. The amphibian brain is less well developed than that of reptiles, birds and mammals but is similar in morphology and function to that of a fish. It is believed amphibians are capable of perceiving [[Pain in amphibians|pain]]. The brain consists of equal parts, [[cerebrum]], [[midbrain]] and [[cerebellum]]. Various parts of the cerebrum process sensory input, such as smell in the olfactory lobe and sight in the optic lobe, and it is additionally the centre of behaviour and learning. The cerebellum is the center of muscular coordination and the [[medulla oblongata]] controls some organ functions including heartbeat and respiration. The brain sends signals through the spinal cord and nerves to regulate activity in the rest of the body. The [[pineal body]], known to regulate sleep patterns in humans, is thought to produce the hormones involved in [[hibernation]] and [[aestivation]] in amphibians.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | p=100 }} Tadpoles retain the lateral line system of their ancestral fishes, but this is lost in terrestrial adult amphibians. Some caecilians possess [[Electroreception|electroreceptors]] that allow them to locate objects around them when submerged in water. The ears are well developed in frogs. There is no external ear, but the large circular [[Tympanum (anatomy)|eardrum]] lies on the surface of the head just behind the eye. This vibrates and sound is transmitted through a single bone, the [[stapes]], to the inner ear. Only high-frequency sounds like mating calls are heard in this way, but low-frequency noises can be detected through another mechanism.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | p=846 }} There is a patch of specialized haircells, called ''papilla amphibiorum'', in the inner ear capable of detecting deeper sounds. Another feature, unique to frogs and salamanders, is the columella-operculum complex adjoining the auditory capsule which is involved in the transmission of both airborne and seismic signals.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | p=69 }} The ears of salamanders and caecilians are less highly developed than those of frogs as they do not normally communicate with each other through the medium of sound.<ref name="EBAmphibia" /> The eyes of tadpoles lack lids, but at metamorphosis, the [[cornea]] becomes more dome-shaped, the [[Lens (anatomy)|lens]] becomes flatter, and [[eyelid]]s and associated glands and ducts develop.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | p=846 }} The adult eyes are an improvement on invertebrate eyes and were a first step in the development of more advanced vertebrate eyes. They allow colour vision and depth of focus. In the retinas are green rods, which are receptive to a wide range of wavelengths.<ref name="EBAmphibia">{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/21445/amphibian/ |title=Amphibian |author1=Duellman, William E. |author2=Zug, George R. |year=2012 |work=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=March 27, 2012}}</ref> === Digestive and excretory systems === [[File:Frog anatomy tags.PNG|thumb|alt=Dissected frog|Dissected frog: 1&nbsp;Right&nbsp;atrium, 2&nbsp;Liver, 3&nbsp;Aorta, 4&nbsp;Egg mass, 5&nbsp;Colon, 6&nbsp;Left&nbsp;atrium, 7&nbsp;Ventricle, 8&nbsp;Stomach, 9&nbsp;Left lung, 10&nbsp;Gallbladder, 11&nbsp;Small&nbsp;intestine, 12&nbsp;Cloaca]] Many amphibians catch their prey by flicking out an elongated tongue with a sticky tip and drawing it back into the mouth before seizing the item with their jaws. Some use inertial feeding to help them swallow the prey, repeatedly thrusting their head forward sharply causing the food to move backwards in their mouth by [[inertia]]. Most amphibians swallow their prey whole without much chewing so they possess voluminous stomachs. The short [[Esophagus|oesophagus]] is lined with [[Cilium|cilia]] that help to move the food to the stomach and [[mucus]] produced by glands in the mouth and [[pharynx]] eases its passage. The enzyme [[chitinase]] produced in the stomach helps digest the [[chitin]]ous cuticle of arthropod prey.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | p=847 }} Amphibians possess a [[pancreas]], [[liver]] and [[gall bladder]]. The liver is usually large with two lobes. Its size is determined by its function as a [[glycogen]] and fat storage unit, and may change with the seasons as these reserves are built or used up. [[Adipose tissue]] is another important means of storing energy and this occurs in the abdomen (in internal structures called fat bodies), under the skin and, in some salamanders, in the tail.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | p=66 }} <!--In aquatic amphibians, the liver plays only a small role in processing nitrogen for excretion, and [[ammonia]] is diffused mainly through the skin. The liver of terrestrial amphibians converts ammonia to urea, a less toxic, water-soluble nitrogenous compound, as a means of water conservation. In some species, urea is further converted into [[uric acid]]. [[Bile]] secretions from the liver collect in the gall bladder and flow into the small intestine. In the small intestine, enzymes digest carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Salamanders lack a valve separating the small intestine from the large intestine. Salt and water absorption occur in the large intestine, as well as mucous secretion to aid in the transport of faecal matter, which is passed out through the [[cloaca]].<ref name="Anatomy" />---Omitting this until a more reliable source can be found.---> There are two [[kidney]]s located dorsally, near the roof of the body cavity. Their job is to filter the blood of metabolic waste and transport the urine via ureters to the urinary bladder where it is stored before being passed out periodically through the cloacal vent. Larvae and most aquatic adult amphibians excrete the nitrogen as ammonia in large quantities of dilute urine, while terrestrial species, with a greater need to conserve water, excrete the less toxic product urea. Some tree frogs with limited access to water excrete most of their metabolic waste as uric acid.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | p=849 }} === Respiratory system === [[File:Axolotl ganz.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Axolotl|The [[axolotl]] (''Ambystoma mexicanum'') retains its larval form with gills into adulthood]] The lungs in amphibians are primitive compared to those of amniotes, possessing few internal [[alveolar septum|septa]] and large [[Pulmonary alveolus|alveoli]], and consequently having a comparatively slow diffusion rate for oxygen entering the blood. Ventilation is accomplished by [[buccal pumping]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Brainerd|first1=E. L. |title=New perspectives on the evolution of lung ventilation mechanisms in vertebrates |journal=Experimental Biology Online |year=1999 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=1–28 |doi=10.1007/s00898-999-0002-1 }}</ref> Most amphibians, however, are able to exchange gases with the water or air via their skin. To enable sufficient [[cutaneous respiration]], the surface of their highly vascularised skin must remain moist to allow the oxygen to diffuse at a sufficiently high rate.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | p=847 }} Because oxygen concentration in the water increases at both low temperatures and high flow rates, aquatic amphibians in these situations can rely primarily on cutaneous respiration, as in the [[Telmatobius culeus|Titicaca water frog]] and the [[Cryptobranchus|hellbender salamander]]. In air, where oxygen is more concentrated, some small species can rely solely on cutaneous gas exchange, most famously the [[Plethodontidae|plethodontid salamanders]], which have neither lungs nor gills. Many aquatic salamanders and all tadpoles have gills in their larval stage, with some (such as the [[axolotl]]) retaining gills as aquatic adults.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | p=847 }} == Reproduction == {{see also|Sexual selection in amphibians}} [[File:Litoria xanthomera amplexus.jpg|thumb|alt=Orange-thighed frogs in amplexus|Male [[orange-thighed frog]] (''Litoria xanthomera'') grasping the female during [[amplexus]]]] For the purpose of [[Biological reproduction|reproduction]] most amphibians require [[fresh water]] although some lay their eggs on land and have developed various means of keeping them moist. A few (e.g. ''[[Fejervarya raja]]'') can inhabit brackish water, but there are no true [[marine (ocean)|marine]] amphibians.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Hopkins Gareth R. |author2=Brodie Edmund D., Jr | year = 2015 | title = Occurrence of Amphibians in Saline Habitats: A Review and Evolutionary Perspective | url = http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1655/HERPMONOGRAPHS-D-14-00006 | journal = Herpetological Monographs | volume = 29 | issue = 1| pages = 1–27 | doi = 10.1655/HERPMONOGRAPHS-D-14-00006 }}</ref> There are reports, however, of particular amphibian populations unexpectedly invading marine waters. Such was the case with the [[Black Sea]] invasion of the natural hybrid ''[[Pelophylax esculentus]]'' reported in 2010.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Natchev, Nikolay |author2=Tzankov, Nikolay |author3=Geme, Richard |year=2011 |title=Green frog invasion in the Black Sea: habitat ecology of the ''Pelophylax esculentus'' complex (Anura, Amphibia) population in the region of Shablenska Тuzla lagoon in Bulgaria |journal=Herpetology Notes |volume=4 |pages=347–351 |url=http://www.herpetologynotes.seh-herpetology.org/Volume4_PDFs/Natchev_et_al_Herpetology_Notes_Volume4_pages347-351.pdf }}</ref> Several hundred frog species in [[adaptive radiation]]s (e.g., ''[[Eleutherodactylus]]'', the Pacific ''[[Platymantis]]'', the Australo-Papuan [[microhylid]]s, and many other tropical frogs), however, do not need any water for [[breeding in the wild]]. They reproduce via direct development, an ecological and evolutionary adaptation that has allowed them to be completely independent from free-standing water. Almost all of these frogs live in wet [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical rainforests]] and their eggs hatch directly into miniature versions of the adult, passing through the [[tadpole]] stage within the egg. Reproductive success of many amphibians is dependent not only on the quantity of rainfall, but the seasonal timing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eoearth.org/article/Abiotic_factor?topic=49461 |title=Abiotic factor |author=Hogan, C. Michael |date=July 31, 2010 |work=Encyclopedia of Earth |publisher=National Council for Science and the Environment |accessdate=September 30, 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130608071757/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Abiotic_factor?topic=49461 |archivedate=June 8, 2013 |df=mdy }}</ref> In the tropics, many amphibians breed continuously or at any time of year. In temperate regions, breeding is mostly seasonal, usually in the spring, and is triggered by increasing day length, rising temperatures or rainfall. Experiments have shown the importance of temperature, but the trigger event, especially in arid regions, is often a storm. In anurans, males usually arrive at the breeding sites before females and the vocal chorus they produce may stimulate ovulation in females and the endocrine activity of males that are not yet reproductively active.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | pp=140–141 }} In caecilians, fertilisation is internal, the male extruding an [[intromittent organ]], the phallodeum, and inserting it into the female cloaca. The paired Müllerian glands inside the male cloaca secrete a fluid which resembles that produced by mammalian [[prostate]] glands and which may transport and nourish the sperm. Fertilisation probably takes place in the oviduct.<ref name="Duellman">{{cite book |title=Biology of Amphibians |last=Duellman|first=Willia E. |author2= Trueb, Linda |year=1994 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-0-8018-4780-6 |pages=77–79 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=CzxVvKmrtIgC&pg=PA77&lpg=PA77&dq=phallodeum#v=onepage&q=phallodeum&f=false }}</ref> The majority of salamanders also engage in internal fertilisation. In most of these, the male deposits a spermatophore, a small packet of sperm on top of a gelatinous cone, on the [[Substrate (biology)|substrate]] either on land or in the water. The female takes up the sperm packet by grasping it with the lips of the cloaca and pushing it into the vent. The spermatozoa move to the spermatheca in the roof of the cloaca where they remain until ovulation which may be many months later. Courtship rituals and methods of transfer of the spermatophore vary between species. In some, the spermatophore may be placed directly into the female cloaca while in others, the female may be guided to the spermatophore or restrained with an embrace called [[amplexus]]. Certain primitive salamanders in the families Sirenidae, [[Hynobiidae]] and [[Cryptobranchidae]] practice external fertilisation in a similar manner to frogs, with the female laying the eggs in water and the male releasing sperm onto the egg mass.<ref name="Duellman" /> With a few exceptions, frogs use external fertilisation. The male grasps the female tightly with his forelimbs either behind the arms or in front of the back legs, or in the case of ''[[Epipedobates tricolor]]'', around the neck. They remain in amplexus with their cloacae positioned close together while the female lays the eggs and the male covers them with sperm. Roughened nuptial pads on the male's hands aid in retaining grip. Often the male collects and retains the egg mass, forming a sort of basket with the hind feet. An exception is the [[granular poison frog]] (''Oophaga granulifera'') where the male and female place their cloacae in close proximity while facing in opposite directions and then release eggs and sperm simultaneously. The [[tailed frog]] (''Ascaphus truei'') exhibits internal fertilisation. The "tail" is only possessed by the male and is an extension of the cloaca and used to inseminate the female. This frog lives in fast-flowing streams and internal fertilisation prevents the sperm from being washed away before fertilisation occurs.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | pp=154–162 }} The sperm may be retained in storage tubes attached to the [[oviduct]] until the following spring.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi/amphib_query?where-genus=Ascaphus&where-species=truei |title=''Ascaphus truei'' |author1=Adams, Michael J. |author2=Pearl, Christopher A. |year=2005 |publisher=AmphibiaWeb |accessdate=November 23, 2012}}</ref> Most frogs can be classified as either prolonged or explosive breeders. Typically, prolonged breeders congregate at a breeding site, the males usually arriving first, calling and setting up territories. Other satellite males remain quietly nearby, waiting for their opportunity to take over a territory. The females arrive sporadically, mate selection takes place and eggs are laid. The females depart and territories may change hands. More females appear and in due course, the breeding season comes to an end. Explosive breeders on the other hand are found where temporary pools appear in dry regions after rainfall. These frogs are typically [[wikt:fossorial|fossorial]] species that emerge after heavy rains and congregate at a breeding site. They are attracted there by the calling of the first male to find a suitable place, perhaps a pool that forms in the same place each rainy season. The assembled frogs may call in unison and frenzied activity ensues, the males scrambling to mate with the usually smaller number of females.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | pp=154–162 }} [[File:Plethodon cinereus.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.1|Sexual selection has been studied in the [[red back salamander]]]] <!--[[Sexual selection]] typically manifests as male-male competition where males will arrive at the waters edge first in large number, producing a wide range of vocalizations and other complex behaviours to attract mates, with the [[fitness (biology)|fittest]] males having the deepest croaks and the best territories. It also exists as [[mate choice]], with females known to choose a mate, at least partly based on the male's depth of croaking. This has led to [[sexual dimorphism]], with females being larger than males in 90% of species, males larger in 10% of species and males fighting for groups of females.--> There is a direct competition between males to win the attention of the females in salamanders and newts, with elaborate courtship displays to keep the female's attention long enough to get her interested in choosing him to [[mating|mate]] with.<ref name=romano>{{cite journal|last=Romano|first=Antonio|author2=Bruni, Giacomo |title=Courtship behaviour, mating season and male sexual interference in ''Salamandrina perspicillata''|journal=Amphibia-Reptilia|year=2011|volume=32|issue=1|pages=63–76|doi=10.1163/017353710X541878|doi-access=free}}</ref> Some species store [[sperm]] through long breeding seasons, as the extra time may allow for interactions with rival sperm.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Adams|first=Erika M.|author2=Jones, A. G. |author3=Arnold, S. J. |title=Multiple paternity in a natural population of a salamander with long-term sperm storage |journal=Molecular Ecology |year=2005 |volume=14 |issue=6 |pages=1803–1810 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02539.x |pmid=15836651|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7899857 }}</ref> == Life cycle == Most amphibians go through [[metamorphosis]], a process of significant morphological change after birth. In typical amphibian development, eggs are laid in water and larvae are adapted to an aquatic lifestyle. Frogs, toads and salamanders all hatch from the egg as larvae with external gills. Metamorphosis in amphibians is regulated by [[thyroxine]] concentration in the blood, which stimulates metamorphosis, and [[prolactin]], which counteracts thyroxine's effect. Specific events are dependent on threshold values for different tissues.<ref>{{Cite book| last1 = Kikuyama | first1 = Sakae | last2 = Kawamura | first2 = Kousuke | last3 = Tanaka | first3 = Shigeyasu | last4 = Yamamoto | first4 = Kakutoshi | title = International Review of Cytology: A Survey of Cell Biology | chapter = Aspects of amphibian metamorphosis: Hormonal control | publisher = Academic Press | pages = 105–126 | year = 1993 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=wfSM70CuYqYC&pg=PA105&dq=amphibian+metamorphosis#v=onepage&q=amphibian%20metamorphosis&f=false | isbn = 978-0-12-364548-7 }}</ref> Because most embryonic development is outside the parental body, it is subject to many adaptations due to specific environmental circumstances. For this reason tadpoles can have horny ridges instead of teeth, whisker-like skin extensions or fins. They also make use of a sensory lateral line organ similar to that of fish. After metamorphosis, these organs become redundant and will be reabsorbed by controlled cell death, called [[apoptosis]]. The variety of adaptations to specific environmental circumstances among amphibians is wide, with many discoveries still being made.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Newman, Robert A. |year=1992 |title=Adaptive plasticity in amphibian metamorphosis |journal=BioScience |volume=42 |issue=9 |pages=671–678 |doi= 10.2307/1312173 |jstor=1312173}}</ref> === Eggs === [[File:Frogspawn closeup.jpg|thumb|alt=Frogspawn|Frogspawn, a mass of eggs surrounded by jelly]] [[File:Amphibian Egg Diagram.svg|thumb|Amphibian egg:<br> 1. Jelly capsule 2. Vitelline membrane <br> 3. Perivitelline fluid 4. [[Yolk plug]] <br> 5. Embryo]] The egg of an amphibian is typically surrounded by a transparent gelatinous covering secreted by the oviducts and containing [[mucoprotein]]s and [[mucopolysaccharide]]s. This capsule is permeable to water and gases, and swells considerably as it absorbs water. The ovum is at first rigidly held, but in fertilised eggs the innermost layer liquefies and allows the [[embryo]] to move freely. This also happens in salamander eggs, even when they are unfertilised. Eggs of some salamanders and frogs contain unicellular green algae. These penetrate the jelly envelope after the eggs are laid and may increase the supply of oxygen to the embryo through photosynthesis. They seem to both speed up the development of the larvae and reduce mortality.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gilbert, Perry W. |year=1942 |title=Observations on the eggs of ''Ambystoma maculatum'' with especial reference to the green algae found within the egg envelopes |journal=Ecology |volume=23 |pages=215–227 |jstor=1931088 |doi=10.2307/1931088 |issue=2 }}</ref> Most eggs contain the pigment [[melanin]] which raises their temperature through the absorption of light and also protects them against [[ultraviolet radiation]]. Caecilians, some [[plethodontid]] salamanders and certain frogs lay eggs underground that are unpigmented. In the [[wood frog]] (''Rana sylvatica''), the interior of the globular egg cluster has been found to be up to {{convert|6|C-change|F-change}} warmer than its surroundings, which is an advantage in its cool northern habitat.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Waldman, Bruce |author2=Ryan, Michael J. |year=1983 |title=Thermal advantages of communal egg mass deposition in wood frogs (''Rana sylvatica'') |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=70–72 |jstor=1563783 |doi=10.2307/1563783|url=https://www.academia.edu/14057397 }}</ref> The eggs may be deposited singly or in small groups, or may take the form of spherical egg masses, rafts or long strings. In terrestrial caecilians, the eggs are laid in grape-like clusters in burrows near streams. The amphibious salamander ''[[Ensatina]]'' attaches its similar clusters by stalks to underwater stems and roots. The [[Eleutherodactylus planirostris|greenhouse frog]] (''Eleutherodactylus planirostris'') lays eggs in small groups in the soil where they develop in about two weeks directly into juvenile frogs without an intervening larval stage.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi-bin/amphib_query?query_src=aw_search_index&where-genus=Eleutherodactylus&where-species=planirostris |title=''Eleutherodactylus planirostris'' |author=Meshaka, Walter E. Jr |publisher=AmphibiaWeb |accessdate=December 12, 2012}}</ref> The [[tungara frog]] (''Physalaemus pustulosus'') builds a floating nest from foam to protect its eggs. First a raft is built, then eggs are laid in the centre, and finally a foam cap is overlaid. The foam has anti-microbial properties. It contains no [[detergent]]s but is created by whipping up [[protein]]s and [[lectin]]s secreted by the female.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Dalgetty, Laura |author2=Kennedy, Malcolm W. |year=2010 |title=Building a home from foam: túngara frog foam nest architecture and three-phase construction process |journal=Biology Letters |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=293–296 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2009.0934 |pmid=20106853 |pmc=2880057 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gla.ac.uk/schools/lifesciences/staff/malcolmkennedy/malcolmkennedy/proteinsoffrogfoamnests/ |title=Proteins of frog foam nests |publisher=School of Life Sciences, University of Glasgow |accessdate=August 24, 2012}}</ref> === Larvae === [[File:Frog spawn time-lapse.gif|thumb|left|alt=Frog spawn development|Early stages in the development of the embryos of the [[common frog]] (''Rana temporaria'')]] The eggs of amphibians are typically laid in water and hatch into free-living larvae that complete their development in water and later transform into either aquatic or terrestrial adults. In many species of frog and in most lungless salamanders (Plethodontidae), direct development takes place, the larvae growing within the eggs and emerging as miniature adults. Many caecilians and some other amphibians lay their eggs on land, and the newly hatched larvae wriggle or are transported to water bodies. Some caecilians, the [[alpine salamander]] (''Salamandra atra'') and some of the [[Nectophrynoides|African live-bearing toads]] (''Nectophrynoides spp.'') are [[Viviparity|viviparous]]. Their larvae feed on glandular secretions and develop within the female's oviduct, often for long periods. Other amphibians, but not caecilians, are [[Ovoviviparity|ovoviviparous]]. The eggs are retained in or on the parent's body, but the larvae subsist on the yolks of their eggs and receive no nourishment from the adult. The larvae emerge at varying stages of their growth, either before or after metamorphosis, according to their species.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | pp=6–9 }} The toad genus ''Nectophrynoides'' exhibits all of these developmental patterns among its dozen or so members.<ref name="species"/> ==== Frogs ==== Frog larvae are known as tadpoles and typically have oval bodies and long, vertically flattened tails with fins. The free-living larvae are normally fully aquatic, but the tadpoles of some species (such as ''[[Nannophrys ceylonensis]]'') are semi-terrestrial and live among wet rocks.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi-bin/amphib_query?query_src=aw_lists_genera_&table=amphib&where-genus=Nannophrys&where-species=ceylonensis |title=''Nannophrys ceylonensis'' |author=Janzen, Peter |date=May 10, 2005 |publisher=AmphibiaWeb |accessdate=July 20, 2012}}</ref> Tadpoles have cartilaginous skeletons, gills for respiration (external gills at first, internal gills later), [[lateral line system]]s and large tails that they use for swimming.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-40603/Anura |title=Anura: From tadpole to adult |author1=Duellman, W. E. |author2=Zug, G. R. |work=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |accessdate=July 13, 2012}}</ref> Newly hatched tadpoles soon develop gill pouches that cover the gills. The lungs develop early and are used as accessory breathing organs, the tadpoles rising to the water surface to gulp air. Some species complete their development inside the egg and hatch directly into small frogs. These larvae do not have gills but instead have specialised areas of skin through which respiration takes place. While tadpoles do not have true teeth, in most species, the jaws have long, parallel rows of small keratinized structures called keradonts surrounded by a horny beak.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | pp=179–181 }} Front legs are formed under the gill sac and hind legs become visible a few days later. [[File:Amphibian Metamorphosis.PNG|thumb|Amphibian metamorphosis]] Iodine and T4 (over stimulate the spectacular [[apoptosis]] [programmed cell death] of the cells of the larval gills, tail and fins) also stimulate the [[evolution of nervous systems]] transforming the aquatic, vegetarian tadpole into the terrestrial, carnivorous frog with better neurological, visuospatial, olfactory and cognitive abilities for hunting.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Venturi, Sebastiano|title=Evolutionary Significance of Iodine|journal=Current Chemical Biology-|volume=5 |pages=155–162|year=2011|issn=1872-3136|doi=10.2174/187231311796765012|issue=3|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272210714}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Venturi, Sebastiano|title=Iodine, PUFAs and Iodolipids in Health and Disease: An Evolutionary Perspective|journal=Human Evolution-|volume= 29 |issue= 1–3|pages=185–205|year=2014|issn=0393-9375}}</ref> In fact, tadpoles developing in ponds and streams are typically [[herbivore|herbivorous]]. Pond tadpoles tend to have deep bodies, large caudal fins and small mouths; they swim in the quiet waters feeding on growing or loose fragments of vegetation. Stream dwellers mostly have larger mouths, shallow bodies and caudal fins; they attach themselves to plants and stones and feed on the surface films of [[algae]] and bacteria.<ref name="EBAnura"/> They also feed on [[diatom]]s, filtered from the water through the [[gill]]s, and stir up the sediment at bottom of the pond, ingesting edible fragments. They have a relatively long, spiral-shaped gut to enable them to digest this diet.<ref name="EBAnura">{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/29023/Anura |title=Anura |author1=Duellman, William E. |author2=Zug, George R. |year=2012 |work=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=March 26, 2012}}</ref> Some species are carnivorous at the tadpole stage, eating insects, smaller tadpoles and fish. Young of the [[Cuban tree frog]] (''Osteopilus septentrionalis'') can occasionally be [[Cannibalism (zoology)|cannibalistic]], the younger tadpoles attacking a larger, more developed tadpole when it is undergoing metamorphosis.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Crump, Martha L. |year=1986 |title=Cannibalism by younger tadpoles: another hazard of metamorphosis |journal=Copeia |volume=4 |pages=1007–1009 |jstor=1445301 |doi=10.2307/1445301 |issue=4 }}</ref> {{wide image|Bufobufotadpoles.jpg|800px|alt=Metamorphosis|Successive stages in the development of [[common toad]] (''Bufo bufo'') tadpoles, finishing with metamorphosis}} At metamorphosis, rapid changes in the body take place as the lifestyle of the frog changes completely. The spiral‐shaped mouth with horny tooth ridges is reabsorbed together with the spiral gut. The animal develops a large jaw, and its gills disappear along with its gill sac. Eyes and legs grow quickly, and a tongue is formed. There are associated changes in the neural networks such as development of stereoscopic vision and loss of the lateral line system. All this can happen in about a day. A few days later, the tail is reabsorbed, due to the higher thyroxine concentration required for this to take place.<ref name="EBAnura" /> ==== Salamanders ==== [[File:Ambystoma macrodactylum 26597.JPG|thumb|alt=Larva of the long-toed salamander|Larva of the [[long-toed salamander]] <br>(''Ambystoma macrodactylum'')]] [[File:Mesotriton alpestris apuanus04.jpg|thumb|alt=Larvae of the alpine newt|Larvae of the [[alpine newt]] <br>(''Ichthyosaura alpestris'')]] At hatching, a typical salamander larva has eyes without lids, teeth in both upper and lower jaws, three pairs of feathery external gills, a somewhat laterally flattened body and a long tail with [[Anatomical terms of location#Dorsal and ventral|dorsal]] and [[Anatomical terms of location#Dorsal and ventral|ventral]] fins. The forelimbs may be partially developed and the hind limbs are rudimentary in pond-living species but may be rather more developed in species that reproduce in moving water. Pond-type larvae often have a pair of balancers, rod-like structures on either side of the head that may prevent the gills from becoming clogged up with sediment. Some members of the genera ''[[Ambystoma]]'' and ''[[Dicamptodon]]'' have larvae that never fully develop into the adult form, but this varies with species and with populations. The [[northwestern salamander]] (''Ambystoma gracile'') is one of these and, depending on environmental factors, either remains permanently in the larval state, a condition known as [[neoteny]], or transforms into an adult.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Valentine, Barry D. |author2=Dennis, David M. | year=1964 | title=A comparison of the gill-arch system and fins of three genera of larval salamanders, ''Rhyacotriton'', ''Gyrinophilus'', and ''Ambystoma'' | journal=Copeia | volume=1964 | issue=1 | pages=196–201 | jstor=1440850 | doi=10.2307/1440850 }}</ref> Both of these are able to breed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amphibiaweb.org/cgi-bin/amphib_query?where-genus=Ambystoma&where-species=gracile |title=''Ambystoma gracile'' |author=Shaffer, H. Bradley |year=2005 |publisher=AmphibiaWeb |accessdate=November 21, 2012}}</ref> Neoteny occurs when the animal's growth rate is very low and is usually linked to adverse conditions such as low water temperatures that may change the response of the tissues to the hormone thyroxine.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pages.uoregon.edu/titus/herp_old/neoteny.htm |title=Metamorphosis vs. neoteny (paedomorphosis) in salamanders (Caudata) |author=Kiyonaga, Robin R |accessdate=November 21, 2012}}</ref> Other factors that may inhibit metamorphosis include lack of food, lack of trace elements and competition from [[conspecific]]s. The [[tiger salamander]] (''Ambystoma tigrinum'') also sometimes behaves in this way and may grow particularly large in the process. The adult tiger salamander is terrestrial, but the larva is aquatic and able to breed while still in the larval state. When conditions are particularly inhospitable on land, larval breeding may allow continuation of a population that would otherwise die out. There are fifteen species of [[wikt:obligate|obligate]] neotenic salamanders, including species of ''[[Necturus]]'', ''[[Olm|Proteus]]'' and ''Amphiuma'', and many examples of [[wikt:facultative|facultative]] ones that adopt this strategy under appropriate environmental circumstances.<ref>{{cite book |title=Biology of Amphibians |last=Duellman |first=William E. |author2=Trueb, Linda |year=1994 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-0-8018-4780-6 |pages=191–192 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=CzxVvKmrtIgC&pg=PA191&lpg=PA191&dq=salamander+obligate+neoteny#v=onepage&q=salamander%20obligate%20neoteny&f=false }}</ref> Lungless salamanders in the family Plethodontidae are terrestrial and lay a small number of unpigmented eggs in a cluster among damp leaf litter. Each egg has a large yolk sac and the larva feeds on this while it develops inside the egg, emerging fully formed as a juvenile salamander. The female salamander often broods the eggs. In the genus ''[[Ensatinas]]'', the female has been observed to coil around them and press her throat area against them, effectively massaging them with a mucous secretion.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | p=196 }} In newts and salamanders, metamorphosis is less dramatic than in frogs. This is because the larvae are already carnivorous and continue to feed as predators when they are adults so few changes are needed to their digestive systems. Their lungs are functional early, but the larvae do not make as much use of them as do tadpoles. Their gills are never covered by gill sacs and are reabsorbed just before the animals leave the water. Other changes include the reduction in size or loss of tail fins, the closure of gill slits, thickening of the skin, the development of eyelids, and certain changes in dentition and tongue structure. Salamanders are at their most vulnerable at metamorphosis as swimming speeds are reduced and transforming tails are encumbrances on land.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Shaffer, H. Bradley |author2=Austin, C. C. |author3=Huey, R. B. |year=1991 |title=The consequences of metamorphosis on salamander (''Ambystoma'') locomotor performance |journal=Physiological Zoology |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=212–231 |jstor=30158520 }}</ref> Adult salamanders often have an aquatic phase in spring and summer, and a land phase in winter. For adaptation to a water phase, prolactin is the required hormone, and for adaptation to the land phase, thyroxine. External gills do not return in subsequent aquatic phases because these are completely absorbed upon leaving the water for the first time.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/100353/Caudata |title=Caudata |author=Wake, David B. |year=2012 |work=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=March 26, 2012}}</ref> ==== Caecilians ==== [[File:CaecilianNHM.png|thumb|left|alt=''Ichthyophis glutinosus''|The caecilian ''Ichthyophis glutinosus'' with eggs and developing embryo]] Most terrestrial caecilians that lay eggs do so in burrows or moist places on land near bodies of water. The development of the young of ''[[Ichthyophis glutinosus]]'', a species from Sri Lanka, has been much studied. The eel-like larvae hatch out of the eggs and make their way to water. They have three pairs of external red feathery gills, a blunt head with two rudimentary eyes, a lateral line system and a short tail with fins. They swim by undulating their body from side to side. They are mostly active at night, soon lose their gills and make sorties onto land. Metamorphosis is gradual. By the age of about ten months they have developed a pointed head with sensory tentacles near the mouth and lost their eyes, lateral line systems and tails. The skin thickens, embedded scales develop and the body divides into segments. By this time, the caecilian has constructed a burrow and is living on land.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Breckenridge, W. R. |author2=Nathanael, S. |author3=Pereira, L. |year=1987 |title=Some aspects of the biology and development of ''Ichthyophis glutinosus'' |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=211 |pages=437–449 }}</ref> [[File:Siphonops annulatus.jpg|thumb|alt=Ringed caecilian|The [[Siphonops annulatus|ringed caecilian]] (''Siphonops annulatus'') resembles an earthworm]] In the majority of species of caecilians, the young are produced by viviparity. ''[[Typhlonectes compressicauda]]'', a species from South America, is typical of these. Up to nine larvae can develop in the oviduct at any one time. They are elongated and have paired sac-like gills, small eyes and specialised scraping teeth. At first, they feed on the yolks of the eggs, but as this source of nourishment declines they begin to rasp at the ciliated epithelial cells that line the oviduct. This stimulates the secretion of fluids rich in [[lipid]]s and mucoproteins on which they feed along with scrapings from the oviduct wall. They may increase their length sixfold and be two-fifths as long as their mother before being born. By this time they have undergone metamorphosis, lost their eyes and gills, developed a thicker skin and mouth tentacles, and reabsorbed their teeth. A permanent set of teeth grow through soon after birth.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wake, Marvalee H. |year=1977 |title=Fetal maintenance and its evolutionary significance in the Amphibia: Gymnophiona |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=379–386 |jstor=1562719 |doi=10.2307/1562719 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265101247 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/29797/Gymnophiona |title=Gymnophiona |author=Duellman, William E. |year=2012 |work=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=March 26, 2012}}</ref> The ringed caecilian (''[[Siphonops annulatus]]'') has developed a unique adaptation for the purposes of reproduction. The progeny feed on a skin layer that is specially developed by the adult in a phenomenon known as maternal dermatophagy. The brood feed as a batch for about seven minutes at intervals of approximately three days which gives the skin an opportunity to regenerate. Meanwhile, they have been observed to ingest fluid exuded from the maternal cloaca.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Wilkinson, Mark |author2=Kupfer, Alexander |author3=Marques-Porto, Rafael |author4=Jeffkins, Hilary |author5=Antoniazzi, Marta M. |author6=Jared, Carlos |year=2008 |title= One hundred million years of skin feeding? Extended parental care in a Neotropical caecilian (Amphibia: Gymnophiona) |journal=[[Biology Letters]] |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2008.0217 |volume=4 |pages=358–361 |issue=4 |pmc=2610157 |pmid=18547909}}</ref> === Parental care === [[File:Panama Poison Dart Frog Colostethus panamensis with tadpoles.jpg|thumb|alt=Common rocket frog|Male [[common rocket frog]] (''Colostethus panamensis'') carrying tadpoles on his back]] The care of offspring among amphibians has been little studied but, in general, the larger the number of eggs in a batch, the less likely it is that any degree of parental care takes place. Nevertheless, it is estimated that in up to 20% of amphibian species, one or both adults play some role in the care of the young.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Crump| first=Martha L.| year=1996| title=Parental care among the Amphibia| journal=Advances in the Study of Behavior| volume=25| pages=109–144| doi=10.1016/S0065-3454(08)60331-9 | series=Advances in the Study of Behavior| isbn=978-0-12-004525-9}}</ref> Those species that breed in smaller water bodies or other specialised habitats tend to have complex patterns of behaviour in the care of their young.<ref name="Brown1">{{cite journal | doi=10.1086/650727 | last1=Brown | first1=J. L. | last2=Morales | first2=V. | last3=Summers | first3=K. | year=2010 | title=A key ecological trait drove the evolution of biparental care and monogamy in an amphibian | journal=American Naturalist | volume=175 | issue=4 | pages=436–446 | pmid=20180700 | url=https://www.academia.edu/11096788 }}</ref> Many woodland salamanders lay clutches of eggs under dead logs or stones on land. The [[black mountain salamander]] (''Desmognathus welteri'') does this, the mother brooding the eggs and guarding them from predation as the embryos feed on the yolks of their eggs. When fully developed, they break their way out of the egg capsules and disperse as juvenile salamanders.{{sfn | Dorit | Walker | Barnes | 1991 | pp=853–854 }} The male hellbender, a primitive salamander, excavates an underwater nest and encourages females to lay there. The male then guards the site for the two or three months before the eggs hatch, using body undulations to fan the eggs and increase their supply of oxygen.<ref name="EHSAR" /> [[File:Alytes obstetricans almogavarii - male with eggs 2.jpg|thumb|left|Male [[common midwife toad]] (''Alytes obstetricans'') carrying eggs]] The male ''[[Colostethus subpunctatus]]'', a tiny frog, protects the egg cluster which is hidden under a stone or log. When the eggs hatch, the male transports the tadpoles on his back, stuck there by a mucous secretion, to a temporary pool where he dips himself into the water and the tadpoles drop off.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Fandiño, María Claudia |author2=Lüddecke, Horst |author3=Amézquita, Adolfo |year=1997 |title=Vocalisation and larval transportation of male ''Colostethus subpunctatus'' (Anura: Dendrobatidae) |journal=Amphibia-Reptilia |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=39–48 |doi=10.1163/156853897X00297 }}</ref> The male [[Common midwife toad|midwife toad]] (''Alytes obstetricans'') winds egg strings round his thighs and carries the eggs around for up to eight weeks. He keeps them moist and when they are ready to hatch, he visits a pond or ditch and releases the tadpoles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi-bin/amphib_query?where-genus=Alytes&where-species=obstetricans |title=''Alytes obstetricans'' |author=van der Meijden, Arie |date=January 18, 2010 |publisher=AmphibiaWeb |accessdate=November 29, 2012}}</ref> The female [[gastric-brooding frog]] (''Rheobatrachus spp.'') reared larvae in her stomach after swallowing either the eggs or hatchlings; however, this stage was never observed before the species became extinct. The tadpoles secrete a hormone that inhibits digestion in the mother whilst they develop by consuming their very large yolk supply.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Rheobatrachus_silus.html |title=''Rheobatrachus silus'' |author=Semeyn, E. |year=2002 |work=Animal Diversity Web |publisher=University of Michigan Museum of Zoology |accessdate=August 5, 2012}}</ref> The [[pouched frog]] (''Assa darlingtoni'') lays eggs on the ground. When they hatch, the male carries the tadpoles around in brood pouches on his hind legs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/41130/0 |title=''Assa darlingtoni'' |authors=Hero, Jean-Marc; Clarke, John; Meyer, Ed |year=2004 |work=IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2 |accessdate=November 20, 2012}}</ref> The aquatic [[Surinam toad]] (''Pipa pipa'') raises its young in pores on its back where they remain until metamorphosis.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/58163/0 |title=''Pipa pipa'' (Suriname Toad) |author1=La Marca, Enrique |author2=Azevedo-Ramos, Claudia |author3=Silvano, Débora |author4=Coloma, Luis A. |author5=Ron, Santiago |author6=Hardy, Jerry |author7=Beier, Manfred |year=2010 |work= IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.1 |accessdate=August 24, 2012}}</ref> The granular poison frog (''Oophaga granulifera'') is typical of a number of tree frogs in the poison dart frog family [[Dendrobatidae]]. Its eggs are laid on the forest floor and when they hatch, the tadpoles are carried one by one on the back of an adult to a suitable water-filled crevice such as the [[wikt:axil|axil]] of a leaf or the [[Rosette (botany)|rosette]] of a [[Bromeliaceae|bromeliad]]. The female visits the nursery sites regularly and deposits unfertilised eggs in the water and these are consumed by the tadpoles.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=van Wijngaarden, René |author2=Bolaños, Federico |year=1992 |title=Parental care in ''Dendrobates granuliferus'' (Anura: Dendrobatidae), with a description of the tadpole |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=102–105 |jstor=1565037 |doi=10.2307/1565037 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275943004 }}</ref> == Feeding and diet == [[File:Pacific brown salamander eating a worm.jpg|thumb|alt=Northwestern salamander|[[Northwestern salamander]] <br>(''Ambystoma gracile'') eating a worm]] With a few exceptions, adult amphibians are [[Predation|predators]], feeding on virtually anything that moves that they can swallow. The diet mostly consists of small prey that do not move too fast such as beetles, caterpillars, earthworms and spiders. The sirens (''[[Siren (genus)|Siren spp.]]'') often ingest aquatic plant material with the invertebrates on which they feed<ref>{{cite web |url=http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Siren_intermedia.html |title=''Siren intermedia'': Lesser Siren |author=Gabbard, Jesse |year=2000 |work=Animal Diversity Web |publisher=University of Michigan Museum of Zoology |accessdate=August 11, 2012}}</ref> and a Brazilian tree frog (''[[Xenohyla truncata]]'') includes a large quantity of fruit in its diet.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Da Silva, H. R. |author2=De Britto-Pereira, M. C. |year=2006 |title=How much fruit do fruit-eating frogs eat? An investigation on the diet of ''Xenohyla truncata'' (Lissamphibia: Anura: Hylidae) |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=270 |issue=4 |pages=692–698 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00192.x |url=https://www.academia.edu/26660305 }}</ref> The [[Mexican burrowing toad]] (''Rhinophrynus dorsalis'') has a specially adapted tongue for picking up ants and termites. It projects it with the tip foremost whereas other frogs flick out the rear part first, their tongues being hinged at the front.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Trueb, Linda |author2=Gans, Carl |year=1983 |title=Feeding specializations of the Mexican burrowing toad, ''Rhinophrynus dorsalis'' (Anura: Rhinophrynidae) |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=199 |issue=2 |pages=189–208 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1983.tb02090.x }}</ref> Food is mostly selected by sight, even in conditions of dim light. Movement of the prey triggers a feeding response. Frogs have been caught on fish hooks baited with red flannel and [[Rana clamitans|green frogs]] (''Rana clamitans'') have been found with stomachs full of elm seeds that they had seen floating past.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hamilton, W. J. Jr. |year=1948 |title=The food and feeding behavior of the green frog, ''Rana clamitans'' Latreille, in New York State |journal=Copeia |volume=1948 |issue=3 |pages=203–207 |publisher=American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists |jstor=1438455 |doi=10.2307/1438455 }}</ref> Toads, salamanders and caecilians also use smell to detect prey. This response is mostly secondary because salamanders have been observed to remain stationary near odoriferous prey but only feed if it moves. Cave-dwelling amphibians normally hunt by smell. Some salamanders seem to have learned to recognize immobile prey when it has no smell, even in complete darkness.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | p=56 }} Amphibians usually swallow food whole but may chew it lightly first to subdue it.<ref name="Collins" /> They typically have small hinged [[pedicellate teeth]], a feature unique to amphibians. The base and crown of these are composed of [[dentine]] separated by an [[Calcification|uncalcified]] layer and they are replaced at intervals. Salamanders, caecilians and some frogs have one or two rows of teeth in both jaws, but some frogs (''Rana spp.'') lack teeth in the lower jaw, and toads (''Bufo spp.'') have no teeth. In many amphibians there are also [[vomerine teeth]] attached to a facial bone in the roof of the mouth.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | pp=57–58 }} [[File:Teichfrosch isst teichfrosch.JPG|thumb|left|alt=Edible frog eating a fellow edible frog|[[Edible frog]] (''Pelophylax esculentus'') exhibiting [[Cannibalism (zoology)|cannibalism]]]] The [[tiger salamander]] (''Ambystoma tigrinum'') is typical of the frogs and salamanders that hide under cover ready to ambush unwary invertebrates. Others amphibians, such as the ''Bufo spp.'' toads, actively search for prey, while the [[Argentine horned frog]] (''Ceratophrys ornata'') lures inquisitive prey closer by raising its hind feet over its back and vibrating its yellow toes.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Radcliffe, Charles W. |author2=Chiszar, David |author3=Estep, Karen |author4=Murphy, James B. |author5=Smith, Hobart M. |year=1986 |title=Observations on pedal luring and pedal movements in Leptodactylid frogs |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=300–306 |jstor=1564496 |doi=10.2307/1564496 }}</ref> Among leaf litter frogs in Panama, frogs that actively hunt prey have narrow mouths and are slim, often brightly coloured and toxic, while ambushers have wide mouths and are broad and well-camouflaged.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Toft, Catherine A. |year=1981 |title=Feeding ecology of Panamanian litter anurans: patterns in diet and foraging mode |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=139–144 |jstor=1563372 |doi=10.2307/1563372 |url=https://www.academia.edu/364846 }}</ref> Caecilians do not flick their tongues, but catch their prey by grabbing it with their slightly backward-pointing teeth. The struggles of the prey and further jaw movements work it inwards and the caecilian usually retreats into its burrow. The subdued prey is gulped down whole.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Bemis, W. E. |author2=Schwenk, K. |author3=Wake, M. H. |year=1983 |title=Morphology and function of the feeding apparatus in ''Dermophis mexicanus'' (Amphibia: Gymnophiona) |journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=77 |issue=1 |pages=75–96 |doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.1983.tb01722.x |url=https://www.academia.edu/23250634 }}</ref> When they are newly hatched, frog larvae feed on the yolk of the egg. When this is exhausted some move on to feed on bacteria, algal crusts, detritus and raspings from submerged plants. Water is drawn in through their mouths, which are usually at the bottom of their heads, and passes through branchial food traps between their mouths and their gills where fine particles are trapped in mucus and filtered out. Others have specialised mouthparts consisting of a horny beak edged by several rows of labial teeth. They scrape and bite food of many kinds as well as stirring up the bottom sediment, filtering out larger particles with the papillae around their mouths. Some, such as the spadefoot toads, have strong biting jaws and are carnivorous or even cannibalistic.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | pp=181–185 }} [[file:Sophisticated-Communication-in-the-Brazilian-Torrent-Frog-Hylodes-japi-pone.0145444.s001.oga|left|thumb|Audio showing Brazilian torrent frog males executing advertisement, peep, and squeal calls.]] == Vocalization == [[File:Dendropsophus microcephalus - calling male (Cope, 1886).jpg|thumb|alt=Male treefrog calling|Male treefrog (''[[Dendropsophus microcephalus]]'') inflating his air sac as he calls]] The calls made by caecilians and salamanders are limited to occasional soft squeaks, grunts or hisses and have not been much studied. A clicking sound sometimes produced by caecilians may be a means of orientation, as in bats, or a form of communication. Most salamanders are considered voiceless, but the [[California giant salamander]] (''Dicamptodon ensatus'') has vocal cords and can produce a rattling or barking sound. Some species of salamander emit a quiet squeak or yelp if attacked.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | pp=76–77 }} [[File:American Toad singing.jpg|thumb|American toad, (''[[Anaxyrus americanus]]'') singing]] Frogs are much more vocal, especially during the breeding season when they use their voices to attract mates. The presence of a particular species in an area may be more easily discerned by its characteristic call than by a fleeting glimpse of the animal itself. In most species, the sound is produced by expelling air from the lungs over the vocal cords into an [[Gular skin|air sac]] or sacs in the throat or at the corner of the mouth. This may distend like a balloon and acts as a resonator, helping to transfer the sound to the atmosphere, or the water at times when the animal is submerged.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | pp=76–77 }} The main vocalisation is the male's loud advertisement call which seeks to both encourage a female to approach and discourage other males from intruding on its territory. This call is modified to a quieter courtship call on the approach of a female or to a more aggressive version if a male intruder draws near. Calling carries the risk of attracting predators and involves the expenditure of much energy.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sullivan, Brian K. |year=1992 |title=Sexual selection and calling behavior in the American toad (''Bufo americanus'') |journal=Copeia |volume=1992 |issue=1 |pages=1–7 |jstor=1446530 |doi=10.2307/1446530 }}</ref> Other calls include those given by a female in response to the advertisement call and a release call given by a male or female during unwanted attempts at amplexus. When a frog is attacked, a distress or fright call is emitted, often resembling a scream.<ref>{{Cite thesis |chapter=Capitulo 4 |title=When frogs scream! A review of anuran defensive vocalizations |url=http://www.athena.biblioteca.unesp.br/exlibris/bd/brc/33004137003P3/2007/pereira_lftr_dr_rcla.pdf#page=110 |author1=Toledo, L. F. |author2=Haddad, C. F. B. |year=2007 |publisher=Instituto de Biociências, São Paulo }}</ref> The usually nocturnal Cuban tree frog (''Osteopilus septentrionalis'') produces a rain call when there is rainfall during daylight hours.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/uw259 |title=The Cuban Treefrog (''Osteopilus septentrionalis'') in Florida |author=Johnson, Steve A. |year=2010 |work=EDIS |publisher=University of Florida |accessdate=August 13, 2012}}</ref> == Territorial behaviour == Little is known of the territorial behaviour of caecilians, but some frogs and salamanders defend home ranges. These are usually feeding, breeding or sheltering sites. Males normally exhibit such behaviour though in some species, females and even juveniles are also involved. Although in many frog species, females are larger than males, this is not the case in most species where males are actively involved in territorial defence. Some of these have specific adaptations such as enlarged teeth for biting or spines on the chest, arms or thumbs.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Shine, Richard |year=1979 |title=Sexual selection and sexual dimorphism in the Amphibia |journal=Copeia |volume=1979 |issue=2 |pages=297–306 |jstor=1443418 |doi=10.2307/1443418 }}</ref> [[File:Redback salamander.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Red-backed salamander|The red back salamander (''[[Plethodon cinereus]]'') defends a territory against intruders.]] In salamanders, defence of a territory involves adopting an aggressive posture and if necessary attacking the intruder. This may involve snapping, chasing and sometimes biting, occasionally causing the loss of a tail. The behaviour of [[red back salamander]]s (''Plethodon cinereus'') has been much studied. 91% of marked individuals that were later recaptured were within a metre (yard) of their original daytime retreat under a log or rock.<ref name="Gergits">{{cite journal |author1=Gergits, W. F. |author2=Jaeger, R. G. | year=1990 | title=Site attachment by the red-backed salamander, ''Plethodon cinereus'' | journal=Journal of Herpetology | volume=24 | issue=1 | pages=91–93 | jstor=1564297 | doi=10.2307/1564297 }}</ref> A similar proportion, when moved experimentally a distance of {{convert|30|m}}, found their way back to their home base.<ref name="Gergits"/> The salamanders left odour marks around their territories which averaged {{convert|0.16|to|0.33|m2}} in size and were sometimes inhabited by a male and female pair.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi-bin/amphib_query?query_src=aw_search_index&where-genus=Plethodon&where-species=cinereus&rel-genus=equals&rel-species=equals|title=''Plethodon cinereus'' |author=Casper, Gary S |publisher=AmphibiaWeb |accessdate=September 25, 2012}}</ref> These deterred the intrusion of others and delineated the boundaries between neighbouring areas. Much of their behaviour seemed stereotyped and did not involve any actual contact between individuals. An aggressive posture involved raising the body off the ground and glaring at the opponent who often turned away submissively. If the intruder persisted, a biting lunge was usually launched at either the tail region or the naso-labial grooves. Damage to either of these areas can reduce the fitness of the rival, either because of the need to regenerate tissue or because it impairs its ability to detect food.<ref name="Gergits" /> In frogs, male territorial behaviour is often observed at breeding locations; calling is both an announcement of ownership of part of this resource and an advertisement call to potential mates. In general, a deeper voice represents a heavier and more powerful individual, and this may be sufficient to prevent intrusion by smaller males. Much energy is used in the vocalization and it takes a toll on the territory holder who may be displaced by a fitter rival if he tires. There is a tendency for males to tolerate the holders of neighbouring territories while vigorously attacking unknown intruders. Holders of territories have a "home advantage" and usually come off better in an encounter between two similar-sized frogs. If threats are insufficient, chest to chest tussles may take place. Fighting methods include pushing and shoving, deflating the opponent's vocal sac, seizing him by the head, jumping on his back, biting, chasing, splashing, and ducking him under the water.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Wells, K. D. | year=1977 | title=Territoriality and male mating success in the green frog (''Rana clamitans'') | journal=Ecology | volume=58 | issue=4 | pages=750–762 | jstor=1936211 | doi=10.2307/1936211 }}</ref> == Defence mechanisms == [[File:Adult Cane toad.jpg|thumb|alt=Cane toad|[[Cane toad]] (''Rhinella marina'') with poison glands behind the eyes]] Amphibians have soft bodies with thin skins, and lack claws, defensive armour, or spines. Nevertheless, they have evolved various defence mechanisms to keep themselves alive. The first line of defence in salamanders and frogs is the mucous secretion that they produce. This keeps their skin moist and makes them slippery and difficult to grip. The secretion is often sticky and distasteful or toxic.<ref name="Barthalmus">{{cite journal |author1=Barthalmus, G. T. |author2=Zielinski W. J. |year=1988 |title=''Xenopus'' skin mucus induces oral dyskinesias that promote escape from snakes |journal=Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=957–959 |pmid=3227042 |doi=10.1016/0091-3057(88)90126-8 }}</ref> Snakes have been observed yawning and gaping when trying to swallow [[African clawed frog]]s (''Xenopus laevis''), which gives the frogs an opportunity to escape.<ref name="Barthalmus" /><ref>{{cite web | url=http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi/amphib_query?where-genus=Xenopus&where-species=laevis |title=Xenopus laevis | author = Crayon, John J | publisher=AmphibiaWeb | accessdate=October 8, 2012 }}</ref> Caecilians have been little studied in this respect, but the Cayenne caecilian (''Typhlonectes compressicauda'') produces toxic mucus that has killed predatory fish in a feeding experiment in Brazil.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Moodie, G. E. E. |year=1978 |title=Observations on the life history of the caecilian ''Typhlonectes compressicaudus'' (Dumeril and Bibron) in the Amazon basin |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=1005–1008 |doi=10.1139/z78-141 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237980659 }}</ref> In some salamanders, the skin is poisonous. The [[rough-skinned newt]] (''Taricha granulosa'') from North America and other members of its genus contain the neurotoxin [[tetrodotoxin]] (TTX), the most toxic non-protein substance known and almost identical to that produced by [[pufferfish]]. Handling the newts does not cause harm, but ingestion of even the most minute amounts of the skin is deadly. In feeding trials, fish, frogs, reptiles, birds and mammals were all found to be susceptible.<ref>{{cite journal |author= Brodie, Edmund D. Jr. |year=1968 |title=Investigations on the skin toxin of the adult rough-skinned newt, ''Taricha granulosa'' |journal=Copeia |volume=1968 |issue=2 |pages=307–313 |jstor=1441757 |doi= 10.2307/1441757 }}</ref><ref name=Hanifin>{{cite journal |author1=Hanifin, Charles T. |author2=Yotsu-Yamashita, Mari |author3=Yasumoto, Takeshi |author4=Brodie, Edmund D. |author5=Brodie, Edmund D. Jr. |year=1999 |title=Toxicity of dangerous prey: variation of tetrodotoxin levels within and among populations of the newt ''Taricha granulosa'' |journal=Journal of Chemical Ecology |volume=25 |issue=9 |pages=2161–2175 |doi=10.1023/A:1021049125805 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225869249 }}</ref> The only predators with some tolerance to the poison are certain populations of [[Common Garter Snake|common garter snake]] (''Thamnophis sirtalis''). In locations where both snake and salamander co-exist, the snakes have developed immunity through genetic changes and they feed on the amphibians with impunity.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Geffeney, Shana L. |author2=Fujimoto, Esther |author3=Brodie, Edmund D. |author4=Brodie, Edmund D. Jr. |author5=Ruben, Peter C. |year=2005 |title=Evolutionary diversification of TTX-resistant sodium channels in a predator–prey interaction |journal=Nature |volume=434 |pages=759–763 |doi=10.1038/nature03444 |issue=7034 |pmid=15815629 |bibcode=2005Natur.434..759G }}</ref> [[Coevolution]] occurs with the newt increasing its toxic capabilities at the same rate as the snake further develops its immunity.<ref name=Hanifin/> Some frogs and toads are toxic, the main poison glands being at the side of the neck and under the warts on the back. These regions are presented to the attacking animal and their secretions may be foul-tasting or cause various physical or neurological symptoms. Altogether, over 200 toxins have been isolated from the limited number of amphibian species that have been investigated.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | p=110 }} [[File:Salamander-olympus.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Fire salamander|The [[fire salamander]] (''Salamandra salamandra''), a toxic species, wears warning colours.]] [[File:Schrecklicherpfeilgiftfrosch-01.jpg|thumb|left|Perhaps the most poisonous animal in the world, the [[golden poison frog]] (''Phyllobates terribilis'') is endemic to [[Colombia]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Patocka |first1=Jiri |last2=Wulff |first2=Kräuff |last3=Palomeque |first3=MaríaVictoria |year=1999 |title=Dart Poison Frogs and Their Toxins |journal=ASA Newsletter |volume=5 |issue=75 |issn=1057-9419 |url=http://www.asanltr.com/ASANews-99/995frogs.htm |accessdate=January 29, 2013}}</ref>]] Poisonous species often use bright colouring to warn potential predators of their toxicity. These warning colours tend to be red or yellow combined with black, with the [[fire salamander]] (''Salamandra salamandra'') being an example. Once a predator has sampled one of these, it is likely to remember the colouration next time it encounters a similar animal. In some species, such as the [[fire-bellied toad]] (''Bombina spp.''), the warning colouration is on the belly and these animals adopt a defensive pose when attacked, exhibiting their bright colours to the predator. The frog ''[[Allobates zaparo]]'' is not poisonous, but [[Batesian mimicry|mimics]] the appearance of other toxic species in its locality, a strategy that may deceive predators.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Darst, Catherine R. |author2=Cummings, Molly E. |date=9 March 2006 |title=Predator learning favours mimicry of a less-toxic model in poison frogs |journal=Nature |volume=440 |pages=208–211 |doi=10.1038/nature04297 |issue=7081 |pmid=16525472 |bibcode=2006Natur.440..208D |doi-access=free }}</ref> Many amphibians are nocturnal and hide during the day, thereby avoiding diurnal predators that hunt by sight. Other amphibians use [[camouflage]] to avoid being detected. They have various colourings such as mottled browns, greys and olives to blend into the background. Some salamanders adopt defensive poses when faced by a potential predator such as the North American [[northern short-tailed shrew]] (''Blarina brevicauda''). Their bodies writhe and they raise and lash their tails which makes it difficult for the predator to avoid contact with their poison-producing granular glands.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Brodie, Edmund D. Jr. |author2=Nowak, Robert T. |author3=Harvey, William R. |year=1979 |title=Antipredator secretions and behavior of selected salamanders against shrews |journal=Copeia |volume=1979 |issue=2 |pages=270–274 |jstor=1443413 |doi=10.2307/1443413 }}</ref> A few salamanders will autotomise their tails when attacked, sacrificing this part of their anatomy to enable them to escape. The tail may have a constriction at its base to allow it to be easily detached. The tail is regenerated later, but the energy cost to the animal of replacing it is significant.<ref name="Beneski" /> Some frogs and toads inflate themselves to make themselves look large and fierce, and some spadefoot toads (''[[Pelobates]] spp'') scream and leap towards the attacker.<ref name="Collins" /> Giant salamanders of the genus ''[[Andrias]]'', as well as [[Ceratophryinae|Ceratophrine]] and ''[[Pyxicephalus]]'' frogs possess sharp teeth and are capable of drawing blood with a defensive bite. The [[blackbelly salamander]] (''Desmognathus quadramaculatus'') can bite an attacking common garter snake (''Thamnophis sirtalis'') two or three times its size on the head and often manages to escape.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Brodie, E. D. Jr. |year=1978 |title=Biting and vocalisation as antipredator mechanisms in terrestrial salamanders |journal=Copeia |volume=1978 |issue=1 |pages=127–129 |jstor=1443832 |doi=10.2307/1443832 }}</ref> == Cognition == In amphibians, there is evidence of [[habituation]], [[associative learning]] through both [[Classical conditioning|classical]] and [[instrumental learning]], and discrimination abilities.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hloch, A.|year=2010|title=What Does a Salamander Remember After Winter?|publisher=University of Vienna. Fakultät für Lebenswissenschaften|url=http://othes.univie.ac.at/11007/1/2010-09-03_0400713.pdf}}</ref> In one experiment, when offered live fruit flies (''[[Drosophila]] virilis''), salamanders choose the larger of 1 vs 2 and 2 vs 3. Frogs can distinguish between low numbers (1 vs 2, 2 vs 3, but not 3 vs 4) and large numbers (3 vs 6, 4 vs 8, but not 4 vs 6) of prey. This is irrespective of other characteristics, i.e. surface area, volume, weight and movement, although discrimination among large numbers may be based on surface area.<ref name="Stancher">{{cite journal|authors=Stancher, G., Rugani, R., Regolin, L. and Vallortigara, G.|year=2015|title=Numerical discrimination by frogs (Bombina orientalis)|journal=Animal Cognition|volume=18|issue=1|pages=219–229|doi=10.1007/s10071-014-0791-7|url=https://www.academia.edu/12580390}}</ref> == Conservation == {{main|Decline in amphibian populations}} [[File:Bufo periglenes1.jpg|thumb|alt=Golden toad|The extinct [[golden toad]] (''Bufo periglenes''), last seen in 1989]] Dramatic declines in amphibian populations, including population crashes and mass localized [[extinction]], have been noted since the late 1980s from locations all over the world, and amphibian declines are thus perceived to be one of the most critical threats to global [[biodiversity]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=McCallum |first1=M. L. |year=2007 |title=Amphibian decline or extinction? Current declines dwarf background extinction rate |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=483–491 |doi=10.1670/0022-1511(2007)41[483:ADOECD]2.0.CO;2}}</ref> In 2004, the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) reported stating that currently birds,<ref>{{cite web|title=What does it mean to be human?|url=http://humanorigins.si.edu/human-characteristics/change|publisher=Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History|accessdate=November 19, 2013}}</ref> mammals, and amphibians extinction rates were at minimum 48 times greater than natural extinction rates—possibly 1,024 times higher. In 2006 there were believed to be 4,035 species of amphibians that depended on water at some stage during their life cycle. Of these, 1,356 (33.6%) were considered to be threatened and this figure is likely to be an underestimate because it excludes 1,427 species for which there was insufficient data to assess their status.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=461e58214aa54ad79382066ab829c05f |title=Number of Globally Threatened Amphibian Species by Freshwater Ecoregion |author1=Hoekstra, J. M. |author2=Molnar, J. L. |author3=Jennings, M. |author4=Revenga, C. |author5=Spalding, M. D. |author6=Boucher, T. M. |author7=Robertson, J. C. |author8=Heibel, T. J. |author9=Ellison, K. |year=2010 |work=The Atlas of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference |publisher=The Nature Conservancy |accessdate=September 5, 2012}}</ref> A number of causes are believed to be involved, including [[habitat destruction]] and modification, [[over-exploitation]], pollution, [[introduced species]], [[climate change]], endocrine-disrupting pollutants, destruction of the [[ozone layer]] (ultraviolet radiation has shown to be especially damaging to the skin, eyes, and eggs of amphibians), and diseases like [[chytridiomycosis]]. However, many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood, and are a topic of ongoing discussion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amphibians.org/ |title=Amphibian Specialist Group |publisher=IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group |accessdate=March 30, 2012}}</ref> [[File:Israel painted frog.JPG|thumb|left|alt=Hula painted frog|The [[Hula painted frog]] (''Discoglossus nigriventer'') was believed to be extinct but was rediscovered in 2011.]] With their complex reproductive needs and permeable skins, amphibians are often considered to be [[ecological indicator]]s.<ref name="Waddle">{{Cite thesis |type=Ph.D. |chapter= |title=Use of amphibians as ecosystem indicator species |url=http://etd.fcla.edu/UF/UFE0016760/waddle_j.pdf |last=Waddle |first=James Hardin |year=2006 |publisher=University of Florida }}</ref> In many terrestrial ecosystems, they constitute one of the largest parts of the vertebrate biomass. Any decline in amphibian numbers will affect the patterns of predation. The loss of carnivorous species near the top of the food chain will upset the delicate ecosystem balance and may cause dramatic increases in opportunistic species. In the Middle East, a growing appetite for eating frog legs and the consequent gathering of them for food was linked to an increase in [[mosquito]]es.<ref>{{Cite book| last1 = Regier| first1 = Henry A. | last2 = Baskerville | first2 = Gordon, L. | title = Sustainable redevelopment of regional ecosystems degraded by exploitive development | chapter = Sustainability Issues for Resource Managers | publisher = DIANE Publishing | pages = 36–38 | year = 1996 | isbn = 978-0-7881-4699-2 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=e66hatcSAsUC&pg=PA21&dq=Sustainable+redevelopment+of+regional+ecosystems+degraded+by#v=onepage&q=Sustainable%20redevelopment%20of%20regional%20ecosystems%20degraded%20by&f=false }}</ref> Predators that feed on amphibians are affected by their decline. The [[western terrestrial garter snake]] (''Thamnophis elegans'') in California is largely aquatic and depends heavily on two species of frog that are decreasing in numbers, the [[Yosemite toad]] (''Bufo canorus'') and the [[mountain yellow-legged frog]] (''Rana muscosa''), putting the snake's future at risk. If the snake were to become scarce, this would affect birds of prey and other predators that feed on it.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Jennings, W. Bryan |author2=Bradford, David F. |author3=Johnson, Dale F. |year=1992 |title=Dependence of the garter snake ''Thamnophis elegans'' on amphibians in the Sierra Nevada of California |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=503–505 |jstor=1565132 |doi=10.2307/1565132 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270389669 }}</ref> Meanwhile, in the ponds and lakes, fewer frogs means fewer tadpoles. These normally play an important role in controlling the growth of algae and also forage on [[detritus]] that accumulates as sediment on the bottom. A reduction in the number of tadpoles may lead to an overgrowth of algae, resulting in depletion of oxygen in the water when the algae later die and decompose. Aquatic invertebrates and fish might then die and there would be unpredictable ecological consequences.{{sfn | Stebbins | Cohen | 1995 | p=249 }} A [[global strategy]] to stem the crisis was released in 2005 in the form of the Amphibian Conservation Action Plan. Developed by over eighty leading experts in the field, this call to action details what would be required to curtail amphibian declines and extinctions over the following five years and how much this would cost. The Amphibian Specialist Group of the IUCN is spearheading efforts to implement a comprehensive global strategy for amphibian conservation.<ref name="AmphibianArk">{{cite web|url=http://www.iucn.org/about/union/secretariat/offices/asia/regional_activities/asian_amphibian_crisis/taking_action/amphibian_conservation_action_plan/ |title=Amphibian Conservation Action Plan |work=IUCN |accessdate=March 30, 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120427134336/http://www.iucn.org/about/union/secretariat/offices/asia/regional_activities/asian_amphibian_crisis/taking_action/amphibian_conservation_action_plan/ |archivedate=April 27, 2012 }}</ref> [[Amphibian Ark]] is an organization that was formed to implement the ex-situ conservation recommendations of this plan, and they have been working with zoos and aquaria around the world, encouraging them to create assurance colonies of threatened amphibians.<ref name="AmphibianArk" /> One such project is the Panama Amphibian Rescue and Conservation Project that built on existing conservation efforts in Panama to create a country-wide response to the threat of chytridiomycosis.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://amphibianrescue.org/?page_id=91 |title=Panama Amphibian Rescue and Conservation Project |publisher=Amphibian Ark |accessdate=March 30, 2012}}</ref> == See also == * [[List of amphibians]] * [[List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States]] == References == {{Reflist|26em}} === Cited texts === * {{cite book |title=Zoology |last1=Dorit |first1=R. L. |last2=Walker |first2=W. F. |last3=Barnes |first3=R. D. |year=1991 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |isbn=978-0-03-030504-7 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |title=A Natural History of Amphibians |last1=Stebbins |first1=Robert C. |authorlink1=Robert C. Stebbins|last2=Cohen |first2=Nathan W. |year=1995 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-03281-8 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=0v47ou53yVsC&pg=PR11&dq=Caudata+Urodela#v=onepage&q=Caudata%20Urodela&f=false |ref=harv }} == Further reading == * {{cite book | last = Carroll | first = Robert L. | title = Vertebrate Paleontology and Evolution | year = 1988 | publisher = W. H. Freeman | isbn = 978-0-7167-1822-2 }} * {{cite book | last = Carroll | first = Robert L. | title = The Rise of Amphibians: 365 Million Years of Evolution | year = 2009 | publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press | isbn = 978-0-8018-9140-3 }} * {{cite book | last = Duellman | first = William E. |author2=Linda Trueb | title = Biology of Amphibians | year = 1994 | publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press | isbn = 978-0-8018-4780-6 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Frost | first1 = Darrel R. | title = The Amphibian Tree of Life | hdl = 2246/5781 | journal = Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History | volume = 297 | pages = 1–291 | year = 2006 | last2 = Grant | first2 = Taran | last3 = Faivovich | first3 = Julián | last4 = Bain | first4 = Raoul H. | last5 = Haas | first5 = Alexander | last6 = Haddad |first6 = Célio F.B. | last7 = De Sá | first7 = Rafael O. | last8 = Channing | first8 = Alan | last9 = Wilkinson | first9 = Mark | last10 = Donnellan | first10 = Stephen C. | last11 = Raxworthy | first11 = Christopher J. | last12 = Campbell | first12 = Jonathan A. | last13 = Blotto | first13 = Boris L. | last14 = Moler | first14 = Paul | last15 = Drewes | first15 = Robert C. | last16 = Nussbaum |first16 = Ronald A. | last17 = Lynch | first17 = John D. | last18 = Green | first18 = David M. | last19 = Wheeler | first19 = Ward C. | doi = 10.1206/0003-0090(2006)297[0001:TATOL]2.0.CO;2 | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/213771051}} * {{cite journal | last1 = Pounds | first1 = J. Alan | title = Widespread amphibian extinctions from epidemic disease driven by global warming | journal = Nature | volume = 439 | issue = 7073 | pages = 161–167 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16407945 | doi = 10.1038/nature04246 | last2 = Bustamante | first2 = Martín R. | last3 = Coloma | first3 = Luis A. | last4 = Consuegra | first4 = Jamie A. | last5 = Fogden | first5 = Michael P. L. | last6 = Foster | first6 = Pru N. | last7 = La Marca | first7 = Enrique | last8 = Masters | first8 = Karen L. | last9 = Merino-Viteri | first9 = Andrés | last10 = Puschendorf | first10 = Robert | last11 = Ron | first11 = Santiago R. | last12 = Sánchez-Azofeifa | first12 = G. Arturo | last13 = Still | first13 = Christopher J. | last14 = Young | first14 = Bruce E. | bibcode = 2006Natur.439..161A | url = https://www.academia.edu/13811723}} * {{cite journal | last1 = Stuart | first1 = Simon N. | last2 = Chanson | first2 = Janice S. | last3 = Cox | first3 = Neil A. | last4 = Young | first4 = Bruce E. | last5 = Rodrigues | first5 = Ana S. L. | last6 = Fischman | first6 = Debra L. | last7 = Waller | first7 = Robert W. | title = Status and trends of amphibian declines and extinctions worldwide | journal = Science | volume = 306 | issue = 5702 | pages = 1783–1786 | year = 2004 | doi = 10.1126/science.1103538 | pmid = 15486254 | bibcode = 2004Sci...306.1783S | citeseerx = 10.1.1.225.9620}} * {{cite book | editor1 = Stuart, S. N. | editor2 = Hoffmann, M. | editor3 = Chanson, J. S. | editor4 = Cox, N. A. | editor5 = Berridge, R. J. | editor6 = Ramani, P. | editor7 = Young, B. E. | title = Threatened Amphibians of the World | publisher = Published by [[Lynx Edicions]], in association with [[IUCN-The World Conservation Union]], [[Conservation International]] and [[NatureServe]]. | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-84-96553-41-5 | url = http://www.amphibians.org/publications/threatened-amphibians-of-the-world/ }} == External links == {{Commons category|Amphibia}} {{Wikispecies|Amphibia}} {{Wikibooks|Dichotomous Key|Amphibia}} * [http://www.animalspot.net/category/amphibians Amphibians] – AnimalSpot.net * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130726202037/http://photos.archeozoo.org/index/category/54-amphibiens_langen_amphibians_lang_langes_anfibios_lang_?lang=en_UK ArchéoZooThèque : Amphibians skeletons drawings] : available in vector, image and PDF formats * [http://www.amphibians.org/ Amphibian Specialist Group] * [http://www.amphibianark.org/ Amphibian Ark] * [http://www.amphibiaweb.org/ AmphibiaWeb] * [http://www.globalamphibians.org/ Global Amphibian Assessment] * [http://sounds.bl.uk/Browse.aspx?category=Environment&collection=Amphibians Amphibian vocalisations on Archival Sound Recordings] {{Amphibians}} {{Chordata}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q10908}} {{Authority control}} {{Featured article}} {{Portal bar|Amphibians}} [[Category:Amphibians| ]] [[Category:Amphibious organisms]] <!-- [[Category:Animal classes]] moved to Latin name redirect --> [[Category:Extant Late Devonian first appearances]] 5voc10t6mwt44jy99zpto3mz9pjs6se 0 622 474180759 179567488 2012-01-31T08:56:09Z 96.251.199.116 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Al Gore]] fg41brd0hupt0bisglocp3dz06qqcfz 0 624 861707115 861693218 2018-09-29T11:59:31Z Horserice 9136233 fix mobile view spacing wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|the U.S. state of Alaska}} {{Redirect|Alaskan}} {{pp|small=yes}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use mdy dates|date=January 2018}} {{Coord|64|N|150|W|region:US-AK_type:adm1st_scale:10000000|display=title|notes=<ref>{{Cite gnis|1785533|State of Alaska}}</ref>}} {{Infobox U.S. state | Name = Alaska | Fullname = State of Alaska <div style="padding-top:0.25em;">{{small|{{nobold|{{native name|ale|Alax̂sxax̂}}<br />{{native name|ik|Alaskaq}}}}}}</div> | Flag = Flag of Alaska.svg | Flaglink = [[Flag of Alaska|Flag]] | Seal = State Seal of Alaska.svg | Former = Territory of Alaska | Map = Alaska in United States (US50).svg | Motto = North to the Future | Nickname = The Last Frontier | StateAnthem = [[Alaska's Flag]] | Demonym = [[List of demonyms for U.S. states|Alaskan]] | Capital = [[Juneau, Alaska|Juneau]] | Languages = English 86.3%<br /> [[Alaska Native languages]] 5.2%<br />[[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] 3.4%<br />[[Spanish language|Spanish]] 2.9%<br />Others 2.2% | OfficialLang = English, [[Inupiat language|Inupiat]], [[Central Siberian Yupik language|Central Siberian Yupik]], [[Central Alaskan Yup'ik language|Central Alaskan Yup'ik]], [[Alutiiq language|Alutiiq]], [[Aleut language|Aleut]], [[Dena'ina language|Dena'ina]], [[Deg Xinag language|Deg Xinag]], [[Holikachuk language|Holikachuk]], [[Koyukon language|Koyukon]], [[Upper Kuskokwim language|Upper Kuskokwim]], [[Gwich'in language|Gwich'in]], [[Lower Tanana language|Lower Tanana]], [[Upper Tanana language|Upper Tanana]], [[Tanacross language|Tanacross]], [[Hän language|Hän]], [[Ahtna language|Ahtna]], [[Eyak language|Eyak]], [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]], [[Haida language|Haida]], [[Coast Tsimshian dialect|Coast Tsimshian]] | LargestCity = [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]] | Governor = [[Bill Walker (American politician)|Bill Walker]] ([[Independent politician|I]]) | Lieutenant Governor = [[Byron Mallott]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]]) | Legislature = [[Alaska Legislature]] | Upperhouse = [[Alaska Senate|Senate]] | Lowerhouse = [[Alaska House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] | Senators = [[Lisa Murkowski]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]])<br /> [[Dan Sullivan (U.S. Senator)|Dan Sullivan]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]]) | Representative = [[Don Young]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]]) ([[Alaska's at-large congressional district|at-large]]) | PostalAbbreviation = AK | AreaRank = 1st | TotalArea = 1,717,856 | TotalAreaUS = 663,268 | LandArea = 1,481,346 | LandAreaUS = 571,951 | WaterArea = 236,507 | WaterAreaUS = 91,316 | PCWater = 13.77 | PopRank = 48th | 2010Pop = 739,795 (2017 est.)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/AK,US/PST045217 |date=July 1, 2017 |accessdate=May 6, 2017|publisher=[[U.S. Census Bureau]]|title=Alaska: Population estimates}}</ref> | DensityRank = 50th | 2000Density = 0.49 | 2000DensityUS = 1.26 | MedianHouseholdIncome = $75,723<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.kff.org/other/state-indicator/median-annual-income/?currentTimeframe=0&sortModel=%7B%22colId%22:%22Median%20Annual%20Household%20Income%22,%22sort%22:%22desc%22%7D|website=The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation|title=Median Annual Household Income|accessdate=January 27, 2018}}</ref> | IncomeRank = 3rd | AdmittanceOrder = 49th | AdmittanceDate = January 3, 1959 | TimeZone = [[Alaska Time Zone|Alaska]] – [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] [[Alaska Standard Time|-9]]/[[Alaska Daylight Time|-8]] | TZ1Where = east of 169° 30' | TimeZone2 = [[Hawaii-Aleutian Time Zone|Aleutian]] – [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] [[Hawaii-Aleutian Standard Time|-10]]/[[Hawaii-Aleutian Daylight Time|-9]] | TZ2Where = west of 169° 30' | Latitude = 51°20'N to 71°50'N | Longitude = 130°W to 172°E | Width = 3,639 | WidthUS = 2,261 | Length = 2,285 | LengthUS = 1,420 | HighestPoint = [[Denali]]<ref name=USGS>{{cite web|url=http://egsc.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/elvadist/elvadist.html |title=Elevations and Distances in the United States |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]] |year=2001 |accessdate=October 21, 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111015012701/http://egsc.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/elvadist/elvadist.html |archivedate=October 15, 2011 |df=mdy }}</ref> | HighestElev = 6190.5 | HighestElevUS = 20,310 | MeanElev = 580 | MeanElevUS = 1900 | LowestPoint = | LowestElev = 0 | LowestElevUS = 0 | ISOCode = US-AK | Website = alaska.gov }} {{Infobox U.S. state symbols |Name= Alaska |Flag = Flag of Alaska.svg |Seal = State Seal of Alaska.svg |Mammal= {{Unbulleted list|'''Land:''' [[Moose]]|'''Marine:''' [[Bowhead whale]]}} |Dog= [[Alaskan Malamute]] |Bird= [[Willow ptarmigan]] |Fish= [[Chinook salmon|King salmon]] |Flower= [[Forget-me-not]] |Insect= [[Libellulidae|Four-spot skimmer dragonfly]] |Tree= [[Sitka Spruce]] |Fossil= [[Woolly Mammoth]] |Mineral= [[Gold]] |Gemstone= [[Jade]] |Other= [[Mushing|Dog mushing]] (state sport) |Route Marker= Alaska 2 shield.svg |Quarter= 2008 AK Proof.png |QuarterReleaseDate= 2008 }} '''Alaska''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=en-us-Alaska.ogg|ə|ˈ|l|æ|s|k|ə}}) ({{lang-ale|Alax̂sxax̂}}; {{Lang-ik|Alaskaq}}; {{Lang-ru|Аляска|translit=Alyaska}}) is a [[U.S. state]] located in the northwest extremity of [[North America]]. The [[Provinces and territories of Canada|Canadian administrative divisions]] of [[British Columbia]] and [[Yukon]] border the state to the east, its most extreme western part is [[Attu Island]], and it has a maritime border with [[Russia]] ([[Chukotka Autonomous Okrug]]) to the west across the [[Bering Strait]]. To the north are the [[Chukchi Sea|Chukchi]] and [[Beaufort Sea|Beaufort]] seas—the southern parts of the [[Arctic Ocean]]. The [[Pacific Ocean]] lies to the south and southwest. It is the [[List of U.S. states and territories by area|largest state]] in the [[United States]] by area and the [[List of country subdivisions by area|seventh largest subnational division in the world]]. In addition, it is the [[List of U.S. states and territories by population|3rd least populous]] and the [[List of U.S. states and territories by population density|most sparsely populated]] of the [[List of U.S. states|50 United States]]; nevertheless, it is by far the most populous territory located mostly north of the [[60th parallel north|60th parallel]] in North America, its population (the total estimated at 738,432 by the U.S. Census Bureau in 2015<ref name=PopEstUS />) more than quadrupling the combined populations of [[Northern Canada]] and [[Greenland]]. Approximately half of Alaska's residents live within the [[Anchorage metropolitan area]]. Alaska's economy is dominated by the [[fishing]], [[natural gas]], and [[petroleum|oil]] industries, resources which it has in abundance. [[United States Armed Forces|Military]] bases and tourism are also a significant part of the [[Economy of Alaska|economy]]. The United States [[Alaska Purchase|purchased Alaska]] from the [[Russian Empire]] on March 30, 1867, for 7.2&nbsp;million U.S. dollars at approximately two cents per acre ($4.74/km²). The area went through several administrative changes before becoming organized as a [[Territories of the United States|territory]] on May 11, 1912. It was admitted as the 49th state of the U.S. on January 3, 1959.<ref>{{cite AV media| year =1959| title =Video: 49th Star. Alaska Statehood, New Flag, Official, 1959/01/05 (1959)| url =https://archive.org/details/1959-01-05_49th_Star_Alaska_Statehood| publisher =[[Universal Newsreel]]| accessdate =February 20, 2012}}</ref> ==Etymology== The name "Alaska" ({{lang-rus|Аляска|r=Alyaska}}) was introduced in the [[Russian America|Russian colonial period]] when it was used to refer to the [[Alaska Peninsula]]. It was derived from an [[Aleut language|Aleut-language]] [[idiom]], which figuratively refers to the mainland. Literally, it means ''object to which the action of the sea is directed''.<ref name=Aleut>{{cite book|title=Aleut Dictionary: Unangam Tunudgusii|author=Bergsland, Knut (ed.)|publisher=Alaska Native Language Center|year=1994|isbn=978-1-55500-047-9}}, at pp. 49 (Alaxsxi-x = mainland Alaska), 50 (''alagu-x'' = ''sea''), 508 (''-gi'' = suffix, ''object of its action'').</ref><ref name=Bright>{{cite book|title=Native American Placenames in the United States|author=Bright, William|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0806135984}}</ref><ref>Ransom, J. Ellis. 1940. "Derivation of the Word "Alaska", " ''American Anthropologist'' n.s., 42: pp. 550–551</ref> ==Geography== {{Main|Geography of Alaska}} Alaska is the northernmost and westernmost state in the United States and has the most easterly longitude in the United States because the [[Aleutian Islands]] extend into the [[Eastern Hemisphere]]. Alaska is the only non-[[Contiguous United States|contiguous]] U.S. state on continental North America; about {{convert|500|mi|km|-1}} of [[British Columbia]] (Canada) separates Alaska from [[Washington (state)|Washington]]. It is technically part of the [[Continental United States|continental U.S.]], but is sometimes not included in colloquial use; Alaska is not part of the [[Contiguous United States|contiguous U.S.]], often called [[Outside (Alaska)|"the Lower 48"]]. The capital city, [[Juneau]], is situated on the mainland of the North American continent but is not connected by road to the rest of the North American highway system. The state is bordered by [[Yukon]] and [[British Columbia]] in Canada, to the east, the [[Gulf of Alaska]] and the [[Pacific Ocean]] to the south and southwest, the [[Bering Sea]], [[Bering Strait]], and [[Chukchi Sea]] to the west and the [[Arctic Ocean]] to the north. Alaska's territorial waters touch Russia's territorial waters in the Bering Strait, as the Russian [[Big Diomede Island]] and Alaskan [[Little Diomede Island]] are only {{convert|3|mi|km}} apart. Alaska has a longer coastline than all the other U.S. states combined.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum/ASF14/1404.html |title=Alaska's Size in Perspective |accessdate=November 19, 2007 |author=Benson, Carl |date=September 2, 1998 |publisher=[[Geophysical Institute]], [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]] |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071125211706/http://www.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum/ASF14/1404.html |archivedate=November 25, 2007 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref> [[File:Alaska area compared to conterminous US.svg|thumb|Alaska's size compared with the [[contiguous United States|48 contiguous states]]. ([[Albers projection|Albers equal-area conic projection]])]] Alaska is the largest state in the United States by total area at {{convert|663,268|sqmi|km2|0}}, over twice the size of [[Texas]], the next largest state. Alaska is larger than all but 18 sovereign countries. Counting territorial waters, Alaska is larger than the combined area of the next three largest states: Texas, [[California]], and [[Montana]]. It is also larger than the combined area of the 22 smallest U.S. states. ===Regions=== There are no officially defined borders demarcating the various regions of Alaska, but there are six widely accepted regions: ====South Central==== {{Main|South Central Alaska}} The most populous region of Alaska, containing [[Anchorage]], the [[Matanuska-Susitna Valley]] and the [[Kenai Peninsula]]. Rural, mostly unpopulated areas south of the [[Alaska Range]] and west of the [[Wrangell Mountains]] also fall within the definition of South Central, as do the [[Prince William Sound]] area and the communities of [[Cordova, Alaska|Cordova]] and [[Valdez, Alaska|Valdez]].<ref name = cities>{{cite web |title = Travel Information on South Central Alaska |year = 2006 |url = http://www.welcometoalaska.com/SouthCentral.htm |accessdate = April 22, 2011}}</ref> ====Southeast==== {{Main|Southeast Alaska}} Also referred to as the Panhandle or Inside Passage, this is the region of Alaska closest to the rest of the United States. As such, this was where most of the initial non-indigenous settlement occurred in the years following the [[Alaska Purchase]]. The region is dominated by the [[Alexander Archipelago]] as well as the [[Tongass National Forest]], the largest national forest in the United States. It contains the state capital [[Juneau]], the former capital [[Sitka, Alaska|Sitka]], and [[Ketchikan]], at one time Alaska's largest city.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sitnews.us/Kiffer/Ketchikan/043007_ketchikan_1927.html |title= 1927: When Ketchikan was the Largest City in Alaska |website=Sitnews US |date=April 30, 2007 |accessdate=July 24, 2012}}</ref> The [[Alaska Marine Highway]] provides a vital surface transportation link throughout the area, as only three communities ([[Haines, Alaska|Haines]], [[Hyder, Alaska|Hyder]] and [[Skagway, Alaska|Skagway]]) enjoy direct connections to the contiguous North American road system.<ref name="DOT Document">{{cite web |author= Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities |publisher= Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities |url= http://www.dot.state.ak.us/amhs/doc/presskit.pdf |title= The Alaska Marine Highway System |access-date= April 21, 2012 |deadurl= yes |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20130330013507/http://www.dot.state.ak.us/amhs/doc/presskit.pdf |archivedate= March 30, 2013 |df= mdy-all }}</ref> Officially designated in 1963.<ref name="Alaska.org">{{cite web |author= Alaska Channel |website= Alaska.org |publisher= Alaska Channel |url= http://alaska.org/gettingaround/alaska-marine-highway.htm |title= Alaska Marine Highway |access-date=April 21, 2012}}</ref> ====Interior==== {{Main|Alaska Interior}} [[File:Denali Mt McKinley.jpg|thumb|[[Denali]] is the highest peak in North America.]] The Interior is the largest region of Alaska; much of it is uninhabited wilderness. [[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]] is the only large city in the region. [[Denali National Park and Preserve]] is located here. ''[[Denali]]'' is the highest [[mountain]] in North America. ====Southwest==== {{Main|Southwest Alaska}} [[File:Grizzly Bear Fishing Brooks Falls.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Grizzly bear]] fishing for [[salmon]] at [[Brooks Falls]], part of [[Katmai National Park and Preserve]].]] Southwest Alaska is a sparsely inhabited region stretching some {{convert|500|mi|km}} inland from the Bering Sea. Most of the population lives along the coast. [[Kodiak Island]] is also located in Southwest. The massive [[Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta]], one of the largest river deltas in the world, is here. Portions of the [[Alaska Peninsula]] are considered part of Southwest, with the remaining portions included with the Aleutian Islands (see below). ====North Slope==== {{Main|Alaska North Slope}} The North Slope is mostly [[tundra]] peppered with small villages. The area is known for its massive reserves of crude oil, and contains both the [[National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska]] and the [[Prudhoe Bay Oil Field]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Alaska.com |url=http://www.alaska.com/regions/ |title=Alaska.com |publisher=Alaska.com |accessdate=June 2, 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100603064023/http://www.alaska.com/regions/ |archivedate=June 3, 2010 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref> The city of [[Utqiaġvik]], formerly known as [[Barrow, Alaska|Barrow]], is the northernmost city in the United States and is located here. The [[Northwest Arctic Borough, Alaska|Northwest Arctic area]], anchored by [[Kotzebue, Alaska|Kotzebue]] and also containing the [[Kobuk River]] valley, is often regarded as being part of this region. However, the respective [[Inupiat people|Inupiat]] of the North Slope and of the Northwest Arctic seldom consider themselves to be one people{{Citation needed|date=April 2016}}. ====Aleutian Islands==== {{Main|Aleutian Islands}} More than 300 small volcanic islands make up this chain, which stretches over {{convert|1200|mi}} into the Pacific Ocean. Some of these islands fall in the Eastern Hemisphere, but the [[International Date Line]] was drawn west of [[180th meridian|180°]] to keep the whole state, and thus the entire North American continent, within the same legal day. Two of the islands, [[Attu Island|Attu]] and [[Kiska]], were occupied by Japanese forces during World War II. ===Natural features=== {{see also|Wildlife of Alaska}} [[File:Augustine Volcano Jan 12 2006 edited-1.jpg|thumb|[[Augustine Volcano]] erupting on January 12, 2006]] With its myriad islands, Alaska has nearly {{convert|34000|mi|km|-1}} of tidal shoreline. The [[Aleutian Islands]] chain extends west from the southern tip of the [[Alaska Peninsula]]. Many active [[volcano]]es are found in the Aleutians and in coastal regions. [[Unimak Island]], for example, is home to [[Mount Shishaldin]], which is an occasionally smoldering volcano that rises to {{convert|10000|ft|m|0}} above the North Pacific. It is the most perfect volcanic cone on Earth, even more symmetrical than Japan's [[Mount Fuji]]. The chain of volcanoes extends to [[Mount Spurr]], west of Anchorage on the mainland. Geologists have identified Alaska as part of [[Wrangellia]], a large region consisting of multiple states and Canadian provinces in the [[Pacific Northwest]], which is actively undergoing [[plate tectonics|continent building]]. One of the world's largest tides occurs in [[Turnagain Arm]], just south of Anchorage, where tidal differences can be more than {{convert|35|ft|m|1}}.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Porco, Peter|date = June 23, 2003 | title = Long said to be second to Fundy, city tides aren't even close | journal=[[Anchorage Daily News]] | pages = A1}}</ref> {{Main|List of lakes in Alaska}} Alaska has more than three million lakes.<ref>{{cite web | title=Alaska Hydrology Survey | publisher=Division of Mining, Land, and Water; [[Alaska Department of Natural Resources]] | url=http://dnr.alaska.gov/mlw/water/hydro/components/surface-water.cfm }}</ref> [[Marshland]]s and wetland [[permafrost]] cover {{convert|188320|sqmi|km2|0}} (mostly in northern, western and southwest flatlands). Glacier ice covers about {{convert|28957|sqmi|km2}} of Alaska.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www2.usgs.gov/climate_landuse/glaciers/glaciers_alaska.asp|title=Glacier and Landscape Change in Response to Changing Climate|last=Group|first=Office of Communications – OC Web|website=www2.usgs.gov|access-date=2018-02-02}}</ref> The [[Bering Glacier]] is the largest glacier in North America, covering {{convert|2008|sqmi|km2}} alone.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.beringglacier.org/|title=BERINGGLACIER.ORG|website=www.beringglacier.org|access-date=2018-02-02}}</ref> ===Land ownership=== [[File:Public-Lands-Western-US.png|thumb|Alaska has more public land owned by the federal government than any other state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wildlandfire.com/docs/2007/western-states-data-public-land.htm |title=Western States Data Public Land Acreage |publisher=Wildlandfire.com |date=November 13, 2007 |accessdate=June 2, 2010 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/61AfQGlxF?url=http://www.wildlandfire.com/docs/2007/western-states-data-public-land.htm |archive-date=August 24, 2011 |dead-url=yes |df=mdy-all }}</ref>]] According to an October 1998 report by the [[United States Bureau of Land Management]], approximately 65% of Alaska is owned and managed by the [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. federal government]] as public lands, including a multitude of [[United States National Forest|national forests]], national parks, and [[national wildlife refuge]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nrm.salrm.uaf.edu/~stodd/AlaskaPlanningDirectory/landOwnership.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020628125756/http://nrm.salrm.uaf.edu/~stodd/AlaskaPlanningDirectory/landOwnership.html |dead-url=yes |archive-date=June 28, 2002 |title=Alaska Land Ownership |accessdate=May 4, 2014 |df= }}</ref> Of these, the [[Bureau of Land Management]] manages {{convert|87|e6acre|e6ha|abbr=off}}, or 23.8% of the state. The [[Arctic National Wildlife Refuge]] is managed by the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service]]. It is the world's largest wildlife refuge, comprising {{convert|16|e6acre|e6ha|abbr=off}}. Of the remaining land area, the state of Alaska owns {{convert|101|e6acre|e6ha|abbr=off}}, its entitlement under the [[Alaska Statehood Act]]. A portion of that acreage is occasionally ceded to organized boroughs, under the statutory provisions pertaining to newly formed boroughs. Smaller portions are set aside for rural subdivisions and other homesteading-related opportunities. These are not very popular due to the often remote and roadless locations. The [[University of Alaska]], as a [[land grant university]], also owns substantial acreage which it manages independently. Another {{convert|44|e6acre|e6ha|abbr=off}} are owned by 12 regional, and scores of local, Native corporations created under the [[Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act]] (ANCSA) of 1971. [[Alaska Native Regional Corporation|Regional Native corporation]] [[Doyon, Limited]] often promotes itself as the largest private landowner in Alaska in advertisements and other communications. Provisions of ANCSA allowing the corporations' land holdings to be sold on the open market starting in 1991 were repealed before they could take effect. Effectively, the corporations hold title (including subsurface title in many cases, a privilege denied to individual Alaskans) but cannot sell the land. [[Alaska Native Allotment Act|Individual Native allotments]] can be and are sold on the open market, however. Various private interests own the remaining land, totaling about one percent of the state. Alaska is, by a large margin, the state with the smallest percentage of private land ownership when Native corporation holdings are excluded. ===Climate=== {{Main|Climate of Alaska}} [[File:Alaska Köppen.svg|upright=1.35|thumb|[[Köppen climate classification|Köppen climate types]] of Alaska.]] [[File:Alaska climate regions USGS.gif|thumb|Map depicting the climate zones of Alaska.]] The climate in Southeast Alaska is a mid-latitude [[oceanic climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification]]: ''Cfb'') in the southern sections and a subarctic oceanic climate (Köppen ''Cfc'') in the northern parts. On an annual basis, Southeast is both the wettest and warmest part of Alaska with milder temperatures in the winter and high precipitation throughout the year. Juneau averages over {{convert|50|in|cm|abbr=on}} of precipitation a year, and [[Ketchikan, Alaska|Ketchikan]] averages over {{convert|150|in|cm|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web | title = Monthly Climate Summary, Ketchikan, Alaska | publisher= Western Regional Climate Center | url = http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/cgi-bin/cliMAIN.pl?akketc | accessdate = February 7, 2013 }}</ref> This is also the only region in Alaska in which the average daytime high temperature is above freezing during the winter months. The climate of [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]] and south central Alaska is mild by Alaskan standards due to the region's proximity to the seacoast. While the area gets less rain than southeast Alaska, it gets more snow, and days tend to be clearer. On average, [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]] receives {{convert|16|in|cm|abbr=on}} of precipitation a year, with around {{convert|75|in|cm|abbr=on}} of snow, although there are areas in the south central which receive far more snow. It is a subarctic climate ([[Köppen climate classification#GROUP D: Continental/microthermal climate|Köppen: ''Dfc'']]) due to its brief, cool summers. The climate of [[Southwest Alaska|Western Alaska]] is determined in large part by the [[Bering Sea]] and the [[Gulf of Alaska]]. It is a subarctic oceanic climate in the southwest and a continental subarctic climate farther north. The temperature is somewhat moderate considering how far north the area is. This [[region]] has a tremendous amount of variety in precipitation. An area stretching from the northern side of the Seward Peninsula to the [[Kobuk River]] valley (i.&nbsp;e., the region around [[Kotzebue Sound]]) is technically a [[desert]], with portions receiving less than {{convert|10|in|cm|abbr=on}} of precipitation annually. On the other extreme, some locations between [[Dillingham, Alaska|Dillingham]] and [[Bethel, Alaska|Bethel]] average around {{convert|100|in|cm|abbr=on}} of precipitation.<ref name="AK-YK Precip">{{cite web|title=Mean Annual Precipitation, Alaska-Yukon|url=http://www.pitt.edu/~mabbott1/climate/mark/Images/AK-PPT-mm.gif|website=Spatial Climate Analysis Service|publisher=Oregon State University|accessdate=June 5, 2012|date=February 2000}}</ref> The climate of the interior of Alaska is subarctic. Some of the highest and lowest temperatures in Alaska occur around the area near [[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]]. The summers may have temperatures reaching into the 90s °F (the low-to-mid 30s °C), while in the winter, the temperature can fall below {{convert|-60|°F}}. Precipitation is sparse in the Interior, often less than {{convert|10|in|cm|abbr=on}} a year, but what precipitation falls in the winter tends to stay the entire [[winter]]. The highest and lowest recorded temperatures in Alaska are both in the Interior. The highest is {{convert|100|°F}} in [[Fort Yukon, Alaska|Fort Yukon]] (which is just {{convert|8|mi|km|sp=us|disp=or|abbr=on}} inside the arctic circle) on June 27, 1915,<ref name="NOAA-All Hazards">{{cite web|title=NOAA Weather Radio All Hazards Information – Alaska Weather Interesting Facts and Records |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |format=PDF |url=http://www.arh.noaa.gov/docs/AKWXfacts.pdf |accessdate=January 3, 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060929022606/http://www.arh.noaa.gov/docs/AKWXfacts.pdf |archivedate=September 29, 2006 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref name=DRI>{{cite web|title=State Extremes |publisher=Western Regional Climate Center, [[Desert Research Institute]] |url=http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/htmlfiles/state.extremes.html |accessdate=January 3, 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070105015744/http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/htmlfiles/state.extremes.html |archivedate=January 5, 2007 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref> making Alaska tied with Hawaii as the state with the lowest high temperature in the United States.<ref>{{cite web | title = SD Weather History and Trivia for May: May 1 | publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] | url = http://www.crh.noaa.gov/fsd/?n=fsdtrivia05 | accessdate = January 3, 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=FAQ ALASKA – Frequently Asked Questions About Alaska: Weather |publisher=Statewide Library Electronic Doorway, [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]] |date=January 17, 2005 |url=http://sled.alaska.edu/akfaq/aksuper.html#wea |accessdate=January 3, 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070102180919/http://sled.alaska.edu/akfaq/aksuper.html#wea |archivedate=January 2, 2007 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> The lowest official Alaska temperature is {{convert|−80|°F}} in [[Prospect Creek, Alaska|Prospect Creek]] on January 23, 1971,<ref name="NOAA-All Hazards" /><ref name=DRI /> one degree above the lowest temperature recorded in continental North America (in [[Snag, Yukon|Snag, Yukon, Canada]]).<ref>{{cite web|author=Ned Rozell |title=The Coldest Place in North America |publisher=Geophysical Institute of the [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]] |date=January 23, 2003 |url=http://www.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum/ASF16/1630.html |accessdate=January 3, 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070202040955/http://www.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum/ASF16/1630.html |archivedate=February 2, 2007 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref> The climate in the extreme north of Alaska is [[polar climate|Arctic]] ([[Köppen climate classification#GROUP E: Polar climates|Köppen: ''ET'']]) with long, very cold winters and short, cool summers. Even in July, the average low temperature in [[Barrow, Alaska|Barrow]] is {{convert|34|°F}}.<ref>[http://www.wunderground.com/history/airport/PABR/2006/7/23/MonthlyHistory.html History for Barrow, Alaska. Monthly Summary for July 2006]. [[Weather Underground (weather service)|Weather Underground]]. Retrieved October 23, 2006.</ref> Precipitation is light in this part of Alaska, with many places averaging less than {{convert|10|in|cm|abbr=on}} per year, mostly as snow which stays on the ground almost the entire year. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin:auto;" |+Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for selected locations in Alaska<ref name="Alaska climate averages">{{cite web|url=http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/city.php3?c=US&s=AK&statename=Alaska-United-States-of-America|title=Alaska climate averages|publisher=Weatherbase|accessdate=November 1, 2015}}</ref> |- !Location !July (°F) !July (°C) !January (°F) !January (°C) |- |[[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]] || 65/51 || 18/10 || 22/11 || −5/–11 |- |[[Juneau, Alaska|Juneau]] || 64/50 || 17/11 || 32/23 || 0/–4 |- |[[Ketchikan, Alaska|Ketchikan]] || 64/51 || 17/11 || 38/28 || 3/–1 |- |[[Unalaska, Alaska|Unalaska]] || 57/46 || 14/8 || 36/28 || 2/–2 |- |[[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]] || 72/53 || 22/11 || 1/–17 || −17/–27 |- |[[Fort Yukon, Alaska|Fort Yukon]] || 73/51 || 23/10 || −11/–27 || −23/–33 |- |[[Nome, Alaska|Nome]] || 58/46 || 14/8 || 13/–2 || −10/–19 |- |[[Barrow, Alaska|Barrow]] || 47/34 || 08/1 || −7/–19 || −21/–28 |} ==History== {{Main|Prehistory of Alaska|History of Alaska}} ===Pre-colonization=== {{Main|Alaska Natives}} [[File:AlutiiqDancer.jpg|thumb|right|upright|A modern [[Alutiiq people|Alutiiq]] dancer in traditional festival garb.]] Numerous indigenous peoples occupied Alaska for thousands of years before the arrival of European peoples to the area. Linguistic and DNA studies done here have provided evidence for the settlement of North America by way of the [[Bering land bridge]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/human-journey/|title=Map of Human Migration|publisher=}}</ref> At the [[Upward Sun River site]] in the Tanana River Valley in Alaska, remains of a six-week-old infant were found. The baby's DNA showed that she belonged to a population that was genetically separate from other native groups present elsewhere in the [[New World]] at the end of the [[Pleistocene]]. Ben Potter, the [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]] archaeologist who unearthed the remains at the Upward River Sun site in 2013, named this new group [[Ancient Beringians]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2018/01/alaska-dna-ancient-beringia-genome/|title=Lost Native American Ancestor Revealed in Ancient Child's DNA|publisher=National Geographic}}</ref> The [[Tlingit people]] developed a society with a [[matrilineal]] kinship system of property inheritance and descent in what is today Southeast Alaska, along with parts of British Columbia and the Yukon. Also in Southeast were the [[Haida people|Haida]], now well known for their unique arts. The [[Tsimshian]] people came to Alaska from British Columbia in 1887, when President [[Grover Cleveland]], and later the U.S. Congress, granted them permission to settle on [[Annette Island]] and found the town of [[Metlakatla, Alaska|Metlakatla]]. All three of these peoples, as well as other [[indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast]], experienced [[smallpox]] outbreaks from the late 18th through the mid-19th century, with the most devastating [[epidemics]] occurring in the 1830s and 1860s, resulting in high fatalities and social disruption.<ref>Brian C. Hosmer, ''American Indians in the Marketplace: Persistence and Innovation among the Menominees and Metlakatlans, 1870–1920'' (Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 1999), pp. 129–131, 200.</ref> The Aleutian Islands are still home to the [[Aleut people]]'s seafaring society, although they were the first Native Alaskans to be exploited by Russians. Western and Southwestern Alaska are home to the [[Yup'ik]], while their cousins the [[Alutiiq people|Alutiiq ~ Sugpiaq]] lived in what is now Southcentral Alaska. The [[Gwich'in people]] of the northern Interior region are [[Alaskan Athabaskans|Athabaskan]] and primarily known today for their dependence on the caribou within the much-contested [[Arctic National Wildlife Refuge]]. The North Slope and [[Little Diomede Island]] are occupied by the widespread [[Inupiat people]]. ===Colonization=== {{see also|Russian America}} [[File:1860-russian-america.jpg|thumb|upright|Map of Russian America in 1860]] Some researchers believe that the first Russian settlement in Alaska was established in the 17th century.<ref>Свердлов Л. М. Русское поселение на Аляске в XVII в.? "Природа". М., 1992. № 4. С.67–69.</ref> According to this hypothesis, in 1648 several [[Koch (boat)|koches]] of [[Semyon Dezhnyov]]'s expedition came ashore in Alaska by storm and founded this settlement. This hypothesis is based on the testimony of [[Chukchi people|Chukchi]] geographer [[Nikolai Daurkin]], who had visited Alaska in 1764–1765 and who had reported on a village on the [[Kheuveren]] River, populated by "bearded men" who "pray to the [[icons]]". Some modern researchers associate Kheuveren with [[Koyuk River]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.docstoc.com/docs/4877141/ALEXEI-V-POSTNIKOV-nautical-charts-compiled-by-these-promyshlenniki |title=Outline of the History of Russian Cartography |website=Regions: a Prism to View the Slavic Eurasian World |year=2000 |first=Alexey V. |last=Postnikov |authorlink=Alexey Postnikov |accessdate=June 6, 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117073034/http://www.docstoc.com/docs/4877141/ALEXEI-V-POSTNIKOV-nautical-charts-compiled-by-these-promyshlenniki |archivedate=January 17, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> The first European vessel to reach Alaska is generally held to be the ''St. Gabriel'' under the authority of the surveyor [[Mikhail Gvozdev|M. S. Gvozdev]] and assistant navigator [[Ivan Fyodorov (navigator)|I. Fyodorov]] on August 21, 1732, during an expedition of Siberian cossak [[Afanasiy Shestakov|A. F. Shestakov]] and Belarusian explorer [[Dmitry Pavlutsky]] (1729–1735).<ref>Аронов В. Н. Патриарх Камчатского мореходства. // "Вопросы истории рыбной промышленности Камчатки": Историко-краеведческий сб. – Вып. 3. – 2000. Вахрин С. Покорители великого океана. Петроп.-Камч.: Камштат, 1993.</ref> Another European contact with Alaska occurred in 1741, when [[Vitus Bering]] led an [[second Kamchatka expedition|expedition]] for the Russian Navy aboard the ''St. Peter''. After his crew returned to Russia with [[sea otter]] pelts judged to be the finest fur in the world, small associations of fur traders began to sail from the shores of Siberia toward the Aleutian Islands. The first permanent European settlement was founded in 1784. [[File:Russian Sloop-of-War Neva.jpg|thumb|left|The Russian settlement of St. Paul's Harbor (present-day [[Kodiak, Alaska|Kodiak town]]), [[Kodiak Island]], 1814.]] Between 1774 and 1800, [[Viceroyalty of New Spain|Spain]] sent several [[Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest|expeditions to Alaska]] in order to assert its claim over the Pacific Northwest. In 1789 a Spanish settlement and [[Fort San Miguel|fort]] were built in [[Nootka Sound]]. These expeditions gave names to places such as [[Valdez, Alaska|Valdez]], [[Bucareli Sound]], and [[Cordova, Alaska|Cordova]]. Later, the [[Russian-American Company]] carried out an expanded colonization program during the early-to-mid-19th century. [[Sitka, Alaska|Sitka]], renamed [[New Archangel]] from 1804 to 1867, on [[Baranof Island]] in the [[Alexander Archipelago]] in what is now [[Southeast Alaska]], became the capital of [[Russian America]]. It remained the capital after the colony was transferred to the United States. The Russians never fully colonized Alaska, and the colony was never very profitable. Evidence of Russian settlement in names and churches survive throughout southeast Alaska. [[William H. Seward]], the [[United States Secretary of State]], negotiated the [[Alaska Purchase]] (also known as Seward's Folly) with the Russians in 1867 for $7.2&nbsp;million. Alaska was loosely governed by the military initially, and was administered as a [[District of Alaska|district]] starting in 1884, with a governor appointed by the [[President of the United States]]. A federal [[United States territorial court|district court]] was headquartered in Sitka. [[File:Miners climb Chilkoot.jpg|thumb|Miners and prospectors climb the [[Chilkoot Trail]] during the 1898 [[Klondike Gold Rush]].]] For most of Alaska's first decade under the United States flag, Sitka was the only community inhabited by American settlers. They organized a "provisional city government," which was Alaska's first municipal government, but not in a legal sense.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wheeler|first=Keith|chapter=Learning to cope with 'Seward's Icebox'|title=The Alaskans|year=1977|publisher=[[Time–Life Books]]|location=[[Alexandria, Virginia|Alexandria]]|isbn=978-0-8094-1506-9|pages=57–64}}</ref> Legislation allowing Alaskan communities to legally incorporate as cities did not come about until 1900, and [[Home rule#Home rule in the United States|home rule]] for cities was extremely limited or unavailable until statehood took effect in 1959. ===Territory=== {{see also|Territory of Alaska}} Starting in the 1890s and stretching in some places to the early 1910s, [[Alaska Gold Rush|gold rushes]] in Alaska and the nearby [[Yukon|Yukon Territory]] brought thousands of miners and settlers to Alaska. Alaska was officially incorporated as an organized territory in 1912. Alaska's capital, which had been in [[Sitka, Alaska|Sitka]] until 1906, was moved north to [[Juneau, Alaska|Juneau]]. Construction of the [[Alaska Governor's Mansion]] began that same year. European immigrants from Norway and Sweden also settled in southeast Alaska, where they entered the fishing and logging industries. [[File:US troops at the Battle of Attu.jpg|thumb|U.S. troops navigate snow and ice during the [[Battle of Attu]] in May 1943.]] During World War II, the [[Aleutian Islands Campaign]] focused on the three outer Aleutian Islands – [[Attu Island|Attu]], [[Agattu]] and [[Kiska Island|Kiska]]<ref>these three Aleutian outer islands are about {{convert|460|mi|km}} away from continental USSR, {{convert|920|mi|km}} from continental Alaska (U.S.), {{convert|950|mi|km}} from Japan.</ref> – that were invaded by Japanese troops and occupied between June 1942 and August 1943. During the occupation, one [[Aleut]] civilian was killed by Japanese troops and nearly fifty were interned in Japan, where about half of them died.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}} [[Unalaska]]/[[Dutch Harbor]] became a significant base for the [[United States Army Air Forces]] and [[United States Navy|Navy]] [[submarine]]rs. The United States [[Lend-Lease]] program involved the flying of American warplanes through Canada to Fairbanks and then Nome; Soviet pilots took possession of these aircraft, ferrying them to fight the German invasion of the Soviet Union. The construction of military bases contributed to the population growth of some Alaskan cities. ===Statehood=== {{see also|Alaska Statehood Act}} Statehood for Alaska was an important cause of [[James Wickersham]] early in his tenure as a congressional delegate. Decades later, the statehood movement gained its first real momentum following a territorial referendum in 1946. The Alaska Statehood Committee and Alaska's Constitutional Convention would soon follow. Statehood supporters also found themselves fighting major battles against political foes, mostly in the U.S. Congress but also within Alaska. Statehood was approved by Congress on July 7, 1958. Alaska was officially proclaimed a state on January 3, 1959. In 1960, the Census Bureau reported Alaska's population as 77.2% White, 3% Black, and 18.8% American Indian and Alaska Native.<ref>{{cite web|title=Alaska – Race and Hispanic Origin: 1880 to 1990 |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0056/twps0056.html |accessdate=April 18, 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224151538/http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0056/twps0056.html |archivedate=December 24, 2014 |df=mdy }}</ref> [[File:1964 Alaska Quake Kodiak Before and After.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Kodiak, before and after the [[tsunami]] which followed the [[Good Friday]] earthquake in 1964, destroying much of the townsite.]] ===Good Friday earthquake=== {{Main|1964 Alaska earthquake}} On March 27, 1964, the massive [[1964 Alaska earthquake|Good Friday earthquake]] killed 133 people and destroyed several villages and portions of large coastal communities, mainly by the resultant [[tsunamis]] and landslides. It was the [[Largest earthquakes by magnitude|second-most-powerful earthquake]] in the recorded history of the world, with a [[moment magnitude scale|moment magnitude]] of 9.2. It was over one thousand times more powerful than the [[1989 Loma Prieta earthquake|1989 San Francisco earthquake]]. The time of day (5:36&nbsp;pm), time of year and location of the epicenter were all cited as factors in potentially sparing thousands of lives, particularly in Anchorage. ===Discovery of oil=== The 1968 discovery of oil at [[Prudhoe Bay]] and the 1977 completion of the [[Trans-Alaska Pipeline System]] led to an oil boom. Royalty revenues from oil have funded large state budgets from 1980 onward. That same year, not coincidentally, Alaska repealed its state income tax. In 1989, the ''[[Exxon Valdez]]'' hit a reef in the [[Prince William Sound]], spilling over {{convert|11|MUSgal|Ml|lk=out|abbr=off|sp=us}} of crude oil over {{convert|1100|mi}} of coastline. Today, the battle between philosophies of development and conservation is seen in the contentious debate over oil drilling in the [[Arctic National Wildlife Refuge]] and the proposed [[Pebble Mine]]. ===Alaska Heritage Resources Survey=== The Alaska Heritage Resources Survey (AHRS) is a restricted [[inventory]] of all reported [[historic site|historic]] and [[prehistoric]] sites within the state of Alaska; it is maintained by the Office of History and Archaeology. The survey's inventory of cultural resources includes objects, structures, buildings, sites, districts, and travel ways, with a general provision that they are over 50 years old. {{as of|2012|January|31|df=US}}, over 35,000 sites have been reported.<ref>[http://dnr.alaska.gov/parks/oha/ahrs/ahrs.htm Alaska Heritage Resources Survey], Department of Natural Resources – Alaska.gov (retrieved May 9, 2014)</ref> ==Demographics== {{Main|Demographics of Alaska}} {{US Census population |1880= 33426 |1890= 32052 |1900= 63592 |1910= 64356 |1920= 55036 |1930= 59278 |1940= 72524 |1950= 128643 |1960= 226167 |1970= 300382 |1980= 401851 |1990= 550043 |2000= 626932 |2010= 710231 |estimate= 739795 |estyear= 2017 |align-fn=center |footnote=1930 and 1940 censuses taken in preceding autumn<br />Sources: 1910–2010, US Census Bureau<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/population/cencounts/ak190090.txt|title=ALASKA Population of Counties by Decennial Census: 1900 to 1990|accessdate=May 18, 2014}}</ref><br />2016 Estimate<ref name=PopEstUS /> }} The [[United States Census Bureau]] estimates that the population of Alaska was 738,432 on July 1, 2015, a 3.97% increase since the [[2010 United States Census]].<ref name=PopEstUS>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/popest/data/state/totals/2015/tables/NST-EST2015-01.csv |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223235718/http://www.census.gov/popest/data/state/totals/2015/tables/NST-EST2015-01.csv |dead-url=yes |archive-date=December 23, 2015 |format=CSV |title=Table 1. Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for the United States, Regions, States, and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2015 |date=December 26, 2015 |publisher=[[U.S. Census Bureau]] |accessdate=December 26, 2015 }}</ref> In 2010, Alaska ranked as the 47th state by population, ahead of [[North Dakota]], [[Vermont]], and [[Wyoming]] (and [[Washington, D.C.]]).<ref name=PopEstUS /> Estimates show North Dakota ahead {{as of|2017|lc=y}}.<ref>https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?src=bkmk</ref> Alaska is the least densely populated state, and one of the most sparsely populated areas in the world, at {{convert|1.2|PD/sqmi}}, with the next state, Wyoming, at {{convert|5.8|PD/sqmi}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=Resident Population Data: Population Density |url=http://2010.census.gov/2010census/data/apportionment-dens-text.php |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |accessdate=June 6, 2012 |year=2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111028061117/http://2010.census.gov/2010census/data/apportionment-dens-text.php |archivedate=October 28, 2011 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Alaska is the largest U.S. state by [[List of U.S. states and territories by area|area]], and the tenth wealthiest (per capita income).<ref>{{cite web|title=State Per Capita Income 2011|url=https://www.bea.gov/newsreleases/regional/spi/2012/pdf/spi0312pc_fax.pdf|publisher=Bureau of Economic Analysis, U.S. Department of Commerce|accessdate=June 6, 2012|date=March 28, 2012}}</ref> {{as of|2014|November}}, the state's unemployment rate was 6.6%.<ref>{{cite web|title=Local Area Unemployment Statistics|url=http://www.bls.gov/lau/|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics|accessdate=December 26, 2014|date=December 26, 2014}}</ref> {{as of|2018}}, it is one of 14 U.S. states that still has only one telephone [[Telephone numbering plan|area code]].<ref name="US area codes">[https://www.50states.com/areacodes/ Area codes in the USA]</ref> ===Race and Ethnicity=== [[File:Alaska racial and ethnic map.svg|thumb|Map of the largest racial/ethnic group by borough. Red indicates Native American, blue indicates non-Hispanic white, and green indicates Asian. Darker shades indicate a higher proportion of the population.]] According to the [[2010 United States Census]], Alaska, had a population of 710,231. In terms of race and ethnicity, the state was 66.7% [[White American|White]] (64.1% Non-Hispanic [[Non-Hispanic Whites|White]]), 14.8% [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indian]] and Alaska Native, 5.4% [[Asian American|Asian]], 3.3% [[African American|Black]] or African American, 1.0% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 1.6% from Some Other Race, and 7.3% from Two or More Races. [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanics]] or Latinos of any race made up 5.5% of the population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_PL_QTPL&prodType=table |title=American FactFinder |publisher=Factfinder2.census.gov |date=October 5, 2010 |accessdate=May 29, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520164400/http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_PL_QTPL&prodType=table |archivedate=May 20, 2011 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> {{as of|2011}}, 50.7% of Alaska's population younger than one year of age belonged to minority groups (i.e., did not have two parents of non-Hispanic white ancestry).<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cleveland.com/datacentral/index.ssf/2012/06/americas_under_age_1_populatio.html|title=Americans under age 1 now mostly minorities, but not in Ohio: Statistical Snapshot|last=Exner|first=Rich|date=June 3, 2012|work=[[The Plain Dealer]]}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable collapsible" |+ '''Alaska racial breakdown of population''' |- ! Racial composition !! 1970<ref name="census" /> !! 1990<ref name="census">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0056/twps0056.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725044857/http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0056/twps0056.html |dead-url=yes |archive-date=July 25, 2008 |title=Historical Census Statistics on Population Totals By Race, 1790 to 1990, and By Hispanic Origin, 1970 to 1990, For The United States, Regions, Divisions, and States |author=Population Division, Laura K. Yax |publisher= |df= }}</ref> !! 2000<ref>{{cite web|url=http://censusviewer.com/state/AK|title=Population of Alaska – Census 2010 and 2000 Interactive Map, Demographics, Statistics, Quick Facts – CensusViewer|website=censusviewer.com}}</ref>!! 2010<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/2010census/data/|title=2010 Census Data|author=Center for New Media and Promotions(C2PO)|website=census.gov}}</ref> |- | [[White American|White]] || 78.8% || 75.5% || 69.3% || 66.7% |- | [[Native Americans in the United States|Native]] || 16.9% || 15.6% || 15.6% || 14.8% |- | [[Asian American|Asian]] || 0.9% || 3.6% || 4.0% || 5.4% |- | [[African American|Black]] || 3.0% || 4.1% || 3.5% || 3.3% |- | [[Native Hawaiian]] and <br />[[Pacific Islander|other Pacific Islander]] || – || – || 0.5% || 1.0% |- | [[Race and ethnicity in the United States Census|Other race]] || 0.4% || 1.2% || 1.6% || 1.6% |- | [[Multiracial American|Multiracial]] || – || – || 5.5% || 7.3% |} ===Languages=== {{Further|Alaska Native languages}} According to the 2011 [[American Community Survey]], 83.4% of people over the age of five speak only English at home. About 3.5% speak Spanish at home. About 2.2% speak another [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]] at home and about 4.3% speak an [[Languages of Asia|Asian]] language (including [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]) at home.<ref>"50 Quick Facts about Alaska" {{ISBN|978-1-783-33276-2}}</ref> About 5.3% speak other languages at home.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2013/acs/acs-22.pdf|title=Language use in the United States, 2011|accessdate=May 18, 2014}}</ref> The [[Alaska Native Language Center]] at the [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]] claims that at least 20 [[Alaska Native languages|Alaskan native languages]] exist and there are also some languages with different dialects.<ref name="uaf.edu">Languages, Alaska Native Language Center, http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/languages/</ref> Most of Alaska's native languages belong to either the [[Eskimo–Aleut languages|Eskimo–Aleut]] or [[Na-Dene languages|Na-Dene]] language families however some languages are thought to be [[Language isolate|isolates]] (e.g. [[Haida language|Haida]]) or have not yet been classified (e.g. [[Tsimshianic languages|Tsimshianic]]).<ref name="uaf.edu" /> {{as of|2014}} nearly all of Alaska's native languages were classified as either threatened, shifting, moribund, nearly extinct, or dormant languages.<ref>Languages, Alaska Native Language Center, [[Ethnologue]] (classifications), http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/languages/stats/</ref> A total of 5.2% of Alaskans speak one of the state's 20 [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|indigenous languages]],<ref>Graves, K, PhD, MSW, Rosich, R, PhD, McBride, M, PhD, RN, Charles, G, Phd and LaBelle, J, MA: Health and health care if Alaska Native Older Adults. {{cite web |url=http://geriatrics.stanford.edu/ethnomed/alaskan/ |title=Archived copy |accessdate=October 7, 2016 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140128175847/http://geriatrics.stanford.edu/ethnomed/alaskan/ |archivedate=January 28, 2014 |df=mdy-all }}. In Periyakoil VS, eds. eCampus Geriatrics, Standford Ca, 2010.</ref> known locally as "native languages". In October 2014, the governor of Alaska signed a bill declaring the state's 20 indigenous languages as official languages.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2014/oct/24/alaskas-indigenous-languages-official "Alaska's indigenous languages attain official status"], Reuters.com, October 24, 2014. Retrieved October 30, 2014.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legis.state.ak.us/basis/get_bill.asp?bill=HB%20216&session=28|title=Bill History/Action for 28th Legislature HB 216|website=The Alaska State Legislature}}</ref> This bill gave the languages symbolic recognition as official languages, though they have not been adopted for official use within the government. The 20 languages that were included in the bill are: # [[Inupiat language|Inupiaq]] # [[Central Siberian Yupik language|Siberian Yupik]] # [[Central Alaskan Yup'ik language|Central Alaskan Yup'ik]] # [[Alutiiq language|Alutiiq]] # [[Aleut language|Unangax]] # [[Dena'ina language|Dena'ina]] # [[Deg Xinag language|Deg Xinag]] # [[Holikachuk language|Holikachuk]] # [[Koyukon language|Koyukon]] # [[Upper Kuskokwim language|Upper Kuskokwim]] # [[Gwich'in language|Gwich'in]] # [[Lower Tanana language|Tanana]] # [[Upper Tanana language|Upper Tanana]] # [[Tanacross language|Tanacross]] # [[Hän language|Hän]] # [[Ahtna language|Ahtna]] # [[Eyak language|Eyak]] # [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]] # [[Haida language|Haida]] # [[Coast Tsimshian dialect|Tsimshian]] ===Religion=== [[File:Sitka - St. Michael's Russian Orthodox Cathedral.jpg|thumb|upright|[[St. Michael's Cathedral (Sitka, Alaska)|St. Michael's Russian Orthodox Cathedral]] in downtown [[Sitka, Alaska|Sitka]].]] [[File:Eagle Baptist Church.JPG|thumb|Gold Rush-era [[Baptists|Baptist]] church in [[Eagle, Alaska|Eagle]]]] [[File:Russian Old Believers in Nikolaevsk AK USA.jpg|thumb|upright|Russian [[Old Believers]] Church in [[Nikolaevsk, Alaska|Nikolaevsk]]]] According to statistics collected by the Association of Religion Data Archives from 2010, about 34% of Alaska residents were members of religious congregations. 100,960 people identified as [[Evangelical Protestant]]s, 50,866 as Roman Catholic, and 32,550 as mainline Protestants.<ref name="www.thearda.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.thearda.com/rcms2010/r/s/02/rcms2010_02_state_adh_2010.asp |title=The Association of Religion Data Archives &#124; State Membership Report |publisher=www.thearda.com |accessdate=November 15, 2013}}</ref> Roughly 4% are Mormon, 0.5% are Jewish, 1% are Muslim, 0.5% are Buddhist, and 0.5% are Hindu.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://religions.pewforum.org/maps|title=Religion in America: U.S. Religious Data, Demographics and Statistics – Pew Research Center|date=May 11, 2015|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project}}</ref> The largest religious denominations in Alaska {{as of|2010|lc=y}} were the [[Catholic Church]] with 50,866 adherents, non-denominational Evangelical Protestants with 38,070 adherents, [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] with 32,170 adherents, and the [[Southern Baptist Convention]] with 19,891 adherents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thearda.com/rcms2010/r/s/02/rcms2010_02_state_adh_2010.asp|title=The Association of Religion Data Archives – Maps & Reports|website=thearda.com}}</ref> Alaska has been identified, along with Pacific Northwest states Washington and Oregon, as being [[Unchurched Belt|the least religious states of the USA]], in terms of church membership.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_472.html |title=Adherents.com |publisher=Adherents.com |accessdate=June 2, 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100505013647/http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_472.html |archivedate=May 5, 2010 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116035021/http://www.adn.com/life/story/463303.html |archivedate=January 16, 2009 |url=http://www.adn.com/life/story/463303.html |title=Believe it or not, Alaska's one of nation's least religious states |publisher=Anchorage Daily News |date=July 13, 2008 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> In 1795, the First [[Russian Orthodox Church]] was established in [[Kodiak Island Borough, Alaska|Kodiak]]. Intermarriage with Alaskan Natives helped the Russian immigrants integrate into society. As a result, an increasing number of Russian Orthodox churches gradually became established within Alaska.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://vilda.alaska.edu/u?/cdmg11,4904 |title=An early Russian Orthodox Church |publisher=Vilda.alaska.edu |accessdate=June 2, 2010}}</ref> Alaska also has the largest [[Quaker]] population (by percentage) of any state.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thearda.com/mapsReports/maps/map.asp?state=101&variable=201 |title=Association of Religion Data Archive |publisher=Thearda.com |accessdate=June 2, 2010}}</ref> In 2009 there were 6,000 Jews in Alaska (for whom observance of [[halakha]] [[Jewish law in the polar regions|may pose special problems]]).<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110128024235/http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2011/tables/11s0077.pdf Table 76. Religious Bodies—Selected Data]. U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2011.</ref> Alaskan Hindus often share venues and celebrations with members of other Asian religious communities, including [[Sikhism|Sikhs]] and [[Jainism|Jains]].<ref>{{cite web |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201151519/http://caia.arctic.us/?Shri_Ganesha_Mandir_of_Alaska |archivedate=February 1, 2009 |url=http://www.caia.arctic.us/?Shri_Ganesha_Mandir_of_Alaska |title=Shri Ganesha Mandir of Alaska |publisher=Cultural Association of India Anchorage |last1=Kalyan |first1=Mala |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindumandir.us/west-coast.html#AK |title=Hindu Temples in USA – Hindu Mandirs in USA |publisher=Hindumandir.us |accessdate=June 2, 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616130334/http://www.hindumandir.us/west-coast.html |archivedate=June 16, 2010 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201151459/http://caia.arctic.us/?Holi_%2F_Baisakhi_Celebration%3A |archivedate=February 1, 2009 |url=http://www.caia.arctic.us/?Holi_%2F_Baisakhi_Celebration%3A |title=Holi & Baisakhi celebrated by Alaskan Hindus and Sikhs |publisher=Cultural Association of India Anchorage |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> Estimates for the number of Muslims in Alaska range from 2,000 to 5,000.<ref>{{cite web|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116035850/http://dwb.adn.com/news/alaska/ap_alaska/story/8656236p-8548061c.html |archivedate=January 16, 2009 |url=http://dwb.adn.com/news/alaska/ap_alaska/story/8656236p-8548061c.html |title=First Muslim cemetery opens in Alaska |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215202834/http://engagingmuslims.alaskapacific.edu/ |archivedate=February 15, 2009 |url=http://engagingmuslims.alaskapacific.edu/ |title=Engaging Muslim: Religion, Culture, Politics |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.humanitynews.net/index.php/main/more/alaskan_muslims_avoid_conflict/ |title=Alaskan Muslims Avoid Conflict |publisher=Humanitynews.net |date=July 7, 2005 |accessdate=June 2, 2010 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090113085537/http://www.humanitynews.net/index.php/main/more/alaskan_muslims_avoid_conflict/ |archivedate=January 13, 2009 |df=mdy }}{}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> The [[Islamic Community Center of Anchorage, Alaska|Islamic Community Center of Anchorage]] began efforts in the late 1990s to construct a mosque in Anchorage. They broke ground on a building in south Anchorage in 2010 and were nearing completion in late 2014. When completed, the mosque will be the first in the state and one of the northernmost mosques in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.aljazeera.net/video/americas/2010/12/20101225111741183159.html |title=Mosque milestone for Alaska Muslims – Americas |publisher=Al Jazeera English |date=December 25, 2010 |accessdate=May 29, 2011}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" font-size:80%;" |+ style="font-size:100%" | Religious affiliation in Alaska (2014)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/religious-landscape-study/state/alaska/|title=Adults in Alaska|date=May 11, 2015|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project}}</ref> |- ! Affiliation ! colspan="2"|% of population |- | [[Christianity|Christian]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|62||2||background:darkblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Protestant]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|37||2||background:mediumblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:30px;"| [[Evangelical Protestant]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|22||2||background:lightblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:30px;"| [[Mainline Protestant]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|12||2||background:lightblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:30px;"| [[Black church]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|3||2||background:lightblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Catholic]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|16||2||background:mediumblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Mormon]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|5||2||background:mediumblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|0.5||2||background:mediumblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Eastern Orthodox]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|5||2||background:mediumblue}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| Other Christian |align=right| '''{{bartable|0.5||2||background:mediumblue}} |- | [[Irreligion|Unaffiliated]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|31||2||background:purple}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| Nothing in particular |align=right| '''{{bartable|20||2||background:#A020F0}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Agnosticism|Agnostic]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|6||2||background:#A020F0}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Atheism|Atheist]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|5||2||background:#A020F0}} |- | Non-Christian faiths |align=right| '''{{bartable|6||2||background:darkgreen}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Jewish]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|0.5||2||background:lightgreen}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Muslim]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|0.5||2||background:lightgreen}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Buddhist]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|1||2||background:lightgreen}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| [[Hindu]] |align=right| '''{{bartable|0.5||2||background:lightgreen}} |- | style="text-align:left; text-indent:15px;"| Other Non-Christian faiths |align=right| '''{{bartable|4||2||background:lightgreen}} |- | Don't know/refused answer |align=right| '''{{bartable|1||2||background:#A020F0}}''' |- | '''Total''' || '''{{bartable|100||2||background:grey}}''' |} ==Economy== {{Main|Economy of Alaska}} {{See also|Alaska locations by per capita income}} [[File:Prudhoe Bay aerial FWS.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of infrastructure at the [[Prudhoe Bay Oil Field]].]] The 2007 [[gross state product]] was $44.9&nbsp;billion, 45th in the nation. Its [[List of U.S. states by GDP per capita (nominal)|per capita personal income]] for 2007 was $40,042, ranking 15th in the nation. According to a 2013 study by Phoenix Marketing International, Alaska had the fifth-largest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, with a ratio of 6.75 percent.<ref>{{cite web|last=Frank|first=Robert|title=Top states for millionaires per capita|url=https://www.cnbc.com/id/101338309|publisher=CNBC|accessdate=January 22, 2014}}</ref> The oil and gas industry dominates the Alaskan economy, with more than 80% of the state's revenues derived from petroleum extraction. Alaska's main export product (excluding oil and natural gas) is seafood, primarily salmon, cod, Pollock and crab. Agriculture represents a very small fraction of the Alaskan economy. Agricultural production is primarily for consumption within the state and includes nursery stock, dairy products, vegetables, and livestock. Manufacturing is limited, with most foodstuffs and general goods imported from elsewhere. Employment is primarily in government and industries such as natural resource extraction, shipping, and transportation. Military bases are a significant component of the economy in the Fairbanks North Star, Anchorage and Kodiak Island boroughs, as well as Kodiak. Federal subsidies are also an important part of the economy, allowing the state to keep taxes low. Its industrial outputs are crude petroleum, natural gas, coal, gold, precious metals, zinc and other mining, seafood processing, timber and wood products. There is also a growing service and tourism sector. Tourists have contributed to the economy by supporting local lodging. ===Energy=== {{See also|Natural gas in Alaska|Energy law#Alaska law}} [[File:Alaska Pipeline Closeup Underneath.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Trans-Alaska Pipeline]] transports oil, Alaska's most financially important export, from the [[Alaska North Slope|North Slope]] to [[Valdez, Alaska|Valdez]]. The [[heat pipe]]s in the column mounts are pertinent, since they disperse heat upwards and prevent melting of [[permafrost]].]] Alaska has vast energy resources, although its oil reserves have been largely depleted. Major oil and gas reserves were found in the [[Alaska North Slope]] (ANS) and Cook Inlet basins, but according to the [[Energy Information Administration]], by February 2014 Alaska had fallen to fourth place in the nation in crude oil production after Texas, North Dakota, and California.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eia.gov/state/?sid=ak |title=EIA State Energy Profiles: Alaska |publisher=U.S. Energy Information Administration |date=March 27, 2014 |accessdate=May 21, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Rankings: Crude Oil Production, February 2013|url=http://www.eia.gov/state/rankings/?sid=US&CFID=11011948&CFTOKEN=1da5d5e517e7a485-37ABEB4E-25B3-1C83-549C71EE21A56018&jsessionid=84305d8fd0e59a4565705d1e106846494687#/series/46|publisher=United States Energy Information Administration|accessdate=May 19, 2014}}</ref> Prudhoe Bay on Alaska's North Slope is still the second highest-yielding oil field in the United States, typically producing about {{convert|400000|oilbbl/d|m3/d}}, although by early 2014 North Dakota's [[Bakken Formation]] was producing over {{convert|900000|oilbbl/d|m3/d}}.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dmr.nd.gov/oilgas/stats/historicalbakkenoilstats.pdf | title=ND Monthly Bakken Oil Production Statistics | publisher=North Dakota Department of Mineral Resources | accessdate=May 21, 2014}}</ref> Prudhoe Bay was the largest [[conventional oil]] field ever discovered in North America, but was much smaller than Canada's enormous [[Athabasca oil sands]] field, which by 2014 was producing about {{convert | 1500000 | oilbbl/d | m3/d}} of [[unconventional oil]], and had hundreds of years of producible reserves at that rate.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.capp.ca/getdoc.aspx?DocId=227308 | title=Crude Oil Forecast, Markets and Transportation | publisher=Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers |date=June 2013 |accessdate=May 21, 2014}}</ref> The [[Trans-Alaska Pipeline]] can transport and pump up to {{convert|2.1|Moilbbl|m3}} of crude oil per day, more than any other crude oil pipeline in the United States. Additionally, substantial coal deposits are found in Alaska's bituminous, sub-bituminous, and lignite coal basins. The [[United States Geological Survey]] estimates that there are {{convert|85.4|Tcuft|km3}} of undiscovered, technically recoverable gas from natural gas hydrates on the Alaskan North Slope.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usgs.gov/corecast/details.asp?ep=74 |title=Gas Hydrates on Alaska's North Slope |publisher=Usgs.gov |accessdate=June 2, 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100601170523/http://www.usgs.gov/corecast/details.asp?ep=74 |archivedate=June 1, 2010 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> Alaska also offers some of the highest hydroelectric power potential in the country from its numerous rivers. Large swaths of the Alaskan coastline offer wind and geothermal energy potential as well.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/state/state_energy_profiles.cfm?sid=AK |title=EIA State Energy Profiles: Alaska |publisher=Tonto.eia.doe.gov |date=August 27, 2009 |accessdate=November 7, 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101103203218/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/state/state_energy_profiles.cfm?sid=AK |archivedate=November 3, 2010 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref> {{double image|left|Alaska Crude Oil Reserves.PNG|190|Alaska Crude Oil Production.PNG|240|Alaska [[proven reserves|proven oil reserves]] peaked in 1978 and have declined more than 60% since then.|Alaska oil production peaked in 1988 and has declined more than 65% since then.}} Alaska's economy depends heavily on increasingly expensive diesel fuel for heating, transportation, electric power and light. Although wind and hydroelectric power are abundant and underdeveloped, proposals for statewide energy systems (e.g. with special [[single-wire earth return#Use in interties|low-cost electric interties]]) were judged uneconomical (at the time of the report, 2001) due to low (less than 50¢/gal) fuel prices, long distances and low population.<ref>{{cite web|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216014031/http://www.dced.state.ak.us/dca/AEIS/PDF_Files/AIDEA_Energy_Screening.pdf |archivedate=February 16, 2008 |url=http://www.dced.state.ak.us/dca/AEIS/PDF_Files/AIDEA_Energy_Screening.pdf |title=Screening Report for Alaska Rural Energy Plan |date=April 2001 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> The cost of a gallon of gas in urban Alaska today is usually 30–60¢ higher than the national average; prices in rural areas are generally significantly higher but vary widely depending on transportation costs, seasonal usage peaks, nearby petroleum development infrastructure and many other factors. ====Permanent Fund==== The [[Alaska Permanent Fund]] is a constitutionally authorized appropriation of oil revenues, established by voters in 1976 to manage a surplus in state petroleum revenues from oil, largely in anticipation of the then recently constructed [[Trans-Alaska Pipeline System]]. The fund was originally proposed by Governor [[Keith Harvey Miller|Keith Miller]] on the eve of the 1969 Prudhoe Bay lease sale, out of fear that the legislature would spend the entire proceeds of the sale (which amounted to $900 million) at once. It was later championed by Governor [[Jay Hammond]] and [[Kenai, Alaska|Kenai]] [[Alaska House of Representatives|state representative]] Hugh Malone. It has served as an attractive political prospect ever since, diverting revenues which would normally be deposited into the general fund. The [[Alaska Constitution]] was written so as to discourage dedicating state funds for a particular purpose. The Permanent Fund has become the rare exception to this, mostly due to the political climate of distrust existing during the time of its creation. From its initial principal of $734,000, the fund has grown to $50&nbsp;billion as a result of oil royalties and capital investment programs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.apfc.org/|title=Alaska Permanent Fund Corporation|website=apfc.org}}</ref> Most if not all the principal is invested conservatively outside Alaska. This has led to frequent calls by Alaskan politicians for the Fund to make investments within Alaska, though such a stance has never gained momentum. Starting in 1982, dividends from the fund's annual growth have been paid out each year to eligible Alaskans, ranging from an initial $1,000 in 1982 (equal to three years' payout, as the distribution of payments was held up in a lawsuit over the distribution scheme) to $3,269 in 2008 (which included a one-time $1,200 "Resource Rebate"). Every year, the state legislature takes out 8% from the earnings, puts 3% back into the principal for inflation proofing, and the remaining 5% is distributed to all qualifying Alaskans. To qualify for the Permanent Fund Dividend, one must have lived in the state for a minimum of 12 months, maintain constant residency subject to allowable absences,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pfd.state.ak.us/dividendamounts/index.aspx |title=State of Alaska Permanent Fund Division |publisher=Pfd.state.ak.us |accessdate=June 2, 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100420014117/http://www.pfd.state.ak.us/dividendamounts/index.aspx |archivedate=April 20, 2010 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> and not be subject to court judgments or criminal convictions which fall under various disqualifying classifications or may subject the payment amount to civil garnishment. The Permanent Fund is often considered to be one of the leading examples of a "[[Basic income|Basic Income]]" policy in the world.<ref>{{cite web|title = Alaska's Citizens' Dividend Set To Be Near Highest Ever|url = http://www.basicincome.org/news/2015/08/alaska-usa-dividend-amount-estimated-to-be-near-highest-ever/|website = BIEN|accessdate = November 3, 2015}}</ref> ===Cost of living=== The cost of goods in Alaska has long been higher than in the contiguous 48 states. Federal government employees, particularly [[United States Postal Service]] (USPS) workers and active-duty military members, receive a Cost of Living Allowance usually set at 25% of base pay because, while the cost of living has gone down, it is still one of the highest in the country.{{citation needed|date=August 2014}} Rural Alaska suffers from extremely high prices for food and consumer goods compared to the rest of the country, due to the relatively limited transportation infrastructure.{{citation needed|date=August 2014}} ===Agriculture and fishing=== [[File:Pacific Halibut Fileting.JPG|thumb|right|upright|[[Halibut]] is important to the state's economy as both a commercial and sport-caught fish.]] Due to the northern climate and short growing season, relatively little farming occurs in Alaska. Most farms are in either the [[Matanuska Valley]], about {{convert|40|mi|km}} northeast of [[Anchorage]], or on the [[Kenai Peninsula]], about {{convert|60|mi|km}} southwest of Anchorage. The short 100-day growing season limits the crops that can be grown, but the long sunny summer days make for productive growing seasons. The primary crops are potatoes, carrots, lettuce, and cabbage. The [[Tanana Valley]] is another notable agricultural locus, especially the [[Delta Junction, Alaska|Delta Junction]] area, about {{convert|100|mi|km}} southeast of Fairbanks, with a sizable concentration of farms growing agronomic crops; these farms mostly lie north and east of [[Fort Greely]]. This area was largely set aside and developed under a state program spearheaded by Hammond during his second term as governor. Delta-area crops consist predominantly of barley and hay. West of Fairbanks lies another concentration of small farms catering to restaurants, the hotel and tourist industry, and [[community-supported agriculture]]. Alaskan agriculture has experienced a surge in growth of [[market gardener]]s, small farms and [[farmers' market]]s in recent years, with the highest percentage increase (46%) in the nation in growth in farmers' markets in 2011, compared to 17% nationwide.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usda.gov/wps/portal/usda/usdamediafb?contentid=2011/08/0338.xml&printable=true&contentidonly=true |title=More than 1,000 New Farmers Markets Recorded Across Country as USDA Directory Reveals 17 Percent Growth &#124; USDA Newsroom |publisher=Usda.gov |date=August 5, 2011 |accessdate=June 14, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117072838/http://www.usda.gov/wps/portal/usda/usdamediafb?contentid=2011%2F08%2F0338.xml&printable=true&contentidonly=true |archive-date=January 17, 2013 |dead-url=yes |df=mdy-all }}</ref> The [[peony]] industry has also taken off, as the growing season allows farmers to harvest during a gap in supply elsewhere in the world, thereby filling a niche in the flower market.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://alaskapeonies.org/ |title=Welcome to The Alaska Peony Growers Association |publisher=Alaskapeonies.org|accessdate=June 14, 2012}}</ref> {{double image|left|Heavy-lift_melon.jpg|190|Monster vegetable display at the Tanana Valley State Fair 2010.jpg|200|Oversized vegetables on display at the [[Alaska State Fair]] (left) and the [[Tanana Valley State Fair]] (right).}} Alaska, with no counties, lacks county fairs. However, a small assortment of state and local fairs (with the [[Alaska State Fair]] in [[Palmer, Alaska|Palmer]] the largest), are held mostly in the late summer. The fairs are mostly located in communities with historic or current agricultural activity, and feature local farmers exhibiting produce in addition to more high-profile commercial activities such as carnival rides, concerts and food. "Alaska Grown" is used as an agricultural slogan. Alaska has an abundance of seafood, with the primary fisheries in the Bering Sea and the North Pacific. Seafood is one of the few food items that is often cheaper within the state than outside it. Many Alaskans take advantage of salmon seasons to harvest portions of their household diet while fishing for subsistence, as well as sport. This includes fish taken by hook, net or wheel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=fishingPersonalUse.main |title=Alaska Department of Fish and Game |publisher=Adfg.alaska.gov |accessdate=May 29, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110624202032/http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=fishingPersonalUse.main |archivedate=June 24, 2011 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref> Hunting for subsistence, primarily [[caribou]], [[moose]], and [[Dall sheep]] is still common in the state, particularly in remote [[The Bush (Alaska)|Bush]] communities. An example of a traditional native food is [[Akutaq]], the Eskimo ice cream, which can consist of reindeer fat, seal oil, dried fish meat and local berries. Alaska's reindeer herding is concentrated on [[Seward Peninsula]], where wild caribou can be prevented from mingling and migrating with the domesticated reindeer.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://reindeer.salrm.uaf.edu/about_reindeer/seward_peninsula.php |title=Reindeer Herding |publisher=Reindeer.salrm.uaf.edu |accessdate=November 7, 2010}}</ref> Most food in Alaska is transported into the state from [[Outside (Alaska)|"Outside"]], and shipping costs make food in the cities relatively expensive. In rural areas, subsistence hunting and gathering is an essential activity because imported food is prohibitively expensive. Although most small towns and villages in Alaska lie along the coastline, the cost of importing food to remote villages can be high, because of the terrain and difficult road conditions, which change dramatically, due to varying climate and precipitation changes. The cost of transport can reach as high as 50¢ per pound ($1.10/kg) or more in some remote areas, during the most difficult times, if these locations can be reached at all during such inclement weather and terrain conditions. The cost of delivering a {{convert|1|USgal|L}} of milk is about $3.50 in many villages where per capita income can be $20,000 or less. Fuel cost per gallon is routinely 20–30¢ higher than the continental United States average, with only Hawaii having higher prices.<ref>{{cite web|title=Daily Fuel Gauge Report|url=http://fuelgaugereport.aaa.com/?redirectto=http://fuelgaugereport.opisnet.com/index.asp|publisher=Automobile Association of America|accessdate=May 18, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Retail Fuel Pricing and News|url=http://www.opisnet.com/retail-fuel-prices.aspx|publisher=Oil Price Information Service|accessdate=May 18, 2013}}</ref> ==Transportation== [[File:Sterling Highway.jpg|thumb|The [[Sterling Highway]], near its intersection with the [[Seward Highway]].]] {{Main|Transportation in Alaska}} ===Roads=== {{See also|List of Alaska Routes}} [[File:Susitnabridge.JPG|thumb|left|The [[Susitna River]] bridge on the [[Denali Highway]] is {{convert|1036|ft}} long.]] [[File:Interstate Alaska map.png|thumb|[[Interstate Highways in Alaska|Alaska Interstate Highways]].]] Alaska has few road connections compared to the rest of the U.S. The state's road system covers a relatively small area of the state, linking the central population centers and the [[Alaska Highway]], the principal route out of the state through Canada. The state capital, Juneau, is not accessible by road, only a car ferry, which has spurred several debates over the decades about moving the capital to a city on the road system, or building a road connection from [[Haines, Alaska|Haines]]. The western part of Alaska has no road system connecting the communities with the rest of Alaska. [[File:AlaskaSign.jpg|right|thumb|Alaska welcome sign on the [[Klondike Highway]].]] One unique feature of the Alaska Highway system is the [[Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel]], an active [[Alaska Railroad]] tunnel recently upgraded to provide a paved roadway link with the isolated community of [[Whittier, Alaska|Whittier]] on [[Prince William Sound]] to the [[Seward Highway]] about {{convert|50|mi|km}} southeast of Anchorage at [[Portage, Alaska|Portage]]. At {{convert|2.5|mi|km|1}}, the tunnel was the longest road tunnel in North America until 2007.<ref>completion of the {{convert|3.5|mi|km|adj=on|1}} [[Interstate 93]] tunnel as part of the "[[Big Dig]]" project in Boston, Massachusetts.</ref> The tunnel is the longest combination [[List of road-rail tunnels|road and rail tunnel]] in North America. ===Rail=== [[File:Alaska Railroad, Girdwood, Alaska, Estados Unidos, 2017-08-31, DD 40.jpg|thumb|An [[Alaska Railroad]] locomotive over a bridge in Girdwood approaching Anchorage (2007).]] [[File:Skagway-Hoonah-Angoon Census Area, In to the Tunnel.jpg|thumb|The [[White Pass and Yukon Route]] traverses rugged terrain north of [[Skagway]] near the [[Canada–United States border|Canada–US border]].]] Built around 1915, the [[Alaska Railroad]] (ARR) played a key role in the development of Alaska through the 20th century. It links north Pacific shipping through providing critical infrastructure with tracks that run from [[Seward, Alaska|Seward]] to [[Interior Alaska]] by way of [[South Central Alaska]], passing through Anchorage, [[Eklutna]], Wasilla, [[Talkeetna, Alaska|Talkeetna]], [[Denali]], and Fairbanks, with spurs to [[Whittier, Alaska|Whittier]], [[Palmer, Alaska|Palmer]] and [[North Pole, Alaska|North Pole]]. The cities, towns, villages, and region served by ARR tracks are known statewide as "The Railbelt". In recent years, the ever-improving paved highway system began to eclipse the railroad's importance in Alaska's economy. The railroad played a vital role in Alaska's development, moving freight into Alaska while transporting natural resources southward (i.e., coal from the Usibelli coal mine near [[Healy, Alaska|Healy]] to Seward and gravel from the Matanuska Valley to Anchorage). It is well known for its summertime tour passenger service. The Alaska Railroad was one of the last railroads in North America to use [[caboose]]s in regular service and still uses them on some gravel trains. It continues to offer one of the last [[Request stop|flag stop]] routes in the country. A stretch of about {{convert|60|mi|km|-1}} of track along an area north of Talkeetna remains inaccessible by road; the railroad provides the only transportation to rural homes and cabins in the area. Until construction of the Parks Highway in the 1970s, the railroad provided the only land access to most of the region along its entire route. In northern Southeast Alaska, the [[White Pass and Yukon Route]] also partly runs through the state from [[Skagway, Alaska|Skagway]] northwards into Canada (British Columbia and Yukon Territory), crossing the border at [[White Pass]] Summit. This line is now mainly used by tourists, often arriving by cruise liner at Skagway. It was featured in the 1983 [[BBC]] television series ''[[Great Little Railways]].'' The Alaska Rail network is not connected to Outside. In 2000, the U.S. Congress authorized $6&nbsp;million to study the feasibility of a rail link between Alaska, Canada, and the lower 48.<ref name="RailLink1">{{cite web|url=http://communities.canada.com/vancouversun/blogs/powerplay/archive/2010/12/13/transporting-oil-across-b-c.aspx |title=Alaska Oil / BC Tar sands via rail |author=Barbara Yaffe |date=January 2, 2011 |accessdate=January 2, 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101219014658/http://communities.canada.com/vancouversun/blogs/powerplay/archive/2010/12/13/transporting-oil-across-b-c.aspx |archivedate=December 19, 2010 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref name="RailLink2">{{cite news | url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSN2138860820070622| title= Economic study touts Alaska-Canada rail link| author=Allan Dowd | date=June 27, 2007 | accessdate=January 2, 2011 |agency=Reuters }}</ref><ref name="RailLink3">{{cite web|url=http://alaskacanadarail.com/index.html |title=Alaska Canada Rail Link |author=AlaskaCanadaRail.org |date=January 2, 2005 |accessdate=January 2, 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110425025223/http://alaskacanadarail.com/index.html |archivedate=April 25, 2011 }}</ref> [[Alaska Rail Marine]] provides [[car float]] service between [[Whittier, Alaska|Whittier]] and [[Seattle]]. ===Marine transport=== Many cities, towns and villages in the state do not have road or highway access; the only modes of access involve travel by air, river, or the sea. [[File:Tustumena, Alaska Marine Highway.jpg|thumb|The {{MV|Tustumena}} (named after [[Tustumena Glacier]]) is one of the state's many ferries, providing service between the [[Kenai Peninsula]], [[Kodiak Island]] and the [[Aleutian Chain]].]] Alaska's well-developed state-owned ferry system (known as the [[Alaska Marine Highway]]) serves the cities of [[Southeast Alaska|southeast]], the Gulf Coast and the Alaska Peninsula. The ferries transport vehicles as well as passengers. The system also operates a ferry service from [[Bellingham, Washington]] and [[Prince Rupert, British Columbia]], in Canada through the [[Inside Passage]] to [[Skagway, Alaska|Skagway]]. The [[Inter-Island Ferry Authority]] also serves as an important marine link for many communities in the [[Prince of Wales Island (Alaska)|Prince of Wales Island]] region of Southeast and works in concert with the Alaska Marine Highway. In recent years, cruise lines have created a summertime tourism market, mainly connecting the Pacific Northwest to Southeast Alaska and, to a lesser degree, towns along Alaska's gulf coast. The population of [[Ketchikan, Alaska|Ketchikan]] may rise by over 10,000 people on many days during the summer, as up to four large cruise ships at a time can dock, debarking thousands of passengers. ===Air transport=== Cities not served by road, sea, or river can be reached only by air, foot, dogsled, or snowmachine, accounting for Alaska's extremely well developed [[Alaskan Bush|bush]] air services—an Alaskan novelty. Anchorage and, to a lesser extent Fairbanks, is served by [[Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport#Airlines and destinations|many major airlines]]. Because of limited highway access, air travel remains the most efficient form of transportation in and out of the state. Anchorage recently completed extensive remodeling and construction at [[Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport]] to help accommodate the upsurge in tourism (in 2012–2013, Alaska received almost 2 million visitors).<ref>State of Alaska Office of Economic Development. ''[http://commerce.alaska.gov/dnn/ded/DEV/TourismDevelopment/TourismResearch.aspx Economic Impact of Alaska's Visitor Industry] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140522032359/http://commerce.alaska.gov/dnn/ded/DEV/TourismDevelopment/TourismResearch.aspx |date=May 22, 2014 }}''. January 2014. Retrieved May 21, 2014.</ref> Regular flights to most villages and towns within the state that are commercially viable are challenging to provide, so they are heavily subsidized by the federal government through the [[Essential Air Service]] program. [[Alaska Airlines]] is the only major airline offering in-state travel with jet service (sometimes in combination cargo and passenger [[Boeing 737]]-400s) from Anchorage and [[Fairbanks International Airport|Fairbanks]] to regional hubs like [[Bethel, Alaska|Bethel]], [[Nome, Alaska|Nome]], [[Kotzebue, Alaska|Kotzebue]], [[Dillingham, Alaska|Dillingham]], [[Kodiak, Alaska|Kodiak]], and other larger communities as well as to major Southeast and Alaska Peninsula communities. [[File:ERA Aviation prop plane landing at ANC (6194226738).jpg|thumb|A [[Bombardier Dash 8]], operated by [[Era Alaska]], on approach to [[Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport]].]] The bulk of remaining commercial flight offerings come from small regional commuter airlines such as [[Ravn Alaska]], [[PenAir]], and [[Frontier Flying Service]]. The smallest towns and villages must rely on scheduled or chartered bush flying services using general aviation aircraft such as the [[Cessna Caravan]], the most popular aircraft in use in the state. Much of this service can be attributed to the Alaska bypass mail program which subsidizes bulk mail delivery to Alaskan rural communities. The program requires 70% of that subsidy to go to carriers who offer passenger service to the communities. Many communities have small air taxi services. These operations originated from the demand for customized transport to remote areas. Perhaps the most quintessentially Alaskan plane is the bush seaplane. The world's busiest seaplane base is [[Lake Hood Seaplane Base|Lake Hood]], located next to Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport, where flights bound for remote villages without an airstrip carry passengers, cargo, and many items from stores and warehouse clubs. In 2006 Alaska had the highest number of pilots per capita of any U.S. state.<ref>Out of the estimated 663,661 residents, 8,550 were pilots, or about one in 78, Federal Aviation Administration. ''[http://www.faa.gov/data_research/aviation_data_statistics/civil_airmen_statistics/2005/ 2005 U.S. Civil Airman Statistics] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091229221505/http://www.faa.gov/data_research/aviation_data_statistics/civil_airmen_statistics/2005/ |date=December 29, 2009 }}''</ref> ===Other transport=== Another Alaskan transportation method is the [[dogsled]]. In modern times (that is, any time after the mid-late 1920s), dog [[mushing]] is more of a sport than a true means of transportation. Various races are held around the state, but the best known is the [[Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race]], a {{convert|1150|mi|adj=on}} trail from Anchorage to Nome (although the distance varies from year to year, the official distance is set at {{convert|1049|mi|km|disp=or|abbr=out}}). The race commemorates the famous [[1925 serum run to Nome]] in which mushers and dogs like [[Togo (dog)|Togo]] and [[Balto]] took much-needed medicine to the [[diphtheria]]-stricken community of [[Nome, Alaska|Nome]] when all other means of transportation had failed. Mushers from all over the world come to Anchorage each March to compete for cash, prizes, and prestige. The "Serum Run" is another sled dog race that more accurately follows the route of the famous 1925 relay, leaving from the community of [[Nenana, Alaska|Nenana]] (southwest of Fairbanks) to Nome.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.serumrun.org/ |title=Norman Vaughan Serum Run |publisher=United Nations |date=April 15, 2010 |accessdate=June 2, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303205023/http://serumrun.org/ |archivedate=March 3, 2009 }}</ref> In areas not served by road or rail, primary transportation in summer is by [[all-terrain vehicle]] and in winter by [[snowmobile]] or "snow machine," as it is commonly referred to in Alaska.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsminer.com/features/outdoors/snowmachine-or-snowmobile-whatever-you-call-it-there-s-a/article_5fd98c50-df56-11e4-a289-b3b886d32b2c.html |title=Snowmachine or snowmobile? Whatever you call it, there's a lot riding on it |last=Friedman |first=Sam |date=April 10, 2015 |publisher=Fairbanks Daily Newsminer |access-date=October 19, 2017}}</ref> ===Data transport=== Alaska's internet and other data transport systems are provided largely through the two major telecommunications companies: [[GCI (company)|GCI]] and [[Alaska Communications]]. GCI owns and operates what it calls the Alaska United Fiber Optic system<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alaskaunited.com/|title=Alaska United Fiber Optic System homepage |publisher=Alaskaunited.com |accessdate=July 24, 2012}}</ref> and as of late 2011 Alaska Communications advertised that it has "two fiber optic paths to the lower 48 and two more across Alaska.<ref>[http://www.alaskacommunications.com/Personal/Wireless/Coverage-Map.aspx Alaska Communications Coverage Map]. Alaska Communications.</ref> In January 2011, it was reported that a $1 billion project to connect Asia and rural Alaska was being planned, aided in part by $350 million in stimulus from the federal government.<ref>[http://www.adn.com/2010/01/13/1091946/arctic-fiber-optic-cable-could.html Arctic fiber-optic cable could benefit far-flung Alaskans] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111123619/http://www.adn.com/2010/01/13/1091946/arctic-fiber-optic-cable-could.html |date=January 11, 2012 }}. ''Anchorage Daily News''.</ref> ==Law and government== ===State government=== [[File:Juneau, Alaska Downtown.jpg|thumb|The center of state government in [[Juneau]]. The large buildings in the background are, from left to right: the Court Plaza Building (known colloquially as the "[[Spam (food)|Spam Can]]"), the State Office Building (behind), the Alaska Office Building, the [[List of Justices of the Alaska Supreme Court|John H. Dimond]] State Courthouse, and the [[Alaska State Capitol]]. Many of the smaller buildings in the foreground are also occupied by state government agencies.]] {{Main|Government of Alaska}} Like all other U.S. states, Alaska is governed as a republic, with three [[separation of powers|branches of government]]: an [[executive branch]] consisting of the [[Governor of Alaska]] and the other independently elected constitutional officers; a [[legislative branch]] consisting of the [[Alaska House of Representatives]] and [[Alaska Senate]]; and a [[judicial branch]] consisting of the [[Alaska Supreme Court]] and lower courts. The state of Alaska employs approximately 16,000 people statewide.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://doa.alaska.gov/dop/fileadmin/DOP_Home/pdf/dopannualreport.pdf |title=State of Alaska Workforce Profile Fiscal Year 2013 |publisher=Dop.state.ak.us |accessdate=May 25, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140330005824/http://doa.alaska.gov/dop/fileadmin/DOP_Home/pdf/dopannualreport.pdf |archive-date=March 30, 2014 |dead-url=yes |df=mdy-all }}</ref> The [[Alaska Legislature]] consists of a 40-member [[Alaska House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] and a 20-member [[Alaska Senate|Senate]]. Senators serve four-year terms and House members two. The [[Governor of Alaska]] serves four-year terms. The [[List of Lieutenant Governors of Alaska|lieutenant governor]] runs separately from the governor in the [[Primary election|primaries]], but during the general election, the nominee for governor and nominee for lieutenant governor run together on the same ticket. Alaska's court system has four levels: the [[Alaska Supreme Court]], the [[Alaska Court of Appeals]], the superior courts and the district courts.<ref name="cts">{{cite web|url=http://www.state.ak.us/courts/ctinfo.htm |title=About the Alaska Court System |publisher=State.ak.us |accessdate=June 2, 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090913093708/http://www.state.ak.us/courts/ctinfo.htm |archivedate=September 13, 2009 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> The superior and district courts are [[trial court]]s. Superior courts are courts of general jurisdiction, while district courts only hear certain types of cases, including misdemeanor criminal cases and civil cases valued up to $100,000.<ref name="cts" /> The Supreme Court and the Court of Appeals are [[appellate court]]s. The Court of Appeals is required to hear appeals from certain lower-court decisions, including those regarding criminal prosecutions, juvenile delinquency, and [[habeas corpus]].<ref name="cts" /> The Supreme Court hears civil appeals and may in its discretion hear criminal appeals.<ref name="cts" /> ===State politics=== {{Main|Politics of Alaska}} {{Further|Political party strength in Alaska|Alaska political corruption probe}} {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin:1em; font-size:95%;" |+ Alaska vote|Gubernatorial election results<ref name="Leip, David">{{cite web|url=http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/|title=General Election Results – Alaska|publisher=United States Election Atlas|accessdate=November 18, 2016|author=Leip, David}}</ref> |- style="background:lightgrey;" ! Year ! [[Republican Party (Alaska)|Republican]] ! [[Democratic Party (Alaska)|Democratic]] |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|[[Alaska gubernatorial election, 1958|1958]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|39.4% ''19,299'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|'''59.6%''' ''29,189'' |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|[[Alaska gubernatorial election, 1962|1962]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|47.7% ''27,054'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|'''52.3%''' ''29,627'' |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|[[Alaska gubernatorial election, 1966|1966]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|'''50.0%''' ''33,145'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|48.4% ''32,065'' |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|[[Alaska gubernatorial election, 1970|1970]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|46.1% ''37,264'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|'''52.4%''' ''42,309'' |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|[[Alaska gubernatorial election, 1974|1974]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|'''47.7%''' ''45,840'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|47.4% ''45,553'' |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|[[Alaska gubernatorial election, 1978|1978]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|'''39.1%''' ''49,580'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|20.2% ''25,656'' |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|[[Alaska gubernatorial election, 1982|1982]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|37.1% ''72,291'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|'''46.1%''' ''89,918'' |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|[[Alaska gubernatorial election, 1986|1986]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|42.6% ''76,515'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|'''47.3%''' ''84,943'' |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Constitution}}|[[Alaska gubernatorial election, 1990|1990]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|26.2% ''50,991'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|30.9% ''60,201'' |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|[[Alaska gubernatorial election, 1994|1994]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|40.8% ''87,157'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|'''41.1%''' ''87,693'' |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|[[Alaska gubernatorial election, 1998|1998]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|17.9% ''39,331'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|'''51.3%''' ''112,879'' |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|[[Alaska gubernatorial election, 2002|2002]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|'''55.9%''' ''129,279'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|40.7% ''94,216'' |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|[[Alaska gubernatorial election, 2006|2006]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|'''48.3%''' ''114,697'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|41.0% ''97,238'' |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|[[Alaska gubernatorial election, 2010|2010]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|'''59.1%''' ''151,318'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|37.7% ''96,519'' |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Nonpartisan}}|[[Alaska gubernatorial election, 2014|2014]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|45.9% ''128,435'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|{{efn|[[Byron Mallott]], the Democratic gubernatorial nominee, suspended his campaign and became the running mate of [[Bill Walker (American politician)|Bill Walker]], an independent who left the Republican Party. They won the election with 48.1% or 134,658 votes.}} |} Although in its early years of statehood Alaska was a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] state, since the early 1970s it has been characterized as [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]-leaning.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://election.nationaljournal.com/states/ak.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061115144037/http://election.nationaljournal.com/states/ak.htm |dead-url=yes |archive-date=November 15, 2006 |title=National Journal Alaska State Profile |publisher=Election.nationaljournal.com |accessdate=June 2, 2010 }}</ref> Local political communities have often worked on issues related to land use development, fishing, tourism, and individual rights. [[Alaska Natives]], while organized in and around their communities, have been active within the [[Alaska Native Regional Corporations|Native corporations]]. These have been given ownership over large tracts of land, which require stewardship. Alaska was formerly the only state in which possession of one ounce or less of marijuana in one's home was completely legal under state law, though the federal law remains in force.<ref name=seattle_times>{{cite news|url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2003118645_webpot10.html |title=Judge rules against Alaska marijuana law |accessdate=May 22, 2008 |last=Volz |first=Matt |date=July 11, 2006 |work=[[The Seattle Times]] |publisher=Frank A. Blethen |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617044034/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2003118645_webpot10.html |archivedate=June 17, 2008 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> The state has an independence movement favoring a vote on secession from the United States, with the [[Alaskan Independence Party]].<ref name="AIPqa">{{cite web|url=http://www.akip.org/faqs.html|title=Questions And Answers – About Alaskan Independence |year=2006|publisher=Alaskan Independence Party}}</ref> Six [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] and four [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] have served as governor of Alaska. In addition, Republican Governor [[Wally Hickel]] was elected to the office for a second term in 1990 after leaving the Republican party and briefly joining the Alaskan Independence Party ticket just long enough to be reelected. He officially rejoined the Republican party in 1994. Alaska's voter initiative making marijuana legal took effect on February 24, 2015, placing Alaska alongside Colorado and Washington as the first three U.S. states where recreational marijuana is legal. The new law means people over age 21 can consume small amounts of pot – if they can find it. There is a rather lengthy and involved application process, per [[Alaska Measure 2 (2014)]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2015/02/24/388673136/marijuana-is-now-legal-in-alaska-the-third-u-s-state-to-ok-pot |title=Marijuana Is Now Legal In Alaska, The 3rd U.S. State With Legal Pot |accessdate=February 25, 2015 |last=Chappel |first=Bill |date=February 24, 2015}}</ref> The first legal marijuana store opened in Valdez in October 2016.<ref>Andrews, Laurel,[https://www.adn.com/alaska-marijuana/2016/10/29/anticipation-builds-as-alaskas-first-marijuana-store-set-to-open-to-the-public/ Marijuana milestone: Alaska's first pot shop opens to the public in Valdez] ''[[Alaska Dispatch News]], October 29, 2016''</ref> ===Taxes=== To finance state government operations, Alaska depends primarily on petroleum revenues and federal subsidies. This allows it to have the lowest individual tax burden in the United States.<ref>CNN Money (2005). "How tax friendly is your state?" Retrieved from [http://money.cnn.com/pf/features/lists/taxesbystate2005/index.html CNN website].</ref> It is one of five states with no state [[sales tax]], one of seven states that do not levy an individual [[income tax]], and one of the two states that has neither. The Department of Revenue Tax Division<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tax.state.ak.us/ |title=Department of Revenue Tax Division |publisher=Tax.state.ak.us |accessdate=June 2, 2010}}</ref> reports regularly on the state's revenue sources. The Department also issues an annual summary of its operations, including new state laws that directly affect the tax division. While Alaska has no state sales tax, 89 municipalities collect a local sales tax, from 1.0–7.5%, typically 3–5%. Other local taxes levied include raw fish taxes, hotel, motel, and bed-and-breakfast 'bed' taxes, [[severance tax]]es, liquor and tobacco taxes, gaming (pull tabs) taxes, tire taxes and fuel transfer taxes. A part of the revenue collected from certain state taxes and license fees (such as petroleum, aviation motor fuel, telephone cooperative) is shared with municipalities in Alaska. [[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]] has one of the highest property taxes in the state as no sales or income taxes are assessed in the [[Fairbanks North Star Borough]] (FNSB). A sales tax for the FNSB has been voted on many times, but has yet to be approved, leading lawmakers to increase taxes dramatically on goods such as liquor and tobacco. In 2014 the [[Tax Foundation]] ranked Alaska as having the fourth most "business friendly" tax policy, behind only [[Wyoming]], [[South Dakota]], and [[Nevada]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://taxfoundation.org/blog/how-friendly-your-states-tax-system-tax-foundations-2014-state-business-tax-climate-index |title=How Friendly Is Your State's Tax System? The Tax Foundation's 2014 State Business Tax Climate Index |publisher=The Tax Foundation |accessdate=May 25, 2014 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100712120414/http://www.taxfoundation.org/research/topic/11.html |archivedate=July 12, 2010 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref> ===Federal politics=== {{Main|Politics of Alaska}} {{See also|Arctic Policy of the United States}} [[File:Presidential vote in Alaska.png|thumb|A line graph showing the presidential vote by party from 1960 to 2016 in Alaska.]] {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin:1em; font-size:95%;" |+ Alaska vote|Presidential election results<ref name="Leip, David" /> |- style="background:lightgrey;" ! Year ! [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] ! [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|[[United States presidential election in Alaska, 1960|1960]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|'''50.9%''' ''30,953'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|49.1% ''29,809'' |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|[[United States presidential election in Alaska, 1964|1964]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|34.1% ''22,930'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|'''65.9%''' ''44,329'' |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|[[United States presidential election in Alaska, 1968|1968]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|'''45.3%''' ''37,600'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|42.7% ''35,411'' |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|[[United States presidential election in Alaska, 1972|1972]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|'''58.1%''' ''55,349'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|34.6% ''32,967'' |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|[[United States presidential election in Alaska, 1976|1976]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|'''57.9%''' ''71,555'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|35.7% ''44,058'' |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|[[United States presidential election in Alaska, 1980|1980]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|'''54.4%''' ''86,112'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|26.4% ''41,842'' |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|[[United States presidential election in Alaska, 1984|1984]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|'''66.7%''' ''138,377'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|29.9% ''62,007'' |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|[[United States presidential election in Alaska, 1988|1988]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|'''59.6%''' ''119,251'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|36.3% ''72,584'' |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|[[United States presidential election in Alaska, 1992|1992]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|'''39.5%''' ''102,000'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|30.3% ''78,294'' |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|[[United States presidential election in Alaska, 1996|1996]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|'''50.8%''' ''122,746'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|33.3% ''80,380'' |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|[[United States presidential election in Alaska, 2000|2000]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|'''58.6%''' ''167,398'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|27.7% ''79,004'' |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|[[United States presidential election in Alaska, 2004|2004]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|'''61.1%''' ''190,889'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|35.5% ''111,025'' |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|[[United States presidential election in Alaska, 2008|2008]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|'''59.4%''' ''193,841'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|37.8% ''123,594'' |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|[[United States presidential election in Alaska, 2012|2012]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|'''54.8%''' ''164,676'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|40.8% ''122,640'' |- |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|[[United States presidential election in Alaska, 2016|2016]] |align="center" {{Party shading/Republican}}|'''51.3%''' ''163,387'' |align="center" {{Party shading/Democratic}}|36.6% ''116,454'' |} Alaska regularly supports [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] in presidential elections and has done so since statehood. Republicans have won the state's [[Electoral College (United States)|electoral college]] votes in all but one election that it has participated in ([[United States presidential election, 1964|1964]]). No state has voted for a Democratic presidential candidate fewer times. Alaska was carried by [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] nominee [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] during his landslide election in [[U.S. presidential election, 1964|1964]], while the [[U.S. presidential election, 1960|1960]] and [[U.S. presidential election, 1968|1968]] elections were close. Since [[U.S. presidential election, 1972|1972]], however, Republicans have carried the state by large margins. In [[U.S. presidential election, 2008|2008]], Republican [[John McCain]] defeated Democrat [[Barack Obama]] in Alaska, 59.49% to 37.83%. McCain's running mate was [[Sarah Palin]], the state's governor and the first Alaskan on a major party ticket. Obama lost Alaska again in [[U.S. presidential election, 2012|2012]], but he captured 40% of the state's vote in that election, making him the first Democrat to do so since 1968. The [[The Bush (Alaska)|Alaska Bush]], central Juneau, midtown and downtown Anchorage, and the areas surrounding the [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]] campus and Ester have been strongholds of the Democratic Party. The Matanuska-Susitna Borough, the majority of Fairbanks (including North Pole and the military base), and South Anchorage typically have the strongest Republican showing. {{as of|2004}}, well over half of all registered voters have chosen "Non-Partisan" or "Undeclared" as their affiliation,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.state.ak.us/ltgov/elections/regbypty.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080225223222/http://www.gov.state.ak.us/ltgov/elections/regbypty.htm |archivedate=February 25, 2008 |title=State of Alaska |publisher=Gov.state.ak.us |accessdate=June 2, 2010 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> despite recent attempts to close primaries to unaffiliated voters. {| class=wikitable |+ Voter Registration and Party Enrollment {{as of|2018|July|3|lc=y|df=US}}<ref>http://www.elections.alaska.gov/statistics/2018/JUL/VOTERS%20BY%20PARTY%20AND%20PRECINCT.htm#STATEWIDE</ref> |- ! colspan = 2 | Party ! Number of Voters ! Percentage |- {{party color|Independent (politician)}} | [[Independent (politician)|Unaffiliated]] | style="text-align:center;"| 299,365 | style="text-align:center;"| 55.25% |- {{party color|Republican Party (United States)}} | [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] | style="text-align:center;"| 139,615 | style="text-align:center;"| 25.77% |- {{party color|Democratic Party (United States)}} |[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] | style="text-align:center;"| 74,865 | style="text-align:center;"| 13.82% |- {{party color|Alaskan Independence Party}} |[[Alaskan Independence Party|AKIP]] | style="text-align:center;"| 17,118 | style="text-align:center;"| 3.16% |- {{party color|Libertarian Party (United States)}} |[[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian]] | style="text-align:center;"| 7,422 | style="text-align:center;"| 1.37% |- {{party color|Independent (politician)}} |[[List of political parties in the United States|Other]] | style="text-align:center;"| 3,436 | style="text-align:center;"| 0.36% |- ! colspan="2" | Total ! style="text-align:center;" | 541,821 ! style="text-align:center;" | 100% |} Because of its population relative to other U.S. states, Alaska has only one member in the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]]. This seat is held by Republican [[Don Young]], who was re-elected to his 21st consecutive term in 2012. [[Alaska's at-large congressional district]] is one of the largest parliamentary constituencies in the world by area. In 2008, Governor [[Sarah Palin]] became the first Republican woman to run on a national ticket when she became [[John McCain]]'s running mate. She continued to be a prominent national figure even after resigning from the governor's job in July 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/sarah-palin/ |title= Topic – Sarah Palin |publisher=Washington Times |accessdate=May 25, 2014}}</ref> [[List of United States Senators from Alaska|Alaska's United States Senators]] belong to [[Classes of United States Senators|Class 2 and Class 3]]. In 2008, Democrat [[Mark Begich]], mayor of Anchorage, defeated long-time Republican senator [[Ted Stevens]]. Stevens had been convicted on seven felony counts of failing to report gifts on Senate financial discloser forms one week before the election. The conviction was set aside in April 2009 after evidence of prosecutorial misconduct emerged. Republican [[Frank Murkowski]] held the state's other senatorial position. After being elected governor in 2002, he resigned from the Senate and appointed his daughter, State Representative [[Lisa Murkowski]] as his successor. She won full six-year terms in 2004 and 2010. <gallery mode="packed" caption="Alaska's current statewide elected officials" widths="160px" heights="160px" perrow="5"> File:Bill Walker.jpg|[[Bill Walker (American politician)|Bill Walker]], [[List of Governors of Alaska|Governor]] File:Byron Mallott.jpg|[[Byron Mallott]], [[List of lieutenant governors of Alaska|Lieutenant Governor]] File:Lisa Murkowski.jpg|[[Lisa Murkowski]], senior [[List of United States Senators from Alaska|United States Senator]] File:Senator Dan Sullivan official.jpg|[[Dan Sullivan (U.S. Senator)|Dan Sullivan]], junior United States Senator File:Don Young, official photo portrait, color, 2006.jpg|[[Don Young]], [[Alaska's at-large congressional district|at-large United States Representative]] </gallery> ==Cities, towns and boroughs== {{See also|List of cities in Alaska by population|Alaska locations by per capita income|List of boroughs and census areas in Alaska}} [[File:Anchorage1.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Anchorage, Alaska]], Alaska's largest city.]] [[File:Fairbanks05.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]], Alaska's second-largest city and by a significant margin the largest city in [[Alaska Interior|Alaska's interior]].]] [[File:Downtown Juneau with Mount Juneau rising in the background.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Juneau]], Alaska's third-largest city and [[List of capitals in the United States|its capital]].]] [[File:Bethel Alaska aerial view.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Bethel, Alaska|Bethel]], the largest city in the [[Unorganized Borough]] and in [[The Bush (Alaska)|rural Alaska]].]] [[File:Looking into the sun from over downtown onto the Homer Spit..jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Homer, Alaska|Homer]], showing (from bottom to top) the edge of downtown, [[Homer Airport|its airport]] and [[Homer Spit|the Spit]].]] [[File:Barrow-Alaska-skyview.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Barrow, Alaska|Barrow]] (Browerville neighborhood near [[Eben Hopson]] Middle School shown), known colloquially for many years by the nickname "Top of the World", is the northernmost city in the United States.]] [[File:CordovaHillside.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Cordova, Alaska|Cordova]], built in the early 20th century to support the [[Kennecott Mines]] and the [[Copper River and Northwestern Railway]], has persevered as a fishing community since their closure.]] [[File:Downtown Talkeetna.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Main Street in [[Talkeetna]].]] Alaska is not divided into [[County (United States)|counties]], as most of the other U.S. states, but it is divided into ''[[List of boroughs and census areas in Alaska|boroughs]]''.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.countystate.info/alaska.htm | title=Alaska Boroughs – "Official" sites | publisher=CountyState.Info | accessdate=September 13, 2007 | website=Official Borough Websites }}</ref> Many of the more densely populated parts of the state are part of Alaska's 16 boroughs, which function somewhat similarly to counties in other states. However, unlike county-equivalents in the other 49 states, the boroughs do not cover the entire land area of the state. The area not part of any borough is referred to as the [[Unorganized Borough, Alaska|Unorganized Borough]]. The Unorganized Borough has no government of its own, but the [[U.S. Census Bureau]] in cooperation with the state divided the Unorganized Borough into 11 [[census area]]s solely for the purposes of statistical analysis and presentation.{{citation needed|date=January 2017}} A ''recording district'' is a mechanism for administration of the [[public record]] in Alaska. The state is divided into 34 recording districts which are centrally administered under a State [[recorder of deeds|Recorder]]. All recording districts use the same acceptance criteria, fee schedule, etc., for accepting documents into the public record.{{citation needed|date=January 2017}} Whereas many U.S. states use a three-tiered system of decentralization—state/county/township—most of Alaska uses only two tiers—state/borough. Owing to the low population density, most of the land is located in the [[Unorganized Borough]]. As the name implies, it has no intermediate borough government but is administered directly by the state government. In 2000, 57.71% of Alaska's area has this status, with 13.05% of the population.{{citation needed|date=January 2017}} Anchorage merged the city government with the Greater Anchorage Area Borough in 1975 to form the Municipality of Anchorage, containing the city proper and the communities of Eagle River, Chugiak, Peters Creek, Girdwood, Bird, and Indian. Fairbanks has a separate borough (the [[Fairbanks North Star Borough]]) and municipality (the City of Fairbanks).{{citation needed|date=January 2017}} The state's most populous city is [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]], home to 278,700 people in 2006, 225,744 of whom live in the urbanized area. The richest [[Alaska locations by per capita income|location in Alaska by per capita income]] is [[Halibut Cove, Alaska|Halibut Cove]] ($89,895).<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HolwxdMeTwYC&pg=PA134|title=The United States of America|publisher=PediaPress|page=134}}</ref> [[Yakutat City]], Sitka, Juneau, and Anchorage are the four [[List of U.S. cities by area|largest cities in the U.S. by area]]. ===Cities and census-designated places (by population)=== As reflected in the [[2010 United States Census]], Alaska has a total of 355 incorporated cities and [[census-designated place]]s (CDPs).{{citation needed|date=January 2017}} The tally of cities includes four unified municipalities, essentially the equivalent of a [[consolidated city–county]]. The majority of these communities are located in the rural expanse of Alaska known as "[[The Bush (Alaska)|The Bush]]" and are unconnected to the contiguous North American road network. The table at the bottom of this section lists the 100 largest cities and census-designated places in Alaska, in population order. Of Alaska's 2010 Census population figure of 710,231, 20,429 people, or 2.88% of the population, did not live in an incorporated city or census-designated place. Approximately three-quarters of that figure were people who live in urban and suburban neighborhoods on the outskirts of the city limits of Ketchikan, Kodiak, Palmer and Wasilla.{{citation needed|date=January 2017}} CDPs have not been established for these areas by the [[United States Census Bureau]], except that seven CDPs were established for the Ketchikan-area neighborhoods in the [[1980 United States Census|1980 Census]] (Clover Pass, Herring Cove, Ketchikan East, Mountain Point, North [[Tongass Highway]], [[Pennock Island]] and [[Saxman, Alaska|Saxman]] East), but have not been used since. The remaining population was scattered throughout Alaska, both within organized boroughs and in the [[Unorganized Borough]], in largely remote areas.{{citation needed|date=January 2017}} {| | {| class="wikitable" |- ! No. !! Community name !! Type !! [[2010 United States Census|2010]] Pop. |- | 1 || [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 291,826 |- | 2 || [[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 31,535 |- | 3 || [[Juneau, Alaska|Juneau]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 31,275 |- | 4 || [[Badger, Alaska|Badger]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 19,482 |- | 5 || [[Knik-Fairview, Alaska|Knik-Fairview]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 14,923 |- | 6 || [[College, Alaska|College]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 12,964 |- | 7 || [[Sitka, Alaska|Sitka]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 8,881 |- | 8 || [[Lakes, Alaska|Lakes]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 8,364 |- | 9 || [[Tanaina, Alaska|Tanaina]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 8,197 |- | 10 || [[Ketchikan, Alaska|Ketchikan]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 8,050 |- | 11 || [[Kalifornsky, Alaska|Kalifornsky]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 7,850 |- | 12 || [[Wasilla, Alaska|Wasilla]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 7,831 |- | 13 || [[Meadow Lakes, Alaska|Meadow Lakes]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 7,570 |- | 14 || [[Kenai, Alaska|Kenai]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 7,100 |- | 15 || [[Steele Creek, Alaska|Steele Creek]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 6,662 |- | 16 || [[Kodiak, Alaska|Kodiak]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 6,130 |- | 17 || [[Bethel, Alaska|Bethel]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 6,080 |- | 18 || [[Palmer, Alaska|Palmer]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 5,937 |- | 19 || [[Chena Ridge, Alaska|Chena Ridge]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 5,791 |- | 20 || [[Sterling, Alaska|Sterling]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 5,617 |- | 21 || [[Gateway, Alaska|Gateway]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 5,552 |- | 22 || [[Homer, Alaska|Homer]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 5,003 |- | 23 || [[Farmers Loop, Alaska|Farmers Loop]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 4,853 |- | 24 || [[Fishhook, Alaska|Fishhook]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 4,679 |- | 25 || [[Nikiski, Alaska|Nikiski]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 4,493 |- | 26 || [[Unalaska, Alaska|Unalaska]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 4,376 |- | 27 || [[Barrow, Alaska|Barrow]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 4,212 |- | 28 || [[Soldotna, Alaska|Soldotna]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 4,163 |- | 29 || [[Valdez, Alaska|Valdez]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 3,976 |- | 30 || [[Nome, Alaska|Nome]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 3,598 |- | 31 || [[Goldstream, Alaska|Goldstream]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 3,557 |- | 32 || [[Big Lake, Alaska|Big Lake]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 3,350 |- | 33 || [[Butte, Alaska|Butte]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 3,246 |- | 34 || [[Kotzebue, Alaska|Kotzebue]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 3,201 |- | 35 || [[Petersburg, Alaska|Petersburg]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 2,948 |- | 36 || [[Seward, Alaska|Seward]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 2,693 |- | 37 || [[Eielson Air Force Base|Eielson AFB]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 2,647 |- | 38 || [[Ester, Alaska|Ester]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 2,422 |- | 39 || [[Wrangell, Alaska|Wrangell]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 2,369 |- | 40 || [[Dillingham, Alaska|Dillingham]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 2,329 |- | 41 || [[Deltana, Alaska|Deltana]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 2,251 |- | 42 || [[Cordova, Alaska|Cordova]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 2,239 |- | 43 || [[Prudhoe Bay, Alaska|Prudhoe Bay]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 2,174 |- | 44 || [[North Pole, Alaska|North Pole]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 2,117 |- | 45 || [[Willow, Alaska|Willow]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 2,102 |- | 46 || [[Ridgeway, Alaska|Ridgeway]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 2,022 |- | 47 || [[Bear Creek, Alaska|Bear Creek]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,956 |- | 48 || [[Fritz Creek, Alaska|Fritz Creek]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,932 |- | 49 || [[Anchor Point, Alaska|Anchor Point]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,930 |- | 50 || [[Houston, Alaska|Houston]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 1,912 |} | valign="top" | {| class="wikitable" |- ! No. !! Community name !! Type !! [[2010 United States Census|2010]] Pop. |- | 51 || [[Haines, Alaska|Haines]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,713 |- | 52 || [[Lazy Mountain, Alaska|Lazy Mountain]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,479 |- | 53 || [[Sutton-Alpine, Alaska|Sutton-Alpine]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,447 |- | 54 || [[Metlakatla, Alaska|Metlakatla]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,405 |- | 55 || [[Cohoe, Alaska|Cohoe]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,364 |- | 56 || [[Kodiak Station, Alaska|Kodiak Station]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,301 |- | 57 || [[Susitna North, Alaska|Susitna North]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,260 |- | 58 || [[Tok, Alaska|Tok]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,258 |- | 59 || [[Craig, Alaska|Craig]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 1,201 |- | 60 || [[Diamond Ridge, Alaska|Diamond Ridge]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,156 |- | 61 || [[Salcha, Alaska|Salcha]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,095 |- | 62 || [[Hooper Bay, Alaska|Hooper Bay]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 1,093 |- | 63 || [[Farm Loop, Alaska|Farm Loop]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,028 |- | 64 || [[Akutan, Alaska|Akutan]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 1,027 |- | 65 || [[Healy, Alaska|Healy]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 1,021 |- | 66 || [[Salamatof, Alaska|Salamatof]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 980 |- | 67 || [[Sand Point, Alaska|Sand Point]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 976 |- | 68 || [[Delta Junction, Alaska|Delta Junction]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 958 |- | rowspan="2" | 69 || [[Chevak, Alaska|Chevak]] || City || style="text-align:right;" rowspan="2"| 938 |- | [[King Cove, Alaska|King Cove]] || City |- | 71 || [[Skagway, Alaska|Skagway]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 920 |- | 72 || [[Ninilchik, Alaska|Ninilchik]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 883 |- | 73 || [[Funny River, Alaska|Funny River]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 877 |- | 74 || [[Talkeetna, Alaska|Talkeetna]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 876 |- | 75 || [[Buffalo Soapstone, Alaska|Buffalo Soapstone]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 855 |- | 76 || [[Selawik, Alaska|Selawik]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 829 |- | 77 || [[Togiak, Alaska|Togiak]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 817 |- | 78 || [[Mountain Village, Alaska|Mountain Village]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 813 |- | 79 || [[Emmonak, Alaska|Emmonak]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 762 |- | 80 || [[Hoonah, Alaska|Hoonah]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 760 |- | 81 || [[Klawock, Alaska|Klawock]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 755 |- | 82 || [[Moose Creek, Alaska|Moose Creek]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 747 |- | 83 || [[Knik River, Alaska|Knik River]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 744 |- | 84 || [[Pleasant Valley, Alaska|Pleasant Valley]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 725 |- | 85 || [[Kwethluk, Alaska|Kwethluk]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 721 |- | rowspan="2" |86 || [[Two Rivers, Alaska|Two Rivers]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;" rowspan="2"| 719 |- | [[Women's Bay, Alaska|Women's Bay]] || CDP |- | 88 || [[Unalakleet, Alaska|Unalakleet]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 688 |- | 89 || [[Fox River, Alaska|Fox River]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 685 |- | 90 || [[Gambell, Alaska|Gambell]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 681 |- | 91 || [[Alakanuk, Alaska|Alakanuk]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 677 |- | 92 || [[Point Hope, Alaska|Point Hope]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 674 |- | 93 || [[Savoonga, Alaska|Savoonga]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 671 |- | 94 || [[Quinhagak, Alaska|Quinhagak]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 669 |- | 95 || [[Noorvik, Alaska|Noorvik]] || City || style="text-align:right;"| 668 |- | 96 || [[Yakutat, Alaska|Yakutat]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 662 |- | 97 || [[Kipnuk, Alaska|Kipnuk]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 639 |- | 98 || [[Akiachak, Alaska|Akiachak]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 627 |- | 99 || [[Happy Valley, Alaska|Happy Valley]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 593 |- | 100 || [[Big Delta, Alaska|Big Delta]] || CDP || style="text-align:right;"| 591 |} |} ==Education== [[File:Kachcampus.jpg|thumb|The [[Kachemak Bay Campus]] of the [[University of Alaska Anchorage]], located in downtown Homer.]] The [[Alaska Department of Education and Early Development]] administers many [[List of school districts in Alaska|school districts]] in Alaska. In addition, the state operates a boarding school, [[Mt. Edgecumbe High School]] in [[Sitka, Alaska|Sitka]], and provides partial funding for other boarding schools, including [[Nenana Student Living Center]] in [[Nenana, Alaska|Nenana]] and The Galena Interior Learning Academy in [[Galena, Alaska|Galena]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alaskaice.org/material.php?matID=138 |title=Asset Building in Residence Life |publisher=Alaska ICE |date=April 4, 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071009144551/http://www.alaskaice.org/material.php?matID=138 |archivedate=October 9, 2007 }}</ref> There are more than a dozen [[List of colleges and universities in Alaska|colleges and universities in Alaska]]. Accredited universities in Alaska include the [[University of Alaska Anchorage]], [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]], [[University of Alaska Southeast]], and [[Alaska Pacific University]].<ref>These are the only three universities in the state ranked by [[U.S. News & World Report]]. {{cite web|url=https://www.usnews.com/usnews/edu/college/rankings/rankindex_brief.php |title=Archived copy |accessdate=January 3, 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070101130054/http://www.usnews.com/usnews/edu/college/rankings/rankindex_brief.php |archivedate=January 1, 2007 |df= }}</ref> Alaska is the only state that has no institutions that are part of [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA]] [[NCAA Division I|Division I]]. The Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development operates AVTEC, Alaska's Institute of Technology.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://avtec.labor.state.ak.us/ |title=AVTEC – Home Page |publisher=Avtec.labor.state.ak.us|accessdate=September 7, 2012}}</ref> Campuses in Seward and Anchorage offer 1 week to 11-month training programs in areas as diverse as Information Technology, Welding, Nursing, and Mechanics. Alaska has had a problem with a "[[brain drain]]". Many of its young people, including most of the highest academic achievers, leave the state after high school graduation and do not return. {{as of|2013}}, Alaska did not have a [[Legal education in Alaska|law school]] or medical school.<ref>{{Citation |publication-date=February 5, 2013 |title=House Bill 43 "University Institutes of Law And Medicine" |work= States News Service |url= http://akdemocrats.org/?bill=hb43|accessdate=December 21, 2013}}</ref> The [[University of Alaska]] has attempted to combat this by offering partial four-year scholarships to the top 10% of Alaska high school graduates, via the Alaska Scholars Program.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alaska.edu/scholars/faq.xml#scholars_award |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080309023826/http://www.alaska.edu/scholars/faq.xml#scholars_award |archivedate=March 9, 2008 |title=UA Scholars Program – Frequently Asked Questions |accessdate=December 28, 2009 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> ==Public health and public safety== {{See also|Dentistry in rural Alaska}} The [[Alaska State Troopers]] are Alaska's statewide police force. They have a long and storied history, but were not an official organization until 1941. Before the force was officially organized, law enforcement in Alaska was handled by various federal agencies. Larger towns usually have their own local police and some villages rely on "Public Safety Officers" who have police training but do not carry firearms. In much of the state, the troopers serve as the only police force available. In addition to enforcing traffic and criminal law, wildlife Troopers enforce hunting and fishing regulations. Due to the varied terrain and wide scope of the Troopers' duties, they employ a wide variety of land, air, and water patrol vehicles. Many rural communities in Alaska are considered "dry," having outlawed the importation of alcoholic beverages.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dps.state.ak.us/AST/ABI/docs/SDEUreports/2003AnnualReport.pdf |title=Alaska State Troopers Alaska Bureau of Alcohol and Drug Enforcement Control Board |publisher=Dps.state.ak.us |accessdate=May 30, 2014}}</ref> Suicide rates for rural residents are higher than urban.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hss.state.ak.us/suicideprevention/statistics_pages_sspc/AKsuiciderate_rural_urban_90-00.htm |title=State of Alaska |publisher=Hss.state.ak.us |accessdate=June 2, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090925085430/http://hss.state.ak.us/suicideprevention/statistics_pages_sspc/AKsuiciderate_rural_urban_90-00.htm |archivedate=September 25, 2009 }}</ref> [[Domestic abuse]] and other violent crimes are also at high levels in the state; this is in part linked to alcohol abuse.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adn.com/2010/09/30/1480089/survey-finds-high-rates-of-sexual.html |title=Survey reveals higher rate of violence against Alaska women |accessdate=May 30, 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531105355/http://www.adn.com/2010/09/30/1480089/survey-finds-high-rates-of-sexual.html |archivedate=May 31, 2014 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Alaska has the highest rate of sexual assault in the nation, especially in rural areas. The average age of sexually assaulted victims is 16 years old. In four out of five cases, the suspects were relatives, friends or acquaintances.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2008-01-29-alaska-sexualassaults_N.htm |title=Rural Alaska steeped in sexual violence |work=USA Today |date= January 30, 2008|accessdate=December 31, 2010 |first=Rachel |last=D'oro}}</ref> ==Culture== {{see also|List of artists and writers from Alaska}} [[File:Iditarod Ceremonial start in Anchorage, Alaska.jpg|thumb|A dog team in the [[Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race]], arguably the most popular winter event in Alaska.]] Some of Alaska's popular annual events are the [[Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race]] that starts in Anchorage and ends in Nome, World Ice Art Championships in Fairbanks, the Blueberry Festival and Alaska Hummingbird Festival in [[Ketchikan, Alaska|Ketchikan]], the [[Sitka Whale Fest]], and the Stikine River Garnet Fest in [[Wrangell, Alaska|Wrangell]]. The [[Stikine River]] attracts the largest springtime concentration of [[American bald eagle]]s in the world. The [[Alaska Native Heritage Center]] celebrates the rich heritage of Alaska's 11 cultural groups. Their purpose is to encourage cross-cultural exchanges among all people and enhance self-esteem among Native people. The [[Alaska Native Arts Foundation]] promotes and markets Native art from all regions and cultures in the State, using the internet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alaskanativearts.org|title=Alaska Native Arts Foundation|website=alaskanativearts.org}}</ref> ===Music=== {{Main|Music of Alaska}} Influences on music in Alaska include the traditional music of Alaska Natives as well as folk music brought by later immigrants from Russia and Europe. Prominent musicians from Alaska include singer [[Jewel (singer)|Jewel]], traditional Aleut flautist [[Mary Youngblood]], folk singer-songwriter [[Libby Roderick]], Christian music singer-songwriter [[Lincoln Brewster]], metal/post hardcore band [[36 Crazyfists]] and the groups [[Pamyua]] and [[Portugal. The Man]]. There are many established music festivals in Alaska, including the [[Alaska Folk Festival]], the [[Fairbanks Summer Arts Festival]], the [http://anchoragefolkfestival.org/ Anchorage Folk Festival], the [[Athabascan Old-Time Fiddling Festival]], the Sitka Jazz Festival, and the [[Sitka Summer Music Festival]]. The most prominent orchestra in Alaska is the [[Anchorage Symphony Orchestra]], though the [[Fairbanks Symphony Orchestra]] and [[Juneau Symphony]] are also notable. The [[Anchorage Opera]] is currently the state's only professional opera company, though there are several volunteer and semi-professional organizations in the state as well. The official [[List of U.S. state songs|state song]] of Alaska is "[[Alaska's Flag]]", which was adopted in 1955; it celebrates the [[flag of Alaska]]. ===Alaska in film and on television=== {{see also|List of films set in Alaska}} [[File:Bow bow.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Films featuring Alaskan wolves usually employ domesticated [[wolf-dog hybrid]]s to stand in for wild wolves.]] Alaska's first independent picture entirely made in Alaska was ''[[The Chechahcos]]'', produced by Alaskan businessman [[Austin E. Lathrop]] and filmed in and around Anchorage. Released in 1924 by the Alaska Moving Picture Corporation, it was the only film the company made. One of the most prominent movies filmed in Alaska is [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer|MGM]]'s ''[[Eskimo/Mala The Magnificent]]'', starring Alaska Native [[Ray Mala]]. In 1932 an expedition set out from [[MGM]]'s studios in Hollywood to Alaska to film what was then billed as "The Biggest Picture Ever Made." Upon arriving in Alaska, they set up "Camp Hollywood" in Northwest Alaska, where they lived during the duration of the filming. [[Louis B. Mayer]] spared no expense in spite of the remote location, going so far as to hire the chef from the [[Roosevelt Hotel (Hollywood)|Hotel Roosevelt]] in Hollywood to prepare meals. When ''Eskimo'' premiered at the [[Astor Theatre, New York City|Astor Theatre]] in New York City, the studio received the largest amount of feedback in its history to that point. ''Eskimo'' was critically acclaimed and released worldwide; as a result, Mala became an international movie star. ''Eskimo'' won the first Oscar for [[Academy Award for Best Film Editing|Best Film Editing]] at the Academy Awards, and showcased and preserved aspects of [[Inupiat people|Inupiat]] culture on film. The 1983 Disney movie ''[[Never Cry Wolf (film)|Never Cry Wolf]]'' was at least partially shot in Alaska. The 1991 film ''[[White Fang (1991 film)|White Fang]]'', based on [[Jack London]]'s novel and starring [[Ethan Hawke]], was filmed in and around [[Haines, Alaska|Haines]]. [[Steven Seagal]]'s 1994 ''[[On Deadly Ground]]'', starring [[Michael Caine]], was filmed in part at the [[Worthington Glacier]] near [[Valdez, Alaska|Valdez]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.filminamerica.com/Movies/OnDeadlyGround/ |title=On Deadly Ground |publisher=Filminamerica.com |accessdate=November 7, 2010}}</ref> The 1999 [[John Sayles]] film ''[[Limbo (1999 film)|Limbo]]'', starring [[David Strathairn]], [[Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio]], and [[Kris Kristofferson]], was filmed in Juneau. The psychological thriller ''[[Insomnia (2002 film)|Insomnia]]'', starring [[Al Pacino]] and [[Robin Williams]], was shot in Canada, but was set in Alaska. The 2007 film directed by Sean Penn, ''[[Into the Wild (film)|Into The Wild]]'', was partially filmed and set in Alaska. The film, which is based on the novel of the same name, follows the adventures of [[Christopher McCandless]], who died in a remote abandoned bus along the [[Stampede Trail]] west of [[Healy, Alaska|Healy]] in 1992. Many films and television shows set in Alaska are not filmed there; for example, ''[[Northern Exposure]]'', set in the fictional town of Cicely, Alaska, was filmed in [[Roslyn, Washington]]. The 2007 horror feature ''[[30 Days of Night (film)|30 Days of Night]]'' is set in [[Barrow, Alaska|Barrow]], but was filmed in New Zealand. Many [[reality television]] shows are filmed in Alaska. In 2011 the ''Anchorage Daily News'' found ten set in the state.<ref name="hopkins20110214">{{cite news|url=http://www.adn.com/2011/02/14/1699528/alaska-based-shows-what-do-the.html |title=Rating the Alaska reality shows: The best and the worst |work=Anchorage Daily News |date=February 14, 2011 |accessdate=March 2, 2013 |author=Hopkins, Kyle |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302051556/http://www.adn.com/2011/02/14/1699528/alaska-based-shows-what-do-the.html |archivedate=March 2, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> ==State symbols== {{Main|List of Alaska state symbols}} [[File:2008-05-04 at 18-26-44-Forgetmenot-Flower.jpg|thumb|The [[forget-me-not]] is the state's official flower and bears the same blue and gold as the state flag.]] * State motto: North to the Future * Nicknames: "The Last Frontier" or "Land of the Midnight Sun" or "Seward's Icebox" * State bird: [[willow ptarmigan]], adopted by the Territorial Legislature in 1955. It is a small ({{convert|15|–|17|in|disp=or|abbr=on}}) Arctic grouse that lives among willows and on open tundra and muskeg. Plumage is brown in summer, changing to white in winter. The willow ptarmigan is common in much of Alaska. * State fish: [[Chinook salmon|king salmon]], adopted 1962. * State flower: wild/native [[forget-me-not]], adopted by the Territorial Legislature in 1917.<ref>{{cite web |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225094636/http://akcf.org/_pages/about_ACF/about_alaska/state_symbols.php |archivedate=February 25, 2009 |url=http://www.akcf.org/_pages/about_ACF/about_alaska/state_symbols.php |title=Alaska Conservation Foundation – State Symbols |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> It is a perennial that is found throughout Alaska, from Hyder to the Arctic Coast, and west to the Aleutians. * State fossil: [[woolly mammoth]], adopted 1986. * State gem: [[nephrite|jade]], adopted 1968. * State insect: [[Four-spotted chaser|four-spot skimmer]] dragonfly, adopted 1995. * State land mammal: [[moose]], adopted 1998. * State marine mammal: [[bowhead whale]], adopted 1983. * State mineral: [[gold]], adopted 1968. * State song: "[[Alaska's Flag]]" * State sport: [[Mushing|dog mushing]], adopted 1972. * State tree: [[Sitka spruce]], adopted 1962. * State dog: [[Alaskan Malamute]], adopted 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.ktuu.com/2010-05-13/malamute_24127975 |title=It's official: Malamute now Alaska's state dog |website=KTUU.com, Alaska's news and information source |date=May 13, 2010 |accessdate=June 2, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130707171237/http://articles.ktuu.com/2010-05-13/malamute_24127975 |archivedate=July 7, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> * State soil: [[Tanana (soil)|Tanana]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/edu/?cid=stelprdb1236841|title=State Soils|last=|first=|date=|website=USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service|access-date=}}</ref> adopted unknown. ==See also== {{Portal|Alaska|United States}} * [[Index of Alaska-related articles]] * [[Outline of Alaska]]&nbsp;— organized list of topics about Alaska ==Notes== {{notelist}} ==References== {{reflist|30em}} ==External links== {{Sister project links|voy=Alaska|Alaska}} <!-- Please do not add commercial links to this section—they will be removed, as per the external links policy. Thank you. --> * {{Curlie|Regional/North_America/United_States/Alaska}} * [http://vilda.alaska.edu/index.php Alaska's Digital Archives] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20101120224655/http://aitc.org/ Alaska Inter-Tribal Council] * {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.archives.arc.649115|name=Alaska (1967)}} * {{OSM relation|1116270}} * [http://acmedia.alaskacommons.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/Who-Owns-Manages-Alaska.gif Who Owns/Manages Alaska?] (map) '''U.S. federal government''' * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/states/alaska/index.html Alaska State Guide from the Library of Congress] * [http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/state/state_energy_profiles.cfm?sid=AK Energy & Environmental Data for Alaska] * [http://www.usgs.gov/state/state.asp?State=AK USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Alaska] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100527092920/http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/02000.html US Census Bureau] * [http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/state-fact-sheets/state-data.aspx?StateFIPS=02&StateName=Alaska#.U8NTsKhC_q1 Alaska State Facts] * [http://eisenhower.archives.gov/research/subject_guides/pdf/Alaska_Statehood.pdf Alaska Statehood Subject Guide from the Eisenhower Presidential Library] * [http://eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/alaska_statehood.html Alaska Statehood documents, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library] '''Alaska state government''' * [http://www.alaska.gov/ State of Alaska website] * [http://wikis.ala.org/godort/index.php/Alaska Alaska State Databases] – Annotated list of searchable databases produced by Alaska state agencies and compiled by the Government Documents Roundtable of the American Library Association. * [http://www.dnr.state.ak.us/ssd/recoff/terminology.cfm Alaska Department of Natural Resources, Recorder's Office] {{clear}} {{s-start}} {{s-bef|before=[[Arizona]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union]]|years=Admitted on January 3, 1959 (49th)}} {{s-aft|after=[[Hawaii]]}} {{s-end}} {{Alaska|expanded}} {{United States political divisions}} {{United States topics}} {{Languages of the United States}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Alaska| ]] [[Category:Arctic Ocean]] [[Category:Former Russian colonies]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1959]] [[Category:States of the United States]] [[Category:U.S. states with multiple time zones]] [[Category:1959 establishments in the United States]] [[Category:Western United States]] lng19ifb40e49tx31ica2g56gviklou 0 626 752632908 747975266 2016-12-02T10:57:01Z Xqbot 8066546 Bot: Fixing double redirect to [[Auteur]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Auteur]] c5vefr8f34ow6y6g29l88avyta3m1cp 0 627 861491242 861491217 2018-09-27T20:21:02Z ClueBot NG 13286072 Reverting possible vandalism by [[Special:Contribs/184.184.116.209|184.184.116.209]] to version by Dan Koehl. [[WP:CBFP|Report False Positive?]] Thanks, [[WP:CBNG|ClueBot NG]]. (3488949) (Bot) wikitext text/x-wiki {{good article}} {{redirect|Farming}} {{pp-pc1}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2016}} {{Use American English|date=March 2016}} [[File:Unload wheat by the combine Claas Lexion 584.jpg|thumb|upright=2.2|[[Harvest]]ing [[wheat]] with a [[combine harvester]] accompanied by a tractor and trailer]] '''Agriculture''' is the cultivation of land and breeding of [[animal]]s and [[plant]]s to provide [[food]], [[fiber]], [[medicinal plants]] and other products to sustain and enhance life.<ref name="Office1999">{{cite book |title=Safety and health in agriculture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GtBa6XIW_aQC&pg=PA77 |year=1999 |publisher=International Labour Organization |isbn=978-92-2-111517-5 |pages=77– |accessdate=13 September 2010 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722061757/http://books.google.com/books?id=GtBa6XIW_aQC&pg=PA77 |archivedate=22 July 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Agriculture was the key development in the rise of [[sedentism|sedentary]] [[human civilization]], whereby farming of [[domestication|domesticated]] species created food [[economic surplus|surpluses]] that enabled people to live in cities. The study of agriculture is known as [[agricultural science]]. The [[history of agriculture]] dates back thousands of years; people gathered wild grains at least 105,000 years ago and began to plant them around 11,500 years ago before they became domesticated. Pigs, sheep, and cattle were domesticated over 10,000 years ago. Crops originate from at least 11 regions of the world. [[Industrial agriculture]] based on large-scale [[monoculture]] has in the past century come to dominate agricultural output, though about 2 billion people worldwide still depend on [[subsistence agriculture]]. Modern [[agronomy]], [[plant breeding]], [[agrochemical]]s such as [[pesticide]]s and [[fertilizer]]s, and technological developments have sharply increased yields from cultivation, but at the same time have caused widespread ecological and environmental damage. [[Selective breeding]] and modern practices in [[animal husbandry]] have similarly increased the output of meat, but have raised concerns about [[animal welfare]] and environmental damage through contributions to [[global warming]], depletion of [[aquifer]]s, [[deforestation]], [[antibiotic resistance]], and [[growth hormone]]s in [[industrial meat production|industrially produced meat]]. [[Genetically modified organism]]s are widely used, although they are banned in several countries. The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, [[fuel]]s, and [[raw material]]s (such as [[natural rubber|rubber]]). Classes of foods include [[cereal]]s (grains), [[vegetable]]s, [[fruit]]s, [[cooking oil|oils]], [[meat]], [[milk]], [[edible mushroom|fungi]] and [[eggs as food|eggs]]. Over one-third of the world's workers are employed in agriculture, second only to the service sector, although the number of agricultural workers in developed countries has decreased significantly over the past several centuries. <noinclude>{{Agriculture}}</noinclude> == Etymology and scope == The word ''agriculture'' is a late [[Middle English]] adaptation of Latin ''agricultūra'', from ''ager'', "field", which in its turn came from [[Greek language|Greek]] αγρός, and ''cultūra'', "[[Tillage|cultivation]]" or "growing".<ref>{{cite book |page=14 |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Word Histories |editor=Chantrell, Glynnis |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-19-863121-7}}</ref> Agriculture usually refers to human activities, although it is also observed in certain species of [[ant]], [[termite]] and [[ambrosia beetle]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Evolution of Agriculture in Insects |journal=Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics |volume=36 |pages=563–95 |date=December 2005 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102003.152626 |author1=Mueller, Ulrich G. |author2=Gerardo, Nicole M. |author3=Aanen, Duur K. |author4=Six, Diana L. |author5=Schultz, Ted R. |deadurl=no |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Agriculture is defined with varying scopes, in its broadest sense using natural resources to "produce commodities which maintain life, including food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops, and their related services".<ref name=Maine /> Thus defined, it includes [[arable farming]], [[horticulture]], [[animal husbandry]], and [[forestry]], but horticulture and forestry are in practice often excluded.<ref name=Maine>{{cite web |url=http://www.maine.gov/education/aged/definition.html |title=Definition of Agriculture |publisher=State of Maine |accessdate=6 May 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323075557/http://www.maine.gov/education/aged/definition.html |archivedate=23 March 2012 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == History == {{Main|History of agriculture}} ===Origins=== {{main |Neolithic Revolution}} [[File:Vavilov-centers updated.jpg |thumb |upright=1.35 |[[Center of origin|Centres of origin]], as numbered by [[Nikolai Vavilov]] in the 1930s. Area 3 (gray) is no longer recognised as a centre of origin, and [[Papua New Guinea]] (area P, orange) was identified more recently.<ref name=Larson2014/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Denham |first1=T. P. |title=Origins of Agriculture at Kuk Swamp in the Highlands of New Guinea |journal=Science |volume=301 |issue=5630 |year=2003 |pages=189–193 |doi=10.1126/science.1085255|pmid=12817084 }}</ref>]] The development of agriculture enabled the human population to grow many times larger than could be sustained by [[hunter-gatherer|hunting and gathering]].<ref name=Bocquet-Appel>{{cite journal |author=Bocquet-Appel, Jean-Pierre |title=When the World's Population Took Off: The Springboard of the Neolithic Demographic Transition |journal=Science |date=29 July 2011 |volume=333 |issue=6042 |pages=560–561 |doi=10.1126/science.1208880 |pmid=21798934 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/content/333/6042/560.full|bibcode=2011Sci...333..560B }}</ref> Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa. At least 11 separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent [[centers of origin]].<ref name="Larson2014">{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.1323964111 |title=Current perspectives and the future of domestication studies |journal=PNAS |volume=111 |issue=17 |pages=6139–46 |year=2014 |last1=Larson |first1=G. |last2=Piperno |first2=D. R. |last3=Allaby |first3=R. G. |last4=Purugganan |first4=M. D. |last5=Andersson |first5=L. |last6=Arroyo-Kalin |first6=M. |last7=Barton |first7=L. |last8=Climer Vigueira |first8=C. |last9=Denham |first9=T. |last10=Dobney |first10=K. |last11=Doust |first11=A. N. |last12=Gepts |first12=P. |last13=Gilbert |first13=M. T. P. |last14=Gremillion |first14=K. J. |last15=Lucas |first15=L. |last16=Lukens |first16=L. |last17=Marshall |first17=F. B. |last18=Olsen |first18=K. M. |last19=Pires |first19=J.C. |last20=Richerson |first20=P. J. |last21=Rubio De Casas |first21=R. |last22=Sanjur |first22=O.I. |last23=Thomas |first23=M. G. |last24=Fuller |first24=D.Q. |doi-access=free |pmid=24757054 |pmc=4035915 |bibcode=2014PNAS..111.6139L}}</ref> Wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Harmon |first1=Katherine |title=Humans feasting on grains for at least 100,000 years |url=http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/humans-feasting-on-grains-for-at-least-100000-years/ |publisher=[[Scientific American]] |accessdate=28 August 2016 |date=17 December 2009 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160917013143/http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/humans-feasting-on-grains-for-at-least-100000-years/ |archivedate=17 September 2016 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[Rye]] was cultivated by at least 11,050 BC.<ref name=Hillman>{{cite journal |author=Hillman, G.; Hedges, R.; Moore, A.; Colledge, S.; Pettitt, P. |title=New evidence of Lateglacial cereal cultivation at Abu Hureyra on the Euphrates |journal=Holocene |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=383–393 |year=2001 |doi=10.1191/095968301678302823 |url=http://hol.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/11/4/383 |last2=Hedges |last3=Moore |last4=Colledge |last5=Pettitt }}</ref> From around 11,500 years ago, the eight [[Neolithic founder crops]], [[emmer wheat|emmer]] and [[einkorn wheat]], hulled [[barley]], [[pea]]s, [[lentil]]s, [[Vicia ervilia|bitter vetch]], [[chick pea]]s and [[flax]] were cultivated in the [[Levant]]. [[Rice]] was domesticated in China between 11,500 and 6,200 BC with earliest known cultivation from 5,700 BC,<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=17898767 |year=2007 |last1=Zong |first1=Y. |last2=When |first2=Z. |last3=Innes |first3=J. B. |last4=Chen |first4=C. |last5=Wang |first5=Z. |last6=Wang |first6=H. |title=Fire and flood management of coastal swamp enabled first rice paddy cultivation in east China |volume=449 |issue=7161 |pages=459–62 |doi=10.1038/nature06135 |journal=Nature|bibcode=2007Natur.449..459Z }}</ref> followed by [[mung bean|mung]], [[soy]] and [[Azuki bean|azuki]] beans. [[Sheep]] were domesticated in [[Mesopotamia]] between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite book |title=Sheep and Goat Science |edition=Fifth |last=Ensminger |first=M. E. |author2=Parker, R. O. |year=1986 |publisher=Interstate Printers and Publishers |isbn=978-0-8134-2464-4}}</ref> [[Cattle]] were domesticated from the wild [[aurochs]] in the areas of modern Turkey and Pakistan some 10,500 years ago.<ref name="McTavish">{{cite journal |author=McTavish, E.J. |author2=Decker, J. E. |author3=Schnabel, R.D. |author4=Taylor, J.F. |author5=Hillis, D.M. |last-author-amp=yes |year=2013 |title=New World cattle show ancestry from multiple independent domestication events |journal=PNAS |volume=110 |issue=15 |pages=E1398–406 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1303367110 |pmid=23530234 |pmc=3625352 |bibcode=2013PNAS..110E1398M }}</ref> [[Domestic pig]]s had multiple centres of origin in Eurasia, including Europe, East Asia and Southwest Asia,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Larson |first=Greger |last2=Dobney |first2=Keith |last3=Albarella |first3=Umberto |last4=Fang |first4=Meiying |last5=Matisoo-Smith |first5=Elizabeth |last6=Robins |first6=Judith |last7=Lowden |first7=Stewart |last8=Finlayson |first8=Heather |last9=Brand |first9=Tina |date=2005-03-11 |title=Worldwide Phylogeography of Wild Boar Reveals Multiple Centers of Pig Domestication |url=http://science.sciencemag.org/content/307/5715/1618 |journal=Science |volume=307 |issue=5715 |pages=1618–1621 |doi=10.1126/science.1106927 |pmid=15761152|bibcode=2005Sci...307.1618L }}</ref> where [[wild boar]] were first domesticated about 10,500 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Larson |first=Greger |last2=Albarella |first2=Umberto |last3=Dobney |first3=Keith |last4=Rowley-Conwy |first4=Peter |last5=Schibler |first5=Jörg |last6=Tresset |first6=Anne |last7=Vigne |first7=Jean-Denis |last8=Edwards |first8=Ceiridwen J. |last9=Schlumbaum |first9=Angela |date=25 September 2007 |title=Ancient DNA, pig domestication, and the spread of the Neolithic into Europe |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/104/39/15276 |journal=PNAS |volume=104 |issue=39 |pages=15276–15281 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0703411104 |pmid=17855556|pmc=1976408 |bibcode=2007PNAS..10415276L }}</ref> In the [[Andes]] of South America, the [[potato]] was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans, [[coca]], [[llama]]s, [[alpaca]]s, and [[guinea pig]]s. [[Sugarcane]] and some [[List of root vegetables|root vegetables]] were domesticated in [[New Guinea]] around 9,000 years ago. [[Sorghum]] was domesticated in the [[Sahel]] region of Africa by 7,000 years ago. [[Cotton]] was domesticated in [[Peru]] by 5,600 years ago,<ref name="Broudy1979">{{cite book |last=Broudy |first=Eric |title=The Book of Looms: A History of the Handloom from Ancient Times to the Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=shN5_-W1RzcC&pg=PA81 |year=1979 |publisher=UPNE |isbn=978-0-87451-649-4 |page=81 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180210232500/https://books.google.com/books?id=shN5_-W1RzcC&pg=PA81 |archivedate=10 February 2018 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> and was independently domesticated in Eurasia. [[Agriculture in Mesoamerica|In Mesoamerica]], wild [[teosinte]] was domesticated to [[maize]] by 6,000 years ago.<ref>Johannessen, S.; Hastorf, C. A. (eds.) ''Corn and Culture in the Prehistoric New World'', Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado.</ref> Scholars have developed a number of hypotheses to explain the historical origins of agriculture. Studies of the transition from [[hunter-gatherer]] to agricultural societies indicate an initial period of intensification and increasing [[sedentism]]; examples are the [[Natufian culture]] in the [[Levant]], and the Early Chinese Neolithic in China. Then, wild stands that had previously been harvested started to be planted, and gradually came to be domesticated.<ref>Hillman, G. C. (1996) "Late Pleistocene changes in wild plant-foods available to hunter-gatherers of the northern Fertile Crescent: Possible preludes to cereal cultivation". In D. R. Harris (ed.) ''The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia'', UCL Books, London, pp.159-203; Sato, Y. (2003) "Origin of rice cultivation in the Yangtze River basin". In Y. Yasuda (ed.) ''The Origins of Pottery and Agriculture'', Roli Books, New Delhi, p. 196</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Australia and the Origins of Agriculture |author=Gerritsen, R. |date=2008 |publisher=Archaeopress |pages=29–30}}</ref> ===Civilizations=== [[File:Tomb of Nakht (2).jpg|thumb|upright|Agricultural scenes of [[threshing]], a grain store, harvesting with [[sickle]]s, digging, tree-cutting and ploughing from [[Ancient Egyptian agriculture|Ancient Egypt]]. Tomb of [[Nakht]], 15th century BC]] In Eurasia, the [[Sumer]]ians started to live in villages from about 8,000 BC, relying on the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]] rivers and a canal system for irrigation. Ploughs appear in [[pictograph]]s around 3,000 BC; seed-ploughs around 2,300 BC. Farmers grew wheat, barley, vegetables such as lentils and onions, and fruits including dates, grapes, and figs.<ref name=BritMus>{{cite web |title=Farming |url=http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/staff/resources/background/bg08/home.html |publisher=[[British Museum]] |accessdate=15 June 2016 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616222522/http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/staff/resources/background/bg08/home.html |archivedate=16 June 2016 |df= }}</ref> [[Ancient Egyptian agriculture]] relied on the [[Nile River]] and its seasonal flooding. Farming started in the predynastic period at the end of the Paleolithic, after 10,000 BC. Staple food crops were grains such as wheat and barley, alongside industrial crops such as [[flax]] and [[papyrus]].<ref name=Janick>{{cite journal |author=Janick, Jules |title=Ancient Egyptian Agriculture and the Origins of Horticulture |journal=Acta Hort. |volume=583 |pages=23–39 |url=https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Hort_306/text/lec06.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Kees, Herman |title=Ancient Egypt: A Cultural Topography |publisher=University of Chicago Press |date=1961 |pages=}}</ref> [[Agriculture in India|In India]], wheat, barley, and [[jujube]] were domesticated by 9,000 BC, soon followed by sheep and goats.<ref name=gupta>Gupta, Anil K. in ''Origin of agriculture and domestication of plants and animals linked to early Holocene climate amelioration'', Current Science, Vol. 87, No. 1, 10 July 2004 59. Indian Academy of Sciences.</ref> Cattle, sheep and goats were domesticated in [[Mehrgarh|Mehrgarh culture]] by 8,000–6,000 BC.<ref name=Baber>Baber, Zaheer (1996). ''The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization, and Colonial Rule in India''. State University of New York Press. 19. {{ISBN|0-7914-2919-9}}.</ref><ref name=harrisandgosden385>Harris, David R. and Gosden, C. (1996). ''The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia: Crops, Fields, Flocks And Herds''. Routledge. p.385. {{ISBN|1-85728-538-7}}.</ref><ref name=harrisandgosden385/><ref name=Possehl>Possehl, Gregory L. (1996). ''Mehrgarh'' in ''Oxford Companion to Archaeology'', edited by Brian Fagan. Oxford University Press.</ref> [[Cotton]] was cultivated by the 5th-4th millennium BC.<ref>Stein, Burton (1998). ''A History of India''. Blackwell Publishing. p. 47. {{ISBN|0-631-20546-2}}.</ref> There is archeological evidence of an animal-drawn [[plough]] from 2,500 BC in the Indus Valley Civilization.<ref name=lal>{{Cite journal |title=Thematic evolution of ISTRO: transition in scientific issues and research focus from 1955 to 2000 |first=R. |last=Lal |journal=Soil and Tillage Research |volume=61 |issue=1–2 |date=2001 |pages=3–12 |doi=10.1016/S0167-1987(01)00184-2}}</ref> [[Agriculture in China|In China]], from the 5th century BC there was a nationwide [[granary]] system and widespread [[sericulture|silk farming]].<ref name="needham volume 6 part 2 55 56">Needham, Joseph (1986). ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 6, Part 2''. Taipei: Caves Books. p55-57.</ref> Water-powered grain mills were in use by the 1st century BC,<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 184">Needham, Joseph (1986). ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering''. Taipei: Caves Books. p. 184</ref><ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 89 110">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 89, 110.</ref> followed by irrigation.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 110">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 110.</ref> By the late 2nd century, [[heavy plough]]s had been developed with iron ploughshares and [[mouldboard]]s.<ref name="greenberger 2006 11-12">Robert Greenberger, ''The Technology of Ancient China'', Rosen Publishing Group, 2006, pp. 11–12.</ref><ref>[[Wang Zhongshu]], trans. by K. C. Chang and Collaborators, ''Han Civilization'' (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1982).</ref> These slowly spread westwards across Eurasia.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=SaJlbWK_-FcC&pg=PA270&lpg=PA270 |author=Glick, Thomas F. |page=270 |title=Medieval Science, Technology And Medicine: An Encyclopedia |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0415969307 |series=Volume 11 of The Routledge Encyclopedias of the Middle Ages Series}}</ref> Asian rice was domesticated 8,200–13,500 years ago in China, with a single genetic origin from the wild rice ''[[Oryza rufipogon]]''.<ref name="pnas1">{{Cite journal | last1=Molina | first1=J. | last2=Sikora | first2=M. | last3=Garud | first3=N. | last4=Flowers | first4=J. M. | last5=Rubinstein | first5=S. | last6=Reynolds | first6=A. | last7=Huang | first7=P. | last8=Jackson | first8=S. | last9=Schaal | first9=B. A. | last10=Bustamante | doi=10.1073/pnas.1104686108 | first10=C. D. | last11=Boyko | first11=A. R. | last12=Purugganan | first12=M. D. | title=Molecular evidence for a single evolutionary origin of domesticated rice | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=108 | issue=20 | pages=8351–6 | year=2011 | pmid= 21536870| pmc=3101000| bibcode=2011PNAS..108.8351M }}</ref><ref name="nature1">{{cite journal |title=A map of rice genome variation reveals the origin of cultivated rice |journal=Nature |doi=10.1038/nature11532 |year=2012 |last1=Huang |first1=Xuehui |last2=Kurata |first2=Nori |last3=Wei |first3=Xinghua |last4=Wang |first4=Zi-Xuan |last5=Wang |first5=Ahong |last6=Zhao |first6=Qiang |last7=Zhao |first7=Yan|last8=Liu |first8=Kunyan |last9=Lu |first9=Hengyun |last10=Li |first10=Wenjun |last11=Gu |first11=Yunli |last12=Lu |first12=Yiqi |last13=Zhou |first13=Congcong|last14=Fan|first14=Danlin |last15=Weng |first15=Qijun |last16=Zhu |first16=Chuanrang |last17=Huang |first17=Tao |last18=Zhang |first18=Lei|last19=Wang |first19=Yongchun |last20=Feng |first20=Lei |last21=Furuumi |first21=Hiroyasu |last22=Kubo |first22=Takahiko |last23=Miyabayashi|first23=Toshie |last24=Yuan |first24=Xiaoping |last25=Xu |first25=Qun |last26=Dong |first26=Guojun |last27=Zhan |first27=Qilin |last28=Li |first28=Canyang |last29=Fujiyama |first29=Asao|last30=Toyoda |first30=Atsushi |volume=490 |issue=7421 |pages=497–501 |pmid=23034647 |display-authors=8 |bibcode=2012Natur.490..497H}}</ref> [[Agriculture in ancient Greece|In ancient Greece]] and [[Roman agriculture|Rome]], the major cereals were wheat, emmer, and barley, alongside vegetables including peas, beans, and olives. Sheep and goats were kept mainly for dairy products.<ref name="koester 1995 p76-77">Koester, Helmut (1995), ''History, Culture, and Religion of the Hellenistic Age'', 2nd edition, Walter de Gruyter, {{ISBN|3-11-014693-2}}, pp 76–77.</ref><ref name="White">White, K. D. (1970), ''Roman Farming'' (Cornell University Press)</ref> In the Americas, crops domesticated in Mesoamerica (apart from teosinte) include squash, beans, and cocoa.<ref name=Murphy2011>{{cite book |author=Murphy, Denis |title=Plants, Biotechnology and Agriculture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etQsieKuRH8C&pg=PA153 |year=2011 |publisher=CABI |isbn=978-1-84593-913-7 |pages=153–}}</ref> The [[Turkey (bird)|turkey]] was probably domesticated in Mexico or the American Southwest.<ref name=Speller>{{cite journal |last1=Speller |first1=Camilla F. et al |title=Ancient mitochondrial DNA analysis reveals complexity of indigenous North American turkey domestication|journal=PNAS |date=2010 |volume=107 |issue=7 |pages=2807–2812 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0909724107 |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/107/7/2807.full |pmid=20133614 |pmc=2840336|bibcode=2010PNAS..107.2807S }}</ref> The [[Aztec]]s developed irrigation systems, formed [[Terrace (agriculture)|terraced]] hillsides, fertilized their soil, and developed [[chinampa]]s or artificial islands. The [[Maya civilization|Mayas]] used extensive canal and raised field systems to farm swampland from 400 BC.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.nature.com/news/2010/101105/full/news.2010.587.html|title=Mayans converted wetlands to farmland |author=Mascarelli, Amanda |journal=Nature |date=5 November 2010 |doi=10.1038/news.2010.587}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.soils.org/publications/sh/articles/53/6/3 |title=Invisible Artifacts: Uncovering Secrets of Ancient Maya Agriculture with Modern Soil Science |journal=Soil Horizons |author=Morgan, John |date=6 November 2013 |doi=10.2136/sh2012-53-6-lf |volume=53 |issue=6 |pages=3 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321200108/https://www.soils.org/publications/sh/articles/53/6/3 |archivedate=21 March 2015}}</ref><ref name="Spooner 2005 14694–99">{{cite journal | title=A single domestication for potato based on multilocus amplified fragment length polymorphism genotyping | last=Spooner | first=David M. |first2=Karen |last2=McLean |first3=Gavin |last3=Ramsay |first4=Robbie |last4=Waugh |first5=Glenn J. |last5=Bryan |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|PNAS]] | volume=102 | issue=41 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0507400102 | pmc=1253605 | pages=14694–99 | pmid=16203994 | year=2005 | url=http://www.pnas.org/content/102/41/14694|bibcode=2005PNAS..10214694S }}</ref><ref name="online">{{cite book |author=Office of International Affairs |title=Lost Crops of the Incas: Little-Known Plants of the Andes with Promise for Worldwide Cultivation |date=1989 |url=http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?isbn=030904264X&page=92 |work=nap.edu |isbn=978-0309042642 |page=92}}</ref><ref name="John Michael Francis 2005">{{cite book | author=John Michael Francis |title=Iberia and the Americas | publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]|year=2005|url=https://books.google.com/?id=OMNoS-g1h8cC&pg=PA867&dq=artistic+potato | isbn=978-1-85109-426-4 }}</ref> [[Coca]] was domesticated in the Andes, as were the [[peanut]], [[tomato]], [[tobacco]], and [[pineapple]].<ref name=Murphy2011/> [[Cotton]] was domesticated in [[Peru]] by 3,600 BC.<ref name="Broudy1979 p81">{{cite book |last=Broudy |first=Eric |title=The Book of Looms: A History of the Handloom from Ancient Times to the Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=shN5_-W1RzcC&pg=PA81 |year=1979 |publisher=UPNE |isbn=978-0-87451-649-4 |page=81}}</ref> Animals, too, including [[llama]]s, [[alpaca]]s, and [[guinea pig]]s were domesticated in the region.<ref name="RischkowskyPilling2007">{{cite book |last1=Rischkowsky |first1=Barbara |last2=Pilling |first2=Dafydd |title=The State of the World's Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Skpj197tU0oC&pg=PA10 |year=2007 |publisher=Food & Agriculture Organization |isbn=978-92-5-105762-9 |page=10}}</ref> [[History of agriculture in the United States|In North America]], the indigenous people of the [[Eastern Agricultural Complex|East domesticated crops]] such as [[sunflower]], tobacco,<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Heiser Jr | first1=Carl B. | year=1992 | title=On possible sources of the tobacco of prehistoric Eastern North America | url=| journal=Current Anthropology | volume=33 | issue=| pages=54–56 | doi=10.1086/204032}}</ref> squash and ''[[Chenopodium]]''.<ref>''Prehistoric Food Production in North America'', edited by Richard I. Ford. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Anthropological Papers 75.</ref><ref>Adair, Mary J. (1988) ''Prehistoric Agriculture in the Central Plains.'' Publications in Anthropology 16. University of Kansas, Lawrence.</ref> Wild foods including [[wild rice]] and [[maple sugar]] were harvested.<ref name="Smith2013">{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Andrew |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DOJMAgAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA571 |year=2013 |publisher=OUP USA |isbn=978-0-19-973496-2 |pages=1–}}</ref> The domesticated [[strawberry]] is a hybrid of a Chilean and a North American species, developed by breeding in Europe and North America.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hardigan|first1=Michael A.|title=P0653: Domestication History of Strawberry: Population Bottlenecks and Restructuring of Genetic Diversity through Time|url=https://pag.confex.com/pag/xxvi/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/28409|publisher=Pland & Animal Genome Conference XXVI January 13–17, 2018 San Diego, California|accessdate=28 February 2018}}</ref> The [[Agriculture in the prehistoric Southwest|indigenous people of the Southwest]] and the Pacific Northwest practiced [[forest gardening]] and [[fire-stick farming]]. The [[Native American use of fire|natives controlled fire]] on a regional scale to create a low-intensity [[fire ecology]] which [[Sustainable agriculture|sustained a low-density agriculture]] in loose rotation; a sort of "wild" [[permaculture]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Fire in California's Ecosystems |editor1=Neil G. Sugihara |editor2=Jan W. Van Wagtendonk |editor3=Kevin E. Shaffer |editor4=Joann Fites-Kaufman |editor5=Andrea E. Thode |publisher=University of California Press |year=2006 |pages=417 |chapter=17 |isbn=978-0-520-24605-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor=Blackburn, Thomas C. and Kat Anderson |year=1993 |title=Before the Wilderness: Environmental Management by Native Californians |publisher=Ballena Press |isbn=978-0879191269}}</ref><ref name=Cunningham2010>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nuYuYGHwCygC&pg=PA135 |pages=135, 173–202 |last=Cunningham |first=Laura |title=State of Change: Forgotten Landscapes of California |publisher=Heyday |year=2010 |isbn=978-1597141369}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Anderson |first=M. Kat |title=Tending the Wild: Native American Knowledge And the Management of California's Natural Resources |publisher=University of California Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0520248519}}</ref> A system of [[companion planting]] called [[Three Sisters (agriculture)|the Three Sisters]] was [[Agriculture on the prehistoric Great Plains|developed on the Great Plains]], the three crops being [[winter squash]], maize, and climbing beans.<ref name="wilson">{{cite book |title=Agriculture of the Hidatsa Indians: An Indian Interpretation |last=Wilson |first=Gilbert |year=1917 |publisher=Dodo Press |isbn=978-1409942337 |pages=25 and passim |url=http://www.bookdepository.com/publishers/Dodo-Press |ref=wilson1917 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314055513/http://www.bookdepository.com/publishers/Dodo-Press |archivedate=2016-03-14 |df= }}</ref><ref name="landon">{{cite journal|last=Landon|first=Amanda J.|title=The "How" of the Three Sisters: The Origins of Agriculture in Mesoamerica and the Human Niche|journal=Nebraska Anthropologist|year=2008|url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1039&context=nebanthro |pages=110–124}}</ref> [[Indigenous Australians]], long supposed to have been nomadic [[hunter-gatherers]], practised systematic burning to enhance natural productivity in fire-stick farming.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Jones | first1=R | year=1969 | title=Fire-stick Farming | url=| journal=Australian Natural History | volume=16 | issue=| page=224 }}</ref> The [[Gunditjmara]] and other groups developed eel farming and fish trapping systems from some 5,000 years ago.<ref>Williams, E. (1988) ''Complex Hunter-Gatherers: A Late Holocene Example from Temperate Australia''. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford</ref> There is evidence of 'intensification' across the whole continent over that period.<ref>Lourandos, H. (1997) ''Continent of Hunter-Gatherers: New Perspectives in Australian Prehistory'' Cambridge, Cambridge University Press</ref> In two regions of Australia, the central west coast and eastern central Australia, early agriculture with crops of yams, native millet, and bush onions may have been practised in permanent settlements.<ref>{{cite book | last=Gammage | first=Bill |author-link=Bill Gammage | date=October 2011 | title=The Biggest Estate on Earth: How Aborigines made Australia | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aUddY9fGkNMC | publisher=Allen & Unwin | isbn=978-1742377483 |pages=281–304}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Gerritsen, R. |date=2008 |title=Australia and the Origins of Agriculture |publisher=Archaeopress |pages=29–30}}</ref> ===Revolution=== [[File:Islamic Spain agricultural scene.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|The [[Arab Agricultural Revolution]], starting in [[Al-Andalus]] (Islamic Spain), transformed agriculture with improved techniques and the diffusion of crop plants.<ref name=Watson/>]] In the Middle Ages, both [[Arab Agricultural Revolution|in the Islamic world]] and in Europe, agriculture was transformed with improved techniques and the diffusion of crop plants, including the introduction of sugar, rice, cotton and fruit trees such as the [[orange (fruit)|orange]] to Europe by way of [[Al-Andalus]].<ref name=Watson>{{cite journal |first=Andrew M. |last=Watson |date=1974 |title=The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700–1100 |journal=The Journal of Economic History |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=8–35 |doi=10.1017/s0022050700079602}}</ref><ref name=NatGeographic2015>{{cite book |author=National Geographic |title=Food Journeys of a Lifetime |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h2Q5BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA126 |year=2015 |publisher=[[National Geographic Society]] |isbn=978-1-4262-1609-1 |page=126}}</ref> After 1492, the [[Columbian exchange]] brought New World crops such as maize, potatoes, tomatoes, [[sweet potato]]es and [[manioc]] to Europe, and Old World crops such as wheat, barley, rice and [[turnip]]s, and livestock including horses, cattle, sheep and goats to the Americas.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/american-indians/essays/columbian-exchange |title=The Columbian Exchange |publisher=The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History |author=Crosby, Alfred |accessdate=11 May 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130703092537/http://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/american-indians/essays/columbian-exchange |archivedate=3 July 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[Irrigation]], [[crop rotation]], and [[fertilizers]] were greatly developed in the past 200 years, starting with the [[British Agricultural Revolution]], allowing global population to rise significantly. Since 1900, agriculture in the developed nations, and to a lesser extent in the developing world, has seen large rises in productivity as human labor has been replaced by [[Mechanized farming|mechanization]], and assisted by [[synthetic fertilizer]]s, pesticides, and [[selective breeding]]. The [[Haber-Bosch]] method allowed the synthesis of [[ammonium nitrate]] fertilizer on an industrial scale, greatly increasing [[crop yields]] and sustaining a further increase in global population.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/hort_306/text/lec32.pdf |title=Agricultural Scientific Revolution: Mechanical |author=Janick, Jules |publisher=Purdue University |accessdate=24 May 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525074054/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Hort_306/text/lec32.pdf |archivedate=25 May 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.nae.edu/Publications/Bridge/52548/52645.aspx |title=The Impact of Mechanization on Agriculture |journal=The Bridge on Agriculture and Information Technology |date=2011 |volume=41 |number=3 |author=Reid, John F. |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105033809/http://www.nae.edu/Publications/Bridge/52548/52645.aspx |archivedate=5 November 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Modern agriculture has raised political issues including [[water pollution]], [[biofuel]]s, [[genetically modified organism]]s, [[tariff]]s and [[Agricultural subsidy|farm subsidies]], leading to alternative approaches such as the [[organic movement]].<ref name="motherjones1">{{cite web |url=https://www.motherjones.com/tom-philpott/2013/04/history-nitrogen-fertilizer-ammonium-nitrate |author=Philpott, Tom |title=A Brief History of Our Deadly Addiction to Nitrogen Fertilizer |date=19 April 2013 |accessdate=7 May 2013 |publisher=Mother Jones |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505115125/https://www.motherjones.com/tom-philpott/2013/04/history-nitrogen-fertilizer-ammonium-nitrate |archivedate=5 May 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref name="smh.com.au">{{cite journal |url=http://www.smh.com.au/world/ten-worst-famines-of-the-20th-century-20110815-1iu2w.html |title=Ten worst famines of the 20th century |journal=Sydney Morning Herald |date=15 August 2011 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140703063152/http://www.smh.com.au/world/ten-worst-famines-of-the-20th-century-20110815-1iu2w.html |archivedate=3 July 2014 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> == Types == [[File:Reindeer herding.jpg|thumb|left|[[Reindeer]] herds form the basis of pastoral agriculture for several Arctic and Subarctic peoples.]] [[Pastoralism]] involves managing domesticated animals. In [[nomadic pastoralism]], herds of livestock are moved from place to place in search of pasture, fodder, and water. This type of farming is practised in arid and semi-arid regions of Sahara, Central Asia and some parts of India.<ref>{{cite book | last=Blench | first=Roger | title=Pastoralists in the new millennium | publisher=FAO | date=2001 | pages=11–12 | url=http://www.odi.org.uk/work/projects/pdn/eps.pdf | deadurl=no | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120201000745/http://www.odi.org.uk/work/projects/pdn/eps.pdf | archivedate=1 February 2012 | df=dmy-all }}</ref> In [[shifting cultivation]], a small area of a forest is cleared by cutting down all the trees and the area is burned. The land is then used for growing crops for several years. When the soil becomes less fertile, the area is then abandoned. Another patch of land is selected and the process is repeated. This type of farming is practiced mainly in areas with abundant rainfall where the forest regenerates quickly. This practice is used in Northeast India, Southeast Asia, and the Amazon Basin.<ref>{{cite web|title=Shifting cultivation|url=http://www.survivalinternational.org/about/swidden|publisher=[[Survival International]]|accessdate=28 August 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160829015112/http://www.survivalinternational.org/about/swidden|archivedate=29 August 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[File:Manuring a vegetable garden.jpg|thumb|Spreading manure by hand in Zambia]] [[Subsistence farming]] is practiced to satisfy family or local needs alone, with little left over for transport elsewhere. It is intensively practiced in Monsoon Asia and South-East Asia.<ref>{{cite book |author=Waters, Tony |title=The Persistence of Subsistence Agriculture: life beneath the level of the marketplace |publisher=Lexington Books |date=2007}}</ref> If the typical subsistence [[farmer]] is equivalent to a smallholder, then there are an estimated 2.5 billion such farmers in 2018, cultivating about 60% of the earth's [[arable land]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=<!--no byline--> |date=7 March 2018 |title=Chinese project offers a brighter farming future |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-02742-3 |department=Editorial |journal=Nature |volume=555 |issue=7695 |page=141 |doi=10.1038/d41586-018-02742-3|pmid=29517037 }}</ref> In [[intensive farming]], the crops are cultivated to maximise profit, with a low fallow ratio and a high use of inputs. This type of farming is practiced mainly in highly developed countries.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9042533 Encyclopædia Britannica's definition of Intensive Agriculture] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060705221311/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9042533 |date=5 July 2006 }}</ref><ref name="bbcFactSheet">[http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/biology/livingthingsenvironment/4foodandsustainabilityrev5.shtml BBC School fact sheet on intensive farming] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070503035007/http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/biology/livingthingsenvironment/4foodandsustainabilityrev5.shtml |date=3 May 2007 }}</ref> == Contemporary agriculture == ===Status=== [[File:Farm in Hainan 01.jpg|thumb|left|China has the largest agricultural output of any country.<ref name=UNCTAD2017/>]] In the past century, agriculture has been characterized by increased productivity, the substitution of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides for labor, water pollution, and farm subsidies. In recent years there has been a backlash against the [[environmental awareness|environmental effects]] of conventional agriculture, resulting in the [[organic farming|organic]], [[Regenerative agriculture|regenerative]], and [[sustainable agriculture]] movements.<ref name="motherjones1"/><ref>{{cite web |publisher=The World Bank |year=1995 |url=http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?pagePK=64165259&theSitePK=469372&piPK=64165421&menuPK=64166093&entityID=000009265_3970311122936 |title=Overcoming agricultural pollution of water: the challenge of integrating agricultural and environmental policies in the European Union, Volume 1 |accessdate=15 April 2013 |author=Scheierling, Susanne M. |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605112426/http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?pagePK=64165259&theSitePK=469372&piPK=64165421&menuPK=64166093&entityID=000009265_3970311122936 |archivedate=5 June 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> One of the major forces behind this movement has been the [[European Union]], which first certified [[organic food]] in 1991 and began reform of its [[Common Agricultural Policy]] (CAP) in 2005 to phase out commodity-linked farm subsidies,<ref>{{cite web |publisher=European Commission |year=2003 |url=http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/capreform/index_en.htm |title=CAP Reform |accessdate=15 April 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101017124251/http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/capreform/index_en.htm |archivedate=17 October 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> also known as [[Decoupling and re-coupling|decoupling]]. The growth of organic farming has renewed research in alternative technologies such as [[integrated pest management]] and selective breeding.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Poincelot |first1=Raymond P. |title=Organic Farming |journal=Towards a More Sustainable Agriculture |pages=14–32|doi=10.1007/978-1-4684-1506-3_2 |year=1986 |isbn=978-1-4684-1508-7 }}</ref> Recent mainstream technological developments include [[genetically modified food]].<ref>[http://www.bis.gov.uk/files/file15655.pdf GM Science Review First Report] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016100707/http://www.bis.gov.uk/files/file15655.pdf |date=October 16, 2013 }}, Prepared by the UK GM Science Review panel (July 2003). Chairman Professor Sir David King, Chief Scientific Advisor to the UK Government, P 9</ref> Demand for non-food biofuel crops,<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Smith, Kate |author2=Edwards, Rob |date=8 March 2008 |url=http://www.heraldscotland.com/2008-the-year-of-global-food-crisis-1.828546 |title=2008: The year of global food crisis |journal=The Herald |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130411220739/http://www.heraldscotland.com/2008-the-year-of-global-food-crisis-1.828546 |archivedate=11 April 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> development of former farm lands, rising transportation costs, [[climate change]], growing consumer demand in China and India, and [[population growth]],<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2008/0118/p08s01-comv.html |title=The global grain bubble |journal=The Christian Science Monitor |date=18 January 2008 |accessdate=26 September 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091130063759/http://www.csmonitor.com/2008/0118/p08s01-comv.html |archivedate=30 November 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> are threatening [[food security]] in many parts of the world.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/7284196.stm |title=The cost of food: Facts and figures |publisher=BBC |date=16 October 2008 |accessdate=26 September 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090120025945/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/7284196.stm |archivedate=20 January 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Walt, Vivienne |date=27 February 2008 |url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1717572,00.html |title=The World's Growing Food-Price Crisis |journal=Time |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111129211855/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1717572,00.html |archivedate=29 November 2011 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="guardian.co.uk">Watts, Jonathan (4 December 2007). [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/dec/04/china.business "Riots and hunger feared as demand for grain sends food costs soaring"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130901074034/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/dec/04/china.business |date=1 September 2013 }}, ''The Guardian'' (London).</ref><ref name="timesonline.co.uk">Mortished, Carl (7 March 2008).[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/environment/article3500975.ece "Already we have riots, hoarding, panic: the sign of things to come?"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814134028/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/environment/article3500975.ece |date=14 August 2011 }}, ''The Times'' (London).</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Borger, Julian (26 February 2008). [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/feb/26/food.unitednations "Feed the world? We are fighting a losing battle, UN admits"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225150554/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/feb/26/food.unitednations |date=25 December 2016 }}, ''The Guardian'' (London).</ref> The [[International Fund for Agricultural Development]] posits that an increase in [[smallholding|smallholder agriculture]] may be part of the solution to concerns about food prices and overall food security, given the favorable experience of Vietnam.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ifad.org/operations/food/farmer.htm |title=Food prices: smallholder farmers can be part of the solution |publisher=International Fund for Agricultural Development |accessdate=24 April 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505224355/http://www.ifad.org/operations/food/farmer.htm |archivedate=5 May 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[soil retrogression and degradation|Soil degradation]] and diseases such as [[stem rust]] are major concerns globally;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/rust/stem/rust-report/stem-ug99racettksk/en/|title=Wheat Stem Rust – UG99 (Race TTKSK)|publisher=FAO|accessdate=6 January 2014|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107064545/http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/rust/stem/rust-report/stem-ug99racettksk/en/|archivedate=7 January 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref> approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded.<ref>Sample, Ian (31 August 2007). [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/aug/31/climatechange.food "Global food crisis looms as climate change and population growth strip fertile land"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429094959/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/aug/31/climatechange.food |date=29 April 2016 }}, ''The Guardian'' (London).</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.mongabay.com/2006/1214-unu.html |title=Africa may be able to feed only 25% of its population by 2025 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111127175559/http://news.mongabay.com/2006/1214-unu.html |archivedate=27 November 2011 |work=[[Mongabay]] |date=14 December 2006 |accessdate=15 July 2016 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref> By 2015, the [[Agriculture in China|agricultural output of China]] was the largest in the world, followed by the European Union, India and the United States.<ref name=UNCTAD2017/> Economists measure the [[total factor productivity]] of agriculture and by this measure agriculture in the United States is roughly 1.7 times more productive than it was in 1948.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=USDA Economic Research Service |url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/data/agproductivity/ |title=Agricultural Productivity in the United States |date=5 July 2012 |accessdate=22 April 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130201021133/http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/AgProductivity/ |archivedate=1 February 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> === Workforce === [[File:Transition from agriculture to developed economy.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|On the [[three-sector theory]], the proportion of people working in agriculture (left-hard bar in each group, green) falls as an economy becomes more developed.]] Following the [[three-sector theory]], the number of people employed in agriculture and other [[primary sector|primary]] activities (such as fishing) can be more than 80% in the least developed countries, and less than 2% in the most highly developed countries.<ref name=LaborForce>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2048.html|title=Labor Force – By Occupation|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|website=The World Factbook|accessdate=4 May 2013|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140522214333/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2048.html|archivedate=22 May 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Since the [[Industrial Revolution]], many countries have made the transition to developed economies, and the proportion of people working in agriculture has steadily fallen. During the 16th century in Europe, for example, between 55 and 75% of the population was engaged in agriculture; by the 19th century, this had dropped to between 35 and 65%.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://economics.ouls.ox.ac.uk/13621/1/uuid9ef3c3c6-512f-44b6-b74e-53266cc42ae2-ATTACHMENT01.pdf |title=Economic structure and agricultural productivity in Europe, 1300–1800 |journal=European Review of Economic History |volume=3 |pages=1–25 |author=Allen, Robert C. |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141027195415/http://economics.ouls.ox.ac.uk/13621/1/uuid9ef3c3c6-512f-44b6-b74e-53266cc42ae2-ATTACHMENT01.pdf |archivedate=27 October 2014 }}</ref> In the same countries today, the figure is less than 10%.<ref name=LaborForce/> At the start of the 21st century, some one billion people, or over 1/3 of the available work force, were employed in agriculture. It constitutes approximately 70% of the global employment of children, and in many countries employs the largest percentage of women of any industry.<ref name=ILO /> The service sector overtook the agricultural sector as the largest global employer in 2007.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.financialexpress.com/news/story/191279|title=Services sector overtakes farming as world's biggest employer: ILO |agency=Associated Press |date=26 January 2007 |accessdate=24 April 2013 |publisher=''The Financial Express'' |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013062206/http://www.financialexpress.com/news/story/191279| archivedate=13 October 2013 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> === Safety === [[File:Ford Tractor with ROPS bar fitted.JPG|thumb|left|[[Rollover protection system|Rollover protection bar]] on a mid-20th century [[Fordson tractor]]]] {{Main |Agricultural safety and health}} Agriculture, specifically [[farm]]ing, remains a hazardous industry, and farmers worldwide remain at high risk of work-related injuries, lung disease, [[noise-induced hearing loss]], skin diseases, as well as certain cancers related to chemical use and prolonged sun exposure. On [[industrial agriculture|industrialized farms]], injuries frequently involve the use of [[agricultural machinery]], and a common cause of fatal agricultural injuries in developed countries is [[Rollover protection structure|tractor rollovers]].<ref name="aginjury">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/aginjury/ |title=NIOSH Workplace Safety & Health Topic: Agricultural Injuries |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |accessdate=16 April 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028181205/http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/aginjury/ |archivedate=28 October 2007 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Pesticides and other chemicals used in farming can also be hazardous to worker health, and workers exposed to pesticides may experience illness or have children with birth defects.<ref name=NIOSH_pest>{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2012-108/ |title=NIOSH Pesticide Poisoning Monitoring Program Protects Farmworkers |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |accessdate=15 April 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402004253/http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2012%2D108/ |archivedate=2 April 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> As an industry in which families commonly share in work and live on the farm itself, entire families can be at risk for injuries, illness, and death.<ref name="NIOSH Agri">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/agriculture/ |title=NIOSH Workplace Safety & Health Topic: Agriculture |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |accessdate=16 April 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071009224012/http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/agriculture/ |archivedate=9 October 2007 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Ages 0–6 may be an especially vulnerable population in agriculture;<ref name=WeicheltGorucu2018>{{Cite journal |last=Weichelt |first=Bryan |last2=Gorucu |first2=Serap |date=17 February 2018 |title=Supplemental surveillance: a review of 2015 and 2016 agricultural injury data from news reports on AgInjuryNews.org |url=http://injuryprevention.bmj.com/content/early/2018/02/16/injuryprev-2017-042671 |journal=Injury Prevention |language=en |pages=injuryprev–2017–042671 |doi=10.1136/injuryprev-2017-042671 |pmid=29386372}}</ref> common causes of fatal injuries among young farm workers include drowning, machinery and motor accidents, including with all-terrain vehicles.<ref name="NIOSH Agri" /><ref name=WeicheltGorucu2018/> The International Labour Organization considers agriculture "one of the most hazardous of all economic sectors".<ref name=ILO>{{cite web |url=http://www.ilo.org/safework/info/standards-and-instruments/codes/WCMS_161135/lang--en/index.htm |title=Safety and health in agriculture |publisher=International Labour Organization |accessdate=1 April 2018 |date=21 March 2011}}</ref> It estimates that the annual work-related death toll among agricultural employees is at least 170,000, twice the average rate of other jobs. In addition, incidences of death, injury and illness related to agricultural activities often go unreported.<ref name=ILO2>{{cite web |url=http://www.ilo.org/safework/areasofwork/hazardous-work/WCMS_356550/lang--en/index.htm |title=Agriculture: A hazardous work |publisher=International Labour Organization |accessdate=1 April 2018 |date=15 June 2009 }}</ref> The organization has developed the [[Safety and Health in Agriculture Convention, 2001]], which covers the range of risks in the agriculture occupation, the prevention of these risks and the role that individuals and organizations engaged in agriculture should play.<ref name=ILO /> In America,<!--need to avoid regionalism here--> agriculture has been identified by the [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] as a priority industry sector in the [[National Occupational Research Agenda]] to identify and provide intervention strategies for occupational health and safety issues.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/nora/councils/agff/default.html |title=CDC - NIOSH - NORA Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing Sector Council |date=21 March 2018 |publisher=NIOSH |accessdate=7 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/programs/agff/ |title=CDC - NIOSH Program Portfolio : Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing : Program Description |date=28 February 2018 |publisher=NIOSH |accessdate=7 April 2018}}</ref> In the European Union, the [[European Agency for Safety and Health at Work]] has issued guidelines on implementing health and safety directives in agriculture, livestock farming, horticulture, and forestry.<ref>{{cite web |title=Protecting health and safety of workers in agriculture, livestock farming, horticulture and forestry |url=https://osha.europa.eu/en/tools-and-publications/publications/protecting-health-and-safety-workers-agriculture-livestock/view |publisher=European Agency for Safety and Health at Work |accessdate=10 April 2018 |date=17 August 2017}}</ref> == Production== {{Main|List of countries by GDP sector composition}} {{See also|List of most important agricultural crops worldwide}} Overall production varies by country as listed. {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" |- ! colspan=2|Largest countries by agricultural output according to [[IMF]] and [[CIA World Factbook]], 2015 |- |{{Bar chart|float=center | title = | table_width=70 | bar_width =50 <!-- must be an unformatted number --> | data_max =1,100<!-- Upper bound on the values in the data fields --> | label_type =Economy | data_type ={{center|Countries by agricultural output in 2015 (billions in [[USD]])}} | label1 =(01) '''{{CHN}}''' | data1=1,088 | label2 =(02) '''{{IND}}''' | data2=413 | label3 =(—) '''''{{EU}}''''' | data3=333 | label4 =(03) '''{{USA}}''' | data4=290 | label5 =(04) '''{{IDN}}''' | data5=127 | label6 =(05) '''{{BRA}}''' | data6=110 | label7 =(06) '''{{NGR}}''' | data7=106 | label8 =(07) '''{{PAK}}''' | data8=63 | label9 =(08) '''{{TUR}}''' | data9=62 | label10 =(09) '''{{ARG}}''' | data10=59 | label11 =(10) '''{{JPN}}''' | data11=51 | label12 =(11) '''{{EGY}}''' | data12=47 | label13 =(12) '''{{THA}}''' | data13=47 | label14 =(13) '''{{RUS}}''' | data14=47 | label15 =(14) '''{{AUS}}''' | data15=46 | label16 =(15) '''{{MEX}}''' | data16=43 | label17 =(16) '''{{FRA}}''' | data17=42 | label18 =(17) '''{{ITA}}''' | data18=41 | label19 =(18) '''{{ESP}}''' | data19=39 | label20 =(19) '''{{VNM}}''' | data20=37 | label21 =(20) '''{{IRN}}''' | data21=36 | caption={{resize|88%|The twenty largest countries by agricultural output in 2015, according to the [[IMF]] and [[CIA World Factbook]].}} | isbn=9780309042482 |date=1990-02-01 }} |} {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" |- ! colspan=2|Largest countries by agricultural output according to [[UNCTAD]] at 2005 constant prices and exchange rates, 2015<ref name=UNCTAD2017>{{cite web |url=http://unctadstat.unctad.org/wds/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=95 |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2017-11-26 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020072414/http://unctadstat.unctad.org/wds/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=95 |archivedate=20 October 2017 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> |- |{{Bar chart|float=center | title = | table_width=70 | bar_width =50 <!-- must be an unformatted number --> | data_max =500,000<!-- Upper bound on the values in the data fields --> | label_type =Economy | data_type ={{center|Countries by agricultural output in 2015 (millions in 2005 constant [[USD]] and exchange rates)}} | label1 =(01) '''{{CHN}}''' | data1=418,455 | label2 =(02) '''{{IND}}''' | data2=196,592 | label3 =(03) '''{{USA}}''' | data3=149,023 | label4 =(04) '''{{NGR}}''' | data4=77,113 | label5 =(05) '''{{BRA}}''' | data5=59,977 }} |} === Crop cultivation systems === [[File:An example of slash and burn agriculture practice Thailand.jpg|thumb|left|[[Slash and burn]] shifting cultivation, Thailand]] Cropping systems vary among farms depending on the available resources and constraints; geography and climate of the farm; government policy; economic, social and political pressures; and the philosophy and culture of the farmer.<ref name="FAO FS">{{cite web |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |url=http://www.fao.org/farmingsystems/description_en.htm |title=Analysis of farming systems |accessdate=22 May 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130806063804/http://www.fao.org/farmingsystems/description_en.htm |archivedate=6 August 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref name="PCP APS">Acquaah, G. 2002. Agricultural Production Systems. pp. 283–317 in "Principles of Crop Production, Theories, Techniques and Technology". Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.</ref> Shifting cultivation (or [[slash and burn]]) is a system in which forests are burnt, releasing nutrients to support cultivation of annual and then [[perennial plant|perennial]] crops for a period of several years.<ref name="CS">Chrispeels, M.J.; Sadava, D.E. 1994. "Farming Systems: Development, Productivity, and Sustainability". pp. 25–57 in ''Plants, Genes, and Agriculture''. Jones and Bartlett, Boston, MA.</ref> Then the plot is left fallow to regrow forest, and the farmer moves to a new plot, returning after many more years (10–20). This fallow period is shortened if population density grows, requiring the input of nutrients (fertilizer or [[manure]]) and some manual [[pest control]]. Annual cultivation is the next phase of intensity in which there is no fallow period. This requires even greater nutrient and pest control inputs.<ref name="CS"/> [[File:Intercropping coconut n Tagetes erecta.jpg|thumb|[[Intercropping]] of [[coconut]] and [[Tagetes erecta|Mexican marigold]]]] Further industrialization led to the use of [[monoculture]]s, when one [[cultivar]] is planted on a large acreage. Because of the low [[biodiversity]], nutrient use is uniform and pests tend to build up, necessitating the greater use of [[pesticide]]s and fertilizers.<ref name="PCP APS" /> [[Multiple cropping]], in which several crops are grown sequentially in one year, and [[intercropping]], when several crops are grown at the same time, are other kinds of annual cropping systems known as [[polyculture]]s.<ref name="CS" /> In [[subtropics|subtropical]] and [[arid]] environments, the timing and extent of agriculture may be limited by rainfall, either not allowing multiple annual crops in a year, or requiring irrigation. In all of these environments perennial crops are grown (coffee, chocolate) and systems are practiced such as agroforestry. In [[Temperateness|temperate]] environments, where ecosystems were predominantly [[grassland]] or [[prairie]], highly productive annual farming is the dominant agricultural system.<ref name="CS" /> Important categories of food crops include [[cereal]]s, legumes, forage, fruits and vegetables.<ref name="FAO"/> [[Natural fiber]]s include [[cotton]], [[wool]], [[hemp]], [[silk]] and [[flax]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Profiles of 15 of the world's major plant and animal fibres|url=http://www.fao.org/natural-fibres-2009/about/15-natural-fibres/en/|publisher=FAO|accessdate=26 March 2018|date=2009}}</ref> Specific crops are cultivated in distinct [[growing region]]s throughout the world. Production is listed in millions of metric tons, based on [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]] estimates.<ref name="FAO"/> {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" |- ! colspan=2|Top agricultural products, by crop types <br />(million tonnes) 2004 data |- | Cereals || style="text-align:right;"| 2,263 |- | Vegetables and melons || style="text-align:right;"| 866 |- | [[Root]]s and [[tuber]]s || style="text-align:right;"| 715 |- | Milk || style="text-align:right;"| 619 |- | Fruit || style="text-align:right;"| 503 |- | Meat || style="text-align:right;"| 259 |- | [[Vegetable oil|Oilcrops]] || style="text-align:right;"| 133 |- | Fish (2001 estimate) || style="text-align:right;"| 130 |- | [[Egg (food)|Eggs]] || style="text-align:right;"| 63 |- | [[Pulse (legume)|Pulses]] || style="text-align:right;"| 60 |- | [[Fiber crop|Vegetable fiber]] || style="text-align:right;"| 30 |- | colspan=2|''Source: [[Food and Agriculture Organization]]''<ref name="FAO">{{cite web |url=http://faostat.fao.org/ |title=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAOSTAT) |accessdate=2 February 2013 | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20130118190636/http://faostat.fao.org/| archivedate= 18 January 2013}}</ref> |} {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" |- ! colspan=2|Top agricultural products, by individual crops <br />(million tonnes) 2011 data |- | Sugar cane || style="text-align:right;"| 1794 |- | Maize || style="text-align:right;"| 883 |- | Rice || style="text-align:right;"| 722 |- | Wheat || style="text-align:right;"| 704 |- | Potatoes || style="text-align:right;"| 374 |- | Sugar beet || style="text-align:right;"| 271 |- | Soybeans || style="text-align:right;"| 260 |- | Cassava || style="text-align:right;"| 252 |- | Tomatoes || style="text-align:right;"| 159 |- | Barley || style="text-align:right;"| 134 |- | colspan=2|''Source: [[Food and Agriculture Organization]]''<ref name="FAO" /> |} === Livestock production systems === {{Main|Livestock|Animal husbandry}} {{See also|List of domesticated animals}} [[File:Hog confinement barn interior.jpg|thumb|left|[[Intensive animal farming|Intensively farmed]] pigs]] Animal husbandry is the breeding and raising of animals for meat, milk, [[egg (food)|eggs]], or [[wool]]), and for work and transport.<ref name=Clutton-Brock>{{cite book |author=Clutton-Brock, Juliet |title=A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cgL-EbbB8a0C&pg=PR1 |year=1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-63495-3 |pages=1–2}}</ref> [[Working animal]]s, including horses, [[mule]]s, [[ox]]en, [[water buffalo]], [[camel]]s, llamas, alpacas, [[donkey]]s, and dogs, have for centuries been used to help cultivate fields, [[harvest]] crops, wrangle other animals, and transport farm products to buyers.<ref>{{cite book | last=Falvey | first=John Lindsay | authorlink=Lindsay Falvey | year=1985 | title=Introduction to Working Animals | isbn=978-1-86252-992-2 | location=Melbourne, Australia | publisher=MPW Australia}}</ref> Livestock production systems can be defined based on feed source, as grassland-based, mixed, and landless.<ref name="FAO lps">{{cite web |author1=Sere, C. |author2=Steinfeld, H. |author3=Groeneweld, J. |year=1995 |url=http://www.fao.org/WAIRDOCS/LEAD/X6101E/x6101e00.htm#Contents|title=Description of Systems in World Livestock Systems – Current status issues and trends |publisher=U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization |accessdate=8 September 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121026004040/http://www.fao.org/WAIRDOCS/LEAD/X6101E/X6101E00.HTM#Contents |archivedate=26 October 2012 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> {{as of|2010}}, 30% of Earth's ice- and water-free area was used for producing livestock, with the sector employing approximately 1.3 billion people. Between the 1960s and the 2000s, there was a significant increase in livestock production, both by numbers and by carcass weight, especially among beef, pigs and chickens, the latter of which had production increased by almost a factor of 10. Non-meat animals, such as milk cows and egg-producing chickens, also showed significant production increases. Global cattle, sheep and goat populations are expected to continue to increase sharply through 2050.<ref name=LP>{{cite journal |url=http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/365/1554/2853.full |title=Livestock production: recent trends, future prospects |author=Thornton, Philip K. |doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0134 |pmid=20713389 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B |date=27 September 2010 |volume=365 |issue=1554 |pages=2853–67 |doi-access=free |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304002017/http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/365/1554/2853.full |archivedate=4 March 2016 |df=dmy-all|pmc=2935116 }}</ref> [[Aquaculture]] or fish farming, the production of fish for human consumption in confined operations, is one of the fastest growing sectors of food production, growing at an average of 9% a year between 1975 and 2007.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://content.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1663604,00.html |title=Fish Farming's Growing Dangers |journal=Time |author=Stier, Ken |date=19 September 2007|deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130907071708/http://content.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1663604,00.html |archivedate=7 September 2013 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> During the second half of the 20th century, producers using selective breeding focused on creating livestock [[breed]]s and [[crossbreed]]s that increased production, while mostly disregarding the need to preserve [[genetic diversity]]. This trend has led to a significant decrease in genetic diversity and resources among livestock breeds, leading to a corresponding decrease in disease resistance and local adaptations previously found among traditional breeds.<ref>{{cite journal |title=A global view of livestock biodiversity and conservation – Globaldiv |author=Ajmone-Marsan, P. |journal=Animal Genetics |date=May 2010 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2052.2010.02036.x |pmid=20500752 |volume=41 |issue=supplement S1 |pages=1–5 |url=http://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/148417 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803140941/https://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/148417 |archivedate=3 August 2017 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[File:Broiler house.jpg|thumb|Raising [[chicken]]s intensively for meat in a broiler house]] Grassland based livestock production relies upon plant material such as [[shrubland]], [[rangeland]], and [[managed intensive rotational grazing|pastures]] for feeding [[ruminant]] animals. Outside nutrient inputs may be used, however manure is returned directly to the grassland as a major nutrient source. This system is particularly important in areas where crop production is not feasible because of climate or soil, representing 30–40 million pastoralists.<ref name="CS" /> Mixed production systems use grassland, [[fodder]] crops and grain feed crops as feed for ruminant and monogastric (one stomach; mainly chickens and pigs) livestock. Manure is typically recycled in mixed systems as a fertilizer for crops.<ref name="FAO lps" /> Landless systems rely upon feed from outside the farm, representing the de-linking of crop and livestock production found more prevalently in [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] member countries. Synthetic fertilizers are more heavily relied upon for crop production and manure utilization becomes a challenge as well as a source for pollution.<ref name="FAO lps" /> Industrialized countries use these operations to produce much of the global supplies of poultry and pork. Scientists estimate that 75% of the growth in livestock production between 2003 and 2030 will be in [[confined animal feeding operations]], sometimes called [[factory farming]]. Much of this growth is happening in developing countries in Asia, with much smaller amounts of growth in Africa.<ref name=LP /> Some of the practices used in commercial livestock production, including the usage of [[growth hormone]]s, are controversial.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-02-604_en.pdf |title=Growth Promoting Hormones Pose Health Risk to Consumers, Confirms EU Scientific Committee |date=23 April 2002 |accessdate=6 April 2013 |publisher=European Union |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502123053/http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-02-604_en.pdf |archivedate=2 May 2013 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> === Production practices === [[File:Fendt Tractor Ripping up Kulin.jpg|thumb|left|[[Tillage|Tilling]] an arable field]] {{see|Tillage|Crop rotation|Irrigation}} Tillage is the practice of breaking up the soil with tools such as the plow or [[harrow (tool)|harrow]] to prepare for planting, for nutrient incorporation, or for pest control. Tillage varies in intensity from conventional to [[no-till farming|no-till]]. It may improve productivity by warming the soil, incorporating fertilizer and controlling weeds, but also renders soil more prone to erosion, triggers the decomposition of organic matter releasing CO₂, and reduces the abundance and diversity of soil organisms.<ref name="Soil">Brady, N.C. and R.R. Weil. 2002. Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soils. Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.</ref><ref name="PCP Tillage">Acquaah, G. 2002. "Land Preparation and Farm Energy" pp. 318–38 in ''Principles of Crop Production, Theories, Techniques and Technology''. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.</ref> Pest control includes the management of weeds, [[insect]]s, [[mite]]s, and diseases. Chemical (pesticides), biological ([[biocontrol]]), mechanical (tillage), and cultural practices are used. Cultural practices include crop rotation, [[culling]], [[cover crop]]s, intercropping, [[compost]]ing, avoidance, and [[Disease resistance in fruit and vegetables|resistance]]. Integrated pest management attempts to use all of these methods to keep pest populations below the number which would cause economic loss, and recommends pesticides as a last resort.<ref name="PCP Pest">Acquaah, G. 2002. "Pesticide Use in U.S. Crop Production" pp. 240–82 in ''Principles of Crop Production, Theories, Techniques and Technology''. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.</ref> [[Nutrient management]] includes both the source of nutrient inputs for crop and livestock production, and the method of utilization of manure produced by livestock. Nutrient inputs can be chemical inorganic fertilizers, manure, [[green manure]], compost and [[mineral]]s.<ref name="PCP Soil">Acquaah, G. 2002. "Soil and Land" pp. 165–210 in ''Principles of Crop Production, Theories, Techniques and Technology''. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.</ref> Crop nutrient use may also be managed using cultural techniques such as crop rotation or a [[fallow]] period. Manure is used either by holding livestock where the feed crop is growing, such as in managed intensive rotational grazing, or [[Manure spreader|by spreading]] either dry or liquid formulations of manure on cropland or [[pasture]]s.<ref name="CS nutrient">Chrispeels, M.J.; Sadava, D.E. 1994. "Nutrition from the Soil" pp. 187–218 in ''Plants, Genes, and Agriculture''. Jones and Bartlett, Boston, MA.</ref><ref name="Soil nutrient">Brady, N.C.; Weil, R.R. 2002. "Practical Nutrient Management" pp. 472–515 in ''Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soils''. Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.</ref> [[File:PivotWithDrops.JPG|thumb|A [[center pivot irrigation]] system]] [[Water management]] is needed where rainfall is insufficient or variable, which occurs to some degree in most regions of the world.<ref name="CS" /> Some farmers use irrigation to supplement rainfall. In other areas such as the [[Great Plains]] in the U.S. and Canada, farmers use a fallow year to conserve soil moisture to use for growing a crop in the following year.<ref name="PCP Water">Acquaah, G. 2002. "Plants and Soil Water" pp. 211–39 in ''Principles of Crop Production, Theories, Techniques and Technology''. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.</ref> Agriculture represents 70% of freshwater use worldwide.<ref name="Pimentel water">{{cite journal|author1=Pimentel, D. |author2=Berger, D. |author3=Filberto, D. |author4=Newton, M. |year=2004|title=Water Resources: Agricultural and Environmental Issues|journal=BioScience|volume=54|pages=909–18|doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[0909:WRAAEI]2.0.CO;2|issue=10|display-authors=etal|doi-access=free}}</ref> According to a report by the [[International Food Policy Research Institute]], agricultural technologies will have the greatest impact on food production if adopted in combination with each other; using a model that assessed how eleven technologies could impact agricultural productivity, food security and trade by 2050, the International Food Policy Research Institute found that the number of people at risk from hunger could be reduced by as much as 40% and food prices could be reduced by almost half.<ref name=ifpri>{{cite web |url=http://www.ifpri.org/publication/food-security-world-natural-resource-scarcity |author=International Food Policy Research Institute |title=Food Security in a World of Growing Natural Resource Scarcity |year=2014|publisher=CropLife International |accessdate=1 July 2013|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140305043943/http://www.ifpri.org/publication/food-security-world-natural-resource-scarcity |archivedate=5 March 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[Payment for ecosystem services]] is a method of providing additional incentives to encourage farmers to conserve some aspects of the environment. Measures might include paying for reforestation upstream of a city, to improve the supply of fresh water.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Tacconi | first1=L. | year=2012 | title=Redefining payments for environmental services | journal=Ecological Economics | volume=73 | issue=1| pages=29–36 | doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2011.09.028}}</ref> == Crop alteration and biotechnology == {{Main|Plant breeding}} [[File:Wheat selection k10183-1.jpg|thumb|left|[[Wheat]] cultivar tolerant of high [[salinity]] (left) compared with non-tolerant variety]] Crop alteration has been practiced by humankind for thousands of years, since the beginning of civilization. Altering crops through breeding practices changes the genetic make-up of a plant to develop crops with more beneficial characteristics for humans, for example, larger fruits or seeds, drought-tolerance, or resistance to pests. Significant advances in plant breeding ensued after the work of geneticist [[Gregor Mendel]]. His work on [[dominant allele|dominant]] and [[recessive allele]]s, although initially largely ignored for almost 50 years, gave plant breeders a better understanding of genetics and breeding techniques. Crop breeding includes techniques such as plant selection with desirable traits, [[self-pollination]] and [[cross-pollination]], and molecular techniques that genetically modify the organism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cls.casa.colostate.edu/TransgenicCrops/history.html|title=History of Plant Breeding|date=29 January 2004|publisher=Colorado State University|accessdate=11 May 2013|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130121061931/http://cls.casa.colostate.edu/TransgenicCrops/history.html|archivedate=21 January 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Domestication of plants has, over the centuries increased yield, improved disease resistance and [[drought tolerance]], eased harvest and improved the taste and nutritional value of crop plants. Careful selection and breeding have had enormous effects on the characteristics of crop plants. Plant selection and breeding in the 1920s and 1930s improved pasture (grasses and clover) in [[New Zealand]]. Extensive X-ray and ultraviolet induced mutagenesis efforts (i.e. primitive genetic engineering) during the 1950s produced the modern commercial varieties of grains such as wheat, corn (maize) and barley.<ref>{{cite journal|last= Stadler |first= L. J. |authorlink= Lewis Stadler |author2= Sprague, G.F. |title= Genetic Effects of Ultra-Violet Radiation in Maize: I. Unfiltered Radiation |journal= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume= 22 |issue= 10 |pages= 572–78 |date= 15 October 1936|url= http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/22/10/579.pdf |format= PDF |doi= 10.1073/pnas.22.10.572 |accessdate= 11 October 2007 |pmid= 16588111|pmc= 1076819 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20071024233407/http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/22/10/579.pdf |archivedate= 24 October 2007| deadurl= no|bibcode= 1936PNAS...22..572S }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Berg |first= Paul |author2= Singer, Maxine |title= George Beadle: An Uncommon Farmer. The Emergence of Genetics in the 20th century |publisher= Cold Springs Harbor Laboratory Press |date= 15 August 2003 |isbn= 978-0-87969-688-7 }}</ref> The [[Green Revolution]] popularized the use of conventional [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridization]] to sharply increase yield by creating "high-yielding varieties". For example, average yields of corn (maize) in the US have increased from around 2.5 tons per hectare (t/ha) (40 bushels per acre) in 1900 to about 9.4 t/ha (150 bushels per acre) in 2001. Similarly, worldwide average wheat yields have increased from less than 1 t/ha in 1900 to more than 2.5 t/ha in 1990. South American average wheat yields are around 2 t/ha, African under 1 t/ha, and Egypt and Arabia up to 3.5 to 4 t/ha with irrigation. In contrast, the average wheat yield in countries such as France is over 8 t/ha. Variations in yields are due mainly to variation in climate, genetics, and the level of intensive farming techniques (use of fertilizers, chemical pest control, growth control to avoid lodging).<ref>{{cite journal |last= Ruttan |first= Vernon W. |title= Biotechnology and Agriculture: A Skeptical Perspective |journal= AgBioForum |volume= 2 |issue= 1 |pages= 54–60 |date= December 1999 |url= http://www.agbioforum.org/v2n1/v2n1a10-ruttan.pdf |format= PDF |deadurl= no |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20130521021149/http://www.agbioforum.org/v2n1/v2n1a10-ruttan.pdf |archivedate= 21 May 2013 |df= dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last= Cassman |first= K. | title= Ecological intensification of cereal production systems: The Challenge of increasing crop yield potential and precision agriculture |journal= Proceedings of a National Academy of Sciences Colloquium, Irvine, California |date= 5 December 1998 |url= http://www.lsc.psu.edu/nas/Speakers/Cassman%20manuscript.html |accessdate= 11 October 2007 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20071024001804/http://www.lsc.psu.edu/nas/Speakers/Cassman%20manuscript.html |archivedate= 24 October 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>Conversion note: 1 bushel of wheat=60&nbsp;pounds (lb) ≈ 27.215&nbsp;kg. 1 bushel of maize=56&nbsp;pounds ≈ 25.401&nbsp;kg</ref> === Genetic engineering === {{Main|Genetic engineering}} {{See also|Genetically modified food|Genetically modified crops|Regulation of the release of genetic modified organisms|Genetically modified food controversies}} [[File:CSIRO ScienceImage 382 Genetically Modified Potatoes.jpg|thumb|[[Genetically modified crops|Genetically modified]] potato plants (left) resist virus diseases that damage unmodified plants (right).]] Genetically modified organisms (GMO) are [[organism]]s whose [[Genetics|genetic]] material has been altered by genetic engineering techniques generally known as [[recombinant DNA technology]]. Genetic engineering has expanded the genes available to breeders to utilize in creating desired germlines for new crops. Increased durability, nutritional content, insect and virus resistance and herbicide tolerance are a few of the attributes bred into crops through genetic engineering.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/biotech/20questions/en/index.html|title=20 Questions on Genetically Modified Foods|publisher=World Health Organization|accessdate=16 April 2013|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130327015739/http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/biotech/20questions/en/index.html|archivedate=27 March 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> For some, GMO crops cause [[food safety]] and [[food labeling regulations|food labeling]] concerns. Numerous countries have placed restrictions on the production, import or use of GMO foods and crops.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://current.com/groups/news-blog/93975745_peru-bans-genetically-modified-foods-as-us-lags.htm |title=Peru bans genetically modified foods as US lags |date=28 November 2012 |publisher=Current TV |accessdate=7 May 2013 |author=Whiteside, Stephanie |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130324013255/http://current.com/groups/news-blog/93975745_peru-bans-genetically-modified-foods-as-us-lags.htm |archivedate=24 March 2013 }}</ref> Currently a global treaty, the [[Biosafety Protocol]], regulates the trade of GMOs. There is ongoing discussion regarding the labeling of foods made from GMOs, and while the EU currently requires all GMO foods to be labeled, the US does not.<ref>{{cite book|author=Shiva, Vandana|title=Earth Democracy: Justice, Sustainability, and Peace|publisher=[[South End Press]]|location= Cambridge, MA|year=2005}}</ref> Herbicide-resistant seed has a gene implanted into its genome that allows the plants to tolerate exposure to herbicides, including [[glyphosate]]. These seeds allow the farmer to grow a crop that can be sprayed with herbicides to control weeds without harming the resistant crop. Herbicide-tolerant crops are used by farmers worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y5031e/y5031e0i.htm |title=Benefits and risks of the use of herbicide-resistant crops |author1=Kathrine Hauge Madsen |author2=Jens Carl Streibig |publisher=FAO |accessdate=4 May 2013 |website=Weed Management for Developing Countries |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130604013840/http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y5031e/y5031e0i.htm |archivedate=4 June 2013 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> With the increasing use of herbicide-tolerant crops, comes an increase in the use of glyphosate-based herbicide sprays. In some areas glyphosate resistant weeds have developed, causing farmers to switch to other herbicides.<ref name="Farmers Guide to GMOs">{{cite web |url=http://www.rafiusa.org/pubs/Farmers_Guide_to_GMOs.pdf |title=Farmers Guide to GMOs |publisher=Rural Advancement Foundation International |accessdate=16 April 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120501145751/http://www.rafiusa.org/pubs/Farmers_Guide_to_GMOs.pdf |archivedate=1 May 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2008-02-13/report-raises-alarm-over-superweedsbusinessweek-business-news-stock-market-and-financial-advice |title=Report Raises Alarm over 'Super-weeds' |journal=Bloomberg BusinessWeek |date=13 February 2008 |author=Brian Hindo |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226181242/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2008-02-13/report-raises-alarm-over-superweedsbusinessweek-business-news-stock-market-and-financial-advice |archivedate=26 December 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Some studies also link widespread glyphosate usage to iron deficiencies in some crops, which is both a crop production and a nutritional quality concern, with potential economic and health implications.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Ozturk | display-authors=etal | year=2008 | title=Glyphosate inhibition of ferric reductase activity in iron deficient sunflower roots | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5669940 | journal=New Phytologist | volume=177 | issue= 4| pages=899–906 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02340.x | pmid=18179601 | deadurl=no | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113232909/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5669940 | archivedate=13 January 2017 | df=dmy-all }}</ref> Other GMO crops used by growers include insect-resistant crops, which have a gene from the soil bacterium ''[[Bacillus thuringiensis]]'' (Bt), which produces a toxin specific to insects. These crops resist damage by insects.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aces.uiuc.edu/vista/html_pubs/biotech/insect.htm |title=Insect-resistant Crops Through Genetic Engineering |publisher=University of Illinois |accessdate=4 May 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130121073949/http://www.aces.uiuc.edu/vista/html_pubs/biotech/insect.htm |archivedate=21 January 2013 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Some believe that similar or better pest-resistance traits can be acquired through traditional breeding practices, and resistance to various pests can be gained through hybridization or cross-pollination with wild species. In some cases, wild species are the primary source of resistance traits; some tomato cultivars that have gained resistance to at least 19 diseases did so through crossing with wild populations of tomatoes.<ref>{{cite book |author=Kimbrell, A. |title=Fatal Harvest: The Tragedy of Industrial Agriculture |publisher=Island Press |location=Washington |year=2002}}</ref> ==Environmental impact == {{Main|Environmental issues with agriculture}} [[File:Water pollution in the Wairarapa.JPG|upright|thumb|left|[[Water pollution]] in a rural [[stream]] due to [[Agricultural pollution in New Zealand|runoff from farming activity in New Zealand]]]] ===Effects and costs=== Agriculture imposes multiple external costs upon society through effects such as pesticide damage to nature (especially herbicides and insecticides), nutrient runoff, excessive water usage, and loss of natural environment. A 2000 assessment of agriculture in the UK determined total external costs for 1996 of £2,343 million, or £208 per hectare.<ref name=Pretty2000>{{cite journal |last1=Pretty |year=2000 |title=An assessment of the total external costs of UK agriculture |journal=Agricultural Systems |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=113–36 |doi=10.1016/S0308-521X(00)00031-7 |first1=J |display-authors=1 |last2=Brett |first2=C. |last3=Gee |first3=D. |last4=Hine |first4=R. E. |last5=Mason |first5=C. F. |last6=Morison |first6=J. I. L. |last7=Raven |first7=H. |last8=Rayment |first8=M. D. |last9=Van Der Bijl |first9=G. |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222549141 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113233847/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222549141 |archivedate=13 January 2017 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> A 2005 analysis of these costs in the US concluded that cropland imposes approximately $5 to $16 billion ($30 to $96 per hectare), while livestock production imposes $714 million.<ref name=Tegtmeier2005>{{cite journal |last1=Tegtmeier |first1=E.M. |last2=Duffy |first2=M. |year=2005 |title=External Costs of Agricultural Production in the United States |journal=The Earthscan Reader in Sustainable Agriculture |url=http://www.organicvalley.coop/fileadmin/pdf/ag_costs_IJAS2004.pdf |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205134016/http://www.organicvalley.coop/fileadmin/pdf/ag_costs_IJAS2004.pdf |archivedate=5 February 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Both studies, which focused solely on the fiscal impacts, concluded that more should be done to internalize external costs. Neither included subsidies in their analysis, but they noted that subsidies also influence the cost of agriculture to society.<ref name=Pretty2000 /><ref name=Tegtmeier2005 /> Agriculture seeks to increase yield and to reduce costs. Yield increases with inputs such as fertilisers and removal of pathogens, predators, and competitors (such as weeds). Costs decrease with increasing scale of farm units, such as making fields larger; this means removing [[hedge]]s, ditches and other areas of habitat. Pesticides kill insects, plants and fungi. These and other measures have cut biodiversity to very low levels on intensively farmed land.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Richards |first1=A. J. |title=Does Low Biodiversity Resulting from Modern Agricultural Practice Affect Crop Pollination and Yield? |journal=Annals of Botany |date=2001 |volume=88 |pages=165–172 |doi=10.1006/anbo.2001.146 |url=https://watermark.silverchair.com/880165.pdf |accessdate=10 July 2018|doi-broken-date=2018-09-13 }}</ref> In 2010, the [[International Resource Panel]] of the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] assessed the environmental impacts of consumption and production. It found that agriculture and food consumption are two of the most important drivers of environmental pressures, particularly habitat change, climate change, water use and toxic emissions. Agriculture is the main source of toxins released into the environment, including insecticides, especially those used on cotton.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unep.org/resourcepanel/Publications/PriorityProducts/tabid/56053/Default.aspx |title=Priority products and materials: assessing the environmental impacts of consumption and production |author=International Resource Panel |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme |year=2010 |accessdate=7 May 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224061455/http://www.unep.org/resourcepanel/Publications/PriorityProducts/tabid/56053/Default.aspx |archivedate=24 December 2012 }}</ref> The 2011 UNEP Green Economy report states that "[a]gricultural operations, excluding land use changes, produce approximately 13 per cent of anthropogenic global GHG emissions. This includes GHGs emitted by the use of inorganic fertilisers agro-chemical pesticides and herbicides; (GHG emissions resulting from production of these inputs are included in industrial emissions); and fossil fuel-energy inputs.<ref name="unep.org">UNEP, 2011, Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication, https://www.unenvironment.org/search/node?keys=Towards+a+Green+Economy%3A+Pathways+to+Sustainable+Development+and+Poverty+Eradication</ref> "On average we find that the total amount of fresh residues from agricultural and forestry production for second- generation biofuel production amounts to 3.8 billion tonnes per year between 2011 and 2050 (with an average annual growth rate of 11 per cent throughout the period analysed, accounting for higher growth during early years, 48 per cent for 2011–2020 and an average 2 per cent annual expansion after 2020)."<ref name="unep.org" /> ===Livestock issues === [[File:Biogas.jpg|thumb|Farmyard [[anaerobic digester]] converts waste plant material and manure from livestock into [[biogas]] fuel.]] A senior UN official and co-author of a UN report detailing this problem, Henning Steinfeld, said "Livestock are one of the most significant contributors to today's most serious environmental problems".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2006/1000448/index.html |title=Livestock a major threat to environment |publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization |date=29 November 2006 |accessdate=24 April 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080328062709/http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2006/1000448/index.html |archivedate=28 March 2008 |deadurl=no}}</ref> Livestock production occupies 70% of all land used for agriculture, or 30% of the land surface of the planet. It is one of the largest sources of [[greenhouse gas]]es, responsible for 18% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO₂ equivalents. By comparison, all transportation emits 13.5% of the CO₂. It produces 65% of human-related [[nitrous oxide]] (which has 296 times the global warming potential of CO_2,) and 37% of all human-induced [[methane]] (which is 23 times as warming as CO₂.) It also generates 64% of the [[ammonia]] emission. Livestock expansion is cited as a key factor driving [[deforestation]]; in the Amazon basin 70% of [[Deforestation of the Amazon Rainforest|previously forested area]] is now occupied by pastures and the remainder used for feedcrops.<ref name="LEAD">{{cite web |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625012113/http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/library/key_pub/longshad/A0701E00.pdf |archivedate=25 June 2008 |last1=Steinfeld |first1=H. |last2=Gerber |first2=P. |last3=Wassenaar |first3=T. |last4=Castel |first4=V. |last5=Rosales |first5=M. |last6=de Haan |first6=C. |year=2006 |publisher=U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization |location=Rome |url=http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/library/key_pub/longshad/A0701E00.pdf |title=Livestock's Long Shadow – Environmental issues and options |accessdate=5 December 2008}}</ref> Through deforestation and [[land degradation]], livestock is also driving reductions in biodiversity. Furthermore, the UNEP states that "[[methane emissions]] from global livestock are projected to increase by 60 per cent by 2030 under current practices and consumption patterns."<ref name="unep.org" /> ===Land and water issues === {{See also|Environmental impact of irrigation}} [[File:Crops Kansas AST 20010624.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.1|Circular [[irrigated]] crop fields in [[Haskell County, Kansas|Kansas]]. Healthy, growing crops of [[maize|corn]] and [[sorghum]] are green (sorghum may be slightly paler). [[Wheat]] is brilliant gold. Fields of brown have been recently harvested and plowed or have lain in [[fallow]] for the year.]] Land transformation, the use of land to yield goods and services, is the most substantial way humans alter the Earth's ecosystems, and is considered the driving force in the [[Biodiversity loss|loss of biodiversity]]. Estimates of the amount of land transformed by humans vary from 39 to 50%.<ref name="Vitousek">{{cite journal |author1=Vitousek, P. M. |author2=Mooney, H. A. |author3=Lubchenco, J. |author4=Melillo, J. M. |year=1997 |title=Human Domination of Earth's Ecosystems |journal=Science |volume=277 |pages=494–499 |doi=10.1126/science.277.5325.494 |issue=5325|citeseerx=10.1.1.318.6529 }}</ref> Land degradation, the long-term decline in ecosystem function and productivity, is estimated to be occurring on 24% of land worldwide, with cropland overrepresented.<ref name="FAO GLADA">{{cite web|author=Bai, Z.G. |author2=D.L. Dent |author3=L. Olsson |author4=M.E. Schaepman |last-author-amp=yes |date=November 2008 |title=Global assessment of land degradation and improvement: 1. identification by remote sensing |publisher=FAO/ISRIC |url=http://www.isric.org/isric/webdocs/docs/Report%202008_01_GLADA%20international_REV_Nov%202008.pdf |accessdate=24 May 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213041558/http://www.isric.org/isric/webdocs/docs/Report%202008_01_GLADA%20international_REV_Nov%202008.pdf |archivedate=13 December 2013 }}</ref> The UN-FAO report cites land management as the driving factor behind degradation and reports that 1.5 billion people rely upon the degrading land. Degradation can be deforestation, [[desertification]], [[soil erosion]], mineral depletion, or chemical degradation ([[soil acidification|acidification]] and [[Soil salinity|salinization]]).<ref name="CS" /> [[Eutrophication]], excessive nutrients in [[aquatic ecosystem]]s resulting in [[algal bloom]]s and [[anoxic waters|anoxia]], leads to [[fish kill]]s, loss of biodiversity, and renders water unfit for drinking and other industrial uses. Excessive fertilization and manure application to cropland, as well as high livestock stocking densities cause nutrient (mainly [[nitrogen]] and [[phosphorus]]) [[surface runoff|runoff]] and [[leaching (agriculture)|leaching]] from agricultural land. These nutrients are major [[nonpoint source pollution|nonpoint pollutants]] contributing to [[eutrophication]] of aquatic ecosystems and pollution of groundwater, with harmful effects on human populations.<ref name="Eutr">{{cite journal |author=Carpenter, S. R. |author2=Caraco, N. F. |author3=Correll, D. L. |author4=Howarth, R. W. |author5=Sharpley, A. N. |author6=Smith, V. H. |year=1998 |title=Nonpoint Pollution of Surface Waters with Phosphorus and Nitrogen |journal=Ecological Applications |volume=8 |pages=559–568 |doi=10.1890/1051-0761(1998)008[0559:NPOSWW]2.0.CO;2 |issue=3 |hdl=1808/16724 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Fertilisers also reduce terrestrial biodiversity by increasing competition for light, favouring those species that are able to benefit from the added nutrients.<ref name="Hautier Niklaus Hector">{{cite journal | last=Hautier | first=Y. | last2=Niklaus | first2=P. A. | last3=Hector | first3=A. | title=Competition for Light Causes Plant Biodiversity Loss After Eutrophication | journal=Science | volume=324 | issue=5927 | date=2009 | doi=10.1126/science.1169640 | pmid=19407202 | pages=636–638| bibcode=2009Sci...324..636H }}</ref> Agriculture accounts for 70 percent of withdrawals of freshwater resources.<ref>{{cite web |editor=Molden, D. |url=http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/About_IWMI/Strategic_Documents/Annual_Reports/2006_2007/pdf/IWMI%20Annual%20Report%202006-07.pdf |title=Findings of the Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture |website=Annual Report 2006/2007 |publisher=International Water Management Institute |accessdate=6 January 2014 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107031305/http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/About_IWMI/Strategic_Documents/Annual_Reports/2006_2007/pdf/IWMI%20Annual%20Report%202006-07.pdf |archivedate=7 January 2014 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Agriculture is a major draw on water from [[aquifer]]s, and currently draws from those underground water sources at an unsustainable rate. It is long known that aquifers in areas as diverse as northern China, the [[Ganges|Upper Ganges]] and the western US are being depleted, and new research extends these problems to aquifers in Iran, Mexico and Saudi Arabia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/08/13/stressed-aquifers-around-the-globe/|title=Stressed Aquifers Around the Globe |author=Li, Sophia |date=13 August 2012 |accessdate=7 May 2013 |website=[[The New York Times]] |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402141530/http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/08/13/stressed-aquifers-around-the-globe/ |archivedate=2 April 2013 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Increasing pressure is being placed on water resources by industry and urban areas, meaning that [[water scarcity]] is increasing and agriculture is facing the challenge of producing more food for the world's growing population with reduced water resources.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/ag/magazine/0511sp2.htm |title=Water Use in Agriculture |date=November 2005 |publisher=FAO |accessdate=7 May 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20130615091527/http://www.fao.org/ag/magazine/0511sp2.htm |archivedate=15 June 2013 }}</ref> [[Farm water|Agricultural water]] usage can also cause major environmental problems, including the destruction of natural wetlands, the spread of water-borne diseases, and land degradation through salinization and waterlogging, when irrigation is performed incorrectly.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/ag/magazine/0303sp1.htm |title=Water Management: Towards 2030 |date=March 2003 |publisher=FAO |accessdate=7 May 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510184315/http://www.fao.org/ag/magazine/0303sp1.htm |archivedate=10 May 2013 }}</ref> ===Pesticides === {{Main|Environmental impact of pesticides}} [[File:Crop spraying near St Mary Bourne - geograph.org.uk - 392462.jpg|thumb|Spraying a crop with a [[pesticide]]]] Pesticide use has increased since 1950 to 2.5{{nbsp}}million short tons annually worldwide, yet crop loss from pests has remained relatively constant.<ref name="Pimentel pesticide">{{cite web|author1=Pimentel, D. |author2=T.W. Culliney |author3=T. Bashore |year=1996 |url=http://ipmworld.umn.edu/chapters/pimentel.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19990218073023/http://ipmworld.umn.edu/chapters/pimentel.htm |dead-url=yes |archive-date=18 February 1999 |title=Public health risks associated with pesticides and natural toxins in foods |website=Radcliffe's IPM World Textbook |accessdate=7 May 2013}}</ref> The World Health Organization estimated in 1992 that three million pesticide poisonings occur annually, causing 220,000 deaths.<ref name="WHO">WHO. 1992. ''Our planet, our health: Report of the WHO commission on health and environment''. Geneva: [[World Health Organization]].</ref> Pesticides select for [[pesticide resistance]] in the pest population, leading to a condition termed the "pesticide treadmill" in which pest resistance warrants the development of a new pesticide.<ref name="CS Pest">Chrispeels, M.J. and D.E. Sadava. 1994. "Strategies for Pest Control" pp. 355–83 in ''Plants, Genes, and Agriculture''. Jones and Bartlett, Boston, MA.</ref> An alternative argument is that the way to "save the environment" and prevent famine is by using pesticides and intensive high yield farming, a view exemplified by a quote heading the Center for Global Food Issues website: 'Growing more per acre leaves more land for nature'.<ref name="DAvery">{{cite book |author=Avery, D.T. |year=2000 |title=Saving the Planet with Pesticides and Plastic: The Environmental Triumph of High-Yield Farming |publisher=Hudson Institute |location=Indianapolis}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |publisher=Center for Global Food Issues |url=http://www.cgfi.org |title=Center for Global Food Issues |accessdate=14 July 2016 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160221143850/http://www.cgfi.org/ |archivedate=21 February 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> However, critics argue that a trade-off between the environment and a need for food is not inevitable,<ref name="WH">Lappe, F.M., J. Collins, and P. Rosset. 1998. "Myth 4: Food vs. Our Environment" pp. 42–57 in ''World Hunger, Twelve Myths'', Grove Press, New York.</ref> and that pesticides simply replace [[good agricultural practices|good agronomic practices]] such as crop rotation.<ref name="CS Pest" /> The [[Push–pull agricultural pest management]] technique involves intercropping, using plant aromas to repel pests from crops (push) and to lure them to a place from which they can then be removed (pull).<ref name=PushPull>{{Cite journal|author1=Cook, Samantha M. |author2=Khan, Zeyaur R. |author3=Pickett, John A. |year=2007 |title=The use of push-pull strategies in integrated pest management |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |volume=52| pages=375–400 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ento.52.110405.091407 |pmid=16968206}}</ref> ===Global warming === {{main|Climate change and agriculture}} [[File:Winnowing The Grain, Axum, Ethiopia (Detail) (3157508890).jpg|thumb|left|[[Winnowing]] grain: [[global warming]] will probably harm crop yields in low latitude countries like Ethiopia.]] [[Global warming]] and agriculture are interrelated on a global scale. Global warming affects agriculture through changes in [[instrumental temperature record|average temperatures]], [[rain]]fall, and [[extreme weather|weather extremes]] (like storms and heat waves); changes in pests and diseases; changes in atmospheric [[carbon dioxide]] and ground-level [[ozone]] concentrations; changes in the [[nutrition]]al quality of some foods;<ref name=science-news>{{cite news|first=Susan|last=Milius|url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/nutrition-climate-change-top-science-stories-2017-yir|title=Worries grow that climate change will quietly steal nutrients from major food crops|date=December 13, 2017|work=[[Science News]]|accessdate=January 21, 2018}}</ref> and changes in [[current sea level rise|sea level]].<ref>Hoffmann, U., Section B: Agriculture - a key driver and a major victim of global warming, in: Lead Article, in: Chapter 1, in {{cite book |editor=Hoffmann, U. |title=Trade and Environment Review 2013: Wake up before it is too late: Make agriculture truly sustainable now for food security in a changing climate |url=http://unctad.org/en/pages/PublicationWebflyer.aspx?publicationid=666 |publisher=United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) |location=Geneva, Switzerland |year=2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141128140551/http://unctad.org/en/pages/PublicationWebflyer.aspx?publicationid=666 |archivedate=28 November 2014 |df=dmy |pp=3, 5}}</ref> Global warming is already affecting agriculture, with effects unevenly distributed across the world.<ref name="porter summary">Porter, J.R., ''et al.'', Executive summary, in: [http://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/images/uploads/WGIIAR5-Chap7_FINAL.pdf Chapter 7: Food security and food production systems] (archived [https://web.archive.org/web/20141105164634/https://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/images/uploads/WGIIAR5-Chap7_FINAL.pdf 5 November 2014]), in {{cite book | year=2014 | author=IPCC AR5 WG2 A | editor=Field, C.B. | title=Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II (WG2) to the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) | url=http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg2/ | publisher=Cambridge University Press |display-editors=etal |pp=488–489}}</ref> Future climate change will probably negatively affect [[crop yield|crop production]] in [[low latitude]] countries, while effects in northern [[latitude]]s may be positive or negative.<ref name="porter summary"/> Global warming will probably increase the risk of [[food insecurity]] for some vulnerable groups, such as the [[poverty|poor]].<ref>Paragraph 4, in: Summary and Recommendations, in: {{cite book |author=HLPE |title=Food security and climate change. A report by the High Level Panel of Experts (HLPE) on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security |url=http://www.fao.org/cfs/cfs-hlpe/reports/hlpe-food-security-and-climate-change-report-elaboration-process/en/ |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |location=Rome, Italy |date=June 2012 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141212075812/http://www.fao.org/cfs/cfs-hlpe/reports/hlpe-food-security-and-climate-change-report-elaboration-process/en/ |archivedate=12 December 2014 |df=dmy |p=12}}</ref> Animal husbandry is also responsible for greenhouse gas production of {{CO2}} and a percentage of the world's methane, and future land infertility, and the displacement of wildlife. Agriculture contributes to climate change by [[Human impact on the environment|anthropogenic]] emissions of greenhouse gases, and by the conversion of non-agricultural land such as [[forest]] for agricultural use.<ref>Section 4.2: Agriculture's current contribution to greenhouse gas emissions, in: {{cite book |author=HLPE |title=Food security and climate change. A report by the High Level Panel of Experts (HLPE) on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security |url=http://www.fao.org/cfs/cfs-hlpe/reports/hlpe-food-security-and-climate-change-report-elaboration-process/en/ |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |location=Rome, Italy |date=June 2012 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141212075812/http://www.fao.org/cfs/cfs-hlpe/reports/hlpe-food-security-and-climate-change-report-elaboration-process/en/ |archivedate=12 December 2014 |df=dmy |pp=67–69}}</ref> Agriculture, forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25% to global annual emissions in 2010.<ref>Blanco, G., ''et al.'', Section 5.3.5.4: Agriculture, Forestry, Other Land Use, in: [http://report.mitigation2014.org/report/ipcc_wg3_ar5_chapter5.pdf Chapter 5: Drivers, Trends and Mitigation] (archived [https://web.archive.org/web/20141230092610/http://report.mitigation2014.org/report/ipcc_wg3_ar5_chapter5.pdf 30 December 2014)], in: {{cite book |year=2014 |author=IPCC AR5 WG3 |editor=Edenhofer, O. |title=Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III (WG3) to the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg3/ |publisher=Cambridge University Press |display-editors=etal |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141127222605/http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg3/ |archivedate=27 November 2014 |df=dmy |p=383}}. Emissions aggregated using 100-year [[global warming potential]]s from the [[IPCC Second Assessment Report]].</ref> A range of policies can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture,<ref>Porter, J.R., ''et al.'', Section 7.5: Adaptation and Managing Risks in Agriculture and Other Food System Activities, in [http://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/images/uploads/WGIIAR5-Chap7_FINAL.pdf Chapter 7: Food security and food production systems] (archived [https://web.archive.org/web/20141105164634/https://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/images/uploads/WGIIAR5-Chap7_FINAL.pdf 5 November 2014]), in {{cite book | year=2014 | author=IPCC AR5 WG2 A | editor=Field, C.B. | title=Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II (WG2) to the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) | url=http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg2/ | publisher=Cambridge University Press |display-editors=etal |pp=513–520}}</ref><ref>Oppenheimer, M., ''et al.'', Section 19.7. Assessment of Response Strategies to Manage Risks, in: [http://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/images/uploads/WGIIAR5-Chap19_FINAL.pdf Chapter 19: Emergent risks and key vulnerabilities] (archived [https://web.archive.org/web/20141105164634/https://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/images/uploads/WGIIAR5-Chap19_FINAL.pdf 5 November 2014]), in {{cite book | year=2014 | author=IPCC AR5 WG2 A | editor=Field, C.B. | title=Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II (WG2) to the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) | url=http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg2/ | publisher=Cambridge University Press |display-editors=etal |p=1080}}</ref> and greenhouse gas emissions from the agriculture sector.<ref>Summary and Recommendations, in: {{cite book |author=HLPE |title=Food security and climate change. A report by the High Level Panel of Experts (HLPE) on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security |url=http://www.fao.org/cfs/cfs-hlpe/reports/hlpe-food-security-and-climate-change-report-elaboration-process/en/ |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |location=Rome, Italy |date=June 2012 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141212075812/http://www.fao.org/cfs/cfs-hlpe/reports/hlpe-food-security-and-climate-change-report-elaboration-process/en/ |archivedate=12 December 2014 |df=dmy |pp=12–23}}</ref><ref>Current climate change policies are described in {{cite book |author=Annex I NC |ref=CITEREFAnnex I NC2014 |title=6th national communications (NC6) from Parties included in Annex I to the Convention including those that are also Parties to the Kyoto Protocol |url=http://unfccc.int/national_reports/annex_i_natcom/submitted_natcom/items/7742.php |publisher=United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change |date=24 October 2014 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140802030817/http://unfccc.int/national_reports/annex_i_natcom/submitted_natcom/items/7742.php |archivedate=2 August 2014 |df=dmy}} and {{citation |author=Non-Annex I NC |ref=CITEREFNon-Annex I NC2014 |title=Non-Annex I national communications |url=http://unfccc.int/national_reports/non-annex_i_natcom/items/2979.php |publisher=United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change |date=11 December 2014 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140913171139/http://unfccc.int/national_reports/non-annex_i_natcom/items/2979.php |archivedate=13 September 2014 |df=dmy}}</ref><ref>Smith, P., ''et al.'', Executive summary, in: [http://report.mitigation2014.org/report/ipcc_wg3_ar5_chapter5.pdf Chapter 5: Drivers, Trends and Mitigation] (archived [https://web.archive.org/web/20141230092610/http://report.mitigation2014.org/report/ipcc_wg3_ar5_chapter5.pdf 30 December 2014)], in: {{cite book |year=2014 |author=IPCC AR5 WG3 |editor=Edenhofer, O. |title=Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III (WG3) to the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg3/ |publisher=Cambridge University Press |display-editors=etal |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141127222605/http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg3/ |archivedate=27 November 2014 |df=dmy |pp=816–817}}</ref> ===Sustainability === {{See also|List of sustainable agriculture topics}} [[File:TerracesBuffers.JPG|thumb|upright|Terraces, [[conservation tillage]] and conservation buffers reduce [[soil erosion]] and [[water pollution]] on this farm in Iowa.]] Current farming methods have resulted in over-stretched water resources, high levels of erosion and reduced soil fertility. There is not enough water to continue farming using current practices; therefore how critical water, land, and [[ecosystem]] resources are used to boost crop yields must be reconsidered. A solution would be to give value to ecosystems, recognizing environmental and livelihood tradeoffs, and balancing the rights of a variety of users and interests.<ref>{{cite web |editor=Boelee, E.|url=http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/topics/ecosystems/|title=Ecosystems for water and food security|year=2011|publisher=IWMI/UNEP |accessdate=24 May 2013|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523025920/http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Topics/Ecosystems/|archivedate=23 May 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Inequities that result when such measures are adopted would need to be addressed, such as the reallocation of water from poor to rich, the clearing of land to make way for more productive farmland, or the preservation of a wetland system that limits fishing rights.<ref>{{cite web |author=Molden, D. |url=http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/news_room/pdf/The-scientist_com-Opinion_The%20Water_Deficit.pdf |title=Opinion: The Water Deficit|format=PDF|publisher=''The Scientist'' |accessdate=23 August 2011|deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113125654/http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/news_room/pdf/The-scientist_com-Opinion_The%20Water_Deficit.pdf |archivedate=13 January 2012 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Technological advancements help provide farmers with tools and resources to make farming more sustainable.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://croplife.intraspin.com/pesticides/paper.asp?id=461|author=Safefood Consulting, Inc.|title=Benefits of Crop Protection Technologies on Canadian Food Production, Nutrition, Economy and the Environment|year=2005|publisher=CropLife International|accessdate=24 May 2013|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://archive.is/20130706005846/http://croplife.intraspin.com/pesticides/paper.asp?id=461|archivedate=6 July 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Technology permits innovations like [[conservation tillage]], a farming process which helps prevent land loss to erosion, reduces water pollution, and enhances carbon sequestration.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Trewavas, Anthony |title=A critical assessment of organic farming-and-food assertions with particular respect to the UK and the potential environmental benefits of no-till agriculture |journal=Crop Protection |year=2004 |pages=757–81 |doi=10.1016/j.cropro.2004.01.009 |volume=23 |issue=9}}</ref> According to a report by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI),<ref name=ifpri /> agricultural technologies will have the greatest impact on food production if adopted in combination with each other; using a model that assessed how eleven technologies could impact agricultural productivity, food security and trade by 2050, IFPRI found that the number of people at risk from hunger could be reduced by as much as 40% and food prices could be reduced by almost half.<ref name=ifpri /> The caloric demand of Earth's projected population, with current climate change predictions, can be satisfied by additional improvement of agricultural methods, expansion of agricultural areas, and a sustainability-oriented consumer mindset.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.journals.elsevier.com/ecological-modelling |title=Ecological Modelling |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180123072613/https://www.journals.elsevier.com/ecological-modelling |archivedate=23 January 2018 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> ===Energy dependence === [[File:Baumwoll-Erntemaschine auf Feld.jpeg|thumb|left|[[Mechanised agriculture]]: from the first models in the 1940s, tools like a [[cotton picker]] could replace 50 farm workers, at the price of increased use of [[fossil fuel]].]] Since the 1940s, agricultural productivity has increased dramatically, due largely to the increased use of energy-intensive mechanization, fertilizers and pesticides. The vast majority of this energy input comes from [[fossil fuel]] sources.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/world-oil-supplies-are-set-to-run-out-faster-than-expected-warn-scientists-453068.html |title=World oil supplies are set to run out faster than expected, warn scientists |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101021233714/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/world-oil-supplies-are-set-to-run-out-faster-than-expected-warn-scientists-453068.html |archivedate=21 October 2010 |work=[[The Independent]] |date=14 June 2007 |accessdate=14 July 2016}}</ref> Between the 1960s and the 1980s, the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, with world grain production increasing significantly (between 70% and 390% for wheat and 60% to 150% for rice, depending on geographic area)<ref>{{cite web |title=The Future of the Green Revolution: Implications for International Grain Markets |author=Robert W. Herdt |url=http://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/uploads/files/06132caf-3d72-49e4-817d-ae89e0249d18.pdf |publisher=The Rockefeller Foundation|date=30 May 1997 |accessdate=16 April 2013 |page=2 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019153636/http://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/uploads/files/06132caf-3d72-49e4-817d-ae89e0249d18.pdf |archivedate=19 October 2012 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> as [[world population]] doubled. Heavy reliance on [[petrochemical]]s has raised concerns that oil shortages could increase costs and reduce agricultural output.<ref name="ncseonline.org" /> Industrialized agriculture depends on fossil fuels in two fundamental ways: direct consumption on the farm and manufacture of inputs used on the farm. Direct consumption includes the use of lubricants and fuels to operate farm vehicles and machinery.<ref name="ncseonline.org">{{cite web |author=Schnepf, Randy |date=19 November 2004 |title=Energy use in Agriculture: Background and Issues |website=CRS Report for Congress |url=http://www.nationalaglawcenter.org/wp-content/uploads/assets/crs/RL32677.pdf |publisher=[[Congressional Research Service]] |accessdate=26 September 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927190908/http://www.nationalaglawcenter.org/wp-content/uploads/assets/crs/RL32677.pdf |archivedate=27 September 2013 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> {| class="wikitable floatright" text-align:center;" |- ! colspan=4|Agriculture and food system share (%) of total energy<br />consumption by three industrialized nations |- ! Country ! Year ! Agriculture<br />(direct & indirect) ! Food<br />system |- | style="text-align:left;"| United Kingdom<ref>{{cite web|author=Rebecca White |year=2007 |title=Carbon governance from a systems perspective: an investigation of food production and consumption in the UK |publisher=Oxford University Center for the Environment |url=http://www.eci.ox.ac.uk/research/energy/downloads/eceee07/white.pdf |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719044949/http://www.eci.ox.ac.uk/research/energy/downloads/eceee07/white.pdf |archivedate=19 July 2011 }}</ref> | 2005 | 1.9 | 11 |- | style="text-align:left;"| United States<ref name="ers.usda.gov">{{cite web |author1=Patrick Canning |author2=Ainsley Charles |author3=Sonya Huang |author4=Karen R. Polenske |author5=Arnold Waters |year=2010 |title=Energy Use in the U.S. Food System |website=USDA Economic Research Service Report No. ERR-94 |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/Publications/ERR94/ |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100918182458/http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/err94/ |archivedate=18 September 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> | 2002 | 2.0 | 14 |- | style="text-align:left;"| Sweden<ref name="WallgrenHöjer2009">{{cite journal|last1=Wallgren|first1=Christine|last2=Höjer|first2=Mattias|title=Eating energy—Identifying possibilities for reduced energy use in the future food supply system|journal=Energy Policy|volume=37|issue=12|year=2009|pages=5803–13|issn=0301-4215|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2009.08.046}}</ref> | 2000 | 2.5 | 13 |} Indirect consumption includes the manufacture of fertilizers, pesticides, and farm machinery.<ref name="ncseonline.org" /> In particular, the production of [[nitrogen fertilizer]] can account for over half of agricultural energy usage.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/365/1554/2991.full |title=Energy and the food system |author1=Jeremy Woods |author2=Adrian Williams |author3=John K. Hughes |author4=Mairi Black |author5=Richard Murphy |date=August 2010 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0172 |pmid=20713398 |pmc=2935130 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society |volume=365 |pages=2991–3006 |issue=1554 |doi-access=free |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141227092518/http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/365/1554/2991.full |archivedate=27 December 2014 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Together, direct and indirect consumption by US farms accounts for about 2% of the nation's energy use. Direct and indirect energy consumption by U.S. farms peaked in 1979, and has since gradually declined.<ref name="ncseonline.org" /> [[Food systems]] encompass not just agriculture but off-farm processing, packaging, transporting, marketing, consumption, and disposal of food and food-related items. Agriculture accounts for less than one-fifth of food system energy use in the US.<ref name="css.snre.umich.edu">{{cite web|author1=Martin Heller |author2=Gregory Keoleian |year=2000 |title=Life Cycle-Based Sustainability Indicators for Assessment of the U.S. Food System |publisher=University of Michigan Center for Sustainable Food Systems |url=http://css.snre.umich.edu/css_doc/CSS00-04.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=17 March 2016 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314094203/http://css.snre.umich.edu/css_doc/CSS00-04.pdf |archivedate=14 March 2016 }}</ref><ref name="ers.usda.gov" /> == Disciplines == === Agricultural economics === {{main|Agricultural economics}} Agricultural economics refers to economics as it relates to the "production, distribution and consumption of [agricultural] goods and services".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uidaho.edu/cals/aers/agriculturaleconomics |title=Agricultural Economics |publisher=University of Idaho |accessdate=16 April 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130401181613/http://www.uidaho.edu/cals/aers/agriculturaleconomics |archivedate=1 April 2013}}</ref> Combining agricultural production with general theories of marketing and business as a discipline of study began in the late 1800s, and grew significantly through the 20th century.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/13649/1/wp06-01.pdf |page=4 |title=Agricultural Economics: A Brief Intellectual History |author=Runge, C. Ford |date=June 2006 |accessdate=16 September 2013 |publisher=Center for International Food and Agriculture Policy |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021133005/http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/13649/1/wp06-01.pdf |archivedate=21 October 2013 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Although the study of agricultural economics is relatively recent, major trends in agriculture have significantly affected national and international economies throughout history, ranging from [[tenant farmer]]s and [[sharecropping]] in the post-[[American Civil War]] [[Southern United States]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/t/te009.html |title=Tenant Farming and Sharecropping |website=Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture |publisher=Oklahoma Historical Society |author=Conrad, David E. |accessdate=16 September 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130527204119/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/T/TE009.html |archivedate=27 May 2013 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> to the European [[feudal]] system of [[manorialism]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_YjJc_c4BxsC&pg=PR43&lpg=PR43 |title=Medieval Castles |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |author=Stokstad, Marilyn |isbn=978-0-313-32525-0 |year=2005 |accessdate=17 March 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117123730/https://books.google.com/books?id=_YjJc_c4BxsC&pg=PR43&lpg=PR43 |archivedate=17 November 2016 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> In the United States, and elsewhere, food costs attributed to [[food processing]], distribution, and [[agricultural marketing]], sometimes referred to as the [[Agricultural value chain|value chain]], have risen while the costs attributed to farming have declined. This is related to the greater efficiency of farming, combined with the increased level of [[value added|value addition]] (e.g. more highly processed products) provided by the supply chain. [[Market concentration]] has increased in the sector as well, and although the total effect of the increased market concentration is likely increased efficiency, the changes redistribute [[economic surplus]] from producers (farmers) and consumers, and may have negative implications for rural communities.<ref name=Sexton2000>{{cite journal |author= Sexton, R.J. |year= 2000 |title= Industrialization and Consolidation in the US Food Sector: Implications for Competition and Welfare |journal= American Journal of Agricultural Economics |volume= 82 |issue= 5 |pages= 1087–104 |doi= 10.1111/0002-9092.00106}}</ref> [[File:1846 - Anti-Corn Law League Meeting.jpg|thumb|left|In 19th century Britain, the [[protectionist]] [[Corn Laws]] led to high prices and widespread protest, such as this 1846 meeting of the [[Anti-Corn Law League]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Anti-Corn Law League|url=http://www.liberalhistory.org.uk/history/anti-corn-law-league/|website=Liberal History|accessdate=26 March 2018}}</ref>]] National government policies can significantly change the economic marketplace for agricultural products, in the form of taxation, [[Subsidy|subsidies]], tariffs and other measures.<ref name=LloydCroserAnderson2013>{{cite web |url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/4101/WPS4864.pdf?sequence=1 |title=How Do Agricultural Policy Restrictions to Global Trade and Welfare Differ across Commodities? |author1=Lloyd, Peter J. |author2=Croser, Johanna L. |author3=Anderson, Kym |website=Policy Research Working Paper #4864 |publisher=The World Bank |accessdate=16 April 2013 |date=March 2009 |pages=2–3 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605125346/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/4101/WPS4864.pdf?sequence=1 |archivedate=5 June 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Since at least the 1960s, a combination of trade restrictions, [[exchange rate policy|exchange rate policies]] and subsidies have affected farmers in both the developing and the developed world. In the 1980s, non-subsidized farmers in developing countries experienced adverse effects from national policies that created artificially low global prices for farm products. Between the mid-1980s and the early 2000s, several international agreements limited agricultural tariffs, subsidies and other trade restrictions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/8699/wps3901.pdf?sequence=1 |title=Do Global Trade Distortions Still Harm Developing Country Farmers? |author1=Anderson, Kym |author2=Valenzuela, Ernesto |website=World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3901 |date=April 2006 |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=16 April 2013 |pages=1–2 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605145451/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/8699/wps3901.pdf?sequence=1 |archivedate=5 June 2013 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> However, {{as of|2009|lc=y}}, there was still a significant amount of policy-driven distortion in global agricultural product prices. The three agricultural products with the greatest amount of trade distortion were sugar, milk and rice, mainly due to taxation. Among the [[oilseed]]s, sesame had the greatest amount of taxation, but overall, feed grains and oilseeds had much lower levels of taxation than livestock products. Since the 1980s, policy-driven distortions have seen a greater decrease among livestock products than crops during the worldwide reforms in agricultural policy.<ref name=LloydCroserAnderson2013/> Despite this progress, certain crops, such as cotton, still see subsidies in developed countries artificially deflating global prices, causing hardship in developing countries with non-subsidized farmers.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/poverty-matters/2011/may/24/american-cotton-subsidies-illegal-obama-must-act |title=America's $24bn subsidy damages developing world cotton farmers |author=Kinnock, Glenys |date=24 May 2011 |accessdate=16 April 2013 |publisher=The Guardian |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130906122834/http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/poverty-matters/2011/may/24/american-cotton-subsidies-illegal-obama-must-act |archivedate=6 September 2013 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Unprocessed commodities such as corn, soybeans, and cattle are generally graded to indicate quality, affecting the price the producer receives. Commodities are generally reported by production quantities, such as volume, number or weight.<ref>{{cite web |title=Agriculture's Bounty |url=http://www.ibrc.indiana.edu/studies/AgriculturesBounty.pdf |date=May 2013 |accessdate=19 August 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826100413/http://www.ibrc.indiana.edu/studies/AgriculturesBounty.pdf |archivedate=26 August 2013 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> === Agricultural science === {{further|Agricultural science|Agronomy}} [[File:Research-mapping plant genomes.jpg|thumb|An [[agronomy|agronomist]] mapping a plant [[genome]]]] [[Agricultural science]] is a broad multidisciplinary field of [[biology]] that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and [[social science]]s used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. It covers topics such as agronomy, plant breeding and genetics, [[plant pathology]], crop modelling, soil science, [[entomology]], production techniques and improvement, study of pests and their management, and study of adverse environmental effects such as soil degradation, [[waste management]], and [[bioremediation]].<ref name="Bosso 2015">{{cite book | last=Bosso | first=Thelma | title=Agricultural Science | publisher=Callisto Reference | year=2015 | isbn=978-1-63239-058-5}}</ref><ref name="Boucher 2018">{{cite book | last=Boucher | first=Jude | title=Agricultural Science and Management | publisher=Callisto Reference | year=2018 | isbn=978-1-63239-965-6}}</ref> The scientific study of agriculture began in the 18th century, when [[Johann Friedrich Mayer (agriculturist)|Johann Friedrich Mayer]] conducted experiments on the use of [[gypsum]] (hydrated [[calcium sulphate]]) as a fertilizer.<ref name="JB 1840">John Armstrong, Jesse Buel. ''A Treatise on Agriculture, The Present Condition of the Art Abroad and at Home, and the Theory and Practice of Husbandry. To which is Added, a Dissertation on the Kitchen and Garden.'' 1840. p. 45.</ref> Research became more systematic when in 1843, [[John Lawes]] and [[Henry Gilbert]] began a set of long-term agronomy field experiments at [[Rothamsted Research Station]] in England; some of them, such as the [[Park Grass Experiment]], are still running.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Long Term Experiments|url=https://www.rothamsted.ac.uk/long-term-experiments|publisher=Rothamsted Research|accessdate=26 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Silvertown | first=Jonathan | last2=Poulton | first2=Paul | last3=Johnston | first3=Edward | last4=Edwards | first4=Grant | last5=Heard | first5=Matthew | last6=Biss | first6=Pamela M. | title=The Park Grass Experiment 1856-2006: its contribution to ecology | journal=Journal of Ecology | volume=94 | issue=4 | date=2006 | doi=10.1111/j.1365-2745.2006.01145.x | pages=801–814}}</ref> In America, the [[Hatch Act of 1887]] provided funding for what it was the first to call "agricultural science", driven by farmers' interest in fertilizers.<ref>Hillison, J. (1996). [http://pubs.aged.tamu.edu/jae/pdf/vol37/37-04-08.pdf The Origins of Agriscience: Or Where Did All That Scientific Agriculture Come From?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081002140821/http://pubs.aged.tamu.edu/jae/pdf/vol37/37-04-08.pdf |date=2 October 2008 }}. ''Journal of Agricultural Education''.</ref> In agricultural entomology, the USDA began to research biological control in 1881; it instituted its first large program in 1905, searching Europe and Japan for natural enemies of the [[Lymantria dispar dispar|gypsy moth]] and [[Brown-tail|brown-tail moth]], establishing [[parasitoid]]s (such as solitary wasps) and predators of both pests in the USA.<ref name="Coulson J. R. 2000">Coulson, J. R.; Vail, P. V.; Dix M.E.; Nordlund, D.A.; Kauffman, W.C.; Eds. 2000. 110 years of biological control research and development in the United States Department of Agriculture: 1883–1993. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. pages=3–11</ref><ref name=Berkeley>{{cite web |title=History and Development of Biological Control (notes) |accessdate=10 April 2017 |publisher=University of California Berkeley |url=https://nature.berkeley.edu/biocon/BC%20Class%20Notes/6-11%20BC%20History.pdf |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151124001647/http://nature.berkeley.edu/biocon/BC%20Class%20Notes/6-11%20BC%20History.pdf |archivedate=24 November 2015 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Reardon |first1=Richard C. |title=Biological Control of The Gypsy Moth: An Overview |url=http://www.main.nc.us/SERAMBO/BControl/gypsy.html#conclu |website=Southern Appalachian Biological Control Initiative Workshop |accessdate=10 April 2017 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160905052259/http://www.main.nc.us/SERAMBO/BControl/gypsy.html |archivedate= 5 September 2016}}</ref> ==Policy== {{main|Agricultural policy}} {| class="wikitable floatright" |+ [[Agricultural subsidy|Direct subsidies]] for animal products and feed by [[OECD]] countries in 2012, in billions of US dollars<ref>{{cite web |title=Meat Atlas |publisher=Heinrich Boell Foundation, Friends of the Earth Europe |year=2014 |url=https://www.foeeurope.org/meat-atlas <!--no ISBN exists-->}}</ref> ! Product !! Subsidy |- | Beef and veal || 18.0 |- | Milk || 15.3 |- | Pigs || 7.3 |- | Poultry || 6.5 |- | Soybeans || 2.3 |- | Eggs || 1.5 |- | Sheep || 1.1 |} [[Agricultural policy]] is the set of government decisions and actions relating to domestic agriculture and imports of foreign agricultural products. Governments usually implement agricultural policies with the goal of achieving a specific outcome in the domestic agricultural product markets. Some overarching themes include risk management and adjustment (including policies related to climate change, food safety and natural disasters), [[economic stability]] (including policies related to taxes), natural resources and [[environmental sustainability]] (especially [[water resource management|water policy]]), research and development, and market access for domestic commodities (including relations with global organizations and agreements with other countries).<ref>{{cite journal |page=13 |title=Agricultural and food policy choices in Australia |journal=Sustainable Agriculture and Food Policy in the 21st Century: Challenges and Solutions |date=October 2010 |accessdate=22 April 2013 |author1=Lindsay Hogan |author2=Paul Morris |url=http://coserve.com.au/PDF/VirtualMeeting/ABARE-Agric_food_policy_CONFERENCE_PAPER-2010.pdf}}</ref> Agricultural policy can also touch on [[food quality]], ensuring that the food supply is of a consistent and known quality, food security, ensuring that the food supply meets the population's needs, and [[Conservation biology|conservation]]. Policy programs can range from financial programs, such as subsidies, to encouraging producers to enroll in voluntary quality assurance programs.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://europa.eu/european-union/topics/agriculture_en |title=Agriculture: Not Just Farming&nbsp;. |publisher=European Union |accessdate=8 May 2018}}</ref> There are many influences on the creation of agricultural policy, including consumers, agribusiness, trade lobbies and other groups. [[Agribusiness]] interests hold a large amount of influence over policy making, in the form of [[lobbying]] and [[campaign contribution]]s. Political action groups, including those interested in environmental issues and [[labor union]]s, also provide influence, as do lobbying organizations representing individual agricultural commodities.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://faculty.missouri.edu/ikerdj/papers/SFT-Corporatization%20of%20Fm%20Pol%20(9-10).htm |title=Corporatization of Agricultural Policy |author=Ikerd, John |journal=Small Farm Today Magazine |year=2010 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807024012/http://faculty.missouri.edu/ikerdj/papers/SFT-Corporatization%20of%20Fm%20Pol%20(9-10).htm |archivedate=7 August 2016 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> The [[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]] (FAO) leads international efforts to defeat hunger and provides a forum for the negotiation of global agricultural regulations and agreements. Dr. Samuel Jutzi, director of FAO's animal production and health division, states that lobbying by large corporations has stopped reforms that would improve human health and the environment. For example, proposals in 2010 for a voluntary code of conduct for the livestock industry that would have provided incentives for improving standards for health, and environmental regulations, such as the number of animals an area of land can support without long-term damage, were successfully defeated due to large food company pressure.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2010/sep/22/food-firms-lobbying-samuel-jutzi |title=Corporate Lobbying Is Blocking Food Reforms, Senior UN Official Warns: Farming Summit Told of Delaying Tactics by Large Agribusiness and Food Producers on Decisions that Would Improve Human Health and the Environment |author=Jowit, Juliette |date=22 September 2010 |newspaper=The Guardian |publisher=[[Guardian Media Group]] |accessdate=8 May 2018}}</ref> == See also == {{Main|Outline of agriculture}} {{div col|colwidth=25em}} * [[Aeroponics]] * [[Agricultural aircraft]] * [[Agricultural engineering]] * [[Agricultural robot]] * [[Agroecology]] * [[Building-integrated agriculture]] * [[Contract farming]] * [[Corporate farming]] * [[Crofting]] * [[Ecoagriculture]] * [[Hill farming]] * [[List of documentary films about agriculture]] * [[Pharming (genetics)]] * [[Remote sensing]] * [[Subsistence economy]] * [[Vertical farming]] {{div col end}} == References == {{reflist|30em}} == External links == {{Portal bar|Agriculture and agronomy|Anthropology|Archaeology|Drink|Food}} {{Wikiquote}} * [http://www.fao.org/home/en/ Food and Agriculture Organization] * [http://www.usda.gov United States Department of Agriculture] * [http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/agriculture Agriculture] material from the [[World Bank Group]] * {{NYTtopic|subjects/a/agriculture}} * {{Guardian topic | science/agriculture}} {{Agriculture footer}} {{Horticulture and gardening}} {{authority control}} [[Category:Agriculture| ]] [[Category:Agronomy]] [[Category:Food industry]] qph21cvnkv134xg4lgr1li8vlsxd8rp 0 628 860942730 860454116 2018-09-24T03:18:15Z Ser Amantio di Nicolao 753665 Copying from [[Category:English male short story writers]] to [[Category:English short story writers]] (non-diffusing) using [[c:Help:Cat-a-lot|Cat-a-lot]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{EngvarB|date=October 2017}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2017}} {{Infobox writer | name = Aldous Huxley | image = Aldous Huxley psychical researcher.png | imagesize = 250px | caption = Huxley in 1954 | alt = Monochrome portrait of Aldous Huxley sitting on a table, facing slightly downwards. | birth_name = Aldous Leonard Huxley | birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1894|7|26}} | birth_place = [[Godalming]], [[Surrey]], [[England]] | death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1963|11|22|1894|7|26}} | death_place = [[Los Angeles County, California]], U.S. | resting_place = [[Compton, Guildford|Compton]], Surrey, England | occupation = Writer, novelist | education = [[Eton College]] | alma_mater = [[Balliol College, Oxford]] | notableworks = {{Unbulleted list|class=nowrap |''[[Brave New World]]'' |''[[Island (Huxley novel)|Island]]'' |''[[Point Counter Point]]'' |''[[The Doors of Perception]]'' |''[[The Perennial Philosophy]]''}} | spouses = {{Unbulleted list|class=nowrap|{{marriage|Maria Nys|1919|12 February 1955|end=d}}|{{marriage|[[Laura Huxley|Laura Archera]]|1956}}}} | children = [[Matthew Huxley]] | signature = Aldous Huxley signature.svg }} '''Aldous Leonard Huxley''' (26 July 1894 – 22 November 1963) was an English writer, novelist, philosopher,<ref>{{cite book | title = Aldous Huxley | editor-last = Watt | editor-first = Donald | publisher = Routledge | date = 1975 | isbn = 0-415-15915-6 | page = 366 | quote = Inge's agreement with Huxley on several essential points indicates the respect Huxley's position commanded from some important philosophers … And now we have a book by Aldous Huxley, duly labelled ''The Perennial Philosophy''. … He is now quite definitely a mystical philosopher. | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=8PHKq723vpUC&pg=PA366 | accessdate = 10 April 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title = Aldous Huxley and the Search for Meaning: A Study of the Eleven Novels | last = Sion | first = Ronald T. | date = 2010 | publisher = McFarland & Company, Inc. | isbn = 978-0-7864-4746-6 | page = 2 | quote = Aldous Huxley, as a writer of fiction in the 20th century, willingly assumes the role of a modern philosopher-king or literary prophet by examining the essence of what it means to be human in the modern age. … Huxley was a prolific genius who was always searching throughout his life for an understanding of self and one's place within the universe. | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=77ithOrxlgMC&pg=PA2 | accessdate = 10 April 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{ cite book | title = Aldous Huxley: Brave New World | last = Reiff | first = Raychel Haugrud |year = 2010 | publisher = Marshall Cavendish Corporation | isbn = 978-0-7614-4278-3 | page = 7 | quote = He was also a philosopher, mystic, social prophet, political thinker, and world traveler who had a detailed knowledge of music, medicine, science, technology, history, literature and Eastern religions. }}</ref><ref>{{ cite book | title = Aldous Huxley: A Biography | last = Sawyer | first = Dana | publisher = The Crossroad Publishing Company |year = 2002 | isbn = 978-0-8245-1987-2 | page = 187 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=_uIdAQAAIAAJ&q=aldous+huxley+philosopher&dq=aldous+huxley+philosopher&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjo8s3EnoPMAhUEz2MKHdjQB2E4HhDoAQgbMAA | accessdate = 10 April 2016 | quote = Huxley was a philosopher but his viewpoint was not determined by the intellect alone. He believed the rational mind could only speculate about truth and never find it directly. }}</ref> and prominent member of the [[Huxley family]]. He graduated from [[Balliol College]] at the [[University of Oxford]] with a [[British undergraduate degree classification#First Class Honours|first-class honours]] degree in English literature. The author of nearly fifty books,<ref>Raychel Haugrud Reiff, ''Aldous Huxley: Brave New World'', Marshall Cavendish (2009), p. 101</ref><ref>[[Dana Sawyer]] in M. Keith Booker (ed.), ''Encyclopedia of Literature and Politics: H-R'', Greenwood Publishing Group (2005), p. 359</ref> Huxley was best known for his novels (among them ''[[Brave New World]]'', set in a [[dystopian]] future); for nonfiction works, such as ''[[The Doors of Perception]]'', in which he recalls his experiences taking [[psychedelic drug]]s; and for his wide-ranging [[essays]]. Early in his career, Huxley published short stories and poetry, and edited the literary magazine ''[[Oxford Poetry]]''. He went on to publish travel writing, film stories, [[satire]], and [[screenplays]]. He spent the latter part of his life in the United States, living in [[Los Angeles]] from 1937 until his death.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/expat/expatlife/8751943/The-Britons-who-made-their-mark-on-LA.html|title=The Britons who made their mark on LA|date=2011-09-11|access-date=2018-07-05|language=en-GB|issn=0307-1235}}</ref> Huxley was a [[humanist]] and [[pacifist]]. He became interested in spiritual subjects such as [[parapsychology]] and philosophical [[mysticism]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Thody |first=Philipe |title=Huxley: A Biographical Introduction |year=1973 |publisher=Scribner |isbn=978-0-289-70188-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=David K. Dunaway |title=Aldous Huxley Recollected: An Oral History |url=https://books.google.com/?id=UFasAs0EHU8C&pg=PA90 |year=1995 |publisher=Rowman Altamira |isbn=978-0-7619-9065-9 |page=90}}</ref> and in particular [[universalism]].{{sfn|Roy|2003}} By the end of his life, Huxley was widely acknowledged as one of the pre-eminent intellectuals of his time.<ref>Thody, Philipe (1973)</ref> He was nominated for the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] seven times.<ref>[https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=4397 "Nomination Database: Aldous Huxley"]. Nobel Prize.org. Retrieved 19 March 2015</ref> In 1962, a year before he died, Huxley was elected Companion of Literature by the [[Royal Society of Literature]].<ref>[http://rslit.org/companions-of-literature "Companions of Literature"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102223243/http://rslit.org/companions-of-literature|date=2 January 2015}}. Royal Society of Literature. Retrieved 5 January 2015</ref> == Early life == {{See also|Huxley family}} [[File:LEONARD HUXLEY 1860-1933 JULIAN HUXLEY 1887-1975 ALDOUS HUXLEY 1894-1963 Men of Science and Letters lived here.jpg|thumb|right|[[English Heritage]] [[blue plaque]] at 16 Bracknell Gardens, Hampstead, London, commemorating Aldous, his brother Julian, and father Leonard]] Huxley was born in [[Godalming]], Surrey, England, in 1894. He was the third son of the writer and schoolmaster [[Leonard Huxley (writer)|Leonard Huxley,]] who edited ''[[Cornhill Magazine]]'',<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://digital.nls.uk/jma/topics/publishing/cornhill.html|title=Cornhill Magazine|last=|first=|date=|website=National Library of Scotland|access-date=24 April 2016}}</ref> and his first wife, Julia Arnold, who founded [[Prior's Field School]]. Julia was the niece of poet and critic [[Matthew Arnold]] and the sister of [[Mary Augusta Ward|Mrs. Humphry Ward]]. Aldous was the grandson of [[Thomas Henry Huxley]], the [[Zoology|zoologist]], agnostic, and controversialist ("Darwin's Bulldog"). His brother [[Julian Huxley]] and half-brother [[Andrew Huxley]] also became outstanding biologists. Aldous had another brother, Noel Trevelyan Huxley (1891–1914), who committed suicide after a period of [[Major depressive disorder|clinical depression]].<ref>Holmes, Charles Mason (1978) ''Aldous Huxley and the Way to Reality.'' Greenwood Press, 1978, p. 5</ref> As a child, Huxley's nickname was "Ogie," short for "Ogre."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Aldous Huxley|last=Bedford|first=Sybille|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf / Harper & Row|year=1974|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref> He was described by his brother, Julian, as someone who frequently "[contemplated] the strangeness of things".<ref name=":0" /> According to his cousin and contemporary, Gervas Huxley, he had an early interest in drawing.<ref name=":0" /> Huxley's education began in his father's well-equipped botanical laboratory, after which he enrolled at Hillside School near [[Godalming]].<ref name="Hull2004">{{cite book|author=James Hull|title=Aldous Huxley, Representative Man|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bX3EAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA6|year=2004|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|isbn=978-3-8258-7663-0|page=6}}</ref><ref name="Rintoul2014">{{cite book|author=M.C. Rintoul|title=Dictionary of Real People and Places in Fiction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P3gBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA509|date=5 March 2014|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-136-11940-8|page=509}}</ref> He was taught there by his own mother for several years until she became terminally ill. After Hillside, he went on to [[Eton College]]. His mother died in 1908 when he was 14. In 1911 he contracted the eye disease ([[Keratitis|keratitis punctata]]) which "left [him] practically blind for two to three years."<ref>{{cite book| last = Huxley | first=Aldous |year=1939 |chapter=Biography and bibliography (appendix) |title=After Many A Summer Dies The Swan | series = 1st Perennial Classic |page=243 |publisher=Harper & Row}}</ref> This "ended his early dreams of becoming a doctor."<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Brave New World|last=Huxley|first=Aldous|publisher=Harper Perennial Modern Classics / HarperCollins Publishers|year=2006|isbn=|location=|pages=|chapter=Aldous Huxley: A Life of the Mind}}</ref> In October 1913, Huxley entered [[Balliol College, Oxford]], where he studied English literature.<ref name="Reiff" /> In January 1916, he volunteered for the [[British Army]] in the [[World War I|Great War]], however was rejected on health grounds, being half-blind in one eye.<ref name="Reiff">Raychel Haugrud Reiff (2009). "Aldous Huxley: Brave New World". p. 112. Marshall Cavendish</ref> His eyesight later partly recovered. In 1916 he edited ''[[Oxford Poetry]]'' and in June of that year graduated [[Bachelor of Arts|BA]] with [[British undergraduate degree classification#First Class Honours|first class honours]].<ref name="Reiff" /> His brother Julian wrote: {{Quote|I believe his blindness was a blessing in disguise. For one thing, it put paid to his idea of taking up medicine as a career&nbsp;... His uniqueness lay in his universalism. He was able to take all knowledge for his province.<ref>Julian Huxley 1965. ''Aldous Huxley 1894–1963: a Memorial Volume''. Chatto & Windus, London. p. 22</ref>}} Following his years at Balliol, Huxley, being financially indebted to his father, decided to find employment. From April to July 1917, he was in charge of ordering supplies at the [[Air Ministry]] <!-- for the [[Royal Air Force]] (can't be true; was founded following year!) -->.<ref>Nicholas Murray (2009). "Aldous Huxley: An English Intellectual". Chapter 7. p. 4. Hachette</ref> He taught French for a year at [[Eton College|Eton]], where Eric Blair (who was to take the pen name [[George Orwell]]) and [[Steven Runciman]] were among his pupils. He was mainly remembered as being an incompetent schoolmaster unable to keep order in class. Nevertheless, Blair and others spoke highly of his excellent command of language.<ref name="Crick">{{cite book |last= Crick |first= Bernard | title = George Orwell: A Life |year=1992 |publisher=Penguin Books | location =London |isbn=978-0-14-014563-2}}</ref> Significantly, Huxley also worked for a time during the 1920s at [[Tata Chemicals Europe|Brunner and Mond]], an advanced chemical plant in [[Billingham]] in County Durham, northeast England. According to the introduction to the latest edition of his science fiction novel ''[[Brave New World]]'' (1932), the experience he had there of "an ordered universe in a world of planless incoherence" was an important source for the novel.<ref>{{cite book | last =Baggini |first= Julian |title=Atheism |url= https://books.google.com/?id=DUal7eYmEnEC&pg=PA86 |year=2009 |publisher = Sterling |isbn = 978-1-4027-6882-8 |page= 86}}</ref> == Career == Huxley completed his first (unpublished) novel at the age of 17 and began writing seriously in his early 20s, establishing himself as a successful writer and social satirist. His first published novels were social satires, ''[[Crome Yellow]]'' (1921), ''[[Antic Hay]]'' (1923), ''[[Those Barren Leaves]]'' (1925), and ''[[Point Counter Point]]'' (1928). ''Brave New World'' was Huxley's fifth novel and first dystopian work. In the 1920s he was also a contributor to ''[[Vanity Fair (American magazine 1913–1936)|Vanity Fair]]'' and [[Vogue (British magazine)|British ''Vogue'']] magazines.<ref>Aldous Huxley: Selected Letters". p. 144. Ivan R. Dee, 2007</ref> === Bloomsbury Set === [[File:SomeBloomsburymembers.jpg|thumb|right|Left to right: [[Bloomsbury Group]] members [[Lady Ottoline Morrell]], Maria Nys, [[Lytton Strachey]], [[Duncan Grant]], and [[Vanessa Bell]] ]] During World War I, Huxley spent much of his time at [[Garsington Manor]] near Oxford, home of [[Lady Ottoline Morrell]], working as a farm labourer. There he met several [[Bloomsbury Group|Bloomsbury]] figures, including [[Bertrand Russell]], [[Alfred North Whitehead]],<ref>{{Citation | last = Weber | first = Michel | author-link = Michel Weber | url = https://www.academia.edu/3268912/_On_Religiousness_and_Religion._Huxleys_Reading_of_Whiteheads_Religion_in_the_Making_in_the_Light_of_James_Varieties_of_Religious_Experience_2005_ | title = On Religiousness and Religion. Huxley's Reading of Whitehead's Religion in the Making in the Light of James' Varieties of Religious Experience | editor1-first = Jerome | editor1-last = Meckier | editor2-first = Bernfried | editor2-last = Nugel | newspaper = Aldous Huxley Annual. A Journal of Twentieth-Century Thought and Beyond | volume = 5 | place = Münster | publisher = LIT | date = March 2005 | pages = 117–32}}.</ref> and [[Clive Bell]]. Later, in ''[[Crome Yellow]]'' (1921) he caricatured the Garsington lifestyle. Jobs were very scarce, but in 1919 [[John Middleton Murry]] was reorganising the ''[[Athenaeum (British magazine)|Athenaeum]]'' and invited Huxley to join the staff. He accepted immediately, and quickly married the Belgian refugee Maria Nys, also at Garsington.<ref>{{Citation | title = The Huxleys | first = Ronald W | last = Clark | publisher = William Heinemann | place = London | year = 1968}}.</ref> They lived with their young son in Italy part of the time during the 1920s, where Huxley would visit his friend [[D. H. Lawrence]]. Following Lawrence's death in 1930, Huxley edited Lawrence's letters (1932).<ref>{{Citation | first = George | last = Woodcock | year = 2007 | title = Dawn and the Darkest Hour: A Study of Aldous Huxley | page = 240 | publisher=Black Rose Books}}.</ref> Works of this period included important novels on the dehumanising aspects of scientific progress, most famously ''[[Brave New World]]'', and on pacifist themes (for example, ''[[Eyeless in Gaza (novel)|Eyeless in Gaza]]''). In ''Brave New World'', set in a [[dystopia]]n London, Huxley portrays a society operating on the principles of mass production and [[Classical conditioning|Pavlovian conditioning]]. Huxley was strongly influenced by [[F. Matthias Alexander]] and included him as a character in ''Eyeless in Gaza''. Starting from this period, Huxley began to write and edit non-fiction works on pacifist issues, including ''[[Ends and Means]]'', ''An Encyclopedia of Pacifism'', and ''Pacifism and Philosophy'', and was an active member of the [[Peace Pledge Union]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ppu.org.uk/people/huxley.html |publisher=Peace Pledge Union |title=Aldous Huxley |accessdate=15 May 2011 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110606072731/http://www.ppu.org.uk/people/huxley.html |archivedate= 6 June 2011 |deadurl= no}}</ref> === United States === In 1937 Huxley moved to [[Hollywood]] with his wife Maria, son [[Matthew Huxley]], and friend [[Gerald Heard]]. He lived in the U.S., mainly in southern California, until his death, and also for a time in [[Taos, New Mexico]], where he wrote ''[[Ends and Means]]'' (published in 1937). The book contains tracts on war, religion, nationalism and ethics. Heard introduced Huxley to [[Vedanta]] ([[Upanishads|Upanishad-centered philosophy]]), meditation, and vegetarianism through the principle of [[ahimsa]]. In 1938, Huxley befriended [[Jiddu Krishnamurti]], whose teachings he greatly admired. Huxley and Krishnamurti entered into an enduring exchange (sometimes edging on debate) over many years, with Krishnamurti representing the more rarefied, detached, ivory-tower perspective and Huxley, with his pragmatic concerns, the more socially and historically informed position. Huxley provided an introduction to Krishnamurti's quintessential statement, ''The First and Last Freedom'' (1954).<ref>Vernon, Roland (2000) ''Star in the East'', pp. 204-207. Sentient Publications: Boulder, CO</ref> Huxley also became a Vedantist in the circle of Hindu [[Swami Prabhavananda]], and introduced [[Christopher Isherwood]] to this circle. Not long after, Huxley wrote his book on widely held spiritual values and ideas, ''[[The Perennial Philosophy]]'', which discussed the teachings of renowned mystics of the world. Huxley's book affirmed a sensibility that insists there are realities beyond the generally accepted "five senses" and that there is genuine meaning for humans beyond both sensual satisfactions and sentimentalities. Huxley became a close friend of Remsen Bird, president of [[Occidental College]]. He spent much time at the college, which is in the [[Eagle Rock, Los Angeles|Eagle Rock]] neighbourhood of [[Los Angeles]]. The college appears as "Tarzana College" in his satirical novel ''[[After Many a Summer]]'' (1939). The novel won Huxley a British literary award, the 1939 [[James Tait Black Memorial Prize]] for fiction.<ref>Haugrud Reiff, Raychel (2003) ''Aldous Huxley: Brave New World'' p. 103. Marshall Cavendish, 2009</ref> Huxley also incorporated Bird into the novel. During this period, Huxley earned a substantial income as a Hollywood screenwriter; [[Christopher Isherwood]], in his autobiography ''My Guru and His Disciple'', states that Huxley earned more than $3,000 per week (an enormous sum in those days) as a screenwriter, and that he used much of it to transport Jewish and left-wing writer and artist refugees from Hitler's Germany to the U.S. In March 1938, his friend [[Anita Loos]], a novelist and screenwriter, put him in touch with [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer]] who hired Huxley for ''[[Madame Curie (film)|Madame Curie]]'', which was originally to star [[Greta Garbo]] and be directed by [[George Cukor]]. (Eventually, the film was completed by MGM in 1943 with a different director and cast.) Huxley received screen credit for ''[[Pride and Prejudice (1940 film)|Pride and Prejudice]]'' (1940) and was paid for his work on a number of other films, including ''[[Jane Eyre (1943 film)|Jane Eyre]]'' (1944). Huxley was commissioned by Walt Disney in 1945 to write a script based on ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' and the biography of the story's author, Lewis Carroll. The script was not used, however.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.salon.com/2010/04/15/mcsweeneys_intellectual_screenplays/|title=7 unproduced screenplays by famous intellectuals|date=2010-04-15|work=Salon|access-date=2018-02-25|language=en-US}}</ref> Huxley wrote an introduction to the posthumous publication of [[J. D. Unwin]]'s 1940 book ''Hopousia or The Sexual and Economic Foundations of a New Society''.<ref>{{Citation | first = JD | last = Unwin | title = Hopousia or The Sexual and Economic Foundations of a New Society | year = 1940 | publisher = Oscar Piest | place = NY}}.</ref> On 21 October 1949, Huxley wrote to [[George Orwell]], author of ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'', congratulating him on "how fine and how profoundly important the book is." In his letter to Orwell, he predicted: {{Quote | Within the next generation I believe that the world's leaders will discover that infant conditioning and narco-hypnosis<ref>https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/narcohypnosis</ref> are more efficient, as instruments of government, than clubs and prisons, and that the lust for power can be just as completely satisfied by suggesting people into loving their servitude as by flogging them and kicking them into obedience.<ref name="Smith">{{cite book |last = Huxley | first=Aldous |editor=Grover Smith |title=Letters of Aldous Huxley |year=1969 |publisher=Chatto & Windus |location=London |isbn = 978-0-7011-1312-4}}</ref>}} Huxley had deeply felt apprehensions about the future the developed world might make for itself. From these, he made some warnings in his writings and talks. In a 1958 televised interview conducted by journalist [[Mike Wallace]], Huxley outlined several major concerns: the difficulties and dangers of world overpopulation; the tendency toward distinctly hierarchical social organisation; the crucial importance of evaluating the use of technology in mass societies susceptible to wily persuasion; the tendency to promote modern politicians to a naive public as well-marketed commodities.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1ePNGa0m3XA |title=The Mike Wallace Interview: Aldous Huxley (18 May 1958) |publisher=YouTube |date=25 July 2011 |accessdate=8 March 2013}}</ref> === Post World War II === In 1953 Huxley and Maria applied for [[Citizenship in the United States|United States citizenship]] and presented themselves for examination. When Huxley refused to bear arms for the U.S. and would not state that his objections were based on religious ideals, the only excuse allowed under the [[McCarran Internal Security Act|McCarran Act]], the judge had to adjourn the proceedings.<ref name="Reiff2009">{{cite book|author=Raychel Haugrud Reiff|title=Aldous Huxley: Brave New World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8JyRntokmqYC&pg=PA31|date=1 September 2009|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=978-0-7614-4701-6|page=31}}</ref><ref name="Murray2009">{{cite book|author=Nicholas Murray|title=Aldous Huxley: An English Intellectual|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7h7CKgXGDi4C&pg=PT309|date=4 June 2009|publisher=Little, Brown Book Group|isbn=978-0-7481-1231-9|page=309}}</ref> He withdrew his application. Nevertheless, he remained in the U.S. In 1959 Huxley turned down an offer of a [[Knight Bachelor]] by the [[Harold Macmillan#Prime Minister (1957–1963)|Macmillan government]] without putting forward a reason; his brother Julian had been knighted in 1958, while another brother Andrew would be knighted in 1974.<ref>''The New Encyclopaedia Britannica''. (2003). Volume 6. p. 178</ref> == Association with Vedanta == Beginning in 1939 and continuing until his death in 1963, Huxley had an extensive association with the [[Vedanta Society of Southern California]], founded and headed by [[Swami Prabhavananda]]. Together with [[Gerald Heard]], [[Christopher Isherwood]], and other followers he was initiated by the Swami and was taught meditation and spiritual practices.{{sfn|Roy|2003}} In 1944 Huxley wrote the introduction to the "Bhagavad Gita: The Song of God",<ref name="IsherwoodSwami Prabhavananda1987">{{cite book |last1=Isherwood |first1=Christopher |last2=Swami Prabhavananda |last3=Aldous |first3=Huxley |title=Bhagavad Gita: The Song of God |year=1987 |publisher=Vedanta Press |location=Hollywood, Calif |isbn=978-0-87481-043-1}}</ref> translated by Swami Prabhavananda and Christopher Isherwood, which was published by the Vedanta Society of Southern California. From 1941 until 1960, Huxley contributed 48 articles to ''Vedanta and the West'', published by the society. He also served on the editorial board with Isherwood, Heard, and playwright John van Druten from 1951 through 1962. Huxley also occasionally lectured at the Hollywood and Santa Barbara Vedanta temples. Two of those lectures have been released on CD: ''[[Knowledge and Understanding]]'' and ''[[Who Are We? (album)|Who Are We?]]'' from 1955. Nonetheless, Huxley's agnosticism, together with his speculative propensity, made it difficult for him to fully embrace any form of institutionalised religion.<ref>[[Michel Weber]], " [https://www.academia.edu/1564486/_Perennial_Truth_and_Perpetual_Perishing._A._Huxleys_Worldview_in_the_Light_of_A._N._Whiteheads_Process_Philosophy_of_Time_2007_ Perennial Truth and Perpetual Perishing. A. Huxley’s Worldview in the Light of A. N. Whitehead’s Process Philosophy of Time] ", in Bernfried Nugel, Uwe Rasch and Gerhard Wagner (eds.), ''Aldous Huxley, Man of Letters: Thinker, Critic and Artist, Proceedings of the Third International Aldous Huxley Symposium Riga 2004'', Münster, LIT, "Human Potentialities", Band 9, 2007, pp. 31–45.</ref> In the spring of 1953, Huxley had his first experience with [[psychedelic drug]]s, in this case, [[mescaline]]. Huxley had initiated a correspondence with [[Humphry Osmond|Dr. Humphry Osmond]], a British psychiatrist then employed in a Canadian institution, and eventually asked him to supply a dose of mescaline; Osmond obliged and supervised Huxley's session in southern California. After the publication of ''[[The Doors of Perception]]'', in which he recounted this experience, Huxley and Swami Prabhavananda disagreed about the meaning and importance of the psychedelic drug experience, which may have caused the relationship to cool, but Huxley continued to write articles for the society's journal, lecture at the temple, and attend social functions. == Eyesight == There are differing accounts about the details of the quality of Huxley's eyesight at specific points in his life. About 1939 Huxley encountered the [[Bates method]] for better eyesight, and a teacher, [[Margaret Darst Corbett]], who was able to teach the method to him. In 1940, Huxley relocated from Hollywood to a {{convert|40|acre|ha| adj =on}} ''ranchito'' in the high desert hamlet of [[Llano, California]], in northern [[Los Angeles County]]. Huxley then said that his sight improved dramatically with the Bates Method and the extreme and pure natural lighting of the southwestern American desert. He reported that, for the first time in more than 25 years, he was able to read without glasses and without strain. He even tried driving a car along the dirt road beside the ranch. He wrote a book about his successes with the Bates Method, ''[[The Art of Seeing]]'', which was published in 1942 (U.S.), 1943 (UK). The book contained some generally disputed theories, and its publication created a growing degree of popular controversy about Huxley's eyesight.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Aldous Huxley Annual|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ZYFcahCQm4wC&pg=PA109|publisher = LIT Verlag Münster|date = 28 February 2011|isbn = 978-3-643-10450-2|language = en|first = Bernfried|last = Nugel|first2 = Jerome|last2 = Meckier|page = 111|chapter = A New Look at The Art of Seeing}}</ref> It was, and is, widely believed that Huxley was nearly blind since the illness in his teens, despite the partial recovery that had enabled him to study at Oxford. For example, some ten years after publication of ''The Art of Seeing'', in 1952, [[Bennett Cerf]] was present when Huxley spoke at a Hollywood banquet, wearing no glasses and apparently reading his paper from the lectern without difficulty: "Then suddenly he faltered—and the disturbing truth became obvious. He wasn't reading his address at all. He had learned it by heart. To refresh his memory he brought the paper closer and closer to his eyes. When it was only an inch or so away he still couldn't read it, and had to fish for a magnifying glass in his pocket to make the typing visible to him. It was an agonising moment."<ref name="Gardner">Cerf, Bennett (12 April 1952), ''The Saturday Review'' (column), quoted in {{cite book |last=Gardner |first=Martin | authorlink =Martin Gardner |title=[[Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science]] |year=1957 |publisher=Dover Publications |isbn = 978-0-486-20394-2}}</ref> Brazilian author [[João Ubaldo Ribeiro]], who as a young journalist spent several evenings in the Huxleys' company in the late 1950s, wrote<ref>{{Cite book|title = O Conselheiro Come|publisher = Editora Nova Fronteira|date = 2000|isbn = 85-209-1069-6|language = pt|page = 92}}</ref> that Huxley had said to him, with a wry smile: "I can hardly see at all. And I don't give a damn, really." Ribeiro then proceeds to confirm [[Bennett Cerf]]'s experience, as described above. On the other hand, Huxley's second wife, [[Laura Archera]], would later emphasise in her biographical account, ''This Timeless Moment'': "One of the great achievements of his life: that of having regained his sight." After revealing a letter she wrote to the ''Los Angeles Times'' disclaiming the label of Huxley as a "poor fellow who can hardly see" by [[Walter C. Alvarez]], she tempered this: "Although I feel it was an injustice to treat Aldous as though he were blind, it is true there were many indications of his impaired vision. For instance, although Aldous did not wear glasses, he would quite often use a magnifying lens."<ref name="Huxley">{{cite book |last=Huxley |first=Laura |title=This Timeless Moment |year=1968 |publisher= Farrar, Straus & Giroux |location= New York |isbn= 978-0-89087-968-9}}</ref> Laura Huxley proceeded to elaborate a few nuances of inconsistency peculiar to Huxley's vision. Her account, in this respect, is discernibly congruent with the following sample of Huxley's own words from ''The Art of Seeing'': "The most characteristic fact about the functioning of the total organism, or any part of the organism, is that it is not constant, but highly variable." Nevertheless, the topic of Huxley's eyesight continues to endure similar, significant controversy, regardless of how trivial a subject matter it might initially appear.<ref>Rolfe, Lionel (1981) ''Literary LA'' p. 50. Chronicle Books, 1981. University of California.</ref> American [[popular science]] author [[Steven Johnson (author)|Steven Johnson]], in his book ''Mind Wide Open'', quotes Huxley about his difficulties with [[Encoding (memory)#Visual encoding|visual encoding]]: "I am and, for as long as I can remember, I have always been a poor visualizer. Words, even the pregnant words of poets, do not evoke pictures in my mind. No hypnagogic visions greet me on the verge of sleep. When I recall something, the memory does not present itself to me as a vividly seen event or object. By an effort of the will, I can evoke a not very vivid image of what happened yesterday afternoon&nbsp;...".<ref>Huxley, ''The Doors of Perception and Heaven and Hell'', Harper Perennial, 1963, p. 15.</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Johnson |first=Steven |authorlink=Steven Johnson (author) |title = Mind Wide Open: Your Brain and the Neuroscience of Everyday Life | location =New York |publisher=Scribner |year=2004 |page=235 |ISBN = 978-0-7432-4165-6}}</ref> == Personal life == Huxley married Maria Nys (10 September 1899 – 12 February 1955), a Belgian he met at [[Garsington]], Oxfordshire, in 1919. They had one child, [[Matthew Huxley]] (19 April 1920 – 10 February 2005), who had a career as an author, anthropologist, and prominent [[epidemiology|epidemiologist]].<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A31009-2005Feb16.html "Author, NIMH Epidemiologist Matthew Huxley Dies at 84".] 17 February 2005 ''[[The Washington Post]]''</ref> In 1955, Maria Huxley died of cancer.<ref name=":1" /> In 1956 Huxley married [[Laura Huxley|Laura Archera]] (1911–2007), also an author as well as a violinist and psychotherapist.<ref name=":1" /> She wrote ''This Timeless Moment'', a biography of Huxley. She told the story of their marriage through Mary Ann Braubach's 2010 documentary, ''Huxley on Huxley''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://huxleyonhuxley.com/about/synopsis/ |title=Huxley on Huxley. |others=Dir. Mary Ann Braubach. Cinedigm, 2010. DVD.}}</ref> In 1960 Aldous Huxley was diagnosed with [[laryngeal cancer]] and, in the years that followed, with his health deteriorating, he wrote the Utopian novel ''[[Island (Huxley novel)|Island]]'',<ref>Peter Bowering ''Aldous Huxley: A Study of the Major Novels'', p. 197, Oxford University Press, 1969</ref> and gave lectures on "Human Potentialities" both at the [[University of California]]'s San Francisco Medical Center and at the [[Esalen Institute]]. These lectures were fundamental to the beginning of the [[Human Potential Movement]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kripal |first=Jeffrey |title=Esalen America and the Religion of No Religion |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2007}}[http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/453699.html excerpt].</ref> Huxley was a close friend of [[Jiddu Krishnamurti]] and [[Rosalind Rajagopal]] and was involved in the creation of the Happy Valley School, now [[Besant Hill School]] of Happy Valley, in [[Ojai, California]]. The most substantial collection of Huxley's few remaining papers, following the destruction of most in a fire, is at the [[University of California, Los Angeles Library|Library of the University of California, Los Angeles]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt1489q14s/ |title=Finding Aid for the Aldous and Laura Huxley papers, 1925–2007 |publisher=Special Collections, [[Charles E. Young Research Library]], UCLA |accessdate=4 October 2012}}</ref> Some are also at the [[Stanford University Libraries]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://findingaids.stanford.edu/xtf/view?docId=ead/mss/m0107.xml |title=Guide to the Aldous Huxley Collection, 1922–1934 |publisher=Dept. of Special Collections and University Archives |accessdate=4 October 2012}}</ref> On 9 April 1962, Huxley was informed he was elected Companion of Literature by the [[Royal Society of Literature]], the senior literary organisation in Britain, and he accepted the title via letter on 28 April 1962.<ref name="Society">Peter Edgerly Firchow, Hermann Josef Real (2005). ''The Perennial Satirist: Essays in Honour of Bernfried Nugel, Presented on the Occasion of His 65th Birthday'', p. 1. LIT Verlag Münster</ref> The correspondence between Huxley and the society are kept at the [[Cambridge University Library]].<ref name="Society" /> The society invited Huxley to appear at a banquet and give a lecture at [[Somerset House]], London in June 1963. Huxley wrote a draft of the speech he intended to give at the society; however, his deteriorating health meant he was not able to attend.<ref name="Society" /> == Death == On his deathbed, unable to speak owing to advanced [[laryngeal cancer]], Huxley made a written request to his wife Laura for "LSD, 100 [[Microgram|µg]], [[Intramuscular injection|intramuscular]]." According to her account of his death<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lettersofnote.com/2010/03/most-beautiful-death.html |title=Account of Huxley's death on Letters of Note |publisher=Lettersofnote.com |date=25 March 2010 |accessdate=19 December 2011}}</ref> in ''This Timeless Moment'', she obliged with an injection at 11:20&nbsp;a.m. and a second dose an hour later; Huxley died aged 69, at 5:20&nbsp;p.m. (Los Angeles time), on 22 November 1963.<ref>Raychel Haugrud Reiff (2009). "Aldous Huxley: Brave New World". p. 35. Marshall Cavendish</ref> Media coverage of Huxley's death—as with that of the author [[C. S. Lewis]]–was overshadowed by the [[Assassination of John F. Kennedy|assassination of U.S. president John F. Kennedy]] on the same day.<ref>Nicholas Ruddick (1993). "Ultimate Island: On the Nature of British Science Fiction". p. 28. Greenwood Press</ref> This coincidence served as the basis for [[Peter Kreeft]]'s book ''[[Between Heaven and Hell (novel)|Between Heaven and Hell: A Dialog Somewhere Beyond Death with John F. Kennedy, C. S. Lewis, & Aldous Huxley]]'', which imagines a conversation among the three men taking place in Purgatory following their deaths.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kreeft|first1=Peter|title=Between Heaven and Hell: A Dialog Somewhere Beyond Death with John F. Kennedy, C. S. Lewis & Aldous Huxley|date=1982|publisher=InterVarsity Press|location=Downers Grove, IL|isbn=978-0-87784-389-4|page=back cover|url=https://www.amazon.com/Between-Heaven-Hell-Somewhere-Kennedy/dp/0877843899|accessdate=2 May 2015|quote="On November 22, 1963, three great men died within hours of each other: C. S. Lewis, John F. Kennedy, and Aldous Huxley. All three believed, in different ways, that death is not the end of human life. Suppose they were right, and suppose they met after death. How might the conversation go?"}}</ref> Huxley's memorial service took place in London in December 1963; it was led by his older brother [[Julian Huxley|Julian]], and on 27 October 1971<ref>{{cite book| title = Aldous Huxley: A Biography| last = Murray| first = Nicholas| publisher = St. Martin's Press| date = 2003| isbn = 978-0312302375| page = 455| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=tukmDMYu6ysC&lpg=PA455&ots=EvzavKTfre&dq=(%22Aldous%20Huxley%22%7C%22Huxley%20Aldous%22)%20(%22funeral%22%7C%22burial%22%7C%22buried%22%7C%22interment%22%7C%22interred%22)%201971&hl=fr&pg=PA455#v=onepage&q=%2227%20october%201971%22&f=false| accessdate = 9 June 2017}}</ref> his ashes were interred in the family grave at the Watts Cemetery, home of the [[Watts Mortuary Chapel]] in [[Compton, Guildford]], Surrey, England.<ref>Wilson, Scott. ''Resting Places: The Burial Sites of More Than 14,000 Famous Persons'', 3d ed.: 2 (Kindle Location 22888). McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. Kindle Edition.</ref> Huxley had been a long-time friend of Russian composer [[Igor Stravinsky]], who later dedicated his last orchestral composition to Huxley. Stravinsky began ''Variations'' in Santa Fé, New Mexico, in July 1963, and completed the composition in Hollywood on 28 October 1964. It was first performed in Chicago on 17 April 1965, by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra conducted by Robert Craft.<ref>Spies 1965, 62; White 1979, 534</ref><ref>White 1979, 536–37</ref><!-- Relevance to Huxley? : Although not composed for the purpose, Stravinsky's music was twice choreographed for the New York City Ballet by George Balanchine, a first version in 1966, and a second version in 1982, both times under the title ''Variations'' (Barnes 1966; Anderson 1982). --> == Awards == * 1939 [[James Tait Black Memorial Prize]] {{smaller|(for ''After Many a Summer Dies the Swan'')}} * 1959 [[American Academy of Arts and Letters]] Award of Merit {{smaller|(for ''Brave New World'')}}. * 1962 Companion of Literature {{smaller|([[Royal Society of Literature]])}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Chevalier |first=Tracy |title=Encyclopedia of the Essay |year=1997 |publisher=Routldge |isbn=978-1-57958-342-2 |page=416}}</ref> == Film adaptations of Huxley's work == * 1968 ''[[Point Counter Point]]'' {{smaller|(BBC miniseries by Simon Raven)}} * 1971 ''[[The Devils (film)|The Devils]]'' {{smaller|(''[[The Devils of Loudun]]'' adapted by [[Ken Russell]])}} * 1980 ''[[Brave New World (1980 film)|Brave New World]]'' {{smaller|(American TV adaptation)}} * 1998 ''[[Brave New World (1998 film)|Brave New World]]'' {{smaller|(American TV adaptation)}} == Works == ;Novels * 1921 ''[[Crome Yellow]]'' * 1923 ''[[Antic Hay]]'' * 1925 ''[[Those Barren Leaves]]'' * 1928 ''[[Point Counter Point]]'' * 1932 ''[[Brave New World]]'' * 1936 ''[[Eyeless in Gaza (novel)|Eyeless in Gaza]]'' * 1939 ''[[After Many a Summer]]'' * 1944 ''[[Time Must Have a Stop]]'' * 1948 ''[[Ape and Essence]]'' * 1952 ''[[The Devils of Loudun]]'' * 1955 ''[[The Genius and the Goddess]]'' * 1962 ''[[Island (Huxley novel)|Island]]'' ; Short story collections * 1920 ''[[Limbo (Huxley)|Limbo]]'' * 1922 ''[[Mortal Coils]]'' * 1924 ''[[Little Mexican]]'' {{smaller|(US title: ''Young Archimedes'')}} * 1926 ''[[Two or Three Graces]]'' * 1930 ''[[Brief Candles]]'' * 1944 ''[[Collected Short Stories (Huxley)|Collected Short Stories]]'' * ''[[Jacob's Hands: A Fable]]'' {{smaller|(co-written with [[Christopher Isherwood]]; discovered 1997)}} ;Poetry collections * 1916 ''[[Oxford Poetry]]'' {{smaller|(magazine editor)}} * 1916 ''The Burning Wheel'' * 1917 ''Jonah'' * 1918 ''The Defeat of Youth and Other Poems'' * 1920 ''Leda'' * 1925 ''Selected Poems'' * 1929 ''Arabia Infelix and Other Poems'' * 1931 ''The Cicadas and Other Poems'' * 1971 ''Collected Poems'' [[File:Huxley - Moksha, 1977 - 2886737 C.jpg|thumb|''Moksha: Writings on Psychedelics and the Visionary Experience (1931-1963)''; edited by Michael Horowitz & Cynthia Palmer; with introductions by Dr. Albert Hofmann and Dr. Alexander Shulgin. New York: Stonehill, 1977]] ;Essay collections * 1923 ''On the Margin'' * 1925 ''Along the Road'' * 1926 ''Essays New and Old'' * 1927 ''Proper Studies'' * 1929 ''Do What You Will'' (Essays - [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.78656 full text]) * 1930 ''Vulgarity in Literature'' * 1931 ''[[Music at Night (book)|Music at Night]]'' * 1932 ''Texts and Pretexts'' * 1936 ''The Olive Tree and other essays'' ([https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.186848 full text]) * 1937 ''Ends and Means'' Reissued by Transaction Publishers (2012), with a new Introduction - "Pacifism and Non-Attachment," by Howard G. Schneiderman * 1940 ''Words and their Meanings'' * 1945 ''[[The Perennial Philosophy]]'' * 1946 ''[[Science, Liberty and Peace]]'' * 1950 ''Themes and Variations'' * 1954 ''[[The Doors of Perception]]'' * 1956 ''[[Heaven and Hell (essay)|Heaven and Hell]]'' * 1956 ''Adonis and the Alphabet'' {{smaller|(US title: ''Tomorrow and Tomorrow and Tomorrow'')}} * 1958 ''Collected Essays'' * 1958 ''[[Brave New World#Brave New World Revisited|Brave New World Revisited]]'' * 1960 ''On Art and Artists'' * 1963 ''[[Literature and Science]]'' * 1977 ''Moksha: Writings on Psychedelics and the Visionary Experience 1931–63'' * 1977 ''The Human Situation: Lectures at Santa Barbara, 1959'' ;Screenplays * ''[[Brave New World]]'' * ''[[Ape and Essence]]'' * 1940 ''[[Pride and Prejudice (1940 film)|Pride and Prejudice]]'' {{smaller|(collaboration)}} * 1943 ''[[Madame Curie (film)|Madame Curie]]'' {{smaller|(collaboration)}} * 1944 ''[[Jane Eyre (1943 film)|Jane Eyre]]'' {{smaller|(collaboration with [[John Houseman]])}} * 1947 ''[[A Woman's Vengeance]]'' * 1950 ''[[Prelude to Fame]]'' * 1951 Original screenplay (rejected) for Disney's animated ''[[Alice in Wonderland (1951 film)|Alice in Wonderland]]''{{thinsp}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Bradshaw |first=David |year=1993 |chapter=Introduction |title=Aldous Huxley's "Those Barren Leaves" (Vintage Classics, 2005) |page=xii |publisher=Vintage, Random House, 20 Vauxhall Brigade Road, London |nopp=true}}</ref> * 1971 ''[[Eyeless in Gaza (TV series)|Eyeless in Gaza]]'' {{smaller|(BBC mini-series in collaboration with [[Robin Chapman]])}}<ref>[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0346956/combined "Eyeless in Gaza" (1971)]</ref> ;Travel books * 1925 ''Along The Road: Notes and essays of a tourist'' * 1926 ''[[Jesting Pilate (Huxley)|Jesting Pilate: The Diary of a Journey]]'' * 1934 ''[[Beyond the Mexique Bay]]: A Traveller's Journey'' ;Children's fiction * 1967 ''[[The Crows of Pearblossom]]'' ; Drama * 1924 ''The Discovery'' {{smaller|(adapted from Francis Sheridan)}} * 1931 ''The World of Light'' ([https://archive.org/details/worldoflightcome00aldo full text]) * 1948 ''Mortal Coils – A Play'' {{smaller|(stage version of ''The Gioconda Smile'')}} * 1958 ''The Genius and the Goddess'' {{smaller|(stage version, co-written with Betty Wendel)}} * 1967 ''The Ambassador of Captripedia'' * 2000 ''Now More Than Ever'' {{smaller|(Lost play discovered by the Department of English Literature, University of Münster, Germany)}} ;Articles written for ''Vedanta and the West'' * {{hlist |1941 "Distractions" |"Distractions II" |"Action and Contemplation" |"An Appreciation" |"The Yellow Mustard" |"Lines" |"Some Reflections of the Lord's Prayer"}} * {{hlist |1942 "Reflections of the Lord's Prayer" |"Reflections of the Lord's Prayer II" |"Words and Reality" |"Readings in Mysticism" |"Man and Reality" |"The Magical and the Spiritual"}} * {{hlist |1943 "Religion and Time" |"Idolatry" |"Religion and Temperament" |"A Note on the Bhagavatam" |"Seven Meditations"}} * {{hlist |1944 "On a Sentence From Shakespeare" |"The Minimum Working Hypothesis" |"From a Notebook" |"The Philosophy of the Saints"}} * {{hlist |1945 "That Art Thou" |"That Art Thou II" |"The Nature of the Ground" |"The Nature of the Ground II" |"God in the World"}} * {{hlist |1946 "Origins and Consequences of Some Contemporary Thought-Patterns" |"The Sixth Patriarch" |"Some Reflections on Time"}} * {{hlist |1947 "Reflections on Progress" |"Further Reflections on Progress" |"William Law" |"Notes on Zen"}} * {{hlist |1948 "Give Us This Day Our Daily Bread" |"A Note on Gandhi"}} * 1949 "Art and Religion * 1950 "Foreword to an Essay on the Indian Philosophy of Peace" * {{hlist |1952 "A Note on Enlightenment" |"Substitutes for Liberation"}} * {{hlist |1954 "The Desert" |"A Note on Patanjali"}} * 1955 "Who Are We?" * {{hlist |1956 "Foreword to the Supreme Doctrine" |"Knowledge and Understanding"}} * 1957 "The "Inanimate" is Alive" * 1960 "Symbol and Immediate Experience" ;Audio recordings * 1955 ''[[Knowledge and Understanding]]''{{thinsp}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.allmusic.com/album/knowledge-and-understanding-r1791018 |title=Knowledge and Understanding |publisher=[[AllMusic]] |accessdate=8 March 2013}}</ref><ref name="Note on lecturing in Santa Barbara">{{cite web |url=http://www.pooler-georgia-homepage.com/aldous-huxley.html |title=Note on lecturing in Santa Barbara |publisher=Pooler-georgia-homepage.com |accessdate=8 March 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116145434/http://www.pooler-georgia-homepage.com/aldous-huxley.html |archivedate=16 January 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> * 1955 ''[[Who Are We? (album)|Who Are We?]]''{{thinsp}}<ref name="Note on lecturing in Santa Barbara" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.allmusic.com/album/who-are-we-r1790202 |title=Who Are We? |publisher=[[AllMusic]] |accessdate=8 March 2013}}</ref> ; Other * 1936 ''Pacifism and Philosophy'' * 1937 ''An Encyclopedia of Pacifism'' {{smaller|(editor)}} ([https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.216101/2015.216101.An-Encyclopaedia#page/n1/mode/2up full text]) * 1941 ''[[Grey Eminence]]'' * 1942 ''[[The Art of Seeing]]'' (exploration of [[Bates method]] of vision improvement) * 1953 ''[[The Devils of Loudun]]'' * 1962 ''The Politics of Ecology'' * 2007 ''Selected Letters'' == References == {{Reflist|30em}} == Sources == {{refbegin}} * {{Citation |last=Roy |first=Sumita |year=2003 |title=Aldous Huxley And Indian Thought |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd}} * [[Jack Anderson (dance critic)|Anderson, Jack]] 1982. "Ballet: Suzanne Farrell in 'Variations' Premiere". ''New York Times'' (4 July). * [[Clive Barnes|Barnes Clive]]. 1966. "Ballet: Still Another Balanchine-Stravinsky Pearl; City Troupe Performs in Premiere Here 'Variations' for Huxley at State Theater". ''New York Times'' (1 April): 28. * [[Claudio Spies|Spies, Claudio]]. 1965. "Notes on Stravinsky's Variations". ''Perspectives of New Music'' 4, no. 1 (Fall-Winter): 62–74. Reprinted in ''Perspectives on Schoenberg and Stravinsky'', revised edition, edited by Benjamin Boretz and Edward T. Cone, [pages]. New York:W. W. Norton, 1972. * White, Eric Walter. 1979. ''Stravinsky: The Composer and His Works'', second edition. Berkeley and Los Angeles: The University of California Press. {{ISBN|0-520-03985-8}}. {{refend}} == Further reading == {{Library resources box |by=yes | |onlinebooks=yes |viaf=71392434}} {{refbegin|33em}} * Atkins, John. ''Aldous Huxley: A Literary Study'', J. Calder, 1956 * {{cite book |last=Bedford |first=Sybille |title=Aldous Huxley: A Biography |year=2002 |publisher=Ivan R Dee |isbn=978-1-56663-454-0}} * {{cite web|url=http://huxleyonhuxley.com/about/synopsis/|title=Huxley on Huxley|last=Braubach|first=Mary Ann|year=2010|website=|others=[[Cinedigm]]|access-date=25 September 2017}} * {{cite book |author=David King Dunaway, PH.D. |title=Huxley in Hollywood |year=1991 |publisher=Anchor |isbn=978-0-385-41591-0}} * [[Peter Edgerly Firchow|Firchow, Peter]]. ''Aldous Huxley: Satirist and Novelist'', U of Minnesota P, 1972 * [[Peter Edgerly Firchow|Firchow, Peter]]. ''The End of Utopia: A Study of Aldous Huxley's Brave New World'', Bucknell UP, 1984 * {{Cite book|url=http://www.panarchy.org/huxley/devils.html|title=The Devils of Loudun (appendix)|last=Huxley|first=Aldous|publisher=|year=1952|isbn=|location=|pages=}} * Huxley, Aldous. ''The Human Situation: Aldous Huxley Lectures at Santa Barbara 1959'', Flamingo Modern Classic, 1994, {{ISBN|0-00-654732-X}} * Huxley, Laura Archera. ''This Timeless Moment'', Celestial Arts, 2001, {{ISBN|0-89087-968-0}} * Meckier, Jerome. ''Aldous Huxley: Modern Satirical Novelist of ideas'', [[Peter Edgerly Firchow|Firchow]] and Nugel editors, LIT Verlag Berlin-Hamburg-Münster, 2006, {{ISBN|3-8258-9668-4}} * Murray, Nicholas. ''Aldous Huxley'', Macmillan, 2003, {{ISBN|0-312-30237-1}} * Rolo, Charles J. (ed.). ''The World of Aldous Huxley'', Grosset Universal Library, 1947. * Sexton, James (ed.). ''Aldous Huxley: Selected Letters'', Ivan R. Dee, 2007, {{ISBN|1-56663-629-9}} * [[Dana Sawyer|Sawyer, Dana]]. ''Aldous Huxley'', Crossroad Publishing Co., 2002, {{ISBN|0-8245-1987-6}} * Shaw, Jeffrey M. ''Illusions of Freedom: Thomas Merton and Jacques Ellul on Technology and the Human Condition''. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock. 2014. {{ISBN|978-1-62564-058-1}}. * Watt, Conrad (ed.). ''Aldous Huxley'', Routledge, 1997, {{ISBN|0-415-15915-6}} {{refend}} == External links == {{Sister project links |voy=no |wikt=no |v=no |n=no |b=no|d=Q81447|s=Author:Aldous Leonard Huxley}} *{{Bibliowiki|Aldous Huxley|Aldous Huxley}} * {{Gutenberg author |id=Aldous_Huxley |name=Aldous Huxley}} * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Aldous Leonard Huxley}} * {{FadedPage|id=Huxley, Aldous Leonard|name=Aldous Leonard Huxley|author=yes}} * {{Librivox author |id=1538}} * {{OL author}} * [https://www.delphiclassics.com/shop/aldous-huxley/ ''Complete Works of Aldous Huxley''] * [http://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/person.php?sText=huxley&submitSearchTerm%5Fx=0&submitSearchTerm%5Fy=0&search=ss&OConly=true&firstRun=true&LinkID=mp02343 Portraits] at the [[National Portrait Gallery, London|National Portrait Gallery]] * {{IMDb name|404717}} * [[Raymond Fraser]], George Wickes (Spring 1960). [http://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/4698/the-art-of-fiction-no-24-aldous-huxley "Interview: Aldous Huxley: The Art of Fiction No. 24"]. ''[[The Paris Review]]''. * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00jn8bc BBC discussion programme ''In our time'': "Brave New World"]. Huxley and the novel. 9 April 2009. (Audio, 45 minutes) * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/archive/writers/12233.shtml BBC ''In their own words'' series]. 12 October 1958 (video, 12 mins) * [http://dpg.lib.berkeley.edu/webdb/mrc/search_vod?avr=1&keyword=huxley "The Ultimate Revolution" (talk at [[University of California, Berkeley|UC Berkeley]], 20 March 1962)] * [http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/multimedia/video/2008/wallace/huxley_aldous.html Huxley interviewed] on ''[[The Mike Wallace Interview]]'' 18 May 1958 (video) * [http://www.anglistik.uni-muenster.de/Huxley/huxley_research.html Centre for Huxley Research] * [https://archive.is/20130615214233/http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=21198/zz00253vz2 Aldous Huxley Papers] at [[University of California, Los Angeles Library]] Special Collections {{Aldous Huxley|state=expanded}} {{The Devils of Loudun}} {{Brave New World}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Huxley, Aldous}} [[Category:Aldous Huxley| ]] [[Category:1894 births]] [[Category:1963 deaths]] [[Category:19th-century English people]] [[Category:20th-century English novelists]] [[Category:Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford]] [[Category:Burials in Surrey]] [[Category:Deaths from cancer in California]] [[Category:Consciousness researchers and theorists]] [[Category:Deaths from laryngeal cancer]] [[Category:Duke University faculty]] [[Category:English agnostics]] [[Category:English essayists]] [[Category:English expatriates in the United States]] [[Category:English humanists]] [[Category:English pacifists]] [[Category:English people of Cornish descent]] [[Category:English male poets]] [[Category:English philosophers]] [[Category:English satirists]] [[Category:English science fiction writers]] [[Category:English travel writers]] [[Category:Huxley family]] [[Category:James Tait Black Memorial Prize recipients]] [[Category:Mystics]] [[Category:People associated with the Human Potential Movement]] [[Category:People educated at Eton College]] [[Category:People from Godalming]] [[Category:Psychedelic drug advocates]] [[Category:Writers from Los Angeles]] [[Category:Writers from Taos, New Mexico]] [[Category:Male essayists]] [[Category:Perennial philosophy]] [[Category:Anti-consumerists]] [[Category:British male poets]] [[Category:English male short story writers]] [[Category:English short story writers]] [[Category:English male novelists]] [[Category:Neo-Vedanta]] [[Category:British emigrants to the United States]] g7pxkqvzenqkbkvelqcwh370v1g3go5 0 629 783824719 290580326 2017-06-04T22:06:54Z Tom.Reding 9784415 +{{R category shell}} using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Abstract algebra]] {{Redirect category shell|1= {{R from other capitalisation}} }} qx4hhcc4pc1mv3sd7l6kzzc6rakxiat 0 630 860675499 859244883 2018-09-22T08:49:16Z Rathfelder 398607 /* Other uses */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wiktionary|Ada|ada|ADA}} '''Ada''' may refer to: {{TOC right}} ==Places== ===Africa=== * [[Ada Foah]] or Ada, Ghana, a town * [[Ada (Ghana parliament constituency)]] * [[Ada, Delta]], an Isoka town in Delta State, Nigeria * [[Ada, Osun]], a town in Osun State, Nigeria ===Asia=== * [[Adeh, Urmia]], also known as Ada, a village in West Azerbaijan Province * [[Ada, Karaman]], a village in Karaman Province, Turkey ===Australia and New Zealand=== * [[Ada River (disambiguation)]], three rivers ===Europe=== * [[Ada, Croatia]], a village * [[Ada, Serbia]], a town and municipality * [[Ada Ciganlija]] or Ada, a river island artificially turned into a peninsula in Belgrade, Serbia ===North America=== ====United States==== * [[Ada, Alabama]], an unincorporated community * [[Ada County, Idaho]] * [[Ada, Kansas]], an unincorporated community * [[Ada Township, Michigan]] * [[Ada, Minnesota]], a city * [[Ada Township, Dickey County, North Dakota]] * [[Ada, Ohio]], a village * [[Ada, Oklahoma]], a city * [[Ada, Oregon]], an unincorporated community * [[Ada Township, Perkins County, South Dakota]] * [[Ada, West Virginia]], an unincorporated community * [[Ada, Wisconsin]], an unincorporated community ===Outer space=== * [[523 Ada]], an asteroid ==Film and television== * [[Ada TV]], a television channel in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus * [[Ada (film)|''Ada'' (film)]], a 1961 film by Daniel Mann * ''[[Ada... A Way of Life]]'', a 2008 Bollywood musical by Tanvir Ahmed * [[Ada (dog actor)]], a dog that played Colin on the sitcom ''Spaced'' ==Biology== * [[Ada (plant)|''Ada'' (plant)]], a genus of orchids * [[Adenosine deaminase]], an enzyme involved in purine metabolism * [[Ada (protein)]], an enzyme induced by treatment of bacterial cells ==Computer science== * [[Ada (programming language)]], programming language based on Pascal * [[Ada (computer virus)]] * [[Ada (cryptocurrency)]], a cryptocurrency running on the Cardano platform with a ticker symbol of ADA ==Air travel== * [[Ada Air]], a regional airline based in Tirana, Albania * [[Ada International Airport]] or Saipan International Airport, Saipan Island, Northern Mariana Islands * [[Aerolínea de Antioquia]], a Colombian airline * [[Airline Deregulation Act]], a 1978 US bill removing governmental control from commercial aviation == Schools == * [[Ada, the National College for Digital Skills]], a further education college in Tottenham Hale, London * [[Ada High School (Ohio)]], Ada, Ohio * [[Ada High School (Oklahoma)]], Ada, Oklahoma ==People== * [[Ada (name)]], a feminine given name and a surname, including a list of people and fictional characters *[[Kawa Ada]] (born 1982), a Canadian actor, writer and producer *[[Ada Lovelace]] (1815–1852), a computer scientist sometimes regarded as the first computer programmer ==Other uses== * [[List of tropical storms named Ada]] * [[Ada (food)]], a traditional Kerala delicacy * [[Ada Bridge]], Belgrade, Serbia * {{SS|Ada|1905}}, a cargo vessel built for the London and South Western Railway * [[Ada (ship)|''Ada'' (ship)]], a wooden ketch, wrecked near Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia * [[Ada or Ardor: A Family Chronicle]], novel by Vladimir Nabokov * [[Dangme language]], spoken in Ghana (ISO 639-2 and 639-3 code "ada") * [[Ada Health]] GmbH, a symptom checker app ==See also== * [[ADA (disambiguation)]] * [[Ada regulon]], an Escherichia coli adaptive response protein * [[Adah (disambiguation)]] * [[Adha (disambiguation)]] * [[Ada'a]], a ''woreda'' in the Oromia Region of Ethiopia * [[Ade (disambiguation)]] * [[USS Little Ada (1864)|USS ''Little Ada'' (1864)]], a steamer captured by the Union Navy during the American Civil War {{Disambiguation|geo}} bxh59l5gmczmia92r0fahouxw0b4t9r 0 632 836075721 833277041 2018-04-12T15:10:46Z Galobtter 19502780 -sandbox wikitext text/x-wiki {{wiktionary|Aberdeen}} '''[[Aberdeen]]''' is a city in Scotland, United Kingdom. '''Aberdeen''' may also refer to: {{TOC right}} == Places == === Africa === * [[Aberdeen, Sierra Leone]] * [[Aberdeen, Eastern Cape]], South Africa === Asia === ==== Hong Kong ==== * [[Aberdeen Channel]], a channel between Ap Lei Chau (Aberdeen Island) and Nam Long Shan on the Hong Kong Island in Hong Kong * [[Aberdeen floating village]], at Aberdeen Harbour, containing approximately 600 junks, which house an estimated 6,000 people * Aberdeen Harbour, a harbour between [[Aberdeen, Hong Kong]] and Ap Lei Chau (Aberdeen Island) * [[Aberdeen, Hong Kong]], an area and town on southwest Hong Kong Island * [[Aberdeen Tunnel]], a tunnel in Hong Kong Island * [[Ap Lei Chau]] or Aberdeen Island, an island of Hong Kong ==== India ==== * Aberdeen Bazaar, a shopping centre in [[Port Blair]], South Andaman Island ==== Sri Lanka ==== * [[Aberdeen Falls]], a waterfall in Sri Lanka === Australia === * [[Aberdeen, New South Wales]] * [[Aberdeen, South Australia]], one of the early townships that merged in 1940 to create the town of Burra * [[Aberdeen, Tasmania]], a suburb of the [[City of Devonport]] === Caribbean === * [[Aberdeen, Jamaica]], a town in Saint Elizabeth, Jamaica ===Europe=== * [[Aberdeen (Parliament of Scotland constituency)]] * [[Aberdeen (UK Parliament constituency)]] 1832-1885 * [[Aberdeen Burghs (UK Parliament constituency)]] 1801-1832 * [[Aberdeen Central (Scottish Parliament constituency)]] * [[Aberdeen Central (UK Parliament constituency)]] * [[Aberdeen Donside (Scottish Parliament constituency)]] * [[County of Aberdeen]], a historic county of Scotland whose county town was Aberdeen * [[Old Aberdeen]], a part of the city of Aberdeen in Scotland ===North America=== ==== Canada ==== * Aberdeen, community in the township of [[Champlain, Ontario|Champlain]], Prescott and Russell County, Ontario * [[Aberdeen, Abbotsford]], a neighbourhood in the City of Abbotsford, British Columbia * [[Aberdeen Centre]], a shopping mall in Richmond, British Columbia * [[Aberdeen, Grey County, Ontario]] * [[Aberdeen, Kamloops]], an area in the City of Kamloops, British Columbia * [[Aberdeen Lake (Nunavut)]], a lake in Kivalliq Region, Nunavut, Canada * [[Aberdeen, Nova Scotia]], part of the Municipality of Inverness County, Nova Scotia * [[Aberdeen Parish, New Brunswick]] * [[Aberdeen, Saskatchewan]] * Aberdeen Bay, a bay between southern [[Baffin Island]] and north-eastern Hector Island in the Nunavut territory * Aberdeen Township, Quebec, until 1960 part of Sheen-Esher-Aberdeen-et-Malakoff, now part of [[Rapides-des-Joachims, Quebec]] * [[New Aberdeen, Nova Scotia]] * [[Rural Municipality of Aberdeen No. 373]], Saskatchewan ==== United States ==== * [[Aberdeen, Arkansas]] * [[Aberdeen, California]] * [[Aberdeen, Florida]] * [[Aberdeen, Georgia]] * [[Aberdeen, Idaho]] * [[Aberdeen, Ohio County, Indiana]] * [[Aberdeen, Porter County, Indiana]] * [[Aberdeen, Kentucky]] * [[Aberdeen, Maryland]] :* [[Aberdeen Proving Ground]], a United States Army facility located near Aberdeen, Maryland * Aberdeen, Massachusetts, a neighborhood of [[Brighton, Boston]] * [[Aberdeen, Mississippi]] :* [[Aberdeen Lake (Mississippi)]], a lake in northeast Mississippi on the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway, close to Aberdeen, Mississippi * [[Aberdeen Township, New Jersey]] * [[Aberdeen, North Carolina]] :* [[Aberdeen Historic District (Aberdeen, North Carolina)]] * [[Aberdeen, Ohio]] * [[Aberdeen, South Dakota]] :* [[Aberdeen Historic District (Aberdeen, South Dakota)]] * [[Aberdeen, Texas]] * [[Aberdeen (Disputanta, Virginia)]] * [[Aberdeen Gardens (Hampton, Virginia)]] * [[Aberdeen, Washington]] :* [[Aberdeen Gardens, Washington]] * [[Aberdeen, West Virginia]] ==Business== * [[Aberdeen Asset Management]] * [[Standard Life Aberdeen]] == Education == * [[Aberdeen Business School]] * [[Aberdeen College]], formerly one of the largest further education colleges in Scotland, merged with Banff & Buchan College to form North East Scotland College * [[Aberdeen Grammar School]], Aberdeen, Scotland * [[Aberdeen Hall]], a university-preparatory school in Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada * [[Aberdeen High School (disambiguation)]] * [[King's College, Aberdeen]] * [[University of Aberdeen]], a public research university in the city of Aberdeen == Entertainment == * [[Aberdeen (2000 film)|''Aberdeen'' (2000 film)]], a 2000 Norwegian-British film directed by Hans Petter Moland, starring Stellan Skarsgård and Lena Headey * [[Aberdeen (2014 film)|''Aberdeen'' (2014 film)]], a 2014 Hong Kong film starring Louis Koo * [[Aberdeen (band)]], an American rock band * [[Aberdeen (song)]], a song by Cage The Elephant * [[Aberdeen City (band)]], Boston based indie/alternative rock band == Other transportation == * [[Aberdeen Airport (disambiguation)]] * [[Aberdeen Lock and Dam]], one of four lock and dam structures on the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway == Rail == * [[Aberdeen, Carolina and Western Railway]], a short-line railroad operating in North Carolina * [[Aberdeen and Rockfish Railroad]], a short-line railroad operating in North Carolina * [[Aberdeen Corporation Tramways]] * [[Aberdeen Line (disambiguation)]] * [[Aberdeen station (disambiguation)]] * [[Dundee and Perth and Aberdeen Junction Railway]], a later name of the Dundee and Perth Railway == Shipping == * [[Aberdeen Line]], a British shipping company founded in 1825 * [[SS Aberdeen]], a steamship operating for the Canadian Pacific Railway on Okanagan Lake from 1893 to 1919 * [[SS Aberdeen (1881)]], an innovative British steamship built for the Aberdeen Line in 1881 * [[SS Aberdeen (1912)]], a coastal whale catcher operating out of Gray's Harbor from the Canada–US border south to Cape Blanco in Oregon * [[SS Aberdeen Victory]], a merchant ship operated during the latter stages of World War II, later commissioned as the USS ''Altair'' == Sports == * Aberdeen [[Dad Vail Regatta]], the largest regular intercollegiate rowing event in the United States, named after its sponsor, Aberdeen Asset Management * [[Aberdeen F.C. (disambiguation)]] * [[Aberdeen GSFP RFC]], an amateur rugby union club based in Aberdeen * [[Aberdeen IronBirds]], a minor league baseball team affiliated with the Baltimore Orioles * [[Aberdeen L.F.C.]], a women's football team affiliated with Aberdeen F.C. == See also == * [[Aberdeen Act]] * [[Aberdeen Angus]], a Scottish breed of small beef cattle * [[Aberdeen Central (disambiguation)]] * [[Aberdeen Gardens (disambiguation)]] * [[Aberdeen Historic District (disambiguation)]] * [[Aberdeen Hospital (disambiguation)]] * [[Aberdeen Island (disambiguation)]] * [[Battle of Aberdeen (disambiguation)]] * [[Diocese of Aberdeen and Orkney]], one of the seven dioceses of the Scottish Episcopal Church * [[Etymology of Aberdeen]] * [[Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair]], a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom * {{lookfrom|Aberdeen}} * {{intitle|Aberdeen}} {{disambiguation|geo|school|ship}} sucfundwyr0zhgh44ul14dc54pe60t1 0 633 857951979 857222556 2018-09-04T02:53:10Z Plantdrew 14423536 remove useless portal wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Group of eukaryotic organisms}} {{redirect|Alga|places called Alga|Alga (disambiguation)|other uses|Algae (disambiguation)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2014}} {{paraphyletic group |fossil_range = {{long fossil range|Mesoproterozoic|present|ref=<ref name="butterfield">{{cite journal |author=N. J. Butterfield |year=2000 |title=''Bangiomorpha pubescens'' n. gen., n. sp.: implications for the evolution of sex, multicellularity, and the Mesoproterozoic/Neoproterozoic radiation of eukaryotes |journal=[[Paleobiology (journal)|Paleobiology]] |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=386–404 |url=http://paleobiol.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/26/3/386 |doi=10.1666/0094-8373(2000)026<0386:BPNGNS>2.0.CO;2 |issn=0094-8373 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070307035241/http://paleobiol.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/26/3/386 |archivedate=7 March 2007 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>}} |image = NSW seabed 1.JPG |image_caption = A variety of algae growing on the sea bed in shallow waters |domain = [[Eukaryota]], [[Bacteria]] |includes = * [[Archaeplastida]] ** [[Plantae]]/[[Green algae]] ***[[Mesostigmatophyceae]] ***[[Chlorokybophyceae]] *** [[Chlorophyta]] *** [[Charophyta]] ** [[Rhodophyta]] (red algae) ** [[Phaeophyta]] ** [[Glaucophyta]] * [[Rhizaria]], [[Excavata]] ** [[Chlorarachniophytes]] ** [[Euglenid]]s * [[Chromista]], [[Alveolata]] ** [[Heterokont]]s *** [[Bacillariophyceae]] (Diatoms) *** [[Axodine]]s *** [[Bolidomonas]] *** [[Eustigmatophyceae]] *** [[Phaeophyceae]] (brown algae) *** [[Chrysophyceae]] (golden algae) *** [[Raphidophyceae]] *** [[Synurophyceae]] *** [[Xanthophyceae]] (yellow-green algae) ** [[Cryptophyta]] ** [[Dinoflagellata]] ** [[Haptophyta]] * [[Cyanobacteria]] (blue-green algae) }} '''Algae''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|l|dʒ|i|,_|ˈ|æ|l|ɡ|i}}; singular '''alga''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|l|ɡ|ə}}) is an informal term for a large, diverse group of [[photosynthesis|photosynthetic]] [[eukaryotic]] [[organism]]s that are not necessarily closely related, and is thus [[polyphyletic]]. Included organisms range from [[unicellular organism|unicellular]] [[microalgae]] genera, such as ''[[Chlorella]]'' and the [[diatom]]s, to [[multicellular]] forms, such as the [[Macrocystis pyrifera|giant kelp]], a large [[brown algae|brown alga]] which may grow up to 50&nbsp;m in length. Most are aquatic and [[autotrophic]] and lack many of the distinct cell and tissue types, such as [[stoma]]ta, [[xylem]], and [[phloem]], which are found in [[embryophyte|land plants]]. The largest and most complex marine algae are called [[seaweed]]s, while the most complex freshwater forms are the [[Charophyta]], a [[phylum|division]] of green algae which includes, for example, ''[[Spirogyra]]'' and the [[stonewort]]s. No definition of algae is generally accepted. One definition is that algae "have [[chlorophyll]] as their primary photosynthetic pigment and lack a sterile covering of cells around their reproductive cells".<ref>{{cite book |author=Lee, R. E. |year=2008 |title=Phycology |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> Although [[cyanobacteria]] are often referred to as "blue-green algae", most authorities exclude all [[prokaryotes]] from the definition of algae.<ref name="IntroBot">{{cite book |last=Nabors |first=Murray W. |title=Introduction to Botany |year=2004 |publisher=Pearson Education, Inc |location=San Francisco, CA |isbn=978-0-8053-4416-5}}</ref><ref name="Allaby 92">{{cite encyclopedia |editor1-last=Allaby |editor1-first=M. |year=1992 |encyclopedia=The Concise Dictionary of Botany |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |title=Algae}}</ref> Algae constitute a polyphyletic group<ref name="IntroBot"/> since they do not include a common ancestor, and although their [[plastid]]s seem to have a single origin, from cyanobacteria,<ref name="keeling">{{cite journal |title=Diversity and evolutionary history of plastids and their hosts |author=Patrick J. Keeling |url=http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/full/91/10/1481 |journal=American Journal of Botany |year=2004 |volume=91 |pages=1481–1493 |doi=10.3732/ajb.91.10.1481 |issue=10 |pmid=21652304 |doi-access=free |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227023326/http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/full/91/10/1481 |archivedate=27 February 2008 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> they were acquired in different ways. [[Green algae]] are examples of algae that have primary [[chloroplast]]s derived from [[endosymbiotic theory|endosymbiotic]] cyanobacteria. [[Diatom]]s and brown algae are examples of algae with secondary chloroplasts derived from an [[endosymbiotic theory#Secondary endosymbiosis|endosymbiotic]] [[red alga]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=J.D. Palmer |author2=D.E. Soltis |author3=M.W. Chase |year=2004 |title=The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view |journal=Am. J. Bot. |volume=91 |issue=10 |pages=1437–1445 |doi=10.3732/ajb.91.10.1437 |pmid=21652302|doi-access=free }}</ref> Algae exhibit a wide range of reproductive strategies, from simple [[asexual reproduction|asexual]] cell division to complex forms of [[sexual reproduction]].<ref>Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History; Department of Botany. {{cite web |url=http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/introduction.htm |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2010-08-25 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100702180840/http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/introduction.htm |archivedate=2 July 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Algae lack the various structures that characterize land plants, such as the phyllids (leaf-like structures) of [[bryophyte]]s, [[rhizoid]]s in [[nonvascular plants]], and the [[root]]s, [[leaf|leaves]], and other [[Organ (anatomy)|organs]] found in [[tracheophyte]]s ([[vascular plants]]). Most are [[phototroph]]ic, although some are [[mixotroph]]ic, deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by [[osmotrophy]], [[myzocytosis|myzotrophy]], or [[phagocytosis|phagotrophy]]. Some unicellular species of [[green algae]], many [[golden algae]], [[euglenid]]s, [[dinoflagellate]]s, and other algae have become [[heterotroph]]s (also called colorless or apochlorotic algae), sometimes parasitic, relying entirely on external energy sources and have limited or no photosynthetic apparatus.<ref>Pringsheim, E.G. 1963. ''Farblose Algen. Ein beitrag zur Evolutionsforschung''. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart. 471 pp., [[species:Algae#Pringsheim .281963.29]].</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Tartar, A. |author2=Boucias, D. G. |author3=Becnel, J. J. |author4=Adams, B. J. |year=2003 |title=Comparison of plastid 16S rRNA (rrn 16) genes from Helicosporidium spp.: evidence supporting the reclassification of Helicosporidia as green algae (Chlorophyta) |journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology |volume=53 |pages=1719–1723 |doi=10.1099/ijs.0.02559-0 |pmid=14657099 |issue=Pt 6|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Figueroa‐Martinez |first1=F. |last2=Nedelcu |first2=A. M. |last3=Smith |first3=D. R. |last4=Reyes‐Prieto |first4=A. |date=2015 |title=When the lights go out: the evolutionary fate of free‐living colorless green algae |journal=New Phytologist |volume=206 |issue=3 |pages=972–982 |url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.13279/full |doi=10.1111/nph.13279 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210202721/http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.13279/full |archivedate=10 December 2015 |df=dmy-all |pmc=5024002 }}</ref> Some other heterotrophic organisms, such as the [[apicomplexans]], are also derived from cells whose ancestors possessed plastids, but are not traditionally considered as algae. Algae have photosynthetic machinery ultimately derived from [[cyanobacteria]] that produce [[oxygen]] as a by-product of photosynthesis, unlike other photosynthetic bacteria such as [[Purple sulfur bacteria|purple]] and [[green sulfur bacteria]]. Fossilized filamentous algae from the [[Vindhya]] basin have been dated back to 1.6 to 1.7 billion years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=19416859 |year=2009 |last1=Bengtson |first1=S |last2=Belivanova |first2=V |last3=Rasmussen |first3=B |last4=Whitehouse |first4=M |title=The controversial "Cambrian" fossils of the Vindhyan are real but more than a billion years older |volume=106 |issue=19 |pages=7729–34 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0812460106 |pmc=2683128 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |bibcode=2009PNAS..106.7729B}}</ref> ==Etymology and study== The singular ''alga'' is the Latin word for "seaweed" and retains that meaning in English.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=alga, algae|encyclopedia=Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged with Seven Language Dictionary|volume=1|year=1986|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc}}</ref> The [[etymology]] is obscure. Although some speculate that it is related to Latin ''algēre'', "be cold",<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Eric |last=Partridge |title=algae |encyclopedia=Origins |year=1983}}</ref> no reason is known to associate seaweed with temperature. A more likely source is ''alliga'', "binding, entwining".<ref>{{cite book|title=A Latin Dictionary |chapter=Alga |first=Charlton T. |last=Lewis |author2=Charles Short |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1879 |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DA%3Aentry+group%3D37%3Aentry%3Dalga |accessdate=31 December 2017 }}</ref> The [[Ancient Greek]] word for seaweed was φῦκος (''phŷcos''), which could mean either the seaweed (probably red algae) or a red dye derived from it. The Latinization, ''fūcus'', meant primarily the cosmetic rouge. The etymology is uncertain, but a strong candidate has long been some word related to the Biblical פוך (''pūk''), "paint" (if not that word itself), a cosmetic eye-shadow used by the ancient Egyptians and other inhabitants of the eastern Mediterranean. It could be any color: black, red, green, or blue.<ref>{{cite book| author = Thomas Kelly Cheyne |author2= John Sutherland Black| title = Encyclopædia biblica: a critical dictionary of the literary, political and religious history, the archæology, geography, and natural history of the Bible| url = https://books.google.com/?id=GccVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA3525| year = 1902| publisher = Macmillan Company| isbn = | page = 3525 }}</ref> Accordingly, the modern study of marine and freshwater algae is called either [[phycology]] or algology, depending on whether the Greek or Latin root is used. The name ''Fucus'' appears in a number of [[taxon|taxa]]. ==Classification== {{further|wikispecies:Algae}} [[File:Gephyrocapsa oceanica color.jpg|thumb|False-color [[scanning electron micrograph]] of the unicellular [[coccolithophore]] ''[[Gephyrocapsa]] oceanica'']] The algae contain [[chloroplast]]s that are similar in structure to cyanobacteria. Chloroplasts contain circular [[DNA]] like that in cyanobacteria and are interpreted as representing reduced endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. However, the exact origin of the chloroplasts is different among separate lineages of algae, reflecting their acquisition during different endosymbiotic events. The table below describes the composition of the three major groups of algae. Their lineage relationships are shown in the figure in the upper right. Many of these groups contain some members that are no longer photosynthetic. Some retain plastids, but not chloroplasts, while others have lost plastids entirely. [[Phylogeny]] based on [[plastid]]<ref name="Bhattacharya1998">{{cite journal |last1=Bhattacharya |first1=D. |last2=Medlin |first2=L. |year=1998 |journal=Plant Physiology |volume=116 |issue=1 |pages=9–15 |url=http://www.plantphysiol.org/cgi/reprint/116/1/9.pdf |doi=10.1104/pp.116.1.9 |title=Algal Phylogeny and the Origin of Land Plants |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207051438/http://www.plantphysiol.org/cgi/reprint/116/1/9.pdf |archivedate=7 February 2009 |df=dmy-all |pmc=1539170 }}</ref> not nucleocytoplasmic genealogy: {{clade|1=[[Cyanobacteria]]|2= {{clade|[[Glaucophyte]]s|2= {{clade|label1=rhodoplasts|label2=chloroplasts|1= {{clade|1=[[Rhodophytes]]|2=[[Heterokont]]s|3= {{clade|[[Cryptomonad|Cryptophytes]]|[[Haptophytes]]}} }} |2= {{clade|1=[[Euglenophyte]]s|2= {{clade|1= {{clade|1=[[Chlorophyte]]s|2={{clade|[[Charophyte]]s|[[Embryophytes|Land plants (Embryophyta)]]}}}} |2=[[Chlorarachniophytes]] }} }} }} }} }} {| class="wikitable" |- ! Supergroup affiliation !! Members !! [[Endosymbiont]] !! Summary |- |[[Primoplantae]]/<br>[[Archaeplastida]] | * [[Chlorophyta]] * [[Rhodophyta]] * [[Glaucophyta]] |[[Cyanobacteria]] |These algae have 'primary' [[chloroplast]]s, i.e. the chloroplasts are surrounded by two membranes and probably developed through a single endosymbiotic event. The chloroplasts of red algae have [[chlorophyll]]s ''a'' and ''c'' (often), and [[phycobilin]]s, while those of green algae have chloroplasts with chlorophyll ''a'' and ''b'' without phycobilins. Land plants are pigmented similarly to green algae and probably developed from them, thus the [[Chlorophyta]] is a sister taxon to the plants; sometimes the Chlorophyta, the [[Charophyta]], and land plants are grouped together as the [[Viridiplantae]]. |- | [[Excavata]] and [[Rhizaria]] | * [[Chlorarachniophytes]] * [[Euglenid]]s |[[Green algae]] | These groups have green chloroplasts containing chlorophylls ''a'' and ''b''.<ref name="BioRaven">{{cite book |title=Biology |edition=8 |last=Losos |first=Jonathan B. |author2=Mason, Kenneth A. |author3=Singer, Susan R. |publisher=McGraw-Hill |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-07-304110-0}}</ref> Their chloroplasts are surrounded by four and three membranes, respectively, and were probably retained from ingested green algae. '''Chlorarachniophytes''', which belong to the phylum [[Cercozoa]], contain a small [[nucleomorph]], which is a [[relict]] of the algae's [[cell nucleus|nucleus]]. '''Euglenids''', which belong to the phylum [[Euglenozoa]], live primarily in fresh water and have chloroplasts with only three membranes. The endosymbiotic green algae may have been acquired through [[myzocytosis]] rather than [[phagocytosis]].<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Archibald JM |author2=Keeling PJ |title=Recycled plastids: a 'green movement' in eukaryotic evolution |journal=Trends in Genetics |volume=18 |issue=11 |date=November 2002 |pages=577–584 |doi=10.1016/S0168-9525(02)02777-4 |pmid=12414188}}</ref> |- |[[Chromista]] and [[Alveolata]] | * [[Heterokont]]s * [[Haptophyta]] * [[Cryptomonad]]s * [[Dinoflagellate]]s |[[Red algae]] | These groups have chloroplasts containing chlorophylls ''a'' and ''c'', and phycobilins. The shape varies from plant to plant; they may be of discoid, plate-like, reticulate, cup-shaped, spiral, or ribbon shaped. They have one or more pyrenoids to preserve protein and starch. The latter chlorophyll type is not known from any prokaryotes or primary chloroplasts, but genetic similarities with red algae suggest a relationship there.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Janson |first=Sven |author2=Graneli, Edna |title=Genetic analysis of the psbA gene from single cells indicates a cryptomonad origin of the plastid in Dinophysis (Dinophyceae) |journal=Phycologia |date=September 2003 |volume=42 |issue=5 |pages=473–477 |publisher=Allen Press Publishing Services |issn=0031-8884 |doi=10.2216/i0031-8884-42-5-473.1}}</ref> In the first three of these groups (Chromista), the chloroplast has four membranes, retaining a [[nucleomorph]] in [[cryptomonad]]s, and they likely share a common pigmented ancestor, although other evidence casts doubt on whether the [[heterokont]]s, [[Haptophyta]], and [[cryptomonad]]s are in fact more closely related to each other than to other groups.<ref name="parfrey">{{cite journal |title=Evaluating Support for the Current Classification of Eukaryotic Diversity |author1=Laura Wegener Parfrey |author2=Erika Barbero |author3=Elyse Lasser |author4=Micah Dunthorn |author5=Debashish Bhattacharya |author6=David J Patterson |author7=Laura A Katz |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.0020220 |journal=PLoS Genet. |date=December 2006 |volume=2 |issue=12 |pages =e220 |pmid=17194223 |pmc=1713255}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Burki F, Shalchian-Tabrizi K, Minge M, Skjæveland Å, Nikolaev SI |year=2007 |title=Phylogenomics Reshuffles the Eukaryotic Supergroups |journal=PLOS One |volume=2 |issue=8 |page=e790 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0000790 |pmid=17726520 |pmc=1949142 |editor1-last=Butler |editor1-first=Geraldine |bibcode=2007PLoSO...2..790B |display-authors=etal}}</ref> The typical dinoflagellate chloroplast has three membranes, but considerable diversity exists in chloroplasts within the group, and a number of endosymbiotic events apparently occurred.<ref name="keeling"/> The [[Apicomplexa]], a group of closely related parasites, also have plastids called [[apicoplast]]s, which are not photosynthetic, but appear to have a common origin with [[dinoflagellate]] chloroplasts.<ref name="keeling"/> |} [[File:Gmelin - Historia Fucorum (Titelblatt).png|thumb|upright|Title page of [[Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin|Gmelin's]] ''Historia Fucorum'', dated 1768]] [[Linnaeus]], in ''[[Species Plantarum]]'' (1753),<ref>Linnæus, C. (1753). ''Species Plantarum'', vol. 2, p. 1131, [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830#page/573/mode/1up] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008162538/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830|date=8 October 2014}}.</ref> the starting point for modern [[botanical nomenclature]], recognized 14 genera of algae, of which only four are currently considered among algae.<ref>Sharma, O. P. (1986). Textbook of Algae. McGraw Hill. p. 22, {{cite web |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hOa74Hm4zDIC&lpg=PP1&hl=en&pg=PA22 |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2015-11-07 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160519080500/https://books.google.com/books?id=hOa74Hm4zDIC&lpg=PP1&hl=en&pg=PA22 |archivedate=19 May 2016 |df=dmy-all }}.</ref> In ''[[10th edition of Systema Naturae|Systema Naturae]]'', Linnaeus described the genera ''[[Volvox]]'' and ''[[Corallina]]'', and a species of ''[[Acetabularia]]'' (as ''[[Madrepora]]''), among the animals. In 1768, [[Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin]] (1744–1774) published the ''Historia Fucorum'', the first work dedicated to marine algae and the first book on [[marine biology]] to use the then new binomial nomenclature of Linnaeus. It included elaborate illustrations of seaweed and marine algae on folded leaves.<ref>Gmelin S G (1768) [https://books.google.co.nz/books?id=YUAAAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Historia+Fucorum%22&hl=en ''Historia Fucorum''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160701234616/https://books.google.co.nz/books?id=YUAAAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Historia+Fucorum%22&hl=en |date=1 July 2016 }} Ex typographia Academiae scientiarum, St. Petersburg.</ref><ref>Silva PC, Basson PW and Moe RL (1996) [https://books.google.co.nz/books?id=vuWEemVY8WEC&pg=PA2&lpg=PA2&dq=%22Historia+Fucorum%22+binomial+nomenclature&source=bl&hl=en ''Catalogue of the Benthic Marine Algae of the Indian Ocean''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306080606/https://books.google.co.nz/books?id=vuWEemVY8WEC&pg=PA2&lpg=PA2&dq=%22Historia+Fucorum%22+binomial+nomenclature&source=bl&hl=en |date=6 March 2016 }} page 2, University of California Press. {{ISBN|978-0-520-91581-7}}.</ref> [[W.H.Harvey]] (1811—1866) and [[Lamouroux]] (1813)<ref>Medlin, L. K., W. H. C. F. Kooistra, D. Potter, G. W. Saunders, and R. A. Anderson (1997). [http://epic.awi.de/2100/1/Med1997c.pdf Phylogenetic relationships of the "golden algae" (haptophytes, heterokont chromophytes) and their plastids.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005084158/http://epic.awi.de/2100/1/Med1997c.pdf |date=5 October 2013 }} ''Plant Systematics and Evolution'', p. 188.</ref> were the first to divide macroscopic algae into four divisions based on their pigmentation. This is the first use of a biochemical criterion in plant systematics. Harvey's four divisions are: red algae (Rhodospermae), brown algae (Melanospermae), green algae (Chlorospermae), and Diatomaceae.<ref name="Dixon 73">{{cite book |last=Dixon |first=P S |title=Biology of the Rhodophyta |year=1973 |publisher=Oliver & Boyd |location=Edinburgh |isbn=978-0-05-002485-0 |page=232}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Harvey, D. |date=1836 |url=http://img.algaebase.org/pdf/562E38EB0a0fc2A17Eukv24B7E9F/18893.pdf |accessdate=31 December 2017 |title=''Flora hibernica'' comprising the Flowering Plants Ferns Characeae Musci Hepaticae Lichenes and Algae of Ireland arranged according to the natural system with a synopsis of the genera according to the Linnaean system |chapter=Algae |editor=Mackay JT |pages=157–254 }}.</ref> At this time, microscopic algae were discovered and reported by a different group of workers (e.g., [[Otto Friedrich Müller|O. F. Müller]] and [[Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg|Ehrenberg]]) studying the [[Infusoria]] (microscopic organisms). Unlike [[macroalgae]], which were clearly viewed as plants, [[microalgae]] were frequently considered animals because they are often motile.<ref>Medlin et al. (1997), p. 188.</ref> Even the nonmotile (coccoid) microalgae were sometimes merely seen as stages of the lifecycle of plants, macroalgae, or animals.<ref>Braun, A. ''[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/2057#/summary Algarum unicellularium genera nova et minus cognita, praemissis observationibus de algis unicellularibus in genere (New and less known genera of unicellular algae, preceded by observations respecting unicellular algae in general)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420033958/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/2057 |date=20 April 2016 }}.'' Lipsiae, Apud W. Engelmann, 1855. Translation at: Lankester, E. & Busk, G. (eds.). ''Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science'', 1857, vol. 5, [http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-5/17/13.full.pdf+html (17), 13-16] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304130906/http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-5/17/13.full.pdf+html |date=4 March 2016 }}; [http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-5/18/90.full.pdf+html (18), 90-96] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305133158/http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-5/18/90.full.pdf+html |date=5 March 2016 }}; [http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-5/19/143.full.pdf+html (19), 143-149] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304113651/http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-5/19/143.full.pdf+html |date=4 March 2016 }}.</ref><ref>Siebold, C. Th. v. "[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/49155#page/5/mode/1up Ueber einzellige Pflanzen und Thiere (On unicellular plants and animals)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141126005532/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/49155 |date=26 November 2014 }}". In: Siebold, C. Th. v. & Kölliker, A. (1849). ''Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Zoologie'', Bd. 1, p. 270. Translation at: Lankester, E. & Busk, G. (eds.). ''Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science'', 1853, vol. 1, [http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-1/2/111.full.pdf+html (2), 111-121] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304114623/http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-1/2/111.full.pdf+html |date=4 March 2016 }}; [http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-1/3/195.full.pdf+html (3), 195-206] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304115243/http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s1-1/3/195.full.pdf+html |date=4 March 2016 }}.</ref> Although used as a taxonomic category in some pre-Darwinian classifications, e.g., Linnaeus (1753), de Jussieu (1789), Horaninow (1843), Agassiz (1859), Wilson & Cassin (1864), in further classifications, the "algae" are seen as an artificial, polyphyletic group. Throughout the 20th century, most classifications treated the following groups as divisions or classes of algae: [[cyanophyte]]s, [[rhodophyte]]s, [[chrysophyte]]s, [[xanthophyte]]s, [[diatom|bacillariophyte]]s, [[phaeophyte]]s, [[Dinoflagellate#history|pyrrhophyte]]s ([[Cryptomonad|cryptophyte]]s and [[dinophyte]]s), [[euglenophyte]]s, and [[chlorophyte]]s. Later, many new groups were discovered (e.g., [[Bolidophyceae]]), and others were splintered from older groups: [[charophyte]]s and [[glaucophyte]]s (from chlorophytes), many [[heterokontophyte]]s (e.g., [[Synurophyceae|synurophytes]] from chrysophytes, or [[eustigmatophyte]]s from xanthophytes), [[haptophyte]]s (from chrysophytes), and [[chlorarachniophyte]]s (from xanthophytes). With the abandonment of plant-animal dichotomous classification, most groups of algae (sometimes all) were included in [[Protist]]a, later also abandoned in favour of [[Eukaryota]]. However, as a legacy of the older plant life scheme, some groups that were also treated as [[protozoa]]ns in the past still have duplicated classifications (see [[ambiregnal protist]]s). Some parasitic algae (e.g., the green algae ''[[Prototheca]]'' and ''[[Helicosporidium]]'', parasites of metazoans, or ''[[Cephaleuros]]'', parasites of plants) were originally classified as [[fungi]], [[sporozoan]]s, or [[protist]]ans of ''[[incertae sedis]]'',<ref>{{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=B. A. |last2=Keeling |first2=P. J. |date=2003 |chapter=Cryptic organelles in parasitic protists and fungi |editor1-last=Littlewood |editor1-first=D. T. J. |title=The Evolution of Parasitism |publisher=Elsevier Academic Press |publicationplace=London |page=46 |isbn=0-12-031754-0 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_fAQGEJobT0C&lpg=PA33&hl=&pg=PA46 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518141009/https://books.google.com/books?id=_fAQGEJobT0C&lpg=PA33&hl=&pg=PA46 |archivedate=18 May 2015 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> while others (e.g., the green algae ''[[Phyllosiphon]]'' and ''[[Rhodochytrium]]'', parasites of plants, or the red algae ''[[Pterocladiophila]]'' and ''[[Gelidiocolax mammillatus]]'', parasites of other red algae, or the dinoflagellates ''[[Oodinium]]'', parasites of fish) had their relationship with algae conjectured early. In other cases, some groups were originally characterized as parasitic algae (e.g., ''[[Chlorochytrium]]''), but later were seen as [[endophytic]] algae.<ref>Round (1981). pp.&nbsp;398–400, {{cite web |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rm08AAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA262&hl=&pg=PA398 |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2015-02-06 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150522061900/https://books.google.com/books?id=Rm08AAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA262&hl=&pg=PA398 |archivedate=22 May 2015 |df=dmy-all }}.</ref> Some filamentous bacteria (e.g., ''[[Beggiatoa]]'') were originally seen as algae. Furthermore, groups like the [[apicomplexan]]s are also parasites derived from ancestors that possessed plastids, but are not included in any group traditionally seen as algae. ==Relationship to land plants== The first land plants probably evolved from shallow freshwater charophyte algae much like ''[[Chara (alga)|Chara]]'' almost 500 million years ago. These probably had an isomorphic [[alternation of generations]] and were probably filamentous. Fossils of isolated land plant spores suggest land plants may have been around as long as 475 million years ago.<ref>{{cite news | title = When plants conquered land | author = Ivan Noble | date = 18 September 2003 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3117034.stm | publisher = BBC | deadurl = no | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20061111170428/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3117034.stm | archivedate = 11 November 2006 | df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref name="Wellman2003">{{cite journal| author = Wellman, C.H.| author2 = Osterloff, P.L.| author3 = Mohiuddin, U.| year = 2003| title = Fragments of the earliest land plants| journal = Nature| volume = 425| issue = 6955| pages = 282–285| doi = 10.1038/nature01884| pmid = 13679913| bibcode = 2003Natur.425..282W| url = http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/106/| deadurl = no| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20170830194441/http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/106/| archivedate = 30 August 2017| df = dmy-all}}</ref> ==Morphology== [[File:Kelp-forest-Monterey.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[kelp forest]] exhibit at the Monterey Bay Aquarium: A three-dimensional, multicellular thallus]] A range of algal [[Morphology (biology)|morphologies]] is exhibited, and [[Convergent evolution|convergence]] of features in unrelated groups is common. The only groups to exhibit three-dimensional multicellular [[Thallus|thalli]] are the [[Red algae|reds]] and [[Brown algae|browns]], and some [[Chlorophyta|chlorophytes]].<ref name="Xiao2004">{{cite journal| last1 = Xiao| first1 = S.| last2 = Knoll| first2 = A.H.| last3 = Yuan| first3 = X.| last4 = Pueschel| first4 = C.M.| year = 2004| title = Phosphatized multicellular algae in the Neoproterozoic Doushantuo Formation, China, and the early evolution of florideophyte red algae| journal = American Journal of Botany| volume = 91| issue = 2| pages = 214–227| doi = 10.3732/ajb.91.2.214| url = http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/full/91/2/214| pmid = 21653378| doi-access = free| deadurl = no| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20081222094323/http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/full/91/2/214| archivedate = 22 December 2008| df = dmy-all}}</ref> Apical growth is constrained to subsets of these groups: the [[Florideophyceae|florideophyte]] reds, various browns, and the charophytes.<ref name=Xiao2004/> The form of charophytes is quite different from those of reds and browns, because they have distinct nodes, separated by internode 'stems'; whorls of branches reminiscent of the [[horsetail]]s occur at the nodes.<ref name=Xiao2004/> [[Conceptacle]]s are another [[polyphyletic]] trait; they appear in the [[coralline algae]] and the [[Hildenbrandiales]], as well as the browns.<ref name=Xiao2004/> Most of the simpler algae are [[unicellular]] [[flagellate]]s or [[amoeboid]]s, but colonial and nonmotile forms have developed independently among several of the groups. Some of the more common organizational levels, more than one of which may occur in the [[biological life cycle|lifecycle]] of a species, are * [[Colony (biology)|Colonial]]: small, regular groups of motile cells * Capsoid: individual non-motile cells embedded in [[mucilage]] * Coccoid: individual non-motile cells with cell walls * Palmelloid: nonmotile cells embedded in mucilage * Filamentous: a string of nonmotile cells connected together, sometimes branching * Parenchymatous: cells forming a thallus with partial differentiation of tissues In three lines, even higher levels of organization have been reached, with full tissue differentiation. These are the brown algae,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chromista/phaeophyta.html|title= Introduction to the Phaeophyta: Kelps and brown "Algae"|first=Ben|last=Waggoner|publisher=University of California Museum of Palaeontology (UCMP)|date=1994–2008|accessdate=19 December 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081221171218/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chromista/phaeophyta.html| archivedate= 21 December 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref>—some of which may reach 50&nbsp;m in length ([[kelp]]s)<ref name="Thomas 02">{{cite book| last = Thomas| first = D N| title = Seaweeds| year = 2002| publisher = The Natural History Museum| location = London| isbn = 978-0-565-09175-0 }}</ref>—the red algae,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/protista/rhodophyta.html |title= Introduction to the Rhodophyta, The red "algae"| first=Ben |last=Waggoner |publisher=University of California Museum of Palaeontology (UCMP) |date=1994–2008 |accessdate=19 December 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081218211021/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/protista/rhodophyta.html | archivedate= 18 December 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref> and the green algae.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/greenalgae.html|title=Introduction to the Green Algae|work=berkeley.edu|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070213103838/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/greenalgae.html|archivedate=13 February 2007|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The most complex forms are found among the charophyte algae (see [[Charales]] and [[Charophyta]]), in a lineage that eventually led to the higher land plants. The innovation that defines these nonalgal plants is the presence of female reproductive organs with protective cell layers that protect the zygote and developing embryo. Hence, the land plants are referred to as the [[Embryophyte]]s. ==Physiology== Many algae, particularly members of the [[Characeae]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tazawa |first=Masashi |title=Sixty Years Research with Characean Cells: Fascinating Material for Plant Cell Biology |url=https://books.google.com/?id=iMxH0-q42PkC&pg=PA31 |accessdate=7 October 2012 |volume=72 |year=2010 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-13145-5 |pages=5–34 |journal=Progress in Botany |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-13145-5_1 |series=Progress in Botany}}</ref> have served as model experimental organisms to understand the mechanisms of the water permeability of membranes, [[osmoregulation]], [[turgor regulation]], [[salt tolerance]], [[cytoplasmic streaming]], and the generation of [[action potentials]]. [[Phytohormone]]s are found not only in higher plants, but in algae, too.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tarakhovskaya |first1=E. R. |last2=Maslov |first2=Yu. I. |last3=Shishova |first3=M. F. |date=April 2007 |title=Phytohormones in algae |journal=Russian Journal of Plant Physiology |volume=54 |issue=2 |pages=163–170 |doi=10.1134/s1021443707020021}}</ref> ==Symbiotic algae== Some species of algae form [[symbiosis|symbiotic relationships]] with other organisms. In these symbioses, the algae supply photosynthates (organic substances) to the host organism providing protection to the algal cells. The host organism derives some or all of its energy requirements from the algae. Examples are: ===Lichens=== {{Main|Lichen}} [[File:Lichens near Clogher Head (stevefe).jpg|thumb|Rock lichens in Ireland]] [[Lichen]]s are defined by the [[International Association for Lichenology]] to be "an association of a fungus and a photosynthetic [[symbiont]] resulting in a stable vegetative body having a specific structure."<ref>{{cite book| last = Brodo| first = Irwin M| last2 = Sharnoff| first2 = Sylvia Duran| last3 = Sharnoff| first3 = Stephen| last4 = Laurie-Bourque| first4 = Susan| title = Lichens of North America| year = 2001| publisher = Yale University Press| location = New Haven| isbn = 978-0-300-08249-4| page = 8 }}</ref> The fungi, or mycobionts, are mainly from the [[Ascomycota]] with a few from the [[Basidiomycota]]. In nature they do not occur separate from lichens. It is unknown when they began to associate.<ref>{{cite book| last = Pearson| first = Lorentz C| title = The Diversity and Evolution of Plants| year = 1995| publisher = CRC Press| isbn = 978-0-8493-2483-3| page = 221 }}</ref> One mycobiont associates with the same phycobiont species, rarely two, from the green algae, except that alternatively, the mycobiont may associate with a species of cyanobacteria (hence "photobiont" is the more accurate term). A photobiont may be associated with many different mycobionts or may live independently; accordingly, lichens are named and classified as fungal species.<ref>Brodo et al. (2001), page 6: "A species of lichen collected anywhere in its range has the same lichen-forming fungus and, generally, the same photobiont. (A particular photobiont, though, may associate with scores of different lichen fungi)."</ref> The association is termed a morphogenesis because the lichen has a form and capabilities not possessed by the symbiont species alone (they can be experimentally isolated). The photobiont possibly triggers otherwise latent genes in the mycobiont.<ref>Brodo et al. (2001), page 8.</ref> [[Trentepohlia (alga)|Trentepohlia]] is an example of a common green alga genus worldwide that can grow on its own or be lichenised. Lichen thus share some of the habitat and often similar appearance with specialized species of algae (''[[aerophyte]]s'') growing on exposed surfaces such as tree trunks and rocks and sometimes discoloring them. ===Coral reefs=== {{Main|Coral|Coral reef|Symbiodinium}} [[File:Coral Reef.jpg|thumb|Floridian coral reef]] [[Coral reef]]s are accumulated from the [[calcareous]] [[exoskeleton]]s of [[marine invertebrate]]s of the order [[Scleractinia]] (stony [[coral]]s). These [[Animal#Food and energy sourcing|animals]] [[Metabolism|metabolize]] [[Sugar#Chemistry|sugar]] and oxygen to obtain energy for their cell-building processes, including [[secretion]] of the exoskeleton, with water and [[carbon dioxide]] as byproducts. Dinoflagellates (algal protists) are often [[endosymbiont]]s in the cells of the coral-forming marine invertebrates, where they accelerate host-cell metabolism by generating sugar and oxygen immediately available through photosynthesis using incident light and the carbon dioxide produced by the host. Reef-building stony corals ([[hermatypic coral]]s) require endosymbiotic algae from the genus ''[[Symbiodinium]]'' to be in a healthy condition.<ref>{{cite book| last = Taylor| first = Dennis L| editor-last = Goff| editor-first = Lynda J| title = Algal Symbiosis: A Continuum of Interaction Strategies| year = 1983| publisher = CUP Archive| isbn = 978-0-521-25541-7| pages = 19–20| contribution = The coral-algal symbiosis }}</ref> The loss of ''Symbiodinium'' from the host is known as [[coral bleaching]], a condition which leads to the deterioration of a reef. ===Sea sponges=== {{Main|Sea sponge}} [[Endosymbiont]]ic green algae live close to the surface of some sponges, for example, breadcrumb sponges (''[[Halichondria panicea]]''). The alga is thus protected from predators; the sponge is provided with oxygen and sugars which can account for 50 to 80% of sponge growth in some species.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://uwsp.edu/cnr/UWEXlakes/laketides/vol26-4/vol26-4.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2007-08-04 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070702204058/http://www.uwsp.edu/cnr/UWEXlakes/laketides/vol26-4/vol26-4.pdf |archivedate=2 July 2007 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> ==Lifecycle== [[Rhodophyta]], [[Chlorophyta]], and [[Heterokontophyta]], the three main algal [[phylum|divisions]], have lifecycles which show considerable variation and complexity. In general, an asexual phase exists where the seaweed's cells are [[diploid]], a sexual phase where the cells are [[haploid]], followed by fusion of the male and female [[gamete]]s. Asexual reproduction permits efficient population increases, but less variation is possible. Commonly, in sexual reproduction of unicellular and colonial algae, two specialized, sexually compatible, haploid gametes make physical contact and fuse to form a [[zygote]]. To ensure a successful mating, the development and release of gametes is highly synchronized and regulated; pheromones may play a key role in these processes.<ref name="pmid24597605">{{cite journal |vauthors=Frenkel J, Vyverman W, Pohnert G |title=Pheromone signaling during sexual reproduction in algae |journal=Plant J. |volume=79 |issue=4 |pages=632–44 |year=2014 |pmid=24597605 |doi=10.1111/tpj.12496 |url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/tpj.12496/pdf}}</ref> Sexual reproduction allows for more variation and provides the benefit of efficient recombinational repair of DNA damages during meiosis, a key stage of the sexual cycle.<ref>Harris Bernstein, Carol Bernstein and Richard E. Michod (2011). Meiosis as an Evolutionary Adaptation for DNA Repair. Chapter 19 pages&nbsp;357–382 in "DNA Repair" (Inna Kruman editor). InTech Open Publisher. {{doi|10.5772/25117}} {{ISBN|978-953-307-697-3}} {{cite web |url=http://www.intechopen.com/books/dna-repair/meiosis-as-an-evolutionary-adaptation-for-dna-repair |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2013-07-29 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616090717/http://www.intechopen.com/books/dna-repair/meiosis-as-an-evolutionary-adaptation-for-dna-repair |archivedate=16 June 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> However, sexual reproduction is more costly than asexual reproduction.<ref name="pmid19441962">{{cite journal |vauthors=Otto SP |title=The evolutionary enigma of sex |journal=Am. Nat. |volume=174 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=S1–S14 |year=2009 |pmid=19441962 |doi=10.1086/599084 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/24427058 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170409111359/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/24427058 |archivedate=9 April 2017 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Meiosis has been shown to occur in many different species of algae.<ref name="pmid773364">{{cite journal |vauthors=Heywood P, Magee PT |title=Meiosis in protists. Some structural and physiological aspects of meiosis in algae, fungi, and protozoa |journal=Bacteriol Rev |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=190–240 |year=1976 |pmid=773364 |pmc=413949 |doi= |url=}}</ref> {{details|Conceptacle}} ==Numbers== [[File:Taiwan 2009 East Coast ShihTiPing Giant Stone Steps Algae FRD 6581.jpg|thumb|Algae on coastal rocks at [[:zh:石梯坪|Shihtiping]] in [[Taiwan]]]] The ''Algal Collection of the US National Herbarium'' (located in the [[National Museum of Natural History]]) consists of approximately 320,500 dried specimens, which, although not exhaustive (no exhaustive collection exists), gives an idea of the order of magnitude of the number of algal species (that number remains unknown).<ref>{{cite web|title=Algae Herbarium|publisher=National Museum of Natural History, Department of Botany|year=2008|url=http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/herbarium.htm|accessdate=19 December 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081201112552/http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/herbarium.htm| archivedate= 1 December 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Estimates vary widely. For example, according to one standard textbook,<ref name="John 02">John (2002), page 1.</ref> in the [[British Isles]] the ''UK Biodiversity Steering Group Report'' estimated there to be 20,000 algal species in the UK. Another checklist reports only about 5,000 species. Regarding the difference of about 15,000 species, the text concludes: "It will require many detailed field surveys before it is possible to provide a reliable estimate of the total number of species&nbsp;..." Regional and group estimates have been made, as well: * 5,000–5,500 species of red algae worldwide * "some 1,300 in Australian Seas"<ref name="Huisman 00">Huisman (2000), page 25.</ref> * 400 seaweed species for the western coastline of South Africa,<ref name="Stegenga 97">Stegenga (1997).</ref> and 212 species from the coast of KwaZulu-Natal.<ref>{{cite book| last = Clerck| first = Olivier| title = Guide to the seaweeds of KwaZulu-Natal| year = 2005| isbn = 978-90-72619-64-8 }}</ref> Some of these are duplicates, as the range extends across both coasts, and the total recorded is probably about 500 species. Most of these are listed in [[List of seaweeds of South Africa]]. These exclude [[phytoplankton]] and crustose corallines. * 669 marine species from California (US)<ref name="Abbott and Hollenberg 76">Abbott and Hollenberg (1976), page 2.</ref> * 642 in the check-list of Britain and Ireland<ref name="Hardy nad Guiry 06">Hardy and Guiry (2006).</ref> and so on, but lacking any scientific basis or reliable sources, these numbers have no more credibility than the British ones mentioned above. Most estimates also omit microscopic algae, such as phytoplankton. The most recent estimate suggests 72,500 algal species worldwide.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Guiry | first1 = M. D. | year = 2012 | title = How Many Species of Algae Are There? | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263561612| journal = Journal of Phycology | volume = 48 | issue = 5| pages = 1057–1063 | doi = 10.1111/j.1529-8817.2012.01222.x | pmid=27011267}}</ref> ==Distribution== The distribution of algal species has been fairly well studied since the founding of [[phytogeography]] in the mid-19th century.<ref name=Round8>{{cite book |author=Round, FE |date=1981 |title=The ecology of algae |chapter=Chapter 8, Dispersal, continuity and phytogeography |pages=357–361 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Rm08AAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA262&pg=PA398#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=6 February 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150522061900/https://books.google.com/books?id=Rm08AAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA262&hl=&pg=PA398#v=onepage&q&f=false |archivedate=22 May 2015 |df=dmy-all |isbn=9780521269063 }}</ref> Algae spread mainly by the dispersal of [[spore]]s analogously to the dispersal of Plantae by seeds and spores. This dispersal can be accomplished by air, water, or other organisms. Due to this, spores can be found in a variety of environments: fresh and marine waters, air, soil, and in or on other organisms.<ref name=Round8/> Whether a spore is to grow into an organism depends on the combination of the species and the environmental conditions where the spore lands. The spores of freshwater algae are dispersed mainly by running water and wind, as well as by living carriers.<ref name=Round8/> However, not all bodies of water can carry all species of algae, as the chemical composition of certain water bodies limits the algae that can survive within them.<ref name=Round8/> Marine spores are often spread by ocean currents. Ocean water presents many vastly different habitats based on temperature and nutrient availability, resulting in phytogeographic zones, regions, and provinces.<ref>Round (1981), page 362.</ref> To some degree, the distribution of algae is subject to floristic discontinuities caused by geographical features, such as [[Antarctica]], long distances of ocean or general land masses. It is, therefore, possible to identify species occurring by locality, such as "Pacific algae" or "North Sea algae". When they occur out of their localities, hypothesizing a transport mechanism is usually possible, such as the hulls of ships. For example, ''Ulva reticulata'' and ''U. fasciata'' travelled from the mainland to Hawaii in this manner. Mapping is possible for select species only: "there are many valid examples of confined distribution patterns."<ref>Round (1981), Page 357.</ref> For example, ''Clathromorphum'' is an arctic genus and is not mapped far south of there.<ref>Round (1981), page 371.</ref> However, scientists regard the overall data as insufficient due to the "difficulties of undertaking such studies."<ref>Round (1981), page 366.</ref> ==Ecology== [[File:Phytoplankton Lake Chuzenji.jpg|thumb|left|Phytoplankton, [[Lake Chuzenji]]]] Algae are prominent in bodies of water, common in terrestrial environments, and are found in unusual environments, such as on [[Snow algae|snow]] and [[Ice algae|ice]]. Seaweeds grow mostly in shallow marine waters, under {{convert|100|m|ft|abbr=on}} deep; however, some such as [[Navicula]] pennata have been recorded to a depth of {{convert|360|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref>Round (1981), page 176.</ref> The various sorts of algae play significant roles in aquatic ecology. Microscopic forms that live suspended in the water column ([[phytoplankton]]) provide the food base for most marine [[food chain]]s. In very high densities ([[algal bloom]]s), these algae may discolor the water and outcompete, poison, or [[asphyxiate]] other life forms. Algae can be used as [[indicator organism]]s to monitor pollution in various aquatic systems.<ref name=Omar2010>{{cite journal|title=Perspectives on the Use of Algae as Biological Indicators for Monitoring and Protecting Aquatic Environments, with Special Reference to Malaysian Freshwater Ecosystems |author=Wan Maznah Wan Omar |pmc=3819078 |journal=Trop Life Sci Res |date=Dec 2010 |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=51–67 |pmid=24575199}}</ref> In many cases, algal metabolism is sensitive to various pollutants. Due to this, the species composition of algal populations may shift in the presence of chemical pollutants.<ref name=Omar2010/> To detect these changes, algae can be sampled from the environment and maintained in laboratories with relative ease.<ref name=Omar2010/> On the basis of their habitat, algae can be categorized as: [[Aquatic plant|aquatic]] ([[planktonic]], [[benthic]], [[Marine biology|marine]], [[freshwater]], [[lentic]], [[lotic]]),<ref>Necchi Jr., O. (ed.) (2016). ''River Algae''. Springer, {{cite web |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KptPDAAAQBAJ |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2016-10-04 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170315131715/https://books.google.com/books?id=KptPDAAAQBAJ |archivedate=15 March 2017 |df=dmy-all }}.</ref> [[terrestrial plant|terrestrial]], [[Aerobiology|aerial]] (subareial),<ref>Johansen, J. R. 2012. Diatoms of aerial habitats. In: Smol, J. P. & Stoermer, E. F. (Eds.). ''The Diatoms: Applications for the Environmental and Earth Sciences'', 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK. pp.&nbsp;465–472, [https://books.google.com/books?id=SpuPKw7zZGAC&lpg=PP1&hl=&pg=PA465#v=onepage&q&f=false] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150522062140/https://books.google.com/books?id=SpuPKw7zZGAC&lpg=PP1&hl=&pg=PA465|date=22 May 2015}}.</ref> [[lithophytic]], [[halophytic]] (or [[euryhaline]]), [[psammon]], [[thermophilic]], [[Psychrophile|cryophilic]], [[epibiont]] ([[epiphytic]], [[epizoic]]), [[endosymbiont]] ([[endophytic]], endozoic), [[parasitic]], [[calcareous|calcifilic]] or [[lichen]]ic (phycobiont).<ref>Sharma, O. P. (1986). pp.&nbsp;2–6, [https://books.google.com/books?id=hOa74Hm4zDIC&lpg=PP1&hl=&pg=PA2#v=onepage&q&f=false] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150520104916/https://books.google.com/books?id=hOa74Hm4zDIC&lpg=PP1&hl=&pg=PA2|date=20 May 2015}}.</ref> ==Cultural associations== In [[classical Chinese]], the word {{lang|zh|{{linktext|藻}}}} is used both for "algae" and (in the modest tradition of the [[scholar-official|imperial scholars]]) for "literary talent". The third island in [[Kunming Lake]] beside the [[Summer Palace]] in Beijing is known as the Zaojian Tang Dao, which thus simultaneously means "Island of the Algae-Viewing Hall" and "Island of the Hall for Reflecting on Literary Talent". ==Uses== [[File:Algae Harvester.jpg|thumb|Harvesting algae]] ===Agar=== [[Agar]], a [[gelatin]]ous substance derived from red algae, has a number of commercial uses.<ref name="Lewis ''et al.'' 88">{{cite book| last = Lewis| first = J G| last2 = Stanley| first2 = N F| last3 = Guist| first3 = G G| editor-last = Lembi| editor-first = C.A.| editor2-last= Waaland| editor2-first = J.R.| title = Algae and Human Affairs| year = 1988| publisher = Cambridge University Press| location = Cambridge| isbn = 978-0-521-32115-0| contribution = 9 Commercial production of algal hydrocolloides }}</ref> It is a good medium on which to grow bacteria and fungi, as most microorganisms cannot digest agar. ===Alginates=== Alginic acid, or alginate, is extracted from brown algae. Its uses range from gelling agents in food, to medical dressings. Alginic acid also has been used in the field of [[biotechnology]] as a [[Biocompatibility|biocompatible medium]] for cell encapsulation and cell immobilization. [[Molecular cuisine]] is also a user of the substance for its gelling properties, by which it becomes a delivery vehicle for flavours. Between 100,000 and 170,000 wet tons of ''[[Macrocystis]]'' are harvested annually in [[New Mexico]] for [[Alginic acid|alginate]] extraction and [[abalone]] feed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.algaebase.org/generadetail.lasso?genus_id=35715&-session=abv3:51909EC307dcf25DFApmi3530315|publisher=AlgaeBase|title=Macrocystis C. Agardh 1820: 46|accessdate=28 December 2008|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090104145632/http://www.algaebase.org/generadetail.lasso?genus_id=35715&-session=abv3%3A51909EC307dcf25DFApmi3530315|archivedate=4 January 2009|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/economicuses/brownalgae.htm|work=Algae Research|publisher=Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History|title=Secondary Products of Brown Algae|accessdate=29 December 2008|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413034226/http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/economicuses/brownalgae.htm|archivedate=13 April 2009|df=dmy-all}}</ref> ===Energy source=== {{Main|Algae fuel|Biological hydrogen production|Biohydrogen|Biodiesel|Ethanol fuel|Butanol fuel|Vegetable oil|Biogas|Hydrothermal Liquefaction}} To be competitive and independent from fluctuating support from (local) policy on the long run, biofuels should equal or beat the cost level of fossil fuels. Here, algae-based fuels hold great promise,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Chisti|first=Y|title=Biodiesel from microalgae.|journal=Biotechnology Advances|date=May–Jun 2007|volume=25|issue=3|pages=294–306|pmid=17350212|doi=10.1016/j.biotechadv.2007.02.001|url=https://www.academia.edu/2137836}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Yang|first=ZK|author2=Niu, YF|author3=Ma, YH|author4=Xue, J|author5=Zhang, MH|author6=Yang, WD|author7=Liu, JS|author8=Lu, SH|author9=Guan, Y|author10= Li, HY|title=Molecular and cellular mechanisms of neutral lipid accumulation in diatom following nitrogen deprivation.|journal=Biotechnology for biofuels|date=4 May 2013|volume=6|issue=1|page=67|pmid=23642220|doi=10.1186/1754-6834-6-67|pmc=3662598}}</ref> directly related to the potential to produce more biomass per unit area in a year than any other form of biomass. The break-even point for algae-based biofuels is estimated to occur by 2025.<ref>An Outlook on Microalgal Biofuels, René H. Wijffels and Maria J. Barbosa, Science 13 August 2010: 329 (5993), 796–799. {{doi|10.1126/science.1189003}}</ref> ===Fertilizer=== {{Details|Seaweed fertiliser}} [[File:Inisheer landscape.jpg|thumb|Seaweed-fertilized gardens on [[Inisheer]]]] For centuries, seaweed has been used as a fertilizer; [[George Owen of Henllys]] writing in the 16th century referring to drift weed in [[South Wales]]:<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England|volume=10|pages=142–143|title=On the Farming of South Wales: Prize Report|first=Clare Sewell|last=Read|authorlink=Clare Sewell Read|year=1849|location=London|publisher=John Murray}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=UJYEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA142&dq=%22this+kind+of+ore+they+often+gather%22&lr=&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES#PPR4,M1 Downloadable Google Books] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429133018/https://books.google.com/books?id=UJYEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA142&dq=%22this+kind+of+ore+they+often+gather%22&lr=&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES |date=29 April 2016 }}.</ref><blockquote>This kind of ore they often gather and lay on great heapes, where it heteth and rotteth, and will have a strong and loathsome smell; when being so rotten they cast on the land, as they do their muck, and thereof springeth good corn, especially barley&nbsp;... After spring-tydes or great rigs of the sea, they fetch it in sacks on horse backes, and carie the same three, four, or five miles, and cast it on the lande, which doth very much better the ground for corn and grass.</blockquote> Today, algae are used by humans in many ways; for example, as [[fertilizer]]s, [[soil conditioner]]s, and livestock feed.<ref>{{cite book| last = McHugh| first = Dennis J.| title = A Guide to the Seaweed Industry: FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 441| url = http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/006/Y4765E/y4765e0c.htm#TopOfPage| year = 2003| publisher = Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations| location = Rome| isbn = 978-92-5-104958-7| chapter = 9, Other Uses of Seaweeds| deadurl = no| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20081228115716/http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y4765e/y4765e0c.htm#TopOfPage| archivedate = 28 December 2008| df = dmy-all}}</ref> Aquatic and microscopic species are cultured in clear tanks or ponds and are either harvested or used to treat effluents pumped through the ponds. [[Algaculture]] on a large scale is an important type of [[aquaculture]] in some places. [[Maerl]] is commonly used as a soil conditioner. ===Nutrition=== {{See also|Edible seaweed}} [[File:Dulse.JPG|thumb|Dulse, a type of edible seaweed]] Naturally growing seaweeds are an important source of food, especially in Asia. They provide many vitamins including: A, [[Thiamine|B₁]], [[Riboflavin|B₂]], [[Vitamin B6|B₆]], [[niacin]], and [[Vitamin C|C]], and are rich in [[iodine]], [[potassium]], iron, [[magnesium]], and [[calcium]].<ref>{{cite book| last = Simoons| first = Frederick J| title = Food in China: A Cultural and Historical Inquiry| year = 1991| publisher = CRC Press| isbn = 978-0-936923-29-1| pages = 179–190| chapter = 6, Seaweeds and Other Algae }}</ref> In addition, commercially cultivated microalgae, including both algae and cyanobacteria, are marketed as nutritional supplements, such as [[Spirulina (dietary supplement)|spirulina]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.siu.edu/~ebl/leaflets/algae.htm |work=Ethnobotanical Leaflets |title=Modern Uses of Cultivated Algae |publisher=Southern Illinois University Carbondale |first=Steve L |last=Morton |accessdate=26 December 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223081614/http://www.siu.edu/~ebl/leaflets/algae.htm |archivedate=23 December 2008 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy }}</ref> ''[[Chlorella]]'' and the vitamin-C supplement from ''[[Dunaliella]]'', high in [[beta-carotene]]. Algae are national foods of many nations: China consumes more than 70 species, including ''[[fat choy (vegetable)|fat choy]]'', a cyanobacterium considered a vegetable; Japan, over 20 species;<ref name="Mondragon 03">{{cite book| last1 = Mondragón| first1 = Jennifer| last2 = Mondragón| first2 = Jeff| title = Seaweeds of the Pacific Coast| year = 2003| publisher = Sea Challengers Publications| location = Monterey, California| isbn = 978-0-930118-29-7 }}</ref> Ireland, [[dulse]]; [[Chile]], [[cochayuyo]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.algaebase.org/speciesdetail.lasso?species_id=11752&sk=0&from=results&-session=abv3:51909EC30802716127sVj3EDC9C7 |publisher=AlgaeBase|title=Durvillaea antarctica (Chamisso) Hariot}}</ref> [[laver (seaweed)|Laver]] is used to make "laver bread" in [[Wales]], where it is known as ''bara lawr''; in [[Korea]], [[Gim (Korean food)|''gim'']]; in Japan, ''[[nori]]'' and ''[[aonori]]''. It is also used along the west coast of North America from California to [[British Columbia]], in Hawaii and by the [[Māori people|Māori]] of [[New Zealand]]. [[Sea lettuce]] and [[Alaria esculenta|badderlocks]] are salad ingredients in [[Scotland]], Ireland, [[Greenland]], and [[Iceland]]. Algae is being considered a potential solution for world hunger problem.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/10/how-marine-algae-could-help-feed-the-world|title=How marine algae could help feed the world|website=World Economic Forum|access-date=2018-06-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/12/why-algae-and-seaweed-could-be-part-of-solving-the-global-hunger-crisis|title=One solution to global hunger could be at the bottom of the ocean|website=World Economic Forum|access-date=2018-06-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://science.howstuffworks.com/innovation/edible-innovations/algae-food-future.htm|title=Algae: Pond Scum or Food of the Future?|date=2018-06-12|work=HowStuffWorks|access-date=2018-06-21|language=en}}</ref> The oils from some algae have high levels of [[unsaturated fatty acid]]s. For example, ''[[Parietochloris incisa]]'' is very high in [[arachidonic acid]], where it reaches up to 47% of the triglyceride pool.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bigogno|first=C|author2=I Khozin-Goldberg|author3=S Boussiba|author4=A Vonshak|author5=Z Cohen|year=2002|journal=Phytochemistry|volume=60|pages=497–503|doi=10.1016/S0031-9422(02)00100-0|pmid=12052516|title=Lipid and fatty acid composition of the green oleaginous alga Parietochloris incisa, the richest plant source of arachidonic acid|issue=5|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11320290|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171001204617/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11320290|archivedate=1 October 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Some varieties of algae favored by [[vegetarianism]] and [[veganism]] contain the long-chain, essential [[omega-3 fatty acid]]s, [[docosahexaenoic acid]] (DHA) and [[eicosapentaenoic acid]] (EPA). Fish oil contains the omega-3 fatty acids, but the original source is algae (microalgae in particular), which are eaten by marine life such as [[copepod]]s and are passed up the food chain.<ref>{{cite news | url = https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=15823852 | publisher = [[National Public Radio]] | title = Morning Edition: Getting Brain Food Straight from the Source | author = Allison Aubrey | date = 1 November 2007 | deadurl = no | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20071103025842/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=15823852 | archivedate = 3 November 2007 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Algae have emerged in recent years as a popular source of omega-3 fatty acids for vegetarians who cannot get long-chain EPA and DHA from other vegetarian sources such as [[flaxseed oil]], which only contains the short-chain [[alpha-linolenic acid]] (ALA). ===Pollution control=== * Sewage can be treated with algae,<ref>{{Citation|title=Re-imagining algae|date=2016-10-12|url=http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/futuretense/re-imagining-algae/7926214|language=en-AU|accessdate=2017-01-26|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202043210/http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/futuretense/re-imagining-algae/7926214|archivedate=2 February 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> reducing the use of large amounts of toxic chemicals that would otherwise be needed. * Algae can be used to capture fertilizers in runoff from farms. When subsequently harvested, the enriched algae can be used as fertilizer. * Aquaria and ponds can be filtered using algae, which absorb nutrients from the water in a device called an [[algae scrubber]], also known as an algae turf scrubber.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reefbase.org/resource_center/publication/main.aspx?refid=10859|title=ReefBase :: Main Publications : Nutrient cycling in the Great Barrier Reef Aquarium - Proceedings of the 6th International Coral Reef Symposium, Australia|year=1988|volume=2|vauthors=Morrissey J, Jones MS, Harriott V|work=reefbase.org|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150223045428/http://www.reefbase.org/resource_center/publication/main.aspx?refid=10859|archivedate=23 February 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=NogyAAAAEBAJ&dq=U.S.+Patent+4333263|title=Patent US4333263 - Algal turf scrubber|work=google.com|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110906144244/http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=NogyAAAAEBAJ&dq=U.S.+Patent+4333263|archivedate=6 September 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>[http://www.hydromentia.com/Products-Services/Algal-Turf-Scrubber/Product-Documentation/Assets/ATS-Technical-Brochure.pdf Hydromentia Water Treatment Technologies] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032016/http://www.hydromentia.com/Products-Services/Algal-Turf-Scrubber/Product-Documentation/Assets/ATS-Technical-Brochure.pdf |date=24 September 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/120083425/abstract|title=ALGAL RESPONSE TO NUTRIENT ENRICHMENT IN FORESTED OLIGOTROPHIC STREAM |doi=10.1111/j.1529-8817.2008.00503.x | volume=44|issue=3 |journal=Journal of Phycology|pages=564–572|year=2008 |last1=Veraart |first1=Annelies J |last2=Romaní |first2=Anna M |last3=Tornés |first3=Elisabet |last4=Sabater |first4=Sergi }}</ref> [[Agricultural Research Service]] scientists found that 60–90% of nitrogen runoff and 70–100% of phosphorus runoff can be captured from [[manure effluents]] using a horizontal algae scrubber, also called an [[algal turf scrubber]] (ATS). Scientists developed the ATS, which consists of shallow, 100-foot raceways of nylon netting where algae colonies can form, and studied its efficacy for three years. They found that algae can readily be used to reduce the nutrient runoff from agricultural fields and increase the quality of water flowing into rivers, streams, and oceans. Researchers collected and dried the nutrient-rich algae from the ATS and studied its potential as an organic fertilizer. They found that cucumber and corn seedlings grew just as well using ATS organic fertilizer as they did with commercial fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/may10/algae0510.htm |title = Algae: A Mean, Green Cleaning Machine |publisher = USDA Agricultural Research Service |date = 7 May 2010 |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20101019142625/http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/may10/algae0510.htm |archivedate = 19 October 2010 |df = dmy-all }}</ref> Algae scrubbers, using bubbling upflow or vertical waterfall versions, are now also being used to filter aquaria and ponds. === Polymers === Various polymers can be created from algae, which can be especially useful in the creation of bioplastics. These include hybrid plastics, cellulose based plastics, poly-lactic acid, and bio-polyethylene.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oilgae.com/non_fuel_products/biopolymers.html|title=Algae Biopolymers, Companies, Production, Market - Oilgae - Oil from Algae|website=www.oilgae.com|access-date=2017-11-18}}</ref> Several companies have begun to produce algae polymers commercially, including for use in flip-flops<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.zmescience.com/science/algae-flip-flop/|title=Renewable flip flops: scientists produce the "No. 1" footwear in the world from algae|date=2017-10-09|work=ZME Science|access-date=2017-11-18|language=en-US}}</ref> and in surf boards.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.energy.gov/eere/bioenergy/articles/world-s-first-algae-surfboard-makes-waves-san-diego|title=World’s First Algae Surfboard Makes Waves in San Diego|website=Energy.gov|access-date=2017-11-18}}</ref> ===Bioremediation=== The alga ''[[Stichococcus bacillaris]]'' has been seen to colonize silicone resins used at archaeological sites; [[Biodegradation|biodegrading]] the synthetic substance.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Microorganisms Attack Synthetic Polymers in Items Representing Our Cultural Heritage |first1=Francesca |last1=Cappitelli |first2=Claudia |journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology |year=2008 |volume=74 |pmc=2227722 |last2=Sorlini |issue=3 |pages=564–569 |doi=10.1128/AEM.01768-07 |pmid=18065627}}</ref> ===Pigments=== The natural [[pigment]]s ([[carotenoid]]s and [[chlorophyll]]s) produced by algae can be used as alternatives to chemical [[dye]]s and coloring agents.<ref>{{cite book| last = Arad| first = Shoshana| last2 = Spharim| first2 = Ishai| editor-last = Altman| editor-first = Arie| title = Agricultural Biotechnology| series = Books in Soils, Plants, and the Environment| volume = 61| year = 1998| publisher = CRC Press| isbn = 978-0-8247-9439-2| page = 638| contribution = Production of Valuable Products from Microalgae: An Emerging Agroindustry }}</ref> The presence of some individual algal pigments, together with specific pigment concentration ratios, are taxon-specific: analysis of their concentrations with various analytical methods, particularly [[high-performance liquid chromatography]], can therefore offer deep insight into the taxonomic composition and relative abundance of natural algae populations in sea water samples.<ref>{{cite journal |author=C. Rathbun |author2=A. Doyle |author3=T. Waterhouse |date=June 1994 |title=Measurement of Algal Chlorophylls and Carotenoids by HPLC |url=http://bats.bios.edu/methods/chapter13.pdf |journal=[[Joint Global Ocean Flux Study]] protocols |publisher=[[Global Ocean Data Analysis Project]] |volume=13 |issue= |pages=91–96 |doi= |pmc= |pmid= |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304064738/http://bats.bios.edu/methods/chapter13.pdf |archivedate=4 March 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=M. Latasa|author2=R. Bidigare|date=1998 |title=A comparison of phytoplankton populations of the Arabian Sea during the Spring Intermonsoon and Southwest Monsoon of 1995 as described by HPLC-analyzed pigments|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0967064598000666|journal=Deep-Sea Research Part II |publisher=[[Pergamon Press]] |issue=10–11 |pages=2133–2170 |doi=10.1016/S0967-0645(98)00066-6|bibcode = 1998DSRII..45.2133L |volume=45}}</ref> ===Stabilizing substances=== {{Main|Carrageenan|Chondrus crispus}} Carrageenan, from the red alga ''Chondrus crispus'', is used as a stabilizer in milk products. ==Additional images== <gallery widths=200 heights=150> File:Algae bladder 4290.jpg|Algae bladder </gallery> ==See also== {{Portal|{{PAGENAME}}}} * [[AlgaeBase]] * [[AlgaePARC]] * [[Toxoid]] - anatoxin * [[Eutrophication]] * ''[[Marimo]]'' algae * [[Iron fertilization]] * [[Microbiofuels]] * [[Microphyte]] * [[Photobioreactor]] * [[Plant#Algae|Plant]] ==References== {{Reflist|28em}} ==Bibliography== {{Refbegin|30em}} ===General=== * {{cite book| last = Chapman| first = V.J.| title = Seaweeds and their Uses| year = 1950| publisher = Methuen & Co. Ltd| location = London| isbn = 978-0-412-15740-0 }} * Fritsch, F.E. (1935/1945). ''The Structure and Reproduction of the Algae''. I. and II. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press * van den Hoek, C., D.G. Mann, and H.M. Jahns (1995). ''Algae: an introduction to phycology''. Cambridge University Press (623 pp). * {{cite book| last = Lembi| first = C.A.| last2 = Waaland| first2 = J.R.| title = Algae and Human Affairs| year = 1988| publisher = Cambridge University Press| location = Cambridge| isbn = 978-0-521-32115-0 }} * {{cite book| last = Mumford| first = T F| last2 = Miura| first2 = A| editor-last = Lembi| editor-first = C A| editor2-last = Waaland| editor2-first = J R| title = Algae and Human Affairs| year = 1988| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-0-521-32115-0| pages = 87–117| contribution = ''Porphyra'' as food: cultivation and economic }}. * {{cite book| last = Round| first = F E| title = The Ecology of Algae| year = 1981| publisher = Cambridge University Press| location = London| isbn = 978-0-521-22583-0 }} * Smith, G.M. (1938). [https://archive.org/details/cryptogamicbotan031880mbp ''Cryptogamic Botany'', vol. 1]. McGraw-Hill, New York. ===Regional=== ;Britain and Ireland * {{cite book| last = Brodie| first = Juliet| last2 = Burrows| first2 = Elsie M| last3 = Chamberlain| first3 = Yvonne M.| last4 = Christensen| first4 = Tyge| last5 = Dixon| first5 = Peter Stanley| last6 = Fletcher| first6 = R.L.| last7 = Hommersand| first7 = Max H| last8 = Irvine| first8 = Linda M| last9 = Maggs| first9 = Christine A| displayauthors=8|title = Seaweeds of the British Isles: A Collaborative Project of the British Phycological Society and the British Museum (Natural History)| year = 1977–2003| publisher = British Museum (Natural History), HMSO, Intercept| location = London, Andover| isbn = 978-0-565-00781-2 }} * {{cite book|last=Cullinane|first=John P|year=1973|title=Phycology of the South Coast of Ireland|location=Cork|publisher=Cork University Press}} * {{cite book| last = Hardy| first = F G| last2 = Aspinall| first2 = R J| title = An Atlas of the Seaweeds of Northumberland and Durham| year = 1988| publisher = Northumberland Biological Records Centre| location = The Hancock Museum, University Newcastle upon Tyne| isbn = 978-0-9509680-5-6 }} * {{cite book| last = Hardy| first = F G| last2 = Guiry| first2 = Michael D| last3 = Arnold| first3 = Henry R| title = A Check-list and Atlas of the Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland| edition = Revised| year = 2006| publisher = British Phycological Society| location = London| isbn = 978-3-906166-35-3 }} * {{cite book| last = John| first = D M| last2 = Whitton| first2 = B A| last3 = Brook| first3 = J A| title = The Freshwater Algal Flora of the British Isles| year = 2002| publisher = Cambridge University Press| location = Cambridge, UK; New York| isbn = 978-0-521-77051-4 }} * {{cite book|last=Knight|first=Margery|last2=Parke|first2=Mary W|title=Manx Algae: An Algal Survey of the South End of the Isle of Man|year=1931|location=Liverpool|publisher=University Press|series=Liverpool Marine Biology Committee (LMBC) Memoirs on Typical British Marine Plants & Animals|volume=XXX}} * {{cite book|last=Morton|first=Osborne|year=1994|title=Marine Algae of Northern Ireland|location=Belfast|publisher=Ulster Museum|isbn=978-0-900761-28-7}} * {{cite journal|last=Morton|first=Osborne|title=The Marine Macroalgae of County Donegal, Ireland|journal=Bulletin of the Irish Biogeographical Society|volume=27|pages=3–164|date=1 December 2003}} ;Australia * {{cite book| last = Huisman| first = J M| title = Marine Plants of Australia| year = 2000| publisher = University of Western Australian (UWA) Press| isbn = 978-1-876268-33-6 }} ;New Zealand * {{cite book|last=Chapman|first=Valentine Jackson|last2=Lindauer|first2=VW|last3=Aiken|first3=M|last4=Dromgoole|first4=FI|title=The Marine algae of New Zealand|year=1970 |origyear=1900, 1956, 1961, 1969|location=London; Lehre, Germany|publisher=Linnaean Society of London; Cramer}} ;Europe * {{cite book| last1 = Cabioc'h| first1 = Jacqueline| last2 = Floc'h| first2 = Jean-Yves| last3 = Le Toquin| first3 = Alain| last4 = Boudouresque| first4 = Charles-François| last5 = Meinesz| first5 = Alexandre| last6 = Verlaque| first6 = Marc| title = Guide des algues des mers d'Europe: Manche/Atlantique-Méditerranée| year = 1992| publisher = Delachaux et Niestlé| location = Lausanne, Suisse| language = French| isbn = 978-2-603-00848-5 }} * {{cite book|title=Les Algues de côtes françaises (manche et atlantique), notions fondamentales sur l'écologie, la biologie et la systématique des algues marines|first=Paulette|last= Gayral|language= French|location=Paris| publisher=Doin, Deren et Cie|year=1966}} * {{cite book| last = Guiry| first = M.D.| last2 = Blunden| first2 = G.| title = Seaweed Resources in Europe: Uses and Potential| year = 1991| publisher = John Wiley & Sons| isbn = 978-0-471-92947-5 }} * {{cite book|last=Míguez Rodríguez|first=Luís|year=1998|title=Algas mariñas de Galicia: bioloxía, gastronomía, industria|language=Galician|publisher=Edicións Xerais de Galicia|location=[[Vigo]]|isbn=978-84-8302-263-4}} * {{cite book| last = Otero| first = J.| title = Guía das macroalgas de Galicia| year = 2002| publisher = Baía Edicións| location = [[A Coruña]]| language = Galician| isbn = 978-84-89803-22-0 }} * {{cite book |last=Bárbara |first=I. |last2=Cremades |first2=J. |year=1993 |title=Guía de las algas del litoral gallego |language=Spanish |publisher=Concello da Coruña – Casa das Ciencias |location=A Coruña}} ;Arctic * {{cite book|last=Kjellman|first=Frans Reinhold|year=1883|title= The algae of the Arctic Sea: a survey of the species, together with an exposition of the general characters and the development of the flora|location=Stockholm|publisher=Kungl. Svenska vetenskapsakademiens handlingar|volume=20|issue=5|pages=1–350}} ;Greenland * {{cite book|last=Lund|first=Søren Jensen|year=1959|title=The Marine Algae of East Greenland|location=Kövenhavn|publisher=C.A. Reitzel|id=9584734}} ;Faroe Islands * {{cite book|first=Frederik|last=Børgesen|contribution= Marine Algae|pages=339–532|editor-last=Warming|editor-first= Eugene |title=Botany of the Faröes Based Upon Danish Investigations. Part II|location= København|publisher=Det nordiske Forlag|origyear=1903|year=1970}}. ;Canary Islands * {{cite book|first=Frederik|last=Børgesen|title=Marine Algae from the Canary Islands|year=1936 |origyear=1925, 1926, 1927, 1929, 1930|location=København|publisher=Bianco Lunos}} ;Morocco * {{cite book|title=Algues de la côte atlantique marocaine|first=Paulette |last=Gayral|year=1958|publisher=Rabat [Société des sciences naturelles et physiques du Maroc]|location=Casablanca|language=French }} ;South Africa * {{cite book|author2= Bolton, J.J.|author3= Anderson, R.J.| last = Stegenga| first = H.| title = Seaweeds of the South African West Coast| year = 1997| publisher = Bolus Herbarium, University of Cape Town| isbn = 978-0-7992-1793-3 }} ;North America * {{cite book| last2 = Hollenberg |first2=G.J.| last = Abbott| first = I.A.| title = Marine Algae of California| year = 1976| publisher = Stanford University Press| location = California| isbn = 978-0-8047-0867-8 }} * {{cite book|last=Greeson|first= Phillip E.|year= 1982 |title=An annotated key to the identification of commonly occurring and dominant genera of Algae observed in the Phytoplankton of the United States| publisher=US Department of the Interior, Geological Survey| location=Washington, D.C.| url=https://archive.org/details/annotatedkeytoid00gree|accessdate=19 December 2008}} * {{cite book|last=Taylor|first= William Randolph|year=1969 |origyear=1937, 1957, 1962|title=Marine Algae of the Northeastern Coast of North America|publisher=University of Michigan Press|location= Ann Arbor|isbn=978-0-472-04904-2}} * {{cite book| last = Wehr| first = J D| last2 = Sheath| first2 = R G| title = Freshwater Algae of North America: Ecology and Classification| year = 2003| publisher = Academic Press| location = US| isbn = 978-0-12-741550-5 }} {{Refend}} ==External links== {{Commons category|Algae}} {{Wikispecies|Algae}} * {{cite web|url=http://www.algaebase.org |title=AlgaeBase|first=Michael and Wendy|last=Guiry}} – a database of all algal names including images, nomenclature, taxonomy, distribution, bibliography, uses, extracts * [http://ccdb.ucsd.edu/sand/main?stype=lite&keyword=algae&event=display&Submit=Go&start=1 Algae – Cell Centered Database] * {{cite web|title=Algae Research|publisher=National Museum of Natural History, Department of Botany|year=2008|url=http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/|accessdate=19 December 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081201013721/http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/| archivedate= 1 December 2008 | deadurl= no}} * {{cite web| first=Don |last=Anderson |author2=Bruce Keafer|author3=Judy Kleindinst|author4=Katie Shaughnessy|author5=Katherine Joyce|author6=Danielle Fino|author7= Adam Shepherd |title=Harmful Algae|year=2007|publisher=US National Office for Harmful Algal Blooms|url=http://www.whoi.edu/redtide/page.do?pid=14779|accessdate=19 December 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081205151336/http://www.whoi.edu/redtide/page.do?pid=14779| archivedate= 5 December 2008 | deadurl= no}} * {{cite web|title=Australian Freshwater Algae (AFA)|publisher=Department of Environment and Climate Change NSW Botanic Gardens Trust|url=http://www.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/science/hot_science_topics/australian_freshwater_algae2|accessdate=19 December 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081230140015/http://www.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/science/hot_science_topics/australian_freshwater_algae2| archivedate= 30 December 2008 | deadurl= no}} * {{cite web|title=Freshwater Algae Research|publisher=Phycology Section, Patrick Center for Environmental Research|year=2011|url=http://diatom.ansp.org/|accessdate=17 December 2011}} * {{cite web|title=Monterey Bay Flora|publisher=Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI)|date=1996–2008|accessdate=20 December 2008|url=http://www.mbari.org/staff/conn/botany/flora/mflora.htm}} * {{cite web|url=http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/INA.html|title= Index Nominum Algarum (INA)|first=Paul|last=Silva|date=1997–2004|publisher=University Herbarium, University of California|location=Berkeley|accessdate=19 December 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081223172950/http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/INA.html| archivedate= 23 December 2008 | deadurl= no}} * [http://tolweb.org/notes/?note_id=52 Algae: Protists with Chloroplasts] * {{cite web|title=Research on microalgae|publisher=Wageningen UR|year=2009|url=http://www.algae.wur.nl/uk/|accessdate=18 May 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090424044729/http://www.algae.wur.nl/UK/| archivedate= 24 April 2009 | deadurl= no}} * [http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/online-resources/glossaries/algae/index.html Algae glossary (Australian Biological Resources Study).] * {{cite web|title=About Algae|publisher=Natural History Museum, United Kingdom|url=http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/scientific-resources/biodiversity/uk-biodiversity/algaevision/about-algae/index.html}} * EnAlgae [http://www.enalgae.eu] {{Botany}} {{Protist structures}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Algae| ]] [[Category:Endosymbiotic events]] [[Category:Polyphyletic groups]] 0v5usv3c6h9as1c2lrtlrflny4wlpgo 0 634 861121090 857913945 2018-09-25T07:26:16Z 78.38.99.10 /* History */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} '''Analysis of variance''' ('''ANOVA''') is a collection of [[statistical model]]s and their associated estimation procedures (such as the "variation" among and between groups) used to analyze the differences among group means in a [[sample (statistics)|sample]]. ANOVA was developed by [[statistician]] and [[evolutionary biology|evolutionary biologist]] [[Ronald Fisher]]. In the ANOVA setting, the observed [[variance]] in a particular variable is partitioned into components attributable to different sources of variation. In its simplest form, ANOVA provides a [[statistical test]] of whether the population [[mean]]s of several groups are equal, and therefore generalizes the [[Student's t-test#Independent two-sample t-test|''t''-test]] to more than two groups. ANOVA is useful for comparing (testing) three or more group means for [[statistical significance]]. It is conceptually similar to [[Multiple comparisons problem|multiple two-sample t-tests]], but is more conservative, resulting in fewer [[type I errors]],<ref name="OpenIntro Statistics">{{cite book|last1=Diez|first1=David M|last2=Barr|first2=Christopher D|last3=Cetinkaya-Rundel|first3=Mine|title=OpenIntro Statistics|date=2017|publisher=OpenIntro|edition=3rd|url=https://www.openintro.org/stat/textbook.php|accessdate=11 November 2017}}</ref> and is therefore suited to a wide range of practical problems. {{TOC limit}} ==History== While the analysis of variance reached fruition in the 20th century, antecedents extend centuries into the past according to Stigler.<ref>Stigler (1986)</ref> These include hypothesis testing, the partitioning of sums of squares, experimental techniques and the additive model. [[Pierre-Simon Laplace|Laplace]] was performing hypothesis testing in the 1770s.<ref>Stigler (1986, p 134)</ref> The development of least-squares methods by Laplace and [[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Gauss]] circa 1800 provided an improved method of combining observations (over the existing practices then used in astronomy and geodesy). It also initiated much study of the contributions to sums of squares. Laplace knew how to estimate a variance from a residual (rather than a total) sum of squares.<ref>Stigler (1986, p 153)</ref> By 1827, Laplace was using [[least squares]] methods to address ANOVA problems regarding measurements of atmospheric tides.<ref>Stigler (1986, pp&nbsp;154–155)</ref> Before 1800, astronomers had isolated observational errors resulting from reaction times (the "[[personal equation]]") and had developed methods of reducing the errors.<ref>Stigler (1986, pp&nbsp;240–242)</ref> The experimental methods used in the study of the personal equation were later accepted by the emerging field of psychology <ref>Stigler (1986, Chapter 7 – Psychophysics as a Counterpoint)</ref> which developed strong (full factorial) experimental methods to which randomization and blinding were soon added.<ref>Stigler (1986, p 253)</ref> An eloquent non-mathematical explanation of the additive effects model was available in 1885.<ref>Stigler (1986, pp&nbsp;314–315)</ref> [[Ronald Fisher]] introduced the term [[variance]] and proposed its formal analysis in a 1918 article ''[[The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance]]''.<ref>''The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance''. Ronald A. Fisher. ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh''. 1918. (volume 52, pages 399–433)</ref> His first application of the analysis of variance was published in 1921.<ref>On the "Probable Error" of a Coefficient of Correlation Deduced from a Small Sample. Ronald A. Fisher. Metron, 1: 3–32 (1921)</ref> Analysis of variance became widely known after being included in Fisher's 1925 book ''[[Statistical Methods for Research Workers]]''. Randomization models were developed by several researchers. The first was published in Polish by [[Jerzy Neyman]] in 1923.<ref>Scheffé (1959, p 291, "Randomization models were first formulated by Neyman (1923) for the completely randomized design, by Neyman (1935) for randomized blocks, by Welch (1937) and Pitman (1937) for the Latin square under a certain null hypothesis, and by Kempthorne (1952, 1955) and Wilk (1955) for many other designs.")</ref> One of the attributes of ANOVA that ensured its early popularity was computational elegance. The structure of the additive model allows solution for the additive coefficients by simple algebra rather than by matrix calculations. In the era of mechanical calculators this simplicity was critical. The determination of statistical significance also required access to tables of the F function which were supplied by early statistics texts. ==Motivating example== [[File:Anova, no fit..png|thumb|No fit.]][[File:ANOVA fair fit.jpg|thumb|Fair fit]][[File:ANOVA very good fit.jpg|thumb|Very good fit]]The analysis of variance can be used as an exploratory tool to explain observations. A dog show provides an example. A dog show is not a random sampling of the breed: it is typically limited to dogs that are adult, pure-bred, and exemplary. A histogram of dog weights from a show might plausibly be rather complex, like the yellow-orange distribution shown in the illustrations. Suppose we wanted to predict the weight of a dog based on a certain set of characteristics of each dog. One way to do that is to ''explain'' the distribution of weights by dividing the dog population into groups based on those characteristics. A successful grouping will split dogs such that (a) each group has a low variance of dog weights (meaning the group is relatively homogeneous) and (b) the mean of each group is distinct (if two groups have the same mean, then it isn't reasonable to conclude that the groups are, in fact, separate in any meaningful way). In the illustrations to the right, groups are identified as ''X''₁, ''X''₂, etc. In the first illustration, the dogs are divided according to the product (interaction) of two binary groupings: young vs old, and short-haired vs long-haired (e.g., group 1 is young, short-haired dogs, group 2 is young, long-haired dogs, etc.). Since the distributions of dog weight within each of the groups (shown in blue) has a relatively large variance, and since the means are very similar across groups, grouping dogs by these characteristics does not produce an effective way to explain the variation in dog weights: knowing which group a dog is in doesn't allow us to predict its weight much better than simply knowing the dog is in a dog show. Thus, this grouping fails to explain the variation in the overall distribution (yellow-orange). An attempt to explain the weight distribution by grouping dogs as ''pet vs working breed'' and ''less athletic vs more athletic'' would probably be somewhat more successful (fair fit). The heaviest show dogs are likely to be big strong working breeds, while breeds kept as pets tend to be smaller and thus lighter. As shown by the second illustration, the distributions have variances that are considerably smaller than in the first case, and the means are more distinguishable. However, the significant overlap of distributions, for example, means that we cannot distinguish ''X''₁ and ''X''₂ reliably. Grouping dogs according to a coin flip might produce distributions that look similar. An attempt to explain weight by breed is likely to produce a very good fit. All Chihuahuas are light and all St Bernards are heavy. The difference in weights between Setters and Pointers does not justify separate breeds. The analysis of variance provides the formal tools to justify these intuitive judgments. A common use of the method is the analysis of experimental data or the development of models. The method has some advantages over correlation: not all of the data must be numeric and one result of the method is a judgment in the confidence in an explanatory relationship. ==Background and terminology== ANOVA is a form of [[statistical hypothesis testing]] heavily used in the analysis of experimental data. A test result (calculated from the [[null hypothesis]] and the sample) is called statistically significant if it is deemed unlikely to have occurred by chance, ''assuming the truth of the null hypothesis''. A statistically significant result, when a probability ([[p-value]]) is less than a pre-specified threshold (significance level), justifies the rejection of the [[null hypothesis]], but only if the a priori probability of the null hypothesis is not high. In the typical application of ANOVA, the null hypothesis is that all groups are random samples from the same population. For example, when studying the effect of different treatments on similar samples of patients, the null hypothesis would be that all treatments have the same effect (perhaps none). Rejecting the null hypothesis is taken to mean that the differences in observed effects between treatment groups are unlikely to be due to random chance. By construction, hypothesis testing limits the rate of [[Type I errors]] (false positives) to a significance level. Experimenters also wish to limit [[Type II errors]] (false negatives). The rate of Type II errors depends largely on sample size (the rate is larger for smaller samples), significance level (when the standard of proof is high, the chances of overlooking a discovery are also high) and [[effect size]] (a smaller effect size is more prone to Type II error). The terminology of ANOVA is largely from the statistical [[design of experiments]]. The experimenter adjusts factors and measures responses in an attempt to determine an effect. Factors are assigned to experimental units by a combination of randomization and [[Randomized block design|blocking]] to ensure the validity of the results. [[Blind experiment|Blinding]] keeps the weighing impartial. Responses show a variability that is partially the result of the effect and is partially random error. ANOVA is the synthesis of several ideas and it is used for multiple purposes. As a consequence, it is difficult to define concisely or precisely. "Classical" ANOVA for balanced data does three things at once: {{ordered list|start=1 | As [[exploratory data analysis]], an ANOVA employs an additive data decomposition, and its sums of squares indicate the variance of each component of the decomposition (or, equivalently, each set of terms of a linear model). | Comparisons of mean squares, along with an [[F-test|''F''-test]]&nbsp;... allow testing of a nested sequence of models. | Closely related to the ANOVA is a linear model fit with coefficient estimates and standard errors."<ref>Gelman (2005, p 2)</ref> }} In short, ANOVA is a statistical tool used in several ways to develop and confirm an explanation for the observed data. Additionally: {{ordered list|start=4 | It is computationally elegant and relatively robust against violations of its assumptions. | ANOVA provides strong (multiple sample comparison) statistical analysis. | It has been adapted to the analysis of a variety of experimental designs. }} As a result: ANOVA "has long enjoyed the status of being the '''most used''' (some would say abused) statistical technique in psychological research."<ref> Howell (2002, p 320)</ref> ANOVA "is probably the '''most useful''' technique in the field of statistical inference."<ref>Montgomery (2001, p 63)</ref> ANOVA is difficult to teach, particularly for complex experiments, with [[Restricted randomization|split-plot designs]] being notorious.<ref>Gelman (2005, p 1)</ref> In some cases the proper application of the method is best determined by problem pattern recognition followed by the consultation of a classic authoritative test.<ref> Gelman (2005, p 5)</ref> ===Design-of-experiments terms=== (Condensed from the "NIST Engineering Statistics Handbook": Section 5.7. A Glossary of DOE Terminology.)<ref>{{cite web | title = Section 5.7. A Glossary of DOE Terminology | work = NIST Engineering Statistics handbook | publisher = NIST | url = http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/pri/section7/pri7.htm | accessdate = 5 April 2012}}</ref> ; Balanced design: An experimental design where all cells (i.e. treatment combinations) have the same number of observations. ; Blocking: A schedule for conducting treatment combinations in an experimental study such that any effects on the experimental results due to a known change in raw materials, operators, machines, etc., become concentrated in the levels of the blocking variable. The reason for blocking is to isolate a systematic effect and prevent it from obscuring the main effects. Blocking is achieved by restricting randomization. ; Design: A set of experimental runs which allows the fit of a particular model and the estimate of effects. ; DOE: Design of experiments. An approach to problem solving involving collection of data that will support valid, defensible, and supportable conclusions.<ref>{{cite web | title = Section 4.3.1 A Glossary of DOE Terminology | work= NIST Engineering Statistics handbook | publisher = NIST | url= http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/pmd/section3/pmd31.htm | accessdate = 14 Aug 2012}}</ref> ; Effect: How changing the settings of a factor changes the response. The effect of a single factor is also called a main effect. ; Error: Unexplained variation in a collection of observations. DOE's typically require understanding of both random error and lack of fit error. ; Experimental unit: The entity to which a specific treatment combination is applied. ; Factors: Process inputs that an investigator manipulates to cause a change in the output. ; Lack-of-fit error: Error that occurs when the analysis omits one or more important terms or factors from the process model. Including replication in a DOE allows separation of experimental error into its components: lack of fit and random (pure) error. ; Model: Mathematical relationship which relates changes in a given response to changes in one or more factors. ; Random error: Error that occurs due to natural variation in the process. Random error is typically assumed to be normally distributed with zero mean and a constant variance. Random error is also called experimental error. ; Randomization: A schedule for allocating treatment material and for conducting treatment combinations in a DOE such that the conditions in one run neither depend on the conditions of the previous run nor predict the conditions in the subsequent runs.<ref group="nb">Randomization is a term used in multiple ways in this material. "Randomization has three roles in applications: as a device for eliminating biases, for example from unobserved explanatory variables and selection effects: as a basis for estimating standard errors: and as a foundation for formally exact significance tests." Cox (2006, page 192) Hinkelmann and Kempthorne use randomization both in experimental design and for statistical analysis.</ref> ; Replication: Performing the same treatment combination more than once. Including replication allows an estimate of the random error independent of any lack of fit error. ; Responses: The output(s) of a process. Sometimes called dependent variable(s). ; Treatment: A treatment is a specific combination of factor levels whose effect is to be compared with other treatments. ==== ANOVA table ==== {| class="wikitable" |+One-way ANOVA !Sources !df !SS !MSS !''F''-ratio |- |Between treatment |k−1 |SST |MST (SST/(k−1)) |MST/MSE |- |Error |N−k |SSE |MSE (SSE/(N−k)) | |- |Total |N−1 | | | |} * SSE – Sum-of-Square due to Error * SST – Sum-of-Square of Treatment * MST – Mean Sum-of-square Treatment * MSE – Mean Sum-of-square Error * df – Degrees of Freedom {| class="wikitable" |+Two-way ANOVA !Source !df !SS !MSS !''F''-ratio |- |Between treatment |k−1 |SSR |MST (SSR/(k−1)) |MST/MSE (''F''-ratio row) |- |Between block |h−1 |SSC |MSV (SSC/(h−1)) |MSV/MSE (''F''-ratio column) |- |Error |(h−1)(k−1) |SSE |MSE (SSE/((h−1)(k−1))) | |- |Total |N−1 | | | |} * SSR – Sum-of-Square of treatment in Rows (SST) * SSC – Sum-of-Square between Column * MSV – Mean Sum of Variance == Classes of models == There are three classes of models used in the analysis of variance, and these are outlined here. ===Fixed-effects models=== {{Main|Fixed effects model}} The fixed-effects model (class I) of analysis of variance applies to situations in which the experimenter applies one or more treatments to the subjects of the experiment to see whether the [[response variable]] values change. This allows the experimenter to estimate the ranges of response variable values that the treatment would generate in the population as a whole. ===Random-effects models=== {{Main|Random effects model}} Random-effects model (class II) is used when the treatments are not fixed. This occurs when the various factor levels are sampled from a larger population. Because the levels themselves are [[random variable]]s, some assumptions and the method of contrasting the treatments (a multi-variable generalization of simple differences) differ from the fixed-effects model.<ref>Montgomery (2001, Chapter 12: Experiments with random factors)</ref> ===Mixed-effects models=== {{Main|Mixed model}} A mixed-effects model (class III) contains experimental factors of both fixed and random-effects types, with appropriately different interpretations and analysis for the two types. Example: Teaching experiments could be performed by a college or university department to find a good introductory textbook, with each text considered a treatment. The fixed-effects model would compare a list of candidate texts. The random-effects model would determine whether important differences exist among a list of randomly selected texts. The mixed-effects model would compare the (fixed) incumbent texts to randomly selected alternatives. Defining fixed and random effects has proven elusive, with competing definitions arguably leading toward a linguistic quagmire.<ref> Gelman (2005, pp. 20–21)</ref> ==Assumptions== The analysis of variance has been studied from several approaches, the most common of which uses a [[linear model]] that relates the response to the treatments and blocks. Note that the model is linear in parameters but may be nonlinear across factor levels. Interpretation is easy when data is balanced across factors but much deeper understanding is needed for unbalanced data. ===Textbook analysis using a normal distribution=== The analysis of variance can be presented in terms of a [[linear model]], which makes the following assumptions about the [[probability distribution]] of the responses:<ref>{{cite book |title = Statistical Methods | last1 = Snedecor | first1 = George W. | last2 = Cochran | first2 = William G. | year = 1967 | edition = 6th | page = 321 }}</ref><ref>Cochran & Cox (1992, p 48)</ref><ref>Howell (2002, p 323)</ref><ref> {{cite book | last1 = Anderson | first1 = David R. | last2 = Sweeney | first2 = Dennis J. | last3 = Williams | first3 = Thomas A. | title = Statistics for business and economics | publisher = West Pub. Co | location = Minneapolis/St. Paul | year = 1996 | edition = 6th| isbn = 978-0-314-06378-6 | pages = 452–453}} </ref> * [[Statistical independence|Independence]] of observations – this is an assumption of the model that simplifies the statistical analysis. * [[normal distribution|Normality]] – the distributions of the [[Residual (statistics)|residuals]] are [[Normal distribution|normal]]. * Equality (or "homogeneity") of variances, called [[homoscedasticity]] — the variance of data in groups should be the same. The separate assumptions of the textbook model imply that the [[errors and residuals in statistics|errors]] are independently, identically, and normally distributed for fixed effects models, that is, that the errors (<math>\varepsilon</math>) are independent and :<math>\varepsilon \thicksim N(0, \sigma^2).\,</math> ===Randomization-based analysis=== {{See also|Random assignment|Randomization test}} In a [[Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled experiment]], the treatments are randomly assigned to experimental units, following the experimental protocol. This randomization is objective and declared before the experiment is carried out. The objective random-assignment is used to test the significance of the null hypothesis, following the ideas of [[Charles Sanders Peirce|C. S. Peirce]] and [[Ronald Fisher]]. This design-based analysis was discussed and developed by [[Francis J. Anscombe]] at [[Rothamsted Experimental Station]] and by [[Oscar Kempthorne]] at [[Iowa State University]].<ref>Anscombe (1948)</ref> Kempthorne and his students make an assumption of ''unit treatment additivity'', which is discussed in the books of Kempthorne and [[David R. Cox]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}} ====Unit-treatment additivity==== In its simplest form, the assumption of unit-treatment additivity<ref group="nb">Unit-treatment additivity is simply termed additivity in most texts. Hinkelmann and Kempthorne add adjectives and distinguish between additivity in the strict and broad senses. This allows a detailed consideration of multiple error sources (treatment, state, selection, measurement and sampling) on page 161.</ref> states that the observed response <math>y_{i,j}</math> from experimental unit <math>i</math> when receiving treatment <math>j</math> can be written as the sum of the unit's response <math>y_i</math> and the treatment-effect <math> t_j</math>, that is <ref>Kempthorne (1979, p 30)</ref><ref name="Cox">Cox (1958, Chapter 2: Some Key Assumptions)</ref><ref>Hinkelmann and Kempthorne (2008, Volume 1, Throughout. Introduced in Section 2.3.3: Principles of experimental design; The linear model; Outline of a model)</ref> : <math>y_{i,j}=y_i+t_j.</math> The assumption of unit-treatment additivity implies that, for every treatment <math>j</math>, the <math>j</math>th treatment has exactly the same effect <math>t_j</math> on every experiment unit. The assumption of unit treatment additivity usually cannot be directly [[falsificationism|falsified]], according to Cox and Kempthorne. However, many ''consequences'' of treatment-unit additivity can be falsified. For a randomized experiment, the assumption of unit-treatment additivity ''implies'' that the variance is constant for all treatments. Therefore, by [[contraposition]], a necessary condition for unit-treatment additivity is that the variance is constant. The use of unit treatment additivity and randomization is similar to the design-based inference that is standard in finite-population [[survey sampling]]. ====Derived linear model==== Kempthorne uses the randomization-distribution and the assumption of ''unit treatment additivity'' to produce a ''derived linear model'', very similar to the textbook model discussed previously.<ref>Hinkelmann and Kempthorne (2008, Volume 1, Section 6.3: Completely Randomized Design; Derived Linear Model)</ref> The test statistics of this derived linear model are closely approximated by the test statistics of an appropriate normal linear model, according to approximation theorems and simulation studies.<ref name="HinkelmannKempthorne">Hinkelmann and Kempthorne (2008, Volume 1, Section 6.6: Completely randomized design; Approximating the randomization test)</ref> However, there are differences. For example, the randomization-based analysis results in a small but (strictly) negative correlation between the observations.<ref>Bailey (2008, Chapter 2.14 "A More General Model" in Bailey, pp.&nbsp;38–40)</ref><ref>Hinkelmann and Kempthorne (2008, Volume 1, Chapter 7: Comparison of Treatments)</ref> In the randomization-based analysis, there is ''no assumption'' of a ''normal'' distribution and certainly ''no assumption'' of ''independence''. On the contrary, ''the observations are dependent''! The randomization-based analysis has the disadvantage that its exposition involves tedious algebra and extensive time. Since the randomization-based analysis is complicated and is closely approximated by the approach using a normal linear model, most teachers emphasize the normal linear model approach. Few statisticians object to model-based analysis of balanced randomized experiments. ====Statistical models for observational data==== However, when applied to data from non-randomized experiments or [[observational study|observational studies]], model-based analysis lacks the warrant of randomization.<ref> Kempthorne (1979, pp 125–126, "The experimenter must decide which of the various causes that he feels will produce variations in his results must be controlled experimentally. Those causes that he does not control experimentally, because he is not cognizant of them, he must control by the device of randomization." "[O]nly when the treatments in the experiment are applied by the experimenter using the full randomization procedure is the chain of inductive inference sound. It is ''only'' under these circumstances that the experimenter can attribute whatever effects he observes to the treatment and the treatment only. Under these circumstances his conclusions are reliable in the statistical sense.") </ref> For observational data, the derivation of confidence intervals must use ''subjective'' models, as emphasized by [[Ronald Fisher]] and his followers. In practice, the estimates of treatment-effects from observational studies generally are often inconsistent. In practice, "statistical models" and observational data are useful for suggesting hypotheses that should be treated very cautiously by the public.<ref>Freedman {{full citation needed|date=November 2012}}</ref> ===Summary of assumptions=== The normal-model based ANOVA analysis assumes the independence, normality and homogeneity of the variances of the residuals. The randomization-based analysis assumes only the homogeneity of the variances of the residuals (as a consequence of unit-treatment additivity) and uses the randomization procedure of the experiment. Both these analyses require [[homoscedasticity]], as an assumption for the normal-model analysis and as a consequence of randomization and additivity for the randomization-based analysis. However, studies of processes that change variances rather than means (called dispersion effects) have been successfully conducted using ANOVA.<ref>Montgomery (2001, Section 3.8: Discovering dispersion effects)</ref> There are ''no'' necessary assumptions for ANOVA in its full generality, but the ''F''-test used for ANOVA hypothesis testing has assumptions and practical limitations which are of continuing interest. Problems which do not satisfy the assumptions of ANOVA can often be transformed to satisfy the assumptions. The property of unit-treatment additivity is not invariant under a "change of scale", so statisticians often use transformations to achieve unit-treatment additivity. If the response variable is expected to follow a parametric family of probability distributions, then the statistician may specify (in the protocol for the experiment or observational study) that the responses be transformed to stabilize the variance.<ref>Hinkelmann and Kempthorne (2008, Volume 1, Section 6.10: Completely randomized design; Transformations)</ref> Also, a statistician may specify that logarithmic transforms be applied to the responses, which are believed to follow a multiplicative model.<ref name="Cox" /><ref>Bailey (2008)</ref> According to Cauchy's [[functional equation]] theorem, the [[logarithm]] is the only continuous transformation that transforms real multiplication to addition.{{citation needed|date=October 2013}} ==Characteristics== ANOVA is used in the analysis of comparative experiments, those in which only the difference in outcomes is of interest. The statistical significance of the experiment is determined by a ratio of two variances. This ratio is independent of several possible alterations to the experimental observations: Adding a constant to all observations does not alter significance. Multiplying all observations by a constant does not alter significance. So ANOVA statistical significance result is independent of constant bias and scaling errors as well as the units used in expressing observations. In the era of mechanical calculation it was common to subtract a constant from all observations (when equivalent to dropping leading digits) to simplify data entry.<ref>Montgomery (2001, Section 3-3: Experiments with a single factor: The analysis of variance; Analysis of the fixed effects model)</ref><ref> Cochran & Cox (1992, p 2 example)</ref> This is an example of data [[Coding (social sciences)|coding]]. ==Logic== The calculations of ANOVA can be characterized as computing a number of means and variances, dividing two variances and comparing the ratio to a handbook value to determine statistical significance. Calculating a treatment effect is then trivial, "the effect of any treatment is estimated by taking the difference between the mean of the observations which receive the treatment and the general mean".<ref> Cochran & Cox (1992, p 49)</ref> ===Partitioning of the sum of squares=== {{main|Partition of sums of squares}} ANOVA uses traditional standardized terminology. The definitional equation of sample variance is <math>s^2=\textstyle\frac{1}{n-1}\sum(y_i-\bar{y})^2</math>, where the divisor is called the degrees of freedom (DF), the summation is called the sum of squares (SS), the result is called the mean square (MS) and the squared terms are deviations from the sample mean. ANOVA estimates 3 sample variances: a total variance based on all the observation deviations from the grand mean, an error variance based on all the observation deviations from their appropriate treatment means, and a treatment variance. The treatment variance is based on the deviations of treatment means from the grand mean, the result being multiplied by the number of observations in each treatment to account for the difference between the variance of observations and the variance of means. The fundamental technique is a partitioning of the total [[sum of squares (statistics)|sum of squares]] ''SS'' into components related to the effects used in the model. For example, the model for a simplified ANOVA with one type of treatment at different levels. :<math>SS_\text{Total} = SS_\text{Error} + SS_\text{Treatments}</math> The number of [[Degrees of freedom (statistics)|degrees of freedom]] ''DF'' can be partitioned in a similar way: one of these components (that for error) specifies a [[chi-squared distribution]] which describes the associated sum of squares, while the same is true for "treatments" if there is no treatment effect. :<math>DF_\text{Total} = DF_\text{Error} + DF_\text{Treatments}</math> See also [[Lack-of-fit sum of squares]]. ===The ''F''-test=== {{Main|F-test}} The [[F-test|''F''-test]] is used for comparing the factors of the total deviation. For example, in one-way, or single-factor ANOVA, statistical significance is tested for by comparing the F test statistic :<math>F = \frac{\text{variance between treatments}}{\text{variance within treatments}}</math> :<math>F = \frac{MS_\text{Treatments}}{MS_\text{Error}} = {{SS_\text{Treatments} / (I-1)} \over {SS_\text{Error} / (n_T-I)}}</math> where ''MS'' is mean square, <math>I</math> = number of treatments and <math>n_T</math> = total number of cases to the [[F-distribution|''F''-distribution]] with <math>I - 1</math>, <math>n_T - I</math> degrees of freedom. Using the ''F''-distribution is a natural candidate because the test statistic is the ratio of two scaled sums of squares each of which follows a scaled [[chi-squared distribution]]. The expected value of F is <math>1 + {n \sigma^2_\text{Treatment}} / {\sigma^2_\text{Error}}</math> (where n is the treatment sample size) which is 1 for no treatment effect. As values of F increase above 1, the evidence is increasingly inconsistent with the null hypothesis. Two apparent experimental methods of increasing F are increasing the sample size and reducing the error variance by tight experimental controls. There are two methods of concluding the ANOVA hypothesis test, both of which produce the same result: * The textbook method is to compare the observed value of F with the critical value of F determined from tables. The critical value of F is a function of the degrees of freedom of the numerator and the denominator and the significance level (α). If F ≥ F_Critical, the null hypothesis is rejected. * The computer method calculates the probability (p-value) of a value of F greater than or equal to the observed value. The null hypothesis is rejected if this probability is less than or equal to the significance level (α). The ANOVA ''F''-test is known to be nearly optimal in the sense of minimizing false negative errors for a fixed rate of false positive errors (i.e. maximizing power for a fixed significance level). For example, to test the hypothesis that various medical treatments have exactly the same effect, the [[F-test|''F''-test]]'s ''p''-values closely approximate the [[permutation test]]'s [[p-value]]s: The approximation is particularly close when the design is balanced.<ref name="HinkelmannKempthorne" /><ref>Hinkelmann and Kempthorne (2008, Volume 1, Section 6.7: Completely randomized design; CRD with unequal numbers of replications)</ref> Such [[permutation test]]s characterize [[uniformly most powerful test|tests with maximum power]] against all [[alternative hypothesis|alternative hypotheses]], as observed by Rosenbaum.<ref group="nb">Rosenbaum (2002, page 40) cites Section 5.7 (Permutation Tests), Theorem 2.3 (actually Theorem 3, page 184) of [[Erich Leo Lehmann|Lehmann]]'s ''Testing Statistical Hypotheses'' (1959).</ref> The ANOVA ''F''-test (of the null-hypothesis that all treatments have exactly the same effect) is recommended as a practical test, because of its robustness against many alternative distributions.<ref>Moore and McCabe (2003, page 763)</ref><ref group="nb">The ''F''-test for the comparison of variances has a mixed reputation. It is not recommended as a hypothesis test to determine whether two ''different'' samples have the same variance. It is recommended for ANOVA where two estimates of the variance of the ''same'' sample are compared. While the ''F''-test is not generally robust against departures from normality, it has been found to be robust in the special case of ANOVA. Citations from Moore & McCabe (2003): "Analysis of variance uses F statistics, but these are not the same as the F statistic for comparing two population standard deviations." (page 554) "The F test and other procedures for inference about variances are so lacking in robustness as to be of little use in practice." (page 556) "[The ANOVA ''F''-test] is relatively insensitive to moderate nonnormality and unequal variances, especially when the sample sizes are similar." (page 763) ANOVA assumes homoscedasticity, but it is robust. The statistical test for homoscedasticity (the ''F''-test) is not robust. Moore & McCabe recommend a rule of thumb.</ref> ===Extended logic=== ANOVA consists of separable parts; partitioning sources of variance and hypothesis testing can be used individually. ANOVA is used to support other statistical tools. Regression is first used to fit more complex models to data, then ANOVA is used to compare models with the objective of selecting simple(r) models that adequately describe the data. "Such models could be fit without any reference to ANOVA, but ANOVA tools could then be used to make some sense of the fitted models, and to test hypotheses about batches of coefficients."<ref name="Gelman">Gelman (2008)</ref> "[W]e think of the analysis of variance as a way of understanding and structuring multilevel models—not as an alternative to regression but as a tool for summarizing complex high-dimensional inferences&nbsp;..."<ref name="Gelman" /> ==For a single factor== {{Main|One-way analysis of variance}} The simplest experiment suitable for ANOVA analysis is the completely randomized experiment with a single factor. More complex experiments with a single factor involve constraints on randomization and include completely randomized blocks and Latin squares (and variants: Graeco-Latin squares, etc.). The more complex experiments share many of the complexities of multiple factors. A relatively complete discussion of the analysis (models, data summaries, ANOVA table) of the completely randomized experiment is [[One-way analysis of variance|available]]. ==For multiple factors== {{Main|Two-way analysis of variance}} ANOVA generalizes to the study of the effects of multiple factors. When the experiment includes observations at all combinations of levels of each factor, it is termed [[Factorial experiment|factorial]]. Factorial experiments are more efficient than a series of single factor experiments and the efficiency grows as the number of factors increases.<ref name="Montgomery">Montgomery (2001, Section 5-2: Introduction to factorial designs; The advantages of factorials)</ref> Consequently, factorial designs are heavily used. The use of ANOVA to study the effects of multiple factors has a complication. In a 3-way ANOVA with factors x, y and z, the ANOVA model includes terms for the main effects (x, y, z) and terms for [[Interaction (statistics)|interactions]] (xy, xz, yz, xyz). All terms require hypothesis tests. The proliferation of interaction terms increases the risk that some hypothesis test will produce a false positive by chance. Fortunately, experience says that high order interactions are rare.<ref>Belle (2008, Section 8.4: High-order interactions occur rarely)</ref> {{verify source|date=December 2014}} The ability to detect interactions is a major advantage of multiple factor ANOVA. Testing one factor at a time hides interactions, but produces apparently inconsistent experimental results.<ref name="Montgomery" /> Caution is advised when encountering interactions; Test interaction terms first and expand the analysis beyond ANOVA if interactions are found. Texts vary in their recommendations regarding the continuation of the ANOVA procedure after encountering an interaction. Interactions complicate the interpretation of experimental data. Neither the calculations of significance nor the estimated treatment effects can be taken at face value. "A significant interaction will often mask the significance of main effects."<ref>Montgomery (2001, Section 5-1: Introduction to factorial designs; Basic definitions and principles)</ref> Graphical methods are recommended to enhance understanding. Regression is often useful. A lengthy discussion of interactions is available in Cox (1958).<ref>Cox (1958, Chapter 6: Basic ideas about factorial experiments)</ref> Some interactions can be removed (by transformations) while others cannot. A variety of techniques are used with multiple factor ANOVA to reduce expense. One technique used in factorial designs is to minimize replication (possibly no replication with support of [[Tukey's test of additivity|analytical trickery]]) and to combine groups when effects are found to be statistically (or practically) insignificant. An experiment with many insignificant factors may collapse into one with a few factors supported by many replications.<ref>Montgomery (2001, Section 5-3.7: Introduction to factorial designs; The two-factor factorial design; One observation per cell)</ref> ==Worked numeric examples== Several fully worked numerical examples are available. A [[F-test#One-way ANOVA example|simple case]] uses one-way (a single factor) analysis. A [[Two-way analysis of variance|more complex case]] uses two-way (two-factor) analysis. ==Associated analysis== Some analysis is required in support of the ''design'' of the experiment while other analysis is performed after changes in the factors are formally found to produce statistically significant changes in the responses. Because experimentation is iterative, the results of one experiment alter plans for following experiments. ===Preparatory analysis=== ====The number of experimental units==== In the design of an experiment, the number of experimental units is planned to satisfy the goals of the experiment. Experimentation is often sequential. Early experiments are often designed to provide mean-unbiased estimates of treatment effects and of experimental error. Later experiments are often designed to test a hypothesis that a treatment effect has an important magnitude; in this case, the number of experimental units is chosen so that the experiment is within budget and has adequate power, among other goals. Reporting sample size analysis is generally required in psychology. "Provide information on sample size and the process that led to sample size decisions."<ref>Wilkinson (1999, p 596)</ref> The analysis, which is written in the experimental protocol before the experiment is conducted, is examined in grant applications and administrative review boards. Besides the power analysis, there are less formal methods for selecting the number of experimental units. These include graphical methods based on limiting the probability of false negative errors, graphical methods based on an expected variation increase (above the residuals) and methods based on achieving a desired confident interval.<ref>Montgomery (2001, Section 3-7: Determining sample size)</ref> ====Power analysis==== [[Statistical power|Power analysis]] is often applied in the context of ANOVA in order to assess the probability of successfully rejecting the null hypothesis if we assume a certain ANOVA design, effect size in the population, sample size and significance level. Power analysis can assist in study design by determining what sample size would be required in order to have a reasonable chance of rejecting the null hypothesis when the alternative hypothesis is true.<ref>Howell (2002, Chapter 8: Power)</ref><ref>Howell (2002, Section 11.12: Power (in ANOVA))</ref><ref>Howell (2002, Section 13.7: Power analysis for factorial experiments)</ref><ref>Moore and McCabe (2003, pp 778–780)</ref> ====Effect size==== {{Main|Effect size}} Several standardized measures of effect have been proposed for ANOVA to summarize the strength of the association between a predictor(s) and the dependent variable or the overall standardized difference of the complete model. Standardized effect-size estimates facilitate comparison of findings across studies and disciplines. However, while standardized effect sizes are commonly used in much of the professional literature, a non-standardized measure of effect size that has immediately "meaningful" units may be preferable for reporting purposes.<ref name="Wilkinson">Wilkinson (1999, p 599)</ref> ===Follow-up analysis=== It is always appropriate to carefully consider outliers. They have a disproportionate impact on statistical conclusions and are often the result of errors. ====Model confirmation==== It is prudent to verify that the assumptions of ANOVA have been met. Residuals are examined or analyzed to confirm [[homoscedasticity]] and gross normality.<ref>Montgomery (2001, Section 3-4: Model adequacy checking)</ref> Residuals should have the appearance of (zero mean normal distribution) noise when plotted as a function of anything including time and modeled data values. Trends hint at interactions among factors or among observations. One rule of thumb: "If the largest standard deviation is less than twice the smallest standard deviation, we can use methods based on the assumption of equal standard deviations and our results will still be approximately correct."<ref>Moore and McCabe (2003, p 755, Qualifications to this rule appear in a footnote.)</ref> ====Follow-up tests==== A statistically significant effect in ANOVA is often followed up with one or more different follow-up tests. This can be done in order to assess which groups are different from which other groups or to test various other focused hypotheses. Follow-up tests are often distinguished in terms of whether they are planned ([[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]) or [[Post-hoc analysis|post hoc]]. Planned tests are determined before looking at the data and post hoc tests are performed after looking at the data. Often one of the "treatments" is none, so the treatment group can act as a control. [[Dunnett's test]] (a modification of the t-test) tests whether each of the other treatment groups has the same mean as the control.<ref>Montgomery (2001, Section 3-5.8: Experiments with a single factor: The analysis of variance; Practical interpretation of results; Comparing means with a control)</ref> Post hoc tests such as [[Tukey's range test]] most commonly compare every group mean with every other group mean and typically incorporate some method of controlling for Type I errors. Comparisons, which are most commonly planned, can be either simple or compound. Simple comparisons compare one group mean with one other group mean. Compound comparisons typically compare two sets of groups means where one set has two or more groups (e.g., compare average group means of group A, B and C with group D). Comparisons can also look at tests of trend, such as linear and quadratic relationships, when the independent variable involves ordered levels. Following ANOVA with pair-wise multiple-comparison tests has been criticized on several grounds.<ref name="Wilkinson" /><ref>Hinkelmann and Kempthorne (2008, Volume 1, Section 7.5: Comparison of Treatments; Multiple Comparison Procedures)</ref> There are many such tests (10 in one table) and recommendations regarding their use are vague or conflicting.<ref>Howell (2002, Chapter 12: Multiple comparisons among treatment means)</ref><ref>Montgomery (2001, Section 3-5: Practical interpretation of results)</ref> ==Study designs== There are several types of ANOVA. Many statisticians base ANOVA on the [[experimental design|design of the experiment]],<ref>Cochran & Cox (1957, p 9, "[T]he general rule [is] that the way in which the experiment is conducted determines not only whether inferences can be made, but also the calculations required to make them.")</ref> especially on the protocol that specifies the [[random assignment]] of treatments to subjects; the protocol's description of the assignment mechanism should include a specification of the structure of the treatments and of any [[blocking (statistics)|blocking]]. It is also common to apply ANOVA to observational data using an appropriate statistical model.{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}} Some popular designs use the following types of ANOVA: *[[One-way ANOVA]] is used to test for differences among three or more [[statistical independence|independent]] groups (means),e.g. different levels of urea application in a crop, or different levels of antibiotic action on several different bacterial species,<ref>[http://www.biomedicalstatistics.info/en/multiplegroups/one-way-anova.html One-way/single factor ANOVA. Biomedical Statistics] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141107211953/http://www.biomedicalstatistics.info/en/multiplegroups/one-way-anova.html |date=7 November 2014 }}</ref> or different levels of effect of some medicine on groups of patients. However, should these groups not be independent, and there is an order in the groups (such as mild, moderate and severe disease), or in the dose of a drug (such as 5&nbsp;mg/mL, 10&nbsp;mg/mL, 20&nbsp;mg/mL) given to the same group of patients, then a [[linear trend estimation]] should be used. Typically, however, the one-way ANOVA is used to test for differences among at least three groups, since the two-group case can be covered by a [[t-test]].<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1093/biomet/6.1.1 | title = The Probable Error of a Mean | journal = Biometrika | volume = 6 | pages = 1–25 | year = 1908 | pmid = | pmc = }}</ref> When there are only two means to compare, the [[t-test]] and the ANOVA [[F-test|''F''-test]] are equivalent; the relation between ANOVA and ''t'' is given by ''F''&nbsp;=&nbsp;''t''². *[[Factorial experiment|Factorial]] ANOVA is used when the experimenter wants to study the interaction effects among the treatments. *[[Repeated measures]] ANOVA is used when the same subjects are used for each treatment (e.g., in a [[longitudinal study]]). *[[Multivariate analysis of variance]] (MANOVA) is used when there is more than one [[dependent variable|response variable]]. ==Cautions== Balanced experiments (those with an equal sample size for each treatment) are relatively easy to interpret; Unbalanced experiments offer more complexity. For single-factor (one-way) ANOVA, the adjustment for unbalanced data is easy, but the unbalanced analysis lacks both robustness and power.<ref>Montgomery (2001, Section 3-3.4: Unbalanced data)</ref> For more complex designs the lack of balance leads to further complications. "The orthogonality property of main effects and interactions present in balanced data does not carry over to the unbalanced case. This means that the usual analysis of variance techniques do not apply. Consequently, the analysis of unbalanced factorials is much more difficult than that for balanced designs."<ref>Montgomery (2001, Section 14-2: Unbalanced data in factorial design)</ref> In the general case, "The analysis of variance can also be applied to unbalanced data, but then the sums of squares, mean squares, and ''F''-ratios will depend on the order in which the sources of variation are considered."<ref name="Gelman" /> The simplest techniques for handling unbalanced data restore balance by either throwing out data or by synthesizing missing data. More complex techniques use regression. ANOVA is (in part) a significance test. The American Psychological Association holds the view that simply reporting significance is insufficient and that reporting confidence bounds is preferred.<ref name="Wilkinson" /> While ANOVA is conservative (in maintaining a significance level) against [[multiple comparisons]] in one dimension, it is not conservative against comparisons in multiple dimensions.<ref>Wilkinson (1999, p 600)</ref> ==Generalizations== ANOVA is considered to be a special case of [[linear regression]]<ref>Gelman (2005, p.1) (with qualification in the later text)</ref><ref>Montgomery (2001, Section 3.9: The Regression Approach to the Analysis of Variance)</ref> which in turn is a special case of the [[general linear model]].<ref>Howell (2002, p 604)</ref> All consider the observations to be the sum of a model (fit) and a residual (error) to be minimized. The [[Kruskal–Wallis test]] and the [[Friedman test]] are [[nonparametric]] tests, which do not rely on an assumption of normality.<ref>Howell (2002, Chapter 18: Resampling and nonparametric approaches to data)</ref><ref>Montgomery (2001, Section 3-10: Nonparametric methods in the analysis of variance)</ref> ===Connection to linear regression=== Below we make clear the connection between multi-way ANOVA and linear regression. Linearly re-order the data so that <math>k^\text{th}</math> observation is associated with a response <math>y_k</math> and factors <math>Z_{k,b}</math> where <math>b \in \{1,2,\ldots,B\}</math> denotes the different factors and <math>B</math> is the total number of factors. In one-way ANOVA <math>B=1</math> and in two-way ANOVA <math>B=2</math>. Furthermore, we assume the <math>b^{th}</math> factor has <math>I_b</math> levels. Now, we can [[one-hot]] encode the factors into the <math> \sum_{b=1}^B I_b</math> dimensional vector <math>v_k</math>. The one-hot encoding function <math>g_b : I_b \mapsto \{0,1\}^{I_b}</math> is defined such that the <math>i^{th}</math> entry of <math>g_b(Z_{k,b})</math> is <math display="block"> g_b(Z_{k,b})_i = \begin{cases} 1 & \text{if } i=Z_{k,b} \\ 0 & \text{otherwise} \end{cases} </math> The vector <math>v_k</math> is the concatenation of all of the above vectors for all <math>b</math>. Thus, <math>v_k = [g_1(Z_{k,1}), g_2(Z_{k,2}), \ldots, g_B(Z_{k,B})]</math>. In order to obtain a fully general <math>B</math>-way interaction ANOVA we must also concatenate every additional interaction term in the vector <math>v_k</math> and then add an intercept term. Let that vector be <math>x_k</math>. With this notation in place, we now have the exact connection with linear regression. We simply regress response <math>y_k</math> against the vector <math>X_k</math>. However, there is a concern about identifiability. In order to overcome such issues we assume that the sum of the parameters within each set of interactions is equal to zero. From here, one can use ''F''-statistics or other methods to determine the relevance of the individual factors. ====Example==== We can consider the 2-way interaction example where we assume that the first factor has 2 levels and the second factor has 3 levels. Define <math>a_i = 1</math> if <math>Z_{k,1}=i</math> and <math>b_i = 1</math> if <math>Z_{k,2}=i</math>, i.e. <math>a</math> is the one-hot encoding of the first factor and <math>b</math> is the one-hot encoding of the second factor. With that, <math display="block"> X_k = [a_1,a_2,b_1,b_2,b_3,a_1 \times b_1,a_1 \times b_2, a_1 \times b_3, a_2 \times b_1, a_2 \times b_2, a_2 \times b_3,1] </math> where the last term is an intercept term. For a more concrete example suppose that <math display="block"> \begin{align} Z_{k,1} & = 2 \\ Z_{k,2} & = 1 \end{align} </math> Then, <math display="block"> X_k = [0,1,1,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,1] </math> ==See also== {{Commons category|Analysis of variance}} {{Div col|colwidth=20em}} *[[AMOVA]] (analysis of molecular variance) *[[Analysis of covariance]] (ANCOVA) *[[ANORVA]] (analysis of rhythmic variance) *[[ANOVA on ranks]] *[[ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis]] *[[Explained variation]] *[[Mixed-design analysis of variance]] *[[Multivariate analysis of variance]] (MANOVA) *[[One-way analysis of variance]] *[[Permutational analysis of variance]] *[[Repeated measures design#Repeated measures ANOVA|Repeated measures ANOVA]] *[[Two-way analysis of variance]] *[[Variance decomposition]] {{colend}} ==Footnotes== {{reflist|group="nb"}} ==Notes== {{reflist|30em}} ==References== * {{cite journal|doi=10.2307/2984159|title=The Validity of Comparative Experiments|authorlink=Francis J. Anscombe|first=F. J.|last=Anscombe|journal=Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series A (General)|volume=111|issue=3|year=1948|pages=181–211|jstor=2984159|mr=30181}} * {{cite book |last=Bailey|first=R. A.|authorlink=Rosemary A. Bailey|title=Design of Comparative Experiments|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2008 |isbn=978-0-521-68357-9|url=http://www.maths.qmul.ac.uk/~rab/DOEbook}} Pre-publication chapters are available on-line. * {{cite book | last = Belle | first = Gerald van | title = Statistical rules of thumb | publisher = Wiley | location = Hoboken, N.J | year = 2008 | edition = 2nd | isbn = 978-0-470-14448-0 }} * {{cite book | last1 = Cochran | first1 = William G. | last2 = Cox | first2 = Gertrude M. | title = Experimental designs | publisher = Wiley | location = New York | year = 1992 | isbn = 978-0-471-54567-5 | edition = 2nd }} * Cohen, Jacob (1988). ''Statistical power analysis for the behavior sciences'' (2nd ed.). Routledge {{ISBN|978-0-8058-0283-2}} * {{Cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155 | author = Cohen, Jacob | year = 1992 | title = Statistics a power primer | url = | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 112 | issue = 1| pages = 155–159 | pmid=19565683}} *[[David R. Cox|Cox, David R.]] (1958). ''Planning of experiments''. Reprinted as {{ISBN|978-0-471-57429-3}} *{{cite book | last = Cox | first = D. R. | title = Principles of statistical inference | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge New York | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-0-521-68567-2 }} * [[David A. Freedman (statistician)|Freedman, David A.]](2005). ''Statistical Models: Theory and Practice'', Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-67105-7}} * {{Cite journal | last1 = Gelman | first1 = Andrew | doi = 10.1214/009053604000001048 | title = Analysis of variance? Why it is more important than ever | journal = The Annals of Statistics | volume = 33 | pages = 1–53 | year = 2005 }} *{{cite book | last = Gelman | first = Andrew | title = The new Palgrave dictionary of economics | publisher = Palgrave Macmillan | location = Basingstoke, Hampshire New York | chapter=Variance, analysis of |edition=2nd | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-0-333-78676-5}} *{{cite book |author=Hinkelmann, Klaus |author2=[[Oscar Kempthorne|Kempthorne, Oscar]] |last-author-amp=yes|year=2008|title=Design and Analysis of Experiments|volume=I and II|edition=Second|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-470-38551-7}} * {{cite book | last = Howell | first = David C. | title = Statistical methods for psychology | publisher = Duxbury/Thomson Learning | location = Pacific Grove, CA | year = 2002 | edition = 5th | isbn = 978-0-534-37770-0}} *{{cite book |author=[[Oscar Kempthorne|Kempthorne, Oscar]] |year=1979 |title=The Design and Analysis of Experiments |edition=Corrected reprint of (1952) Wiley |publisher=Robert E. Krieger |isbn=978-0-88275-105-4 }} * Lehmann, E.L. (1959) Testing Statistical Hypotheses. John Wiley & Sons. * {{cite book | last = Montgomery | first = Douglas C. | title = Design and Analysis of Experiments | publisher = Wiley | location = New York | year = 2001 | edition = 5th | isbn = 978-0-471-31649-7}} * Moore, David S. & McCabe, George P. (2003). Introduction to the Practice of Statistics (4e). W H Freeman & Co. {{ISBN|0-7167-9657-0}} * Rosenbaum, Paul R. (2002). ''Observational Studies'' (2nd ed.). New York: Springer-Verlag. {{ISBN|978-0-387-98967-9}} * {{cite book |title=The Analysis of Variance |last=Scheffé |first=Henry |location=New York |publisher=Wiley |year=1959}} *{{cite book | last = Stigler | first = Stephen M. | title = The history of statistics : the measurement of uncertainty before 1900 | publisher = Belknap Press of Harvard University Press | location = Cambridge, Mass | year = 1986 | isbn = 978-0-674-40340-6 }} * {{Cite journal |author = Wilkinson, Leland |title = Statistical Methods in Psychology Journals; Guidelines and Explanations |journal = American Psychologist |volume = 5 |issue = 8 |pages = 594–604 |year = 1999 |doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.54.8.594|citeseerx = 10.1.1.120.4818}} ==Further reading== {{further cleanup|date=November 2014}} * {{cite journal | last = Box | first = G. e. p. | authorlink = George E. P. Box | title = Non-Normality and Tests on Variances | journal = Biometrika | volume = 40 | issue = 3/4 | pages = 318–335 | year = 1953 | jstor = 2333350 | doi=10.1093/biomet/40.3-4.318 }} * {{Cite journal | last1 = Box | first1 = G. E. P. |authorlink=George E. P. Box | title = Some Theorems on Quadratic Forms Applied in the Study of Analysis of Variance Problems, I. Effect of Inequality of Variance in the One-Way Classification | doi = 10.1214/aoms/1177728786 | journal = The Annals of Mathematical Statistics | volume = 25 | issue = 2 | page = 290 | year = 1954 | pmid = | pmc = }} * {{Cite journal | last1 = Box | first1 = G. E. P. | title = Some Theorems on Quadratic Forms Applied in the Study of Analysis of Variance Problems, II. Effects of Inequality of Variance and of Correlation Between Errors in the Two-Way Classification | doi = 10.1214/aoms/1177728717 | journal = The Annals of Mathematical Statistics | volume = 25 | issue = 3 | page = 484 | year = 1954 | pmid = | pmc = }} * {{cite book |author1=Caliński, Tadeusz |author2=Kageyama, Sanpei|title=Block designs: A Randomization approach, Volume '''I''': Analysis|series=Lecture Notes in Statistics|volume=150|publisher=Springer-Verlag|location=New York|year=2000|isbn=978-0-387-98578-7 }} * {{cite book|title=Plane Answers to Complex Questions: The Theory of Linear Models|last=Christensen|first=Ronald|location=New York|publisher=Springer|year=2002| edition=Third|isbn=978-0-387-95361-8}} *[[David R. Cox|Cox, David R.]] & [[Nancy M. Reid|Reid, Nancy M.]] (2000). ''The theory of design of experiments''. (Chapman & Hall/CRC). {{ISBN|978-1-58488-195-7}} * {{Cite journal|doi=10.1017/S0021859600003750 |author=Fisher, Ronald |year=1918 |title=Studies in Crop Variation. I. An examination of the yield of dressed grain from Broadbalk |url=http://www.library.adelaide.edu.au/digitised/fisher/15.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010612211752/http://www.library.adelaide.edu.au/digitised/fisher/15.pdf |dead-url=yes |archive-date=12 June 2001 |journal=Journal of Agricultural Science |volume=11 |issue= 2|pages=107–135 |hdl=2440/15170 }} * [[David A. Freedman (statistician)|Freedman, David A.]]; Pisani, Robert; Purves, Roger (2007) ''Statistics'', 4th edition. W.W. Norton & Company {{ISBN|978-0-393-92972-0}} * {{cite book|last1=Hettmansperger|first1=T. P.|last2=McKean|first2=J. W.|title=Robust nonparametric statistical methods| edition=First|series=Kendall's Library of Statistics|volume=Volume 5|editor=Edward Arnold|location=New York|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|year=1998|pages=xiv+467 pp.|isbn=978-0-340-54937-7 |mr=1604954 }} * {{cite book |first=Marvin |last=Lentner |author2=Thomas Bishop |title=Experimental design and analysis |edition=Second |publisher=Valley Book Company |location=P.O. Box 884, Blacksburg, VA 24063 |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-9616255-2-8 }} * Tabachnick, Barbara G. & Fidell, Linda S. (2007). ''Using Multivariate Statistics'' (5th ed.). Boston: Pearson International Edition. {{ISBN|978-0-205-45938-4}} * {{cite book|last=Wichura|first=Michael J.|title=The coordinate-free approach to linear models|series=Cambridge Series in Statistical and Probabilistic Mathematics|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|year=2006|pages=xiv+199|isbn=978-0-521-86842-6|mr=2283455|ref=harv}} * {{ cite book | last = Phadke | first = Madhav S. | title = Quality Engineering using Robust Design | publisher = Prentice Hall PTR | location = New Jersey | year = 1989 | isbn = 978-0-13-745167-8 }} ==External links== {{wikiversity}} * [[SOCR]] [http://wiki.stat.ucla.edu/socr/index.php/AP_Statistics_Curriculum_2007_ANOVA_1Way ANOVA Activity] and [http://www.socr.ucla.edu/htmls/ana/ANOVA1Way_Analysis.html interactive applet]. * [http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~cpd/anovas/datasets/index.htm Examples of all ANOVA and ANCOVA models with up to three treatment factors, including randomized block, split plot, repeated measures, and Latin squares, and their analysis in R] (University of Southampton) * NIST/SEMATECH e-Handbook of Statistical Methods, [http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/prc/section4/prc43.htm section 7.4.3: "Are the means equal?"] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20150405053021/http://biostat.katerynakon.in.ua/en/multiplegroups/anova.html Analysis of variance: Introduction] *[https://getcalc.com/statistics-anova-calculator.htm One Way & Two Way ANOVA Calculator] {{Statistics|correlation|state=collapsed}} {{Experimental design|state=collapsed}} {{Portal bar|Statistics}} {{Public health}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Analysis Of Variance}} [[Category:Analysis of variance| ]] [[Category:Design of experiments]] [[Category:Statistical tests]] [[Category:Parametric statistics]] jwjdv970utvf5f6fo5xoqqtntqnyuwt 0 635 783824728 593483477 2017-06-04T22:06:59Z Tom.Reding 9784415 +{{R category shell}} using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Analysis of variance]] {{Redirect category shell|1= {{R from acronym}} }} kkjgt95zkuj8rcc286a83y7thbdicwu 0 639 860870265 860870206 2018-09-23T16:38:20Z Dan Koehl 5705 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/2A02:C7D:D008:F500:6DEE:EBD7:1491:554E|2A02:C7D:D008:F500:6DEE:EBD7:1491:554E]] ([[User talk:2A02:C7D:D008:F500:6DEE:EBD7:1491:554E|talk]]) ([[WP:HG|HG]]) (3.4.4) wikitext text/x-wiki {{Distinguish|Alkene|Alkali|Alkyne|Alkaline}} [[Image:Methane-2D-stereo.svg|right|thumb|Chemical structure of [[methane]], the simplest alkane]] In [[organic chemistry]], an '''alkane''', or '''paraffin''' (a historical name that also has [[paraffin (disambiguation)|other meanings]]), is an [[open-chain compound|acyclic]] [[saturation (chemistry)|saturated]] [[hydrocarbon]]. In other words, an alkane consists of [[hydrogen]] and [[carbon]] atoms arranged in a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]] structure in which all the [[carbon–carbon bond]]s are [[single bond|single]].<ref name="goldbook-alkanes">{{cite web |url=http://goldbook.iupac.org/A00222.html |title=IUPAC Gold Book - alkanes |publisher=[[IUPAC]] |date=March 27, 2017 |accessdate=2018-08-23}}</ref> Alkanes have the general chemical formula C_''n''H_2''n''+2. The alkanes range in complexity from the simplest case of [[methane]] (CH₄), where ''n''&nbsp;=&nbsp;1 (sometimes called the parent molecule), to arbitrarily large and complex molecules, like [[pentacontane]] (C₅₀H₁₀₂) or 6-ethyl-2-methyl-5-(1-methylethyl)octane, an [[isomer]] of [[tetradecane]] (C₁₄H₃₀) [[IUPAC]] defines alkanes as "acyclic branched or unbranched hydrocarbons having the general formula {{Carbon}}_''n''{{Hydrogen}}_2''n''+2, and therefore consisting entirely of hydrogen atoms and saturated carbon atoms". However, some sources use the term to denote ''any'' saturated hydrocarbon, including those that are either monocyclic (i.e. the [[cycloalkane]]s) or polycyclic,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Core/Organic_Chemistry/Hydrocarbons/Alkanes|title=Alkanes}}</ref> despite their having a different general formula (i.e. cycloalkanes are C_''n''H_2''n''). In an alkane, each carbon atom is [[Orbital hybridization|sp³-hybridized]] with 4 [[sigma bonds]] (either C–C or [[C–H bond|C–H]]), and each hydrogen atom is joined to one of the carbon atoms (in a C–H bond). The longest series of linked carbon atoms in a molecule is known as its [[skeletal formula|carbon skeleton]] or carbon backbone. The number of carbon atoms may be thought of as the size of the alkane. One group of the [[higher alkanes]] are [[wax]]es, solids at [[standard ambient temperature and pressure]] (SATP), for which the number of carbons in the carbon backbone is greater than about 17. With their repeated –CH₂ units, the alkanes constitute a [[homologous series]] of organic compounds in which the members differ in [[molecular mass]] by multiples of 14.03&nbsp;[[atomic mass unit|u]] (the total mass of each such [[methylene bridge|methylene-bridge]] unit, which comprises a single carbon atom of mass 12.01&nbsp;u and two hydrogen atoms of mass ~1.01&nbsp;u each). Alkanes are not very reactive and have little [[biological activity]]. They can be viewed as molecular trees upon which can be hung the more active/reactive [[functional groups]] of biological molecules. The alkanes have two main commercial sources: [[petroleum]] (crude oil)<ref name="google">{{cite book|title=Hydrocarbons (Alkanes, Alkenes And Alkynes)|author =Arora, A.|date=2006|publisher=Discovery Publishing House Pvt. Limited|isbn=9788183561426|url=https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=_4vfMv7aP3EC}}</ref> and [[natural gas]]. An '''[[alkyl]] group''', generally abbreviated with the symbol R, is a functional group that, like an alkane, consists solely of single-bonded carbon and hydrogen atoms connected acyclically—for example, a [[methyl]] or [[ethyl group]]. ==Structure classification== Saturated hydrocarbons are [[hydrocarbon]]s having only single covalent bonds between their carbons. They can be: * linear (general formula {{chem|C|''n''|H|2''n''+2}}) wherein the carbon atoms are joined in a snake-like structure * branched (general formula {{chem|C|''n''|H|2''n''+2}}, ''n''&nbsp;>&nbsp;2) wherein the carbon backbone splits off in one or more directions * [[Cyclic compound|cyclic]] (general formula {{chem|C|''n''|H|2''n''}}, ''n''&nbsp;>&nbsp;3) wherein the carbon backbone is linked so as to form a loop. According to the definition by [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry|IUPAC]], the former two are alkanes, whereas the third group is called [[cycloalkane]]s.<ref>{{GoldBookRef | title=alkanes | file = A00222 | date = 1995}}</ref> Saturated hydrocarbons can also combine any of the linear, cyclic (e.g., polycyclic) and branching structures; the general formula is {{chem|C|''n''|H|2''n''−2''k''+2}}, where ''k'' is the number of independent loops. Alkanes are the [[Open chain compound|acyclic]] (loopless) ones, corresponding to ''k''&nbsp;=&nbsp;0. ==Isomerism== [[Image:Saturated C4 hydrocarbons ball-and-stick.png|thumb|right| Different C₄ alkanes and cycloalkanes (left to right): [[n-butane|''n''-butane]] and [[isobutane]] are the two C₄H₁₀ isomers; [[cyclobutane]] and [[methylcyclopropane]] are the two C₄H₈ alkane isomers.<br /> [[Bicyclobutane|Bicyclo[1.1.0]butane]] is the only C₄H₆ alkane and has no alkane isomer; [[tetrahedrane]] (below) is the only C₄H₄ alkane and so has no alkane isomer.]] [[File:Tetrahedrane-3D-balls.png|thumb|right|100px|[[Tetrahedrane]] ]] Alkanes with more than three [[carbon]] atoms can be arranged in various different ways, forming [[structural isomer]]s. The simplest isomer of an alkane is the one in which the carbon atoms are arranged in a single chain with no branches. This isomer is sometimes called the ''n''-isomer (''n'' for "normal", although it is not necessarily the most common). However the chain of carbon atoms may also be branched at one or more points. The number of possible isomers increases rapidly with the number of carbon atoms. For example, for acyclic alkanes:<ref name= OEIS >[[On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences]] {{OEIS|id=A000602}}</ref> * C₁: [[methane]] only * C₂: [[ethane]] only * C₃: [[propane]] only * C₄: 2 isomers: [[n-butane|''n''-butane]] and [[isobutane]] * C₅: 3 isomers: [[pentane]], [[isopentane]], and [[neopentane]] * C₆: 5 isomers: [[hexane]], [[2-Methylpentane|2-methylpentane]], [[3-Methylpentane|3-methylpentane]], [[2,2-Dimethylbutane|2,2-dimethylbutane]], and [[2,3-Dimethylbutane|2,3-dimethylbutane]] * C₁₂: 355 isomers * C₃₂: 27,711,253,769 isomers * C₆₀: 22,158,734,535,770,411,074,184 isomers, many of which are not stable. Branched alkanes can be [[chirality (chemistry)|chiral]]. For example, [[3-methylhexane]] and its higher [[Homology (chemistry)|homologues]] are chiral due to their [[stereogenic center]] at carbon atom number 3. In addition to the alkane isomers, the chain of carbon atoms may form one or more loops. Such compounds are called [[cycloalkane]]s. Stereoisomers and cyclic compounds are excluded when calculating the number of isomers above. ==Nomenclature== {{Main|IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry}} The [[IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry#Alkanes|IUPAC nomenclature]] (systematic way of naming compounds) for alkanes is based on identifying hydrocarbon chains. Unbranched, saturated hydrocarbon chains are named systematically with a Greek numerical prefix denoting the number of carbons and the suffix "-ane".<ref>{{cite book | url = http://www.acdlabs.com/iupac/nomenclature/93/r93_184.htm | accessdate = 12 February 2007 | chapter = R-2.2.1: Hydrocarbons | author = IUPAC, Commission on Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry | title = A Guide to IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Compounds (Recommendations 1993) | year = 1993 | publisher = Blackwell Scientific | isbn = 0-632-03488-2}}</ref> In 1866, [[August Wilhelm von Hofmann]] suggested systematizing nomenclature by using the whole sequence of vowels a, e, i, o and u to create suffixes -ane, -ene, -ine (or -yne), -one, -une, for the [[hydrocarbons]] C_''n''H_2''n''+2, C_''n''H_2''n'', C_''n''H_2''n''−2, C_''n''H_2''n''−4, C_''n''H_2''n''−6.<ref>[http://www.chem.yale.edu/~chem125/125/history99/5Valence/Nomenclature/alkanenames.html Alkane Nomenclature<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120202091842/http://www.chem.yale.edu/~chem125/125/history99/5Valence/Nomenclature/alkanenames.html |date=2 February 2012 }}</ref> Now, the first three name hydrocarbons with single, double and triple bonds;<ref>Thus, the ending "-diene" is applied in some cases where von Hofmann had "-ine"</ref> "-one" represents a [[ketone]]; "-ol" represents an alcohol or OH group; "-oxy-" means an [[ether]] and refers to oxygen between two carbons, so that methoxymethane is the IUPAC name for [[dimethyl ether]]. It is difficult or impossible to find compounds with more than one [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry|IUPAC]] name. This is because shorter chains attached to longer chains are prefixes and the convention includes brackets. Numbers in the name, referring to which carbon a group is attached to, should be as low as possible so that 1- is implied and usually omitted from names of organic compounds with only one side-group. Symmetric compounds will have two ways of arriving at the same name. ===Linear alkanes=== <!-- redirected from [[linear paraffins]] --> Straight-chain alkanes are sometimes indicated by the prefix "''n''-" (for ''normal'') where a non-linear [[isomer]] exists. Although this is not strictly necessary, the usage is still common in cases where there is an important difference in properties between the straight-chain and branched-chain isomers, e.g., [[hexane|''n''-hexane]] or 2- or 3-methylpentane. Alternative names for this group are: '''linear paraffins''' or '''''n''-paraffins'''. The members of the series (in terms of number of carbon atoms) are named as follows: ; [[methane]]: CH₄ – one carbon and four hydrogen ; [[ethane]] : C₂H₆ – two carbon and six hydrogen ; [[propane]]: C₃H₈ – three carbon and 8 hydrogen ; [[butane]] : C₄H₁₀ – four carbon and 10 hydrogen ; [[pentane]]: C₅H₁₂ – five carbon and 12 hydrogen ; [[hexane]] : C₆H₁₄ – six carbon and 14 hydrogen The first four names were [[back-formation|derived]] from [[methanol]], [[diethyl ether|ether]], [[propionic acid]] and [[butyric acid]], respectively ([[hexadecane]] is also sometimes referred to as cetane). Alkanes with five or more carbon atoms are named by adding the [[Affix|suffix]] '''-ane''' to the appropriate [[IUPAC numerical multiplier|numerical multiplier]] prefix<ref name = reusch-nom>{{cite web | author = William Reusch | work = Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry | title = Nomenclature – Alkanes | url = http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/nomen1.htm}}</ref> with elision of any terminal vowel (''-a'' or ''-o'') from the basic numerical term. Hence, [[pentane]], C₅H₁₂; [[hexane]], C₆H₁₄; [[heptane]], C₇H₁₆; [[octane]], C₈H₁₈; etc. The prefix is generally Greek, however alkanes with a carbon atom count ending in nine, for example [[nonane]], use the [[Latin language|Latin]] prefix '''non-'''. For a more complete list, see [[List of alkanes]]. ===Branched alkanes=== [[Image:Isopentane-numbered-3D-balls.png|thumb|right|[[Ball-and-stick model]] of [[isopentane]] (common name) or 2-methylbutane (IUPAC systematic name)]] Simple branched alkanes often have a common name using a prefix to distinguish them from linear alkanes, for example [[pentane|''n''-pentane]], [[isopentane]], and [[neopentane]]. IUPAC naming conventions can be used to produce a systematic name. The key steps in the naming of more complicated branched alkanes are as follows:<ref>{{cite web | author = William Reusch | work = Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry | title = Examples of the IUPAC Rules in Practice | url = http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/nomexmp1.htm}}</ref> * Identify the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms * Name this longest root chain using standard naming rules * Name each side chain by changing the suffix of the name of the alkane from "-ane" to "-yl" * Number the longest continuous chain in order to give the lowest possible numbers for the side-chains <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.chem.uiuc.edu/GenChemReferences/nomenclature_rules.html|title=IUPAC Rules|website=www.chem.uiuc.edu|access-date=2018-08-13}}</ref> * Number and name the side chains before the name of the root chain * If there are multiple side chains of the same type, use prefixes such as "di-" and "tri-" to indicate it as such, and number each one. * Add side chain names in alphabetical (disregarding "di-" etc. prefixes) order in front of the name of the root chain {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |+ Comparison of nomenclatures for three isomers of C₅H₁₂ |- ! Common name ! ''n''-pentane || isopentane || neopentane |- ! IUPAC name ! pentane || 2-methylbutane || 2,2-dimethylpropane |- ! Structure | [[Image:Pentane-2D-Skeletal.svg|120px]] || [[Image:Isopentane-2D-skeletal.png|90px]] || [[Image:Neopentane-2D-skeletal.png|70px]] |} ===Saturated cyclic hydrocarbons=== {{Main|Cycloalkane}} Though technically distinct from the alkanes, this class of hydrocarbons is referred to by some as the "cyclic alkanes." As their description implies, they contain one or more rings. Simple cycloalkanes have a prefix "cyclo-" to distinguish them from alkanes. Cycloalkanes are named as per their acyclic counterparts with respect to the number of carbon atoms in their backbones, e.g., [[cyclopentane]] (C₅H₁₀) is a cycloalkane with 5 carbon atoms just like [[pentane]] (C₅H₁₂), but they are joined up in a five-membered ring. In a similar manner, [[propane]] and [[cyclopropane]], [[butane]] and [[cyclobutane]], etc. Substituted cycloalkanes are named similarly to substituted alkanes — the cycloalkane ring is stated, and the substituents are according to their position on the ring, with the numbering decided by the [[Cahn–Ingold–Prelog priority rules]].<ref name=reusch-nom/> ===Trivial/common names=== The trivial (non-[[IUPAC nomenclature|systematic]]) name for alkanes is ''paraffins''. Together, alkanes are known as the ''paraffin series''. Trivial names for compounds are usually historical artifacts. They were coined before the development of systematic names, and have been retained due to familiar usage in industry. Cycloalkanes are also called naphthenes. It is almost certain that the term ''paraffin'' stems from the [[petrochemical industry]]. Branched-chain alkanes are called ''isoparaffins''. The use of the term "paraffin" is a general term and often does not distinguish between pure compounds and mixtures of [[isomer]]s, i.e., compounds of the same [[chemical formula]], e.g., [[pentane]] and [[isopentane]]. ;Examples The following trivial names are retained in the IUPAC system: * [[isobutane]] for 2-methylpropane * [[isopentane]] for 2-methylbutane * [[neopentane]] for 2,2-dimethylpropane. ==Physical properties== All alkanes are colorless.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nsdl.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/777/1/Revised+organic+chemistry.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=17 February 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029192647/http://nsdl.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/777/1/Revised%2Borganic%2Bchemistry.pdf |archivedate=29 October 2013 }}</ref><ref name="s-anand">{{cite web|url=http://textbook.s-anand.net/ncert/class-11/chemistry/13-hydrocarbons |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110508081631/http://textbook.s-anand.net/ncert/class-11/chemistry/13-hydrocarbons |dead-url=yes |archive-date=8 May 2011 |title=13. Hydrocarbons &#124; Textbooks |publisher=textbook.s-anand.net |accessdate=3 October 2014 }}</ref> Alkanes with the lowest molecular weights are gasses, those of intermediate molecular weight are liquids, and the heaviest are waxy solids. ===Table of alkanes=== {| class="wikitable" |- |'''Alkane''' |'''Formula''' |'''Boiling point [°C]''' |'''Melting point [°C]''' |'''Density [g/cm³] (at 20&nbsp;°C''') |- |[[Methane]] |CH₄ | -162 | −182 | 0.000656 (gas) |- |[[Ethane]] |C₂H₆ | −89 | −183 | 0.00126 (gas) |- |[[Propane]] |C₃H₈ | −42 | −188 | 0.00201 (gas) |- |[[Butane]] |C₄H₁₀ | 0 | −138 | 0.00248 (gas) |- |[[Pentane]] |C₅H₁₂ | 36 | −130 | 0.626 (liquid) |- |[[Hexane]] |C₆H₁₄ | 69 | −95 | 0.659 (liquid) |- |[[Heptane]] |C₇H₁₆ | 98 | −91 | 0.684 (liquid) |- |[[Octane]] |C₈H₁₈ | 126 | −57 | 0.703 (liquid) |- |[[Nonane]] |C₉H₂₀ | 151 | −54 | 0.718 (liquid) |- |[[Decane]] |C₁₀H₂₂ | 174 | −30 | 0.730 (liquid) |- |[[Undecane]] |C₁₁H₂₄ | 196 | −26 | 0.740 (liquid) |- |[[Dodecane]] |C₁₂H₂₆ | 216 | −10 | 0.749 (liquid) |- |[[Pentadecane]] |C₁₅H₃₂ | 270 | 9.95 | 0.769 (liquid) |- |[[Hexadecane]] |C₁₆H₃₄ | 287 | 18 | 0.773 (liquid) |- |[[Heptadecane]] |C₁₇H₃₆ | 303 | 21.97 | 0.777 (liquid) |- |[[Icosane]] |C₂₀H₄₂ | 343 | 37 | solid |- |[[Higher alkanes|Triacontane]] |C₃₀H₆₂ | 450 | 66 | solid |- |[[Higher alkanes|Tetracontane]] |C₄₀H₈₂ | 525 | 82 | solid |- |[[Higher alkanes|Pentacontane]] |C₅₀H₁₀₂ | 575 | 91 | solid |- |[[Higher alkanes|Hexacontane]] |C₆₀H₁₂₂ | 625 | 100 | solid |} ===Boiling point=== [[Image:AlkaneBoilingMeltingPoint.png|right|thumb|400px|Melting (blue) and boiling (orange) points of the first 16 ''n''-alkanes in °C.]] Alkanes experience intermolecular [[van der Waals force]]s. Stronger intermolecular van der Waals forces give rise to greater boiling points of alkanes.<ref name=m&b>{{cite book|title = Organic Chemistry |author1=R. T. Morrison |author2=R. N. Boyd | isbn = 0-13-643669-2 | publisher = Prentice Hall | location = New Jersey | edition = 6th|year = 1992}}</ref> There are two determinants for the strength of the van der Waals forces: * the number of electrons surrounding the [[molecule]], which increases with the alkane's molecular weight * the surface area of the molecule Under [[standard conditions]], from CH₄ to C₄H₁₀ alkanes are gaseous; from C₅H₁₂ to C₁₇H₃₆ they are liquids; and after C₁₈H₃₈ they are solids. As the boiling point of alkanes is primarily determined by weight, it should not be a surprise that the boiling point has almost a linear relationship with the size ([[molecular weight]]) of the molecule. As a rule of thumb, the boiling point rises 20–30&nbsp;°C for each carbon added to the chain; this rule applies to other homologous series.<ref name = m&b/> A straight-chain alkane will have a boiling point higher than a branched-chain alkane due to the greater surface area in contact, thus the greater van der Waals forces, between adjacent molecules. For example, compare [[isobutane]] (2-methylpropane) and [[n-butane]] (butane), which boil at −12 and 0&nbsp;°C, and 2,2-dimethylbutane and 2,3-dimethylbutane which boil at 50 and 58&nbsp;°C, respectively.<ref name = m&b/> For the latter case, two molecules 2,3-dimethylbutane can "lock" into each other better than the cross-shaped 2,2-dimethylbutane, hence the greater van der Waals forces. On the other hand, cycloalkanes tend to have higher boiling points than their linear counterparts due to the locked conformations of the molecules, which give a plane of intermolecular contact.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://chem.libretexts.org/Core/Organic_Chemistry/Alkanes/Properties_of_Alkanes/Cycloalkanes/Physical_Properties_of_Cycloalkanes|title=Physical Properties of Cycloalkanes|last=|first=|date=November 29, 2015|website=Chemistry LibreTexts|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=February 2, 2018}}</ref> ===Melting points=== The [[melting point]]s of the alkanes follow a similar trend to [[boiling points]] for the same reason as outlined above. That is, (all other things being equal) the larger the molecule the higher the melting point. There is one significant difference between boiling points and melting points. Solids have more rigid and fixed structure than liquids. This rigid structure requires energy to break down. Thus the better put together solid structures will require more energy to break apart. For alkanes, this can be seen from the graph above (i.e., the blue line). The odd-numbered alkanes have a lower trend in melting points than even numbered alkanes. This is because even numbered alkanes pack well in the solid phase, forming a well-organized structure, which requires more energy to break apart. The odd-numbered alkanes pack less well and so the "looser" organized solid packing structure requires less energy to break apart.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Boese R, Weiss HC, Blaser D | title= The melting point alternation in the short-chain ''n''-alkanes: Single-crystal X-ray analyses of propane at 30&nbsp;K and of ''n''-butane to ''n''-nonane at 90&nbsp;K | journal= Angew Chem Int Ed | year=1999 | volume=38 | pages=988–992 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1521-3773(19990401)38:7<988::AID-ANIE988>3.3.CO;2-S}}</ref> The melting points of branched-chain alkanes can be either higher or lower than those of the corresponding straight-chain alkanes, again depending on the ability of the alkane in question to pack well in the solid phase: This is particularly true for [[isoalkanes]] (2-methyl isomers), which often have melting points higher than those of the linear analogues. ===Conductivity and solubility=== Alkanes do not conduct electricity in any way, nor are they substantially [[Relative static permittivity|polarized]] by an [[electric field]]. For this reason, they do not form [[hydrogen bond]]s and are insoluble in polar solvents such as water. Since the hydrogen bonds between individual water molecules are aligned away from an alkane molecule, the coexistence of an alkane and water leads to an increase in molecular order (a reduction in [[entropy]]). As there is no significant bonding between water molecules and alkane molecules, the [[second law of thermodynamics]] suggests that this reduction in entropy should be minimized by minimizing the contact between alkane and water: Alkanes are said to be [[Hydrophobe|hydrophobic]] in that they repel water. Their solubility in nonpolar solvents is relatively good, a property that is called [[lipophilicity]]. Different alkanes are, for example, miscible in all proportions among themselves. The density of the alkanes usually increases with the number of carbon atoms but remains less than that of water. Hence, alkanes form the upper layer in an alkane–water mixture. ===Molecular geometry===<!-- This section is linked from [[Nylon]] --> [[Image:Ch4 hybridization.svg|thumb|right|sp³-hybridization in [[methane]].]] The molecular structure of the alkanes directly affects their physical and chemical characteristics. It is derived from the [[electron configuration]] of [[carbon]], which has four [[valence electron]]s. The carbon atoms in alkanes are always sp³-hybridized, that is to say that the valence electrons are said to be in four equivalent orbitals derived from the combination of the 2s orbital and the three 2p orbitals. These orbitals, which have identical energies, are arranged spatially in the form of a [[tetrahedron]], the angle of cos⁻¹(−{{sfrac|3}})&nbsp;≈&nbsp;109.47° between them. ===Bond lengths and bond angles=== An alkane molecule has only C–H and C–C single bonds. The former result from the overlap of an sp³ orbital of carbon with the 1s orbital of a hydrogen; the latter by the overlap of two sp³ orbitals on different carbon atoms. The [[bond length]]s amount to 1.09&nbsp;×&nbsp;10⁻¹⁰&nbsp;m for a C–H bond and 1.54&nbsp;×&nbsp;10⁻¹⁰&nbsp;m for a C–C bond. [[Image:Ch4-structure.png|thumb|right|The tetrahedral structure of methane.]] The spatial arrangement of the bonds is similar to that of the four sp³ orbitals—they are tetrahedrally arranged, with an angle of 109.47° between them. Structural formulae that represent the bonds as being at right angles to one another, while both common and useful, do not correspond with the reality. ===Conformation=== {{Main|Alkane stereochemistry}} The structural formula and the [[bond angle]]s are not usually sufficient to completely describe the geometry of a molecule. There is a further [[degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)|degree of freedom]] for each carbon–carbon bond: the [[torsion angle]] between the atoms or groups bound to the atoms at each end of the bond. The spatial arrangement described by the torsion angles of the molecule is known as its [[conformational isomerism|conformation]]. [[Image:Newman projection ethane.png|thumb|right|200px|Newman projections of the two conformations of ethane: eclipsed on the left, staggered on the right.]] [[Image:Ethane-rotamers-3D-balls.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Ball-and-stick model]]s of the two rotamers of ethane]] [[Ethane]] forms the simplest case for studying the conformation of alkanes, as there is only one C–C bond. If one looks down the axis of the C–C bond, one will see the so-called [[Newman projection]]. The hydrogen atoms on both the front and rear carbon atoms have an angle of 120° between them, resulting from the projection of the base of the tetrahedron onto a flat plane. However, the torsion angle between a given hydrogen atom attached to the front carbon and a given hydrogen atom attached to the rear carbon can vary freely between 0° and 360°. This is a consequence of the free rotation about a carbon–carbon single bond. Despite this apparent freedom, only two limiting conformations are important: [[eclipsed]] conformation and [[staggered conformation]]. The two conformations, also known as [[rotamer]]s, differ in energy: The staggered conformation is 12.6&nbsp;kJ/mol lower in energy (more stable) than the eclipsed conformation (the least stable). This difference in energy between the two conformations, known as the [[torsion energy]], is low compared to the thermal energy of an ethane molecule at ambient temperature. There is constant rotation about the C–C bond. The time taken for an ethane molecule to pass from one staggered conformation to the next, equivalent to the rotation of one CH₃ group by 120° relative to the other, is of the order of 10⁻¹¹&nbsp;seconds. The case of [[higher alkanes]] is more complex but based on similar principles, with the antiperiplanar conformation always being the most favored around each carbon–carbon bond. For this reason, alkanes are usually shown in a zigzag arrangement in diagrams or in models. The actual structure will always differ somewhat from these idealized forms, as the differences in energy between the conformations are small compared to the thermal energy of the molecules: Alkane molecules have no fixed structural form, whatever the models may suggest. ===Spectroscopic properties=== Virtually all organic compounds contain carbon–carbon, and carbon–hydrogen bonds, and so show some of the features of alkanes in their spectra. Alkanes are notable for having no other groups, and therefore for the ''absence'' of other characteristic spectroscopic features of a different functional group like [[Alcohol (chemistry)|–OH]], [[Aldehyde|–CHO]], [[Carboxylic acid|–COOH]] etc. ====Infrared spectroscopy==== The carbon–hydrogen stretching mode gives a strong absorption between 2850 and 2960&nbsp;[[Wavenumber|cm⁻¹]], while the carbon–carbon stretching mode absorbs between 800 and 1300&nbsp;cm⁻¹. The carbon–hydrogen bending modes depend on the nature of the group: methyl groups show bands at 1450&nbsp;cm⁻¹ and 1375&nbsp;cm⁻¹, while methylene groups show bands at 1465&nbsp;cm⁻¹ and 1450&nbsp;cm⁻¹. Carbon chains with more than four carbon atoms show a weak absorption at around 725&nbsp;cm⁻¹. ====NMR spectroscopy==== The proton resonances of alkanes are usually found at [[chemical shift|''δ''_H]] = 0.5–1.5. The carbon-13 resonances depend on the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon: ''δ''_C = 8–30 (primary, methyl, –CH₃), 15–55 (secondary, methylene, –CH₂–), 20–60 (tertiary, methyne, C–H) and quaternary. The carbon-13 resonance of quaternary carbon atoms is characteristically weak, due to the lack of [[nuclear Overhauser effect]] and the long [[relaxation time]], and can be missed in weak samples, or samples that have not been run for a sufficiently long time. ====Mass spectrometry==== Alkanes have a high [[ionization energy]], and the molecular ion is usually weak. The fragmentation pattern can be difficult to interpret, but, in the case of branched chain alkanes, the carbon chain is preferentially cleaved at tertiary or quaternary carbons due to the relative stability of the resulting [[free radical]]s. The fragment resulting from the loss of a single methyl group (''M''&nbsp;−&nbsp;15) is often absent, and other fragments are often spaced by intervals of fourteen mass units, corresponding to sequential loss of CH₂ groups. ==Chemical properties== Alkanes are only weakly reactive with ionic and other polar substances. The [[acid dissociation constant]] (pK_a) values of all alkanes are above 60, hence they are practically inert to acids and bases (see: [[carbon acid]]s). This inertness is the source of the term ''paraffins'' (with the meaning here of "lacking affinity"). In [[crude oil]] the alkane molecules have remained chemically unchanged for millions of years. However redox reactions of alkanes, in particular with oxygen and the halogens, are possible as the carbon atoms are in a strongly reduced condition; in the case of methane, the lowest possible oxidation state for carbon (−4) is reached. Reaction with oxygen (''if'' present in sufficient quantity to satisfy the reaction [[stoichiometry]]) leads to combustion without any smoke, producing [[carbon dioxide]] and water. [[Free radical halogenation]] reactions occur with halogens, leading to the production of [[haloalkanes]]. In addition, alkanes have been shown to interact with, and bind to, certain transition metal complexes in [[carbon-hydrogen bond activation|C–H bond activation]]. [[Free radical]]s, molecules with unpaired electrons, play a large role in most reactions of alkanes, such as cracking and reformation where long-chain alkanes are converted into shorter-chain alkanes and straight-chain alkanes into branched-chain isomers. In highly branched alkanes, the bond angle may differ significantly from the optimal value (109.5°) in order to allow the different groups sufficient space. This causes a tension in the molecule, known as [[steric hindrance]], and can substantially increase the reactivity. ===Reactions with oxygen (combustion reaction)=== All alkanes react with [[oxygen]] in a [[combustion]] reaction, although they become increasingly difficult to ignite as the number of carbon atoms increases. The general equation for complete combustion is: :C_''n''H_2''n''+2 + ({{sfrac|3|2}}''n''&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{sfrac|2}})&nbsp;O₂ → (''n''&nbsp;+&nbsp;1)&nbsp;H₂O + ''n''&nbsp;CO₂ :or C_''n''H_2''n''+2 + ({{sfrac|3''n'' + 1|2}})&nbsp;O₂ → (''n''&nbsp;+&nbsp;1)&nbsp;H₂O + ''n''&nbsp;CO₂ In the absence of sufficient oxygen, [[carbon monoxide]] or even [[soot]] can be formed, as shown below: :C_''n''H_2''n''+2 + (''n''&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{sfrac|2}})&nbsp;[[oxygen|O₂]] → (''n''&nbsp;+&nbsp;1)&nbsp;H₂O + ''n''&nbsp;[[carbon monoxide|CO]] :C_''n''H_2''n''+2 + ({{sfrac|2}}''n''&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{sfrac|2}})&nbsp;[[oxygen|O₂]] → (''n''&nbsp;+&nbsp;1)&nbsp;H₂O + ''n''&nbsp;[[carbon|C]] For example, [[methane]]: :2&nbsp;CH₄ + 3&nbsp;O₂ → 2&nbsp;CO + 4&nbsp;H₂O :CH₄ + {{sfrac|3|2}}&nbsp;O₂ → CO + 2&nbsp;H₂O See the [[Standard enthalpy change of formation (data table)#Alkanes|alkane heat of formation table]] for detailed data. The [[standard enthalpy change of combustion]], Δ_c''H''^⊖, for alkanes increases by about 650&nbsp;kJ/mol per CH₂ group. Branched-chain alkanes have lower values of Δ_c''H''^⊖ than straight-chain alkanes of the same number of carbon atoms, and so can be seen to be somewhat more stable. === Reactions with halogens === {{Main|Free radical halogenation}} Alkanes react with [[halogen]]s in a so-called ''free radical halogenation'' reaction. The hydrogen atoms of the alkane are progressively replaced by halogen atoms. [[Free radical]]s are the reactive species that participate in the reaction, which usually leads to a mixture of products. The reaction is highly [[exothermic reaction|exothermic]], and can lead to an explosion. These reactions are an important industrial route to halogenated hydrocarbons. There are three steps: * '''Initiation''' the halogen radicals form by [[homolysis (chemistry)|homolysis]]. Usually, energy in the form of heat or light is required. * '''Chain reaction''' or '''Propagation''' then takes place—the halogen radical abstracts a hydrogen from the alkane to give an alkyl radical. This reacts further. * '''Chain termination''' where the radicals recombine. Experiments have shown that all halogenation produces a mixture of all possible isomers, indicating that all hydrogen atoms are susceptible to reaction. The mixture produced, however, is not a statistical mixture: Secondary and tertiary hydrogen atoms are preferentially replaced due to the greater stability of secondary and tertiary free-radicals. An example can be seen in the monobromination of propane:<ref name = m&b/> [[Image:Monobromination of propane.png|500px|center|Monobromination of [[propane]]]] === Cracking === {{Main|Cracking (chemistry)}} Cracking breaks larger molecules into smaller ones. This can be done with a thermal or catalytic method. The thermal cracking process follows a [[homolysis (chemistry)|homolytic]] mechanism with formation of [[free-radical]]s. The catalytic cracking process involves the presence of [[acid]] [[catalyst]]s (usually solid acids such as [[silica-alumina]] and [[zeolite]]s), which promote a [[heterolytic cleavage|heterolytic]] (asymmetric) breakage of bonds yielding pairs of ions of opposite charges, usually a [[carbocation]] and the very unstable [[hydride]] [[anion]]. Carbon-localized free radicals and cations are both highly unstable and undergo processes of chain rearrangement, C–C scission in position [[beta scission|beta]] (i.e., cracking) and [[intramolecular|intra-]] and [[intermolecular]] hydrogen transfer or [[hydride]] transfer. In both types of processes, the corresponding [[reactive intermediate]]s (radicals, ions) are permanently regenerated, and thus they proceed by a self-propagating chain mechanism. The chain of reactions is eventually terminated by radical or ion recombination. === Isomerization and reformation === Dragan and his colleague were the first to report about isomerization in alkanes.<ref name="Asinger, Friedrich 1967">{{cite book | author = Asinger, Friedrich | title = Paraffins; Chemistry and Technology | location = Oxford| publisher = Pergamon Press | date = 1967}}</ref> Isomerization and reformation are processes in which straight-chain alkanes are heated in the presence of a [[platinum]] catalyst. In isomerization, the alkanes become branched-chain isomers. In other words, it does not lose any carbons or hydrogens, keeping the same molecular weight.<ref name="Asinger, Friedrich 1967"/> In reformation, the alkanes become [[cycloalkane]]s or [[aromatic hydrocarbon]]s, giving off hydrogen as a by-product. Both of these processes raise the [[octane number]] of the substance. Butane is the most common alkane that is put under the process of isomerization, as it makes many branched alkanes with high octane numbers.<ref name="Asinger, Friedrich 1967"/> ===Other reactions=== Alkanes will react with [[steam]] in the presence of a [[nickel]] [[catalyst]] to give [[hydrogen]]. Alkanes can be [[Chlorosulfonation|chlorosulfonated]] and [[nitration|nitrated]], although both reactions require special conditions. The [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] of alkanes to [[carboxylic acid]]s is of some technical importance. In the [[Reed reaction]], [[sulfur dioxide]], [[chlorine]] and [[photochemistry|light]] convert hydrocarbons to [[Sulfonic acid|sulfonyl chlorides]]. [[Nucleophilic abstraction|Nucleophilic Abstraction]] can be used to separate an alkane from a metal. Alkyl groups can be transferred from one compound to another by [[transmetalation]] reactions. ==Occurrence== ===Occurrence of alkanes in the Universe=== [[Image:Jupiter.jpg|thumb|right|[[Methane]] and [[ethane]] make up a tiny proportion<!-- 0.3% methane and 0.00006% ethane is tiny not large --> of [[Jupiter]]'s atmosphere]] [[Image:Oil well.jpg|thumb|right|Extraction of oil, which contains many different [[hydrocarbon]]s including alkanes]] Alkanes form a small portion<!-- 0.3% methane and 0.00006% ethane for Jupiter is small not significant: else find cite that claims this is significant, or specify in which context. Uranus and Neptune have more but still small --> of the [[Celestial body atmosphere|atmospheres]] of the outer gas planets such as [[Jupiter]] (0.1% methane, 2&nbsp;[[parts per million|ppm]] ethane), [[Saturn]] (0.2% methane, 5&nbsp;ppm ethane), [[Uranus]] (1.99% methane, 2.5&nbsp;ppm ethane) and [[Neptune]] (1.5% methane, 1.5&nbsp;ppm ethane). [[Titan (moon)|Titan]] (1.6% methane), a satellite of Saturn, was examined by the [[Huygens (spacecraft)|''Huygens'' probe]], which indicated that Titan's atmosphere periodically rains liquid methane onto the moon's surface.<ref>{{cite web|title=Titan: Arizona in an Icebox? |url=http://www.planetary.org/news/2005/huygens_science-results_0121.html |author=Emily Lakdawalla |accessdate=21 January 2004 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080406104505/http://planetary.org/news/2005/0121_Titan_Arizona_in_an_Icebox.html |archivedate=6 April 2008 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy }}</ref> Also on Titan the Cassini mission has imaged seasonal methane/ethane lakes near the polar regions of Titan. [[Methane]] and [[ethane]] have also been detected in the tail of the comet [[Hyakutake]]. Chemical analysis showed that the abundances of ethane and methane were roughly equal, which is thought to imply that its ices formed in interstellar space, away from the Sun, which would have evaporated these volatile molecules.<ref name="science">{{cite journal | author=Mumma, M.J. | title=Detection of Abundant Ethane and Methane, Along with Carbon Monoxide and Water, in Comet C/1996 B2 Hyakutake: Evidence for Interstellar Origin | journal=Science | year=1996 | volume=272 | doi=10.1126/science.272.5266.1310 | pmid=8650540 | last2 = Disanti |first2=M.A. |last3=dello Russo |first3=N. |last4=Fomenkova |first4=M. |last5=Magee-Sauer |first5=K. |last6=Kaminski |first6=C.D. |last7=D.X. |first7=Xie | issue=5266 | bibcode=1996Sci...272.1310M | pages=1310–4}}</ref> Alkanes have also been detected in [[meteorite]]s such as [[carbonaceous chondrite]]s. ===Occurrence of alkanes on Earth=== Traces of methane gas (about 0.0002% or 1745&nbsp;ppb) occur in the Earth's atmosphere, produced primarily by [[methanogenesis|methanogenic]] microorganisms, such as [[Archaea]] in the gut of ruminants.<ref name=Janssen>{{cite journal | last1 = Janssen | first1 = P. H. | last2 = Kirs | first2 = M. | year = 2008 | title = Structure of the Archaeal Community of the Rumen | url = | journal = Appl Environ Microbiol | volume = 74 | issue = 12| pages = 3619–3625 | doi = 10.1128/AEM.02812-07 |pmc= 2446570 | pmid=18424540}}</ref> The most important commercial sources for alkanes are natural gas and [[Petroleum|oil]].<ref name=m&b/> Natural gas contains primarily methane and ethane, with some [[propane]] and [[butane]]: oil is a mixture of liquid alkanes and other [[hydrocarbons]]. These hydrocarbons were formed when marine animals and plants (zooplankton and phytoplankton) died and sank to the bottom of ancient seas and were covered with sediments in an [[wikt:anoxic|anoxic]] environment and converted over many millions of years at high temperatures and high pressure to their current form. Natural gas resulted thereby for example from the following reaction: :C₆H₁₂O₆ → 3&nbsp;CH₄ + 3&nbsp;CO₂ These hydrocarbon deposits, collected in porous rocks trapped beneath impermeable cap rocks, comprise commercial [[oil fields]]. They have formed over millions of years and once exhausted cannot be readily replaced. The depletion of these hydrocarbons reserves is the basis for what is known as the [[energy crisis]]. Methane is also present in what is called [[biogas]], produced by animals and decaying matter, which is a possible [[renewable energy source]]. Alkanes have a low solubility in water, so the content in the oceans is negligible; however, at high pressures and low temperatures (such as at the bottom of the oceans), methane can co-crystallize with water to form a solid [[methane clathrate]] (methane hydrate). Although this cannot be commercially exploited at the present time, the amount of combustible energy of the known methane clathrate fields exceeds the energy content of all the natural gas and oil deposits put together. Methane extracted from methane clathrate is, therefore, a candidate for future fuels. ===Biological occurrence=== Acyclic alkanes occur in nature in various ways. ;Bacteria and archaea [[Image:Rotbuntes Rind.jpg|thumb|right|[[Methanogen]]ic [[archaea]] in the gut of this cow are responsible for some of the [[methane]] in Earth's atmosphere.]] Certain types of bacteria can metabolize alkanes: they prefer even-numbered carbon chains as they are easier to degrade than odd-numbered chains.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://equilibrator.weizmann.ac.il/static/classic_rxns/classic_reactions/fatty_acid_met.html|title=Metabolism of Alkanes and Fatty Acids — eQuilibrator 0.2 beta documentation|website=equilibrator.weizmann.ac.il|language=en|access-date=2018-04-11}}</ref> On the other hand, certain [[archaea]], the [[methanogen]]s, produce large quantities of [[methane]] by the metabolism of [[carbon dioxide]] or other [[oxidation|oxidized]] organic compounds. The energy is released by the oxidation of [[hydrogen]]: :CO₂ + 4&nbsp;H₂ → CH₄ + 2&nbsp;H₂O Methanogens are also the producers of [[marsh gas]] in [[wetlands]], and release about two billion tonnes of methane per year<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/marsh-gas|title=Marsh gas - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics|website=www.sciencedirect.com|language=en|access-date=2018-04-11}}</ref>—the atmospheric content of this gas is produced nearly exclusively by them. The methane output of [[cattle]] and other [[herbivore]]s, which can release 30 to 50 gallons per day,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://gizmodo.com/do-cow-farts-actually-contribute-to-global-warming-1562144730|title=Do Cow Farts Actually Contribute to Global Warming?|last=TodayIFoundOut.com|first=Matt Blitz -|work=Gizmodo|access-date=2018-04-11|language=en-US}}</ref> and of [[termite]]s,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Buczkowski|first=Grzegorz|last2=Bertelsmeier|first2=Cleo|date=2017-01-15|title=Invasive termites in a changing climate: A global perspective|journal=Ecology and Evolution|volume=7|issue=3|pages=974–985|doi=10.1002/ece3.2674|pmc=5288252|pmid=28168033}}</ref> is also due to methanogens. They also produce this simplest of all alkanes in the [[intestine]]s of humans. Methanogenic archaea are, hence, at the end of the [[carbon cycle]], with carbon being released back into the atmosphere after having been fixed by [[photosynthesis]]. It is probable that our current deposits of natural gas were formed in a similar way.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/natural-gas/|title=natural gas|last=Society|first=National Geographic|date=2012-07-24|work=National Geographic Society|access-date=2018-04-11|language=en}}</ref> ;Fungi and plants Alkanes also play a role, if a minor role, in the biology of the three [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] groups of organisms: [[Fungus|fungi]], plants and animals. Some specialized yeasts, e.g., ''Candida tropicale'', ''[[Pichia]]'' sp., ''[[Rhodotorula]]'' sp., can use alkanes as a source of carbon or energy. The fungus ''[[Amorphotheca resinae]]'' prefers the longer-chain alkanes in [[aviation fuel]], and can cause serious problems for aircraft in tropical regions.<ref name=Hendey>{{cite journal | last1 = Hendey | first1 = N. I. | year = 1964 | title = Some observations on Cladosporium resinae as a fuel contaminant and its possible role in the corrosion of aluminium alloy fuel tanks | url = | journal = Transactions of the British Mycological Society | volume = 47 | issue = 7| pages = 467–475 | doi=10.1016/s0007-1536(64)80024-3}}</ref> In plants, the solid long-chain alkanes are found in the [[plant cuticle]] and [[epicuticular wax]] of many species, but are only rarely major constituents.<ref name=Baker1982>EA Baker (1982) Chemistry and morphology of plant epicuticular waxes. pp. 139-165. In "The Plant Cuticle". edited by DF Cutler, KL Alvin and CE Price. Academic Press, London. {{ISBN|0-12-199920-3}}</ref> They protect the plant against water loss, prevent the [[Leaching (agriculture)|leaching]] of important minerals by the rain, and protect against bacteria, fungi, and harmful insects. The carbon chains in plant alkanes are usually odd-numbered, between 27 and 33 carbon atoms in length<ref name=Baker1982/> and are made by the plants by [[decarboxylation]] of even-numbered [[fatty acid]]s. The exact composition of the layer of wax is not only species-dependent but changes also with the season and such environmental factors as lighting conditions, temperature or humidity.<ref name=Baker1982/> More volatile short-chain alkanes are also produced by and found in plant tissues. The [[Jeffrey pine]] is noted for producing exceptionally high levels of ''n''-[[heptane]] in its resin, for which reason its distillate was designated as the zero point for one [[octane rating]]. Floral scents have also long been known to contain volatile alkane components, and ''n''-[[nonane]] is a significant component in the scent of some [[rose]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kim | first1 =HyunJung | last2=Kim | first2=NamSun | last3=Lee | first3=DongSun | year = 2000 | title = Determination of floral fragrances of Rosa hybrida using solid-phase trapping-solvent extraction and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. | url = | journal = Journal of Chromatography A | volume = 902 | issue = 2| pages = 389–404 | doi = 10.1016/S0021-9673(00)00863-3 }}</ref> Emission of gaseous and volatile alkanes such as [[ethane]], [[pentane]], and [[hexane]] by plants has also been documented at low levels, though they are not generally considered to be a major component of biogenic air pollution.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kesselmeier | first1 = J. | last2 = Staudt | first2 = N. | year = 1999 | title = Biogenic Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC): An Overview on Emission, Physiology and Ecology | url = http://www.geo.uni-frankfurt.de/iau/epos/Gruppenintern/Kesselmeier___Staudt_JAC_1999.pdf | journal = Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry | volume = 33 | pages = 22–38 | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://www.webcitation.org/6F5FQG2OP?url=http://www.geo.uni-frankfurt.de/iau/epos/Gruppenintern/Kesselmeier___Staudt_JAC_1999.pdf | archivedate = 13 March 2013 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Edible vegetable oils also typically contain small fractions of biogenic alkanes with a wide spectrum of carbon numbers, mainly 8 to 35, usually peaking in the low to upper 20s, with concentrations up to dozens of milligrams per kilogram (parts per million by weight) and sometimes over a hundred for the total alkane fraction.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Moreda | first1 =W. | last2=Perez-Camino | first2=M. C. |last3=Cert| first3=A.| year = 2001 | title = Gas and liquid chromatography of hydrocarbons in edible vegetable oils | journal = Journal of Chromatography A | volume = 936 | pages = 159–171 | doi=10.1016/s0021-9673(01)01222-5| url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11596797}}</ref> ;Animals Alkanes are found in animal products, although they are less important than unsaturated hydrocarbons. One example is the shark liver oil, which is approximately 14% [[pristane]] (2,6,10,14-tetramethylpentadecane, C₁₉H₄₀). They are important as [[pheromone]]s, chemical messenger materials, on which insects depend for communication. In some species, e.g. the support beetle ''[[Xylotrechus colonus]]'', [[pentacosane]] (C₂₅H₅₂), 3-methylpentaicosane (C₂₆H₅₄) and 9-methylpentaicosane (C₂₆H₅₄) are transferred by body contact. With others like the [[tsetse fly]] ''Glossina morsitans morsitans'', the pheromone contains the four alkanes 2-methylheptadecane (C₁₈H₃₈), 17,21-dimethylheptatriacontane (C₃₉H₈₀), 15,19-dimethylheptatriacontane (C₃₉H₈₀) and 15,19,23-trimethylheptatriacontane (C₄₀H₈₂), and acts by smell over longer distances. [[waggle dance|Waggle-dancing]] [[honey bee]]s produce and release two alkanes, tricosane and pentacosane.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Thom | date = 21 August 2007 | title = The Scent of the Waggle Dance | url = | journal = PLoS Biology | volume = 5 | issue = 9| page = e228 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.0050228 | pmid=17713987 | pmc=1994260|display-authors=etal}}</ref> ===Ecological relations=== [[Image:Ophrys sphegodes flower.jpg|thumb|right|Early spider orchid (''[[Ophrys sphegodes]]'')]] One example, in which both plant and animal alkanes play a role, is the ecological relationship between the [[sand bee]] (''[[Andrena nigroaenea]]'') and the [[early spider orchid]] (''[[Ophrys sphegodes]]''); the latter is dependent for [[pollination]] on the former. Sand bees use pheromones in order to identify a mate; in the case of ''A. nigroaenea'', the females emit a mixture of [[tricosane]] (C₂₃H₄₈), [[pentacosane]] (C₂₅H₅₂) and [[heptacosane]] (C₂₇H₅₆) in the ratio 3:3:1, and males are attracted by specifically this odor. The orchid takes advantage of this mating arrangement to get the male bee to collect and disseminate its pollen; parts of its flower not only resemble the appearance of sand bees but also produce large quantities of the three alkanes in the same ratio as female sand bees. As a result, numerous males are lured to the blooms and attempt to copulate with their imaginary partner: although this endeavor is not crowned with success for the bee, it allows the orchid to transfer its pollen, which will be dispersed after the departure of the frustrated male to different blooms. ==Production== ===Petroleum refining=== [[Image:ShellMartinez-refi.jpg|thumb|right|An [[oil refinery]] at [[Martinez, California]].]] As stated earlier, the most important source of alkanes is natural gas and [[crude oil]].<ref name=m&b/> Alkanes are separated in an [[oil refinery]] by [[fractional distillation]] and processed into many different products. ===Fischer–Tropsch=== The [[Fischer–Tropsch process]] is a method to synthesize liquid hydrocarbons, including alkanes, from [[carbon monoxide]] and hydrogen. This method is used to produce substitutes for [[petroleum distillate]]s. ===Laboratory preparation=== There is usually little need for alkanes to be synthesized in the laboratory, since they are usually commercially available. Also, alkanes are generally unreactive chemically or biologically, and do not undergo [[functional group interconversion]]s cleanly. When alkanes are produced in the laboratory, it is often a side-product of a reaction. For example, the use of [[N-Butyllithium|''n''-butyllithium]] as a strong [[base (chemistry)|base]] gives the conjugate acid, ''n''-butane as a side-product: : C₄H₉Li + H₂O → C₄H₁₀ + [[lithium hydroxide|LiOH]] However, at times it may be desirable to make a section of a molecule into an alkane-like functionality ([[alkyl]] group) using the above or similar methods. For example, an [[ethyl group]] is an alkyl group; when this is attached to a [[Hydroxyl|hydroxy]] group, it gives [[ethanol]], which is not an alkane. To do so, the best-known methods are [[hydrogenation]] of [[alkene]]s: :RCH=CH₂ + H₂ → RCH₂CH₃{{spaces|5}}(R = [[alkyl]]) Alkanes or alkyl groups can also be prepared directly from [[alkyl halide]]s in the [[Corey–House synthesis|Corey–House–Posner–Whitesides reaction]]. The [[Barton–McCombie deoxygenation]]<ref>{{cite journal | author1-link=Derek Harold Richard Barton| last1=Barton |first1= D. H. R. |last2= McCombie |first2= S. W. | title=A new method for the deoxygenation of secondary alcohols |journal=J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 1|year= 1975 | issue=16 |pages= 1574–1585 | doi = 10.1039/P19750001574 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Crich | first1=David | last2=Quintero | first2=Leticia | title=Radical chemistry associated with the thiocarbonyl group | journal=[[Chem. Rev.]] |year= 1989 |volume=89 |pages= 1413–1432 | doi = 10.1021/cr00097a001 | issue=7 }}</ref> removes hydroxyl groups from alcohols e.g. :[[Image:Barton-McCombie Deoxygenation Scheme.svg|600px|[[Barton–McCombie deoxygenation]] scheme]] and the [[Clemmensen reduction]]<ref>Martin, E. L. ''Org. React.'' 1942, ''1'', 155. (Review)</ref><ref>Buchanan, J. G. St. C.; Woodgate, P. D. ''Quart. Rev.'' 1969, ''23'', 522, (Review).</ref><ref>Vedejs, E. ''Org. React.'' 1975, ''22'', 401, (Review).</ref><ref>Yamamura, S.; Nishiyama, S. ''Compr. Org. Synth.'' 1991, ''8'', 309–313, (Review).</ref> removes carbonyl groups from aldehydes and ketones to form alkanes or alkyl-substituted compounds e.g.: :[[Image:Clemmensen Reduction Scheme.png|250px|[[Clemmensen Reduction]]]] ==Applications== The applications of alkanes depend on the number of carbon atoms. The first four alkanes are used mainly for heating and cooking purposes, and in some countries for electricity generation. [[Methane]] and [[ethane]] are the main components of natural gas; they are normally stored as gases under pressure. It is, however, easier to transport them as liquids: This requires both compression and cooling of the gas. [[Propane]] and [[butane]] are gases at atmospheric pressure that can be liquefied at fairly low pressures and are commonly known as [[liquified petroleum gas]] (LPG). Propane is used in propane gas burners and as a fuel for road vehicles,<ref>[http://www.ferrellgas.com/Resource_/PageResource/LA_Transit_Case_Study.pdf Using propane as a fuel]</ref> butane in space heaters and disposable cigarette lighters. Both are used as propellants in [[aerosol spray]]s. From [[pentane]] to [[octane]] the alkanes are highly volatile liquids. They are used as fuels in [[internal combustion engine]]s, as they vaporize easily on entry into the combustion chamber without forming droplets, which would impair the uniformity of the combustion. Branched-chain alkanes are preferred as they are much less prone to premature ignition, which causes [[Engine knocking|knocking]], than their straight-chain homologues. This propensity to premature ignition is measured by the [[octane rating]] of the fuel, where [[2,2,4-Trimethylpentane|2,2,4-trimethylpentane]] (''isooctane'') has an arbitrary value of 100, and [[heptane]] has a value of zero. Apart from their use as fuels, the middle alkanes are also good [[solvent]]s for nonpolar substances. Alkanes from [[nonane]] to, for instance, [[hexadecane]] (an alkane with sixteen carbon atoms) are liquids of higher [[viscosity]], less and less suitable for use in gasoline. They form instead the major part of [[Diesel fuel|diesel]] and [[aviation fuel]]. Diesel fuels are characterized by their [[cetane number]], cetane being an old name for hexadecane. However, the higher melting points of these alkanes can cause problems at low temperatures and in polar regions, where the fuel becomes too thick to flow correctly. Alkanes from hexadecane upwards form the most important components of [[fuel oil]] and [[lubricating oil]]. In the latter function, they work at the same time as anti-corrosive agents, as their hydrophobic nature means that water cannot reach the metal surface. Many solid alkanes find use as [[paraffin wax]], for example, in [[candle]]s. This should not be confused however with true [[wax]], which consists primarily of [[ester]]s. Alkanes with a chain length of approximately 35 or more carbon atoms are found in [[bitumen]], used, for example, in road surfacing. However, the higher alkanes have little value and are usually split into lower alkanes by [[Cracking (chemistry)|cracking]]. Some synthetic [[polymer]]s such as [[polyethylene]] and [[polypropylene]] are alkanes with chains containing hundreds of thousands of carbon atoms. These materials are used in innumerable applications, and billions of kilograms of these materials are made and used each year. ==Environmental transformations== {{expand section|date=August 2014}} Alkanes are chemically very inert apolar molecules which are not very reactive as organic compounds. This inertness yields serious ecological issues if they are released into the environment. Due to their lack of functional groups and low water solubility, alkanes show poor bioavailability for microorganisms.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226738847_Microbial_Degradation_of_Alkanes|title=Microbial Degradation of Alkanes (PDF Download Available)|website=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=2017-02-23}}</ref> There are, however, some microorganisms possessing the metabolic capacity to utilize n-alkanes as both carbon and energy sources.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Berthe-Corti|first=L.|last2=Fetzner|first2=S.|date=2002-07-01|title=Bacterial Metabolism of n-Alkanes and Ammonia under Oxic, Suboxic and Anoxic Conditions|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/1521-3846(200207)22:3/43.0.CO;2-F/abstract|journal=Acta Biotechnologica|language=en|volume=22|issue=3-4|pages=299–336|doi=10.1002/1521-3846(200207)22:3/43.0.CO;2-F|issn=1521-3846}}</ref> Some bacterial species are highly specialised in degrading alkanes; these are referred to as hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria.<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1264/jsme2.ME14090| issn = 1342-6311| volume = 30| issue = 1| pages = 70–75| last1 = Dashti| first1 = Narjes| last2 = Ali| first2 = Nedaa| last3 = Eliyas| first3 = Mohamed| last4 = Khanafer| first4 = Majida| last5 = Sorkhoh| first5 = Naser A.| last6 = Radwan| first6 = Samir S.| title = Most Hydrocarbonoclastic Bacteria in the Total Environment are Diazotrophic, which Highlights Their Value in the Bioremediation of Hydrocarbon Contaminants| journal = Microbes and Environments| accessdate = | date = March 2015| pmid = 25740314| pmc = 4356466}}</ref> ==Hazards== {{expand section|date=September 2017}} Methane is flammable, explosive and dangerous to inhale, because it is a colorless, odorless gas, special caution must be taken around methane.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ipcsneng/neng0291.html|title=CDC - METHANE - International Chemical Safety Cards - NIOSH|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us|access-date=2017-09-19}}</ref> Ethane is also extremely flammable, dangerous to inhale and explosive.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ipcsneng/neng0266.html|title=CDC - ETHANE - International Chemical Safety Cards - NIOSH|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us|access-date=2017-09-19}}</ref> Both of these may cause suffocation.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Similarly, propane is flammable and explosive.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ipcsneng/neng0319.html|title=CDC - PROPANE - International Chemical Safety Cards - NIOSH|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us|access-date=2017-09-19}}</ref> It may cause drowsiness or unconsciousness if inhaled.<ref name=":2" /> Butane has the same hazards to consider as propane.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ipcsneng/neng0232.html|title=CDC - BUTANE - International Chemical Safety Cards - NIOSH|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us|access-date=2017-09-19}}</ref> Alkanes also pose a threat to the environment. Branched alkanes have a lower biodegradability than unbranched alkanes.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SJP57-0UOzYC&pg=PA78&lpg=PA78&dq=alkane+safety+as+hydrocarbon+chain+gets+longer&source=bl&ots=HgPJJhptV4&sig=zg0OEGY4slSoFy91cLFHDXR1aGc&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiYucLblbDWAhWp34MKHfRqD88Q6AEIXTAI#v=onepage&q=alkane%20safety%20as%20hydrocarbon%20chain%20gets%20longer&f=false|title=Environmental, Safety, and Health Engineering|last=Woodside|first=Gayle|last2=Kocurek|first2=Dianna|date=1997-05-26|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9780471109327|language=en}}</ref> However, methane is ranked as the most dangerous greenhouse gas.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=http://apps.sepa.org.uk/spripa/Pages/SubstanceInformation.aspx?pid=65|title=Pollutant Fact Sheet|website=apps.sepa.org.uk|access-date=2017-09-19}}</ref> Although the amount of methane in the atmosphere is low, it does pose a threat to the environment.<ref name=":3" /> ==See also== {{Commons|Homologous series of alkanes|Alkane}} {{Wiktionary}} * [[Alkene]] * [[Alkyne]] * [[Cycloalkane]] * [[Higher alkanes]] {{Clear}} ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Further reading== * [https://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/faculty/reusch/VirtTxtJml/intro1.htm Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry] {{Hydrocarbons}} {{Alkanes}} {{Functional Groups}} {{BranchesofChemistry}} {{Hydrides by group}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Alkanes| ]] [[Category:Hydrocarbons]] [[Category:Functional groups]] k0nimbimvdn9mr0oei8p0onru2vmd6y 0 640 845430307 804430201 2018-06-11T19:01:35Z 209.165.166.193 /* Results */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} [[File:D.C. Court of Appeals.JPG|thumb|The [[District of Columbia Court of Appeals|Court of Appeals]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]]] '''United States appellate procedure''' involves the rules and regulations for filing [[appeal]]s in [[state court (United States)|state courts]] and [[United States federal courts|federal courts]]. The nature of an appeal can vary greatly depending on the type of case and the rules of the court in the [[jurisdiction]] where the case was prosecuted. There are many types of [[standard of review]] for appeals, such as ''[[Trial de novo|de novo]]'' and [[abuse of discretion]]. However, most appeals begin when a party files a [[petition for review]] to a higher court for the purpose of overturning the lower court's decision. An [[appellate court]] is a [[court]] that hears cases on appeal from another court. Depending on the particular legal rules that apply to each circumstance, a party to a [[court case]] who is unhappy with the result might be able to challenge that result in an appellate court on specific grounds. These grounds typically could include errors of law, [[fact]], procedure or due process. In different jurisdictions, appellate courts are also called appeals courts, courts of appeals, superior courts, or supreme courts. The specific procedures for appealing, including even whether there is a right of appeal from a particular type of decision, can vary greatly from state to state. The right to file an appeal can also vary from state to state; for example, the [[New Jersey Constitution]] vests judicial power in a Supreme Court, a Superior Court, and other courts of limited jurisdiction, with an appellate court being part of the Superior Court.<ref>Jeffrey S. Mandel, New Jersey Appellate Practice (Gann Law Books), chapter 1:2</ref> ==Access to appellant status== A party who files an appeal is called an "appellant", "plaintiff in error", "petitioner" or "pursuer", and a party on the other side is called a "appellee". A "cross-appeal" is an appeal brought by the respondent. For example, suppose at trial the judge found for the plaintiff and ordered the defendant to pay $50,000. If the defendant files an appeal arguing that he should not have to pay any money, then the plaintiff might file a cross-appeal arguing that the defendant should have to pay $200,000 instead of $50,000. The appellant is the party who, having lost part or all their [[lawsuit|claim]] in a [[lower court]] decision, is appealing to a higher court to have their case reconsidered. This is usually done on the basis that the lower court judge erred in the application of law, but it may also be possible to appeal on the basis of court misconduct, or that a finding of fact was entirely unreasonable to make on the evidence. The appellant in the new case can be either the [[plaintiff]] (or claimant), [[defendant]], third-party [[intervenor]], or respondent (appellee) from the lower case, depending on who was the losing party. The winning party from the lower court, however, is now the respondent. In unusual cases the appellant can be the victor in the court below, but still appeal. An appellee is the party to an appeal in which the lower court [[judgment (law)|judgment]] was in its favor. The appellee is required to respond to the [[petition]], [[oral argument]]s, and [[legal brief]]s of the appellant. In general, the appellee takes the procedural posture that the lower court's decision should be affirmed. ==Ability to appeal== An appeal "as of right" is one that is guaranteed by statute or some underlying constitutional or legal principle. The appellate court cannot refuse to listen to the appeal. An appeal "by leave" or "permission" requires the appellant to obtain leave to appeal; in such a situation either or both of the lower court and the court may have the discretion to grant or refuse the appellant's demand to appeal the lower court's decision. In the [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]], review in most cases is available only if the Court exercises its discretion and grants a writ of certiorari.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/rules/supct/10.html|title=U.S. Supreme Court Rule 10|publisher=Legal Information Institute}}</ref> In [[tort]], [[equity (law)|equity]], or other civil matters either party to a previous case may file an appeal. In criminal matters, however, the state or prosecution generally has no appeal "as of right". And due to the [[double jeopardy]] principle, the state or prosecution may never appeal a jury or bench verdict of acquittal. But in some jurisdictions, the state or prosecution may appeal "as of right" from a trial court's dismissal of an indictment in whole or in part or from a trial court's granting of a defendant's suppression motion. Likewise, in some jurisdictions, the state or prosecution may appeal an issue of law "by leave" from the trial court or the appellate court. The ability of the prosecution to appeal a decision in favor of a defendant varies significantly internationally.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lawreform.ie/publications/data/lrc119/lrc_119.html |title=Consultation Paper on Prosecution Appeals Brought in Cases of Indictment |publisher=Law Reform Commission of Ireland |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071119043436/http://www.lawreform.ie/publications/data/lrc119/lrc_119.html |archivedate=November 19, 2007 }}</ref> All parties must present grounds to appeal, or it will not be heard. By convention in some law reports, the appellant is named first. This can mean that where it is the defendant who appeals, the name of the case in the law reports reverses (in some cases twice) as the appeals work their way up the court hierarchy. This is not always true, however. In the [[United States federal courts|federal courts]], the parties' names always stay in the same order as the lower court when an appeal is taken to the [[United States Courts of Appeals|circuit courts of appeals]], and are re-ordered only if the appeal reaches the [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]].{{citation needed|date=May 2017}} ==Direct or collateral: Appealing criminal convictions== Many jurisdictions recognize two types of appeals, particularly in the criminal context.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-03-03|url=http://www.leeds.ac.uk/law/hamlyn/postconv.htm|title=UK Law Online |publisher=University of Leeds }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-03-03 |url=http://uscode.house.gov/download/pls/28C154.txt |title=Special Habeas Corpus Procedures in Capital Cases |publisher=United States Office of the Law Revision Counsel |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228011124/http://uscode.house.gov/download/pls/28C154.txt |archivedate=February 28, 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-03-03 |url=http://www.twelfth.courts.state.oh.us/Decisions/Pre00011.doc |title=State of Ohio |publisher=Ohio 12th District Court of Appeals |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227072142/http://www.twelfth.courts.state.oh.us/Decisions/Pre00011.doc |archivedate=February 27, 2008 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}</ref> The first is the traditional "direct" appeal in which the appellant files an appeal with the next higher court of review. The second is the collateral appeal or post-conviction petition, in which the petitioner-appellant files the appeal in a court of first instance—usually the court that tried the case. The key distinguishing factor between direct and collateral appeals is that the former occurs in state courts, and the latter in federal courts.{{dubious|Non-federal collateral review|date=May 2017}} Relief in post-conviction is rare and is most often found in [[capital punishment|capital]] or violent [[felony]] cases. The typical scenario involves an incarcerated defendant locating [[DNA]] evidence demonstrating the defendant's actual innocence. ===Appellate review=== "Appellate review" is the general term for the process by which courts with appellate [[jurisdiction]] take jurisdiction of matters decided by lower courts. It is distinguished from [[Judicial review (theory)|judicial review]], which refers to the court's overriding constitutional or statutory right to determine if a legislative act or administrative decision is defective for jurisdictional or other reasons (which may vary by jurisdiction). In most jurisdictions the normal and preferred way of seeking appellate review is by filing an appeal of the final [[Legal judgment|judgment]]. Generally, an appeal of the judgment will also allow appeal of all other orders or rulings made by the trial court in the course of the case. This is because such orders cannot be appealed "as of right". However, certain critical interlocutory [[court order]]s, such as the denial of a request for an interim [[injunction]], or an order holding a person in [[contempt of court]], can be appealed immediately although the case may otherwise not have been fully disposed of. There are two distinct forms of appellate review, "direct" and "collateral". For example, a criminal defendant may be convicted in state court, and lose on "direct appeal" to higher state appellate courts, and if unsuccessful, mount a "collateral" action such as filing for a writ of [[habeas corpus]] in the [[United States federal courts|federal courts]]. Generally speaking, "[d]irect appeal statutes afford defendants the opportunity to challenge the merits of a judgment and allege errors of law or fact. ... [Collateral review], on the other hand, provide[s] an independent and civil inquiry into the validity of a conviction and sentence, and as such are generally limited to challenges to constitutional, jurisdictional, or other fundamental violations that occurred at trial." "Graham v. Borgen", 483 F 3d. 475 (7th Cir. 2007) (no. 04-4103) (slip op. at 7) (citation omitted). In Anglo-American [[common law]] courts, appellate review of lower court decisions may also be obtained by filing a petition for review by [[prerogative writ]] in certain cases. There is no corresponding right to a writ in any pure or continental [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] legal systems, though some mixed systems such as [[Civil Code of Quebec|Quebec]] recognize these prerogative writs. ====Direct Appeal==== After exhausting the first appeal as of right, defendants usually petition the highest state court to review the decision. This appeal is known as a direct appeal.<ref>{{cite web|last=Bickford|first=James|title=Opinion Recap:All Judicial Review is either direct or collateral|url=http://www.scotusblog.com/2011/03/opinion-summary-all-judicial-review-is-either-direct-or-collateral/|work=Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act|publisher=SCOTUS Bblog|accessdate=2011-05-04}}</ref> The highest state court, generally known as the Supreme Court, exercises discretion over whether it will review the case. On direct appeal, a prisoner challenges the grounds of the conviction based on an error that occurred at trial or some other stage in the adjudicative process. =====Preservation Issues===== An appellant's claim(s) must usually be preserved at trial. This means that the defendant had to object to the error when it occurred in the trial. Because constitutional claims are of great magnitude, appellate courts might be more lenient to review the claim even if it was not preserved. For example, Connecticut applies the following standard to review unpreserved claims: 1.the record is adequate to review the alleged claim of error; 2. the claim is of constitutional magnitude alleging the violation of a fundamental right; 3. the alleged constitutional violation clearly exists and clearly deprived the defendant of a fair trial; 4. if subject to harmless error analysis, the state has failed to demonstrate harmlessness of the alleged constitutional violation beyond a reasonable doubt.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dauman|first=Chad|title=Criminal Appeals in the United States: Preservation Issues|url=http://www.Chaddauman.blogspot.com|work=blog|accessdate=2011-04-27}}</ref> ====State Post Conviction Relief: Collateral Appeal==== All States have a post-conviction relief process. Similar to federal post-conviction relief, an appellant can petition the court to correct alleged fundamental errors that were not corrected on direct review.<ref>{{cite book|last=Yackle|first=Larry|title=Federal Courts, Habeas Corpus|year=2003|publisher=Thomson Reuters}}</ref> Typical claims might include [[ineffective assistance of counsel]] and actual innocence based on new evidence. These proceedings are normally separate from the direct appeal, however some states allow for collateral relief to be sought on direct appeal.<ref>[http://courts.mi.gov/Courts/MichiganSupremeCourt/rules/Documents/CHAPTER%207.%20APPELLATE%20RULES%20(entire%20chapter).pdf]</ref> After direct appeal, the conviction is considered final. An appeal from the post conviction court proceeds just as a direct appeal. That is, it goes to the intermediate appellate court, followed by the highest court. If the petition is granted the appellant could be released from incarceration, the sentence could be modified, or a new trial could be ordered.<ref>{{cite web|title=Process For Post-Conviction Relief|url=http://www.doj.state.or.us/victims/pdf/pcvap_handout_post_conviction.pdf|work=Oregon Department of Justice|publisher=Oregon Department of Justice|accessdate=April 27, 2011}}</ref> ====Habeas Corpus==== {{main|Habeas corpus in the United States}} ==Notice of appeal== A "notice of appeal" is a form or document that in many cases is required to begin an appeal. The form is completed by the appellant or by the appellant's legal representative. The nature of this form can vary greatly from country to country and from court to court within a country. The specific rules of the legal system will dictate exactly how the appeal is officially begun. For example, the appellant might have to file the notice of appeal with the appellate court, or with the court from which the appeal is taken, or both. Some courts have samples of a notice of appeal on the court's own web site. In New Jersey, for example, the Administrative Office of the Court has promulgated a form of notice of appeal for use by appellants, though using this exact form is not mandatory and the failure to use it is not a jurisdictional defect provided that all pertinent information is set forth in whatever form of notice of appeal is used.<ref>Jeffrey S. Mandel, New Jersey Appellate Practice (Gann Law Books)</ref> The deadline for beginning an appeal can often be very short: traditionally, it is measured in days, not months. This can vary from country to country, as well as within a country, depending on the specific rules in force. In the U.S. federal court system, criminal defendants must file a notice of appeal within 10 days of the entry of either the judgment or the order being appealed, or the right to appeal is forfeited.<ref>{{citation|title=Rule 4(b)(1)(A)|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode28a/usc_sec_28a_00000004----000-.html}}</ref> ==Appellate procedure== {{See also|United States courts of appeals}} Generally speaking the appellate court examines the record of [[evidence (law)|evidence]] presented in the trial court and the law that the lower court applied and decides whether that decision was legally sound or not. The appellate court will typically be deferential to the lower court's findings of fact (such as whether a defendant committed a particular act), unless clearly erroneous, and so will focus on the court's application of the law to those facts (such as whether the act found by the court to have occurred fits a legal definition at issue). If the appellate court finds no defect, it "affirms" the judgment. If the appellate court does find a legal defect in the decision "below" (i.e., in the lower court), it may "modify" the ruling to correct the defect, or it may nullify ("reverse" or "vacate") the whole decision or any part of it. It may, in addition, send the case back ("remand" or "remit") to the lower court for further proceedings to remedy the defect. In some cases, an appellate court may review a lower court decision "de novo" (or completely), challenging even the lower court's findings of fact. This might be the proper standard of review, for example, if the lower court resolved the case by granting a pre-trial [[motion to dismiss]] or motion for [[summary judgment]] which is usually based only upon written submissions to the trial court and not on any trial testimony. Another situation is where appeal is by way of "re-hearing". Certain jurisdictions permit certain appeals to cause the trial to be heard afresh in the appellate court. Sometimes, the appellate court finds a defect in the procedure the parties used in filing the appeal and dismisses the appeal without considering its merits, which has the same effect as affirming the judgment below. (This would happen, for example, if the appellant waited too long, under the appellate court's rules, to file the appeal.) Generally, there is no [[Jury trial|trial]] in an appellate court, only consideration of the record of the evidence presented to the trial court and all the pre-trial and trial court proceedings are reviewed—unless the appeal is by way of re-hearing, new evidence will usually only be considered on appeal in "very" rare instances, for example if that material evidence was unavailable to a party for some very significant reason such as [[prosecutorial misconduct]]. In some systems, an appellate court will only consider the written decision of the lower court, together with any written evidence that was before that court and is relevant to the appeal. In other systems, the appellate court will normally consider the record of the lower court. In those cases the record will first be certified by the lower court. The appellant has the opportunity to present arguments for the granting of the appeal and the appellee (or respondent) can present arguments against it. Arguments of the parties to the appeal are presented through their appellate lawyers, if represented, or "[[pro se]]" if the party has not engaged legal representation. Those arguments are presented in written [[brief (law)|briefs]] and sometimes in [[oral argument]] to the court at a [[hearing (law)|hearing]]. At such hearings each party is allowed a brief presentation at which the appellate judges ask questions based on their review of the record below and the submitted briefs. In an [[adversarial system]], appellate courts do not have the power to review lower court decisions unless a party appeals it. Therefore, if a lower court has ruled in an improper manner, or against [[Precedent|legal precedent]], that judgment will stand if not appealed – even if it might have been overturned on appeal. The United States legal system generally recognizes two types of appeals: a trial "de novo" or an appeal on the record. A [[trial de novo]] is usually available for review of informal proceedings conducted by some minor judicial tribunals in proceedings that do not provide all the procedural attributes of a formal judicial [[trial (law)|trial]]. If unchallenged, these decisions have the power to settle more minor legal disputes once and for all. If a party is dissatisfied with the finding of such a tribunal, one generally has the power to request a trial "de novo" by a [[court of record]]. In such a proceeding, all issues and [[evidence (law)|evidence]] may be developed newly, as though never heard before, and one is not restricted to the evidence heard in the lower proceeding. Sometimes, however, the decision of the lower proceeding is itself admissible as evidence, thus helping to curb frivolous appeals. In some cases, an application for "trial de novo" effectively erases the prior trial as if it had never taken place. The Supreme Court of Virginia has stated that '"This Court has repeatedly held that the effect of an appeal to circuit court is to "annul the judgment of the inferior tribunal as completely as if there had been no previous trial."'<ref>"Gaskill v. Commonwealth", 206 Va. 486, 490, 144 S.E.2d 293, 296 (1965)</ref> The only exception to this is that if a defendant appeals a conviction for a crime having multiple levels of offenses, where they are convicted on a lesser offense, the appeal is of the lesser offense; the conviction represents an acquittal of the more serious offenses. "[A] trial on the same charges in the circuit court does not violate double jeopardy principles, . . . subject only to the limitation that conviction in [the] district court for an offense lesser included in the one charged constitutes an acquittal of the greater offense, permitting trial de novo in the circuit court only for the lesser-included offense."<ref>"Kenyon v. Commonwealth", 37 Va. App. 668, 673, 561 S.E.2d 17, 19–20</ref> In an appeal on the record from a decision in a judicial proceeding, both appellant and respondent are bound to base their arguments wholly on the proceedings and body of evidence as they were presented in the lower tribunal. Each seeks to prove to the higher court that the result they desired was the just result. [[Precedent]] and [[case law]] figure prominently in the arguments. In order for the appeal to succeed, the appellant must prove that the lower court committed [[reversible error]], that is, an impermissible action by the court acted to cause a result that was unjust, and which would not have resulted had the court acted properly. Some examples of reversible error would be erroneously instructing the jury on the law applicable to the case, permitting seriously [[improper argument]] by an attorney, admitting or excluding evidence improperly, acting outside the court's jurisdiction, injecting bias into the proceeding or appearing to do so, juror misconduct, etc. The failure to formally object at the time, to what one views as improper action in the lower court, may result in the affirmance of the lower court's judgment on the grounds that one did not "preserve the issue for appeal" by objecting. In cases where a judge rather than a jury decided issues of fact, an appellate court will apply an "abuse of discretion" standard of review. Under this standard, the appellate court gives deference to the lower court's view of the evidence, and reverses its decision only if it were a clear abuse of discretion. This is usually defined as a decision outside the bounds of reasonableness. On the other hand, the appellate court normally gives less deference to a lower court's decision on issues of law, and may reverse if it finds that the lower court applied the wrong legal standard. In some cases, an appellant may successfully argue that the law under which the lower decision was rendered was [[Constitutionality|unconstitutional]] or otherwise invalid, or may convince the higher court to order a new trial on the basis that evidence earlier sought was concealed or only recently discovered. In the case of new evidence, there must be a high probability that its presence or absence would have made a material difference in the trial. Another issue suitable for appeal in criminal cases is effective assistance of counsel. If a defendant has been convicted and can prove that his lawyer did not adequately handle his case and that there is a reasonable probability that the result of the trial would have been different had the lawyer given competent representation, he is entitled to a new trial. A lawyer traditionally starts an oral argument to any appellate court with the words "May it please the court." After an appeal is heard, the "mandate" is a formal notice of a decision by a court of appeal; this notice is transmitted to the trial court and, when filed by the [[Court clerk|clerk]] of the trial court, constitutes the final judgment on the case, unless the appeal court has directed further proceedings in the trial court. The mandate is distinguished from the appeal court's [[court opinion|opinion]], which sets out the legal reasoning for its decision. In some jurisdictions the mandate is known as the "remittitur". ==Results== The result of an appeal can be: :*<span id="Affirmed">Affirmed</span>: Where the reviewing court basically agrees with the result of the lower courts ruling(s). :*<span id="Reversed">Reversed</span>: Where the reviewing court basically disagrees with the result of the lower courts ruling(s), and overturns their decision. :*<span id="Vacated">Vacated</span>: Where the reviewing court overturns the lower courts ruling(s) as invalid, without necessarily disagreeing with it/them, e.g. because the case was decided on the basis of a legal principle that no longer applies. :*<span id="Remanded">Remanded</span>: Where the reviewing court sends the case back to the lower court. There can be multiple outcomes, so that the reviewing court can affirm some rulings, reverse others and remand the case all at the same time. Remand is not required where there is nothing left to do in the case. "Generally speaking, an appellate court's judgment provides 'the final directive of the appeals courts as to the matter appealed, setting out with specificity the court's determination that the action appealed from should be affirmed, reversed, remanded or modified'".<ref>State v. Randolph, 210 N.J. 330, 350 n.5 (2012), citing Mandel, New Jersey Appellate Practice (Gann Law Books), chapter 28:2</ref> Some reviewing courts who have discretionary review may send a case back without comment other than ''review improvidently granted''. In other words, after looking at the case, they chose not to say anything. The result for the case of ''review improvidently granted'' is effectively the same as affirmed, but without that extra higher court stamp of approval. ==See also== {{wikiquote}} {{wiktionary|appeal}} * [[Appellate court]] * [[Appellee]] * [[Civil procedure]] * [[Court of Appeals (disambiguation)|Court of Appeals]] * [[Courts-martial in the United States]] * [[Criminal procedure]] * [[Defendant]] * [[Interlocutory appeal]] * [[List of legal topics]] * [[Petition for stay]] * [[Plaintiff]] * [[Pursuer]] * [[Reversible error]] * [[Supreme Court of the United States]] * [[Writ of Certiorari]] * [[Writ of habeas corpus]] * [[Writ of mandamus]] *[[List of wrongful convictions in the United States]] ==References== {{Reflist}} [[Category:United States appellate procedure|*]] [[Category:United States procedural law]] [[Category:Legal procedure]] mzbu4zmya6r1ckis95qmoxtfm4ouyuq 0 642 793784622 780371012 2017-08-03T22:54:39Z DavidBrooks-AWB 20962961 Add EB1911 parameters using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{other uses|Answer (disambiguation)}} {{refimprove|date=August 2013}} {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Civil procedure (United States)}} In law, an '''Answer''' was originally a solemn assertion in opposition to someone or something, and thus generally any counter-statement or [[defense (legal)|defense]], a [[reply]] to a [[question]] or response, or [[objection (law)|objection]], or a correct solution of a problem.<ref name="Chisholm1911">{{EB1911|inline=1|wstitle=Answer|volume=2|page=85}}</ref> In the [[common law]], an '''Answer''' is the first [[pleading]] by a [[defendant]], usually filed and served upon the [[plaintiff]] within a certain strict time limit after a civil [[complaint]] or criminal [[information]] or [[indictment]] has been served upon the defendant. It may have been preceded by an ''optional'' "pre-answer" [[motion to dismiss]] or [[demurrer]]; if such a motion is unsuccessful, the defendant ''must'' file an answer to the complaint or risk an adverse [[default judgment]]. In a criminal case, there is usually an arraignment or some other kind of appearance before the defendant comes to court. The pleading in the criminal case, which is entered on the record in open court, is usually either [[guilt (law)|guilt]]y or not guilty. Generally speaking in private, civil cases there is no plea entered of guilt or innocence. There is only a judgment that grants money damages or some other kind of [[equitable remedy]] such as [[restitution]] or a permanent [[injunction]]. Criminal cases may lead to [[Fine (penalty)|fine]]s or other [[punishment]], such as [[imprisonment]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2008}} The famous Latin ''Responsa Prudentium'' ("answers of the learned ones") were the accumulated views of many successive generations of Roman [[lawyer]]s, a body of legal opinion which gradually became authoritative.<ref name="Chisholm1911"/> During debates of a contentious nature, deflection, colloquially known as 'changing the topic', has been widely observed, and is often seen as a failure to answer a question.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Baaske|first1=Kevin|title=Arguments and Arguing: The Products and Process of Human Decision Making|date=2015|page=246}}</ref> ==Notes== {{Reflist}} ==External links== * [https://answerskey.com/ Answers key] [[Category:Common law]] [[Category:Legal documents]] 23dts7rfcqgny3m2sti6725eba7g3al 0 643 846591704 839558844 2018-06-19T18:30:52Z Nyttend 1960810 /* Institutional titles */ singular/plural wikitext text/x-wiki {{redirect-multi|2|Court of appeal|Court of appeals}} {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} {{multiple issues| {{refimprove|date=March 2008}} {{globalize|date=September 2010}} }} An '''appellate court''', commonly called an '''''appeals court''''', '''''court of appeals''''' ([[American English]]),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/court%20of%20appeals |title=Court of appeals |publisher=Education.yahoo.com |date= |accessdate=2012-01-08 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718133821/http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/court%20of%20appeals |archivedate=July 18, 2011 }}</ref> '''''appeal court''''' ([[British English]]), '''''court of second instance''''' or '''''second instance court''''', is any [[court of law]] that is empowered to hear an [[appeal]] of a [[trial court]] or other lower [[tribunal]]. In most [[jurisdiction]]s, the court system is divided into at least three levels: the trial court, which initially hears cases and reviews evidence and testimony to determine the facts of the case; at least one intermediate appellate court; and a [[supreme court]] (or court of last resort) which primarily reviews the decisions of the intermediate courts. A jurisdiction's supreme court is that jurisdiction's highest appellate court.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/supreme-court |title=Supreme Court |publisher=Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 11th Edition. Retrieved October 26, 2012 from CollinsDictionary.com}}</ref> Appellate courts nationwide can operate under varying rules.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Guide to Illinois Civil Appellate Procedure |url=http://applawyers.org/Civil_Appeals_Guide_Revised.pdf |website=Appellate Lawyers Association |accessdate=7 July 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150709111738/http://applawyers.org/Civil_Appeals_Guide_Revised.pdf |archivedate=July 9, 2015 }}</ref> The authority of appellate courts to review the decisions of lower courts varies widely from one jurisdiction to another. In some areas, the appellate court has limited powers of review. Generally, an appellate court's judgment provides the final directive of the appeals courts as to the matter appealed, setting out with specificity the court's determination that the action appealed from should be affirmed, reversed, remanded or modified.<ref>State v. Randolph, 210 N.J. 330, 350 n.5 (2012), citing Mandel, New Jersey Appellate Practice (Gann Law Books 2012), chapter 28:2</ref> ==New Zealand== {{main|Court of Appeal of New Zealand}} The [[Court of Appeal of New Zealand]], located in [[Wellington]], is New Zealand's principal intermediate appellate court.<ref>{{cite web|title=Court of Appeal|url=http://www.justice.govt.nz/courts/court-of-appeal|website=justice.govt.nz|accessdate=7 August 2014}}</ref> In practice, most appeals are resolved at this intermediate appellate level, rather than in the [[Supreme Court of New Zealand|Supreme Court]].<ref>{{cite web|title=History of court system — Courts of New Zealand|url=https://www.courtsofnz.govt.nz/about-the-judiciary/copy_of_overview|website=www.courtsofnz.govt.nz|publisher=Courts of New Zealand|accessdate=4 May 2018|language=en-nz}}</ref> ==Sri Lanka== {{main|Court of Appeal of Sri Lanka}} The [[Court of Appeal of Sri Lanka]], located in [[Colombo]], is the second senior court in the [[Courts of Sri Lanka|Sri Lankan legal system]]. ==United States== {{main|United States Supreme Court|United States courts of appeals}} In the United States, both state and [[United States courts of appeals|federal]] appellate courts are usually restricted to examining whether the lower court made the correct legal determinations, rather than hearing direct evidence and determining what the facts of the case were.<ref>{{cite web|title=Court Role and Structure|url=http://www.uscourts.gov/about-federal-courts/court-role-and-structure|website=United States Courts|accessdate=7 July 2015}}</ref> Furthermore, U.S. appellate courts are usually restricted to hearing appeals based on matters that were originally brought up before the trial court. Hence, such an appellate court will not consider an appellant's argument if it is based on a theory that is raised for the first time in the appeal.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.americanbar.org/groups/public_education/resources/law_related_education_network/how_courts_work/appeals.html|title=How Courts Work {{!}} Public Education|website=www.americanbar.org|access-date=2016-06-23}}</ref> In most U.S. states, and in U.S. federal courts, parties before the court are allowed one appeal as of right. This means that a party who is unsatisfied with the outcome of a trial may bring an [[appeal]] to contest that outcome. However, appeals may be costly, and the appellate court must find an error on the part of the court below that justifies upsetting the verdict. Therefore, only a small proportion of trial court decisions result in appeals. Some appellate courts, particularly supreme courts, have the power of [[discretionary review]], meaning that they can decide whether they will hear an appeal brought in a particular case. ===Institutional titles=== Many U.S. jurisdictions title their appellate court an '''''court of appeal''''' or '''''court of appeals'''''.<ref>The term ''court of appeals'' is not capitalized in carefully edited texts such as reference works, for example [http://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Court+of+Appeal West's Encyclopedia of American Law] unless referring to a specific court or courts, but many legal professionals do not comply with this most common English usage shown in major dictionaries but rather capitalize this and many other legal texts.</ref> Historically, others have titled their appellate court a '''''court of errors''''' (or '''''court of errors and appeals'''''), on the premise that it was intended to correct errors made by lower courts. Examples of such courts include the [[New Jersey Court of Errors and Appeals]] (which existed from 1844 to 1947), the Connecticut Supreme Court of Errors (which has been renamed the [[Connecticut Supreme Court]]), the Kentucky Court of Errors (renamed the [[Kentucky Supreme Court]]), and the Mississippi High Court of Errors and Appeals (since renamed the [[Supreme Court of Mississippi]]). In some jurisdictions, a court able to hear appeals is known as an '''appellate division'''. The phrase "court of appeals" most often refers to intermediate appellate courts. However, the Maryland and New York systems are different. The [[Maryland Court of Appeals]] and the [[New York Court of Appeals]] are the highest appellate courts in those states. The [[New York Supreme Court]] is a trial court of general jurisdiction. Depending on the system, certain courts may serve as both trial courts and appellate courts, hearing appeals of decisions made by courts with more limited jurisdiction. Some jurisdictions have specialized appellate courts, such as the [[Texas Court of Criminal Appeals]], which only hears appeals raised in criminal cases, and the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit]], which has general jurisdiction but derives most of its caseload from patent cases, on one hand, and appeals from the [[Court of Federal Claims]] on the other. ==See also== *[[Court of Criminal Appeal (disambiguation)]] *[[Court of Criminal Appeals (disambiguation)]] *[[Court of Appeal (Hong Kong)]] *[[High Court (Hong Kong)]] *[[Court of Appeal (England and Wales)]] ==References== {{reflist|30em}} *Lax, Jeffrey R. "Constructing Legal Rules on Appellate Courts." American Political Science Review 101.3 (2007): 591-604. Sociological Abstracts; Worldwide Political Science Abstracts. Web. 29 May 2012. {{DEFAULTSORT:Appellate Court}} [[Category:Courts by type]] [[Category:Appellate courts]] iciikzq5a0zep7qiuz3m7rt4czlg2rd 0 644 375387155 15899172 2010-07-25T15:56:11Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Arithmetic logic unit]] fmjpx9gnvs391rwlh9jx80n8eb04ecf 0 648 848490800 848490595 2018-07-02T07:15:57Z Polyamorph 5230548 Reverted to revision 792802521 by [[Special:Contributions/Paine Ellsworth|Paine Ellsworth]] ([[User talk:Paine Ellsworth|talk]]): Restore redirect. ([[WP:TW|TW]]) wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Actor]] {{Rcat shell| {{Wikidata redirect|15643881}} {{R from gender}} {{R from move}} {{R hatnote}} {{R printworthy}} }} 9wa3o47zm7nwtzrg8021c105nda2qhj 0 649 860142142 860142087 2018-09-18T16:10:19Z Michipedian 18152852 clean up wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2018}} '''Arraignment''' is a formal reading of a criminal charging document in the presence of the defendant. In response to arraignment, the defendant is expected to enter a plea. Acceptable pleas vary among jurisdiction but generally include [[peremptory plea|peremptory]] (setting out reasons why a trial cannot proceed), [[Plea#Guilty_and_not_guilty_pleas|not guilty]], guilty, the [[Alford plea|Alford]] (I do not admit to the criminal act and I assert innocence) and ''[[nolo contendere]]'' (or no contest). == Australia == In Australia, arraignment is the first of eleven stages in a criminal trial, and involves the [[court clerk|clerk]] of the [[court]] reading out the [[indictment]]. The judge will testify during the indictment process. == Canada == In every province in Canada except British Columbia, defendants are arraigned on the day of their trial (?). In British Columbia, arraignment takes places in one of the first few court appearances by the defendant or their lawyer. The defendant is asked whether he or she pleads guilty or not guilty to each charge. == France == In France, the general rule is that one cannot remain in police custody for more than 24 hours from the time of the arrest.<ref name=fti-france>{{cite web|title=CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS AND DEFENCE RIGHTS IN FRANCE|publisher=[[Fair Trials International]]|url=http://www.fairtrials.org/wp-content/uploads/France-advice-note.pdf|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512213546/http://www.fairtrials.org/wp-content/uploads/France-advice-note.pdf|archivedate=12 May 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref> However, police custody can last another 24 hours in specific circumstances, especially if the offence is punishable by at least one year's imprisonment, or if the investigation is deemed to require the extra time, and can last up to 96 hours in certain cases involving terrorism, drug trafficking or organised crime.<ref name=fti-france/> The police needs to have the consent of the prosecutor (in the vast majority of cases, the prosecutor will consent).<ref name=fti-france/> == Germany == In Germany, if one has been arrested and taken into custody by the police one must be brought before a judge as soon as possible and at the latest on the day after the arrest.<ref name=fti-germany>{{cite web|title=CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS AND DEFENCE RIGHTS IN GERMANY|publisher=[[Fair Trials International]]|url=http://www.fairtrials.org/wp-content/uploads/Germany-advice-note.pdf|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512232433/http://www.fairtrials.org/wp-content/uploads/Germany-advice-note.pdf|archivedate=12 May 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref> == New Zealand == At the first appearance, the accused is read the charges and asked for a plea. The available pleas are, guilty, not guilty, and no plea. No plea allows the defendant to get legal advice on the plea, which must be made on the second appearance.<ref>http://www.howtolaw.co/facing-criminal-charges-392160</ref> == South Africa == In South Africa, arraignment is defined as the calling upon the accused to appear, the informing of the accused of the crime charged against him, the demanding of the accused whether he be guilty or not guilty, and the entering of his plea. His plea having been entered he is said to stand arraigned. == United Kingdom == In England, Wales, and [[Northern Ireland]], arraignment is the first of eleven stages in a criminal trial, and involves the [[court clerk|clerk]] of the [[court]] reading out the [[indictment]]. In England and Wales, the police cannot legally detain anyone for more than 24 hours without charging them unless an officer with the rank of superintendent (or above) authorises detention for a further 12 hours (36 hours total), or a judge (who will be a magistrate) authorises detention by the police before charge for up to a maximum of 96 hours, but for terrorism-related offences people can be held by the police for up to 28 days before charge.<ref name=fti-england-wales>{{cite web|title=CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS AND DEFENCE RIGHTS IN ENGLAND AND WALES|publisher=[[Fair Trials International]]|url=http://www.fairtrials.org/wp-content/uploads/Criminal-Proceedings-and-Defence-Rights-in-England-and-Wales-Aug-2013.pdf|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512222030/http://www.fairtrials.org/wp-content/uploads/Criminal-Proceedings-and-Defence-Rights-in-England-and-Wales-Aug-2013.pdf|archivedate=12 May 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref> If they are not released after being charged, they should be brought before a court as soon as practicable.<ref name=fti-england-wales/> == United States == The United States has 57 court systems – one each for [[Federal judiciary of the United States|federal]] (1), state (50), commonwealth (2), territorial (3), and federal district (1) jurisdictions. Each jurisdiction establishes its own rules of criminal procedure. All 57 sets of rules must comply with certain provisions of the U.S. Constitution (e.g. the privilege against self-incrimination, prohibition of excessive bail, etc.) but otherwise are bound only by their own local constitutions and statutes. At federal level, the [[Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure]] provide that "arraignment shall [consist of an] open...reading [of] the [[indictment]]...to the defendant...and call[] on him to plead thereto. He/she shall be given a copy of the indictment...before he/she is called upon to plead."<ref>{{frcrp|10}}</ref> Federal arraignment takes place in two stages. The first is called the initial arraignment and must take place within 48 hours of an individual's arrest, 72 hours if the individual was arrested on the weekend and not able to go before a judge until Monday.<ref>{{cite book |title=Criminal Procedure |publisher=Thomson Wadsworth |year=2012 |edition=8th |first=Joel |last=Samaha |isbn=978-0-495-91335-1 }}</ref> During this arraignment the defendant is informed of the pending legal charges and is informed of his or her right to retain counsel. The presiding judge also decides at what amount, if any, to set [[bail]]. During the second arraignment, a post-indictment arraignment or PIA, the defendant is allowed to enter a plea. In New York, most people arrested must be released if they are not arraigned within 24 hours.<ref>{{cite news|title=Ruling Forces New York to Release Or Arraign Suspects in 24 Hours|first=Kevin|last=Sack|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=27 March 1991|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/03/27/nyregion/ruling-forces-new-york-to-release-or-arraign-suspects-in-24-hours.html|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170618081518/http://www.nytimes.com/1991/03/27/nyregion/ruling-forces-new-york-to-release-or-arraign-suspects-in-24-hours.html|archivedate=18 June 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In California, arraignments must be conducted without unnecessary delay and, in any event, within 48 hours of arrest, excluding weekends and holidays.<ref name=riverside>[[County of Riverside v. McLaughlin]], 500 U.S. 44 (1991)</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=California Basic Practice Handbook|date=November 2016|publisher=Regents of the University of California|isbn=9780762624676|page=6–11}}</ref> Thus, an individual arrested without a warrant, in some cases, may be held for as long as 168 hours (7 days) without arraignment or charge.<ref name=riverside/> For example, both [[Thanksgiving Day (United States)|Thanksgiving]] Day and the day after Thanksgiving are state holidays in California. So, if someone was arrested at 9:00 am on the Tuesday before Thanksgiving, the 48-hour period would not expire at 9:00 am on Thursday as it normally would, because that is a holiday; and the next day is a holiday; and the two days after that are the weekend; so the arraignment need not take place until 9:00 am on Monday morning following the arrest on the previous Tuesday. In Michigan, the procedure differs for misdemenours and felonies. A defendant is allowed to enter a plea when arraigned for a misdemeanour but no plea is entered by a defendant charged with a felony. In either case, the judge explains the defendant's rights to him/her, advises of his/her right to an attorney, sets pre-release bail (except when inappropriate), and sets a date for a pre-trial conference (misdemeanour only) or pre-exam conference (felonies only, and only in some counties). Because of the Michigan Constitution's guarantee of a speedy arraignment, a least one judge in every Michigan District Court is on 24-hour call every day, including weekends and holidays, so that the arraignment can be held as soon after the arrest as possible.<ref>{{cite web|title=Steps in a Prosecution, Monroe County Prosecuting Attorney|url=http://www.co.monroe.mi.us/officials_and_departments/officials/prosecuting_attorney/steps_in_a_prosecution.php|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009092743/http://www.co.monroe.mi.us/officials_and_departments/officials/prosecuting_attorney/steps_in_a_prosecution.php|archivedate=9 October 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> ==Form of the arraignment== The wording of the arraignment varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.<ref>In some jurisdictions the wording of the arraignment is set by statute or court practice direction.</ref> However, it generally conforms with the following principles: # The accused person ([[defendant]]) is addressed by [[name]]; # The [[criminal charge|charge]] against the accused person is read, including the alleged date, time, and place of offense (and sometimes the names of the state's witnesses and the range of punishment for the charge(s)); and, # The accused person is asked formally how he or she [[plea]]ds. ==Video arraignment== '''Video arraignment''' is the act of conducting the arraignment process using some form of [[videoconferencing]] technology. Use of video arraignment system allows the [[court]]s to conduct the requisite arraignment process without the need to transport the defendant to the [[courtroom]] by using an [[audio-visual]] link between the location where the defendant is being held and the courtroom. Use of the video arraignment process addresses the problems associated with having to transport defendants. The transportation of defendants requires time, puts additional demands on the public safety organizations to provide for the safety of the public, court personnel and for the security of the population held in detention. It also addresses the rising costs of transportation. ==Guilty and not-guilty pleas== If the defendant pleads guilty, an [[Preliminary hearing|evidentiary hearing]] usually follows. The court is not required to accept a guilty plea. During the hearing, the judge assesses the offense, the [[mitigating factor]]s, and the defendant's character, and passes [[Sentence (law)|sentence]]. If the defendant pleads [[not guilty (plea)|not guilty]], a date is set for a [[preliminary hearing]] or a [[trial]]. In the past, a defendant who refused to plead (or "stood mute") was subject to [[peine forte et dure]] ([[Law French]] for "strong and hard punishment"). Today in [[Common law|common-law]] jurisdictions, the court enters a plea of not guilty for a defendant who refuses to enter a plea.<ref>In Queensland, Australia, this matter is covered by statute. See s601 of the Queensland [[Criminal Code]].</ref> The rationale for this is the defendant's [[right to silence]]. ==Pre-trial release== This is also often the stage at which arguments for or against pre-trial release and bail may be made, depending on the alleged crime and jurisdiction. ==See also== *[[Desk appearance ticket]] ==References== {{reflist}} {{Criminal procedure}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Legal terminology]] [[Category:Prosecution]] [[Category:United States criminal procedure]] [[Category:Criminal law of the United Kingdom]] [[Category:Australian criminal law]] qooa6inb6ar4iawtzih3ntt7u41ngth 0 651 861685095 861447027 2018-09-29T07:16:00Z Moonandback 16965369 reference added wikitext text/x-wiki {{Other uses|America the Beautiful (disambiguation)}} {{Redirect|Materna}} {{refimprove|date = November 2013}} {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox anthem |title = America the Beautiful |transcription = |english_title = |alt_title = "Pikes Peak" (lyrics)<br />"Materna" (music) |en_alt_title = |alt_title_2 = |en_alt_title_2 = |image = America the Beautiful 1.jpg{{!}}border |image_size = |alt = |caption = |prefix = Patriotic |type = song |country = the {{Flagu|United States|size=23px}} |author = [[Katharine Lee Bates]] |lyrics_date = 1895 |composer = [[Samuel A. Ward]] |music_date = 1883 |published = 1910 |until = |sound = "America the Beautiful", performed by the United States Navy Band.oga |sound_title = "America the Beautiful", as performed by the United States Navy Band. }} [[File:Grace Church Newark plaque.jpg|thumb|Historical marker at [[Grace Church (Newark)|Grace Church in Newark]] where [[Samuel A. Ward|Samuel Ward]] worked as organist, and wrote and perfected the tune "Materna" that is used for "America the Beautiful".]] "'''America the Beautiful'''" is an American patriotic song. The lyrics were written by [[Katharine Lee Bates]], and the music was composed by church organist and choirmaster [[Samuel A. Ward]] at [[Grace Church (Newark)|Grace Episcopal Church]] in Newark, New Jersey.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nj.com/news/index.ssf/2016/03/america_the_beautiful_began_in_newark_di_ionno.html#incart_river_index|title='America the Beautiful' began in Newark {{!}} Di Ionno|access-date=2016-09-18|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011091924/http://www.nj.com/news/index.ssf/2016/03/america_the_beautiful_began_in_newark_di_ionno.html#incart_river_index|archivedate=October 11, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The two never met.<ref>Andy Pease, "[http://windliterature.org/2014/07/01/america-the-beautiful-by-katharine-lee-bates-and-samuel-augustus-ward-arr-carmen-dragon/ America the Beautiful] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180222162222/http://windliterature.org/2014/07/01/america-the-beautiful-by-katharine-lee-bates-and-samuel-augustus-ward-arr-carmen-dragon/ |date=February 22, 2018 }}", Wind Band Literature, July 1, 2014; accessed 2018.02.27.</ref> Bates originally wrote the words as a poem, "'''Pikes Peak'''", first published in the [[Fourth of July]] edition of the church periodical ''The Congregationalist'' in 1895. At that time, the poem was titled "America" for publication. Ward had originally written the music, "Materna", for the hymn "[[O Mother dear, Jerusalem]]" in 1882, though it was not first published until 1892.<ref>{{cite book|last=McKim|first=LindaJo|title=The Presbyterian Hymnal Companion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kde8yd0INHsC&pg=PA379|page=379|publisher=John Knox Press|location=Louisville, Kentucky|accessdate=2012-06-22|year=1993|isbn=9780664251802}} (McKim notes that Ward mailed a friend a postcard in which he stated the hymn had been composed in 1882, however).</ref> Ward's music combined with the Bates poem was first published in 1910 and titled ''America the Beautiful''. The song is one of the most popular of the many U.S. patriotic songs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/diglib/ihas/loc.natlib.ihas.100010615/full.html |title=Materna (O Mother Dear, Jerusalem) / Samuel Augustus Ward [hymnal&#93;:Print Material Full Description: Performing Arts Encyclopedia, Library of Congress |publisher=Lcweb2.loc.gov |date=2007-10-30 |accessdate=2011-08-20 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605020952/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/diglib/ihas/loc.natlib.ihas.100010615/full.html |archivedate=June 5, 2011 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> ==History== [[File:Americathebeautiful.jpg|thumb|upright|Commemoration plaque atop Pikes Peak in July 1999]] In 1893, at the age of 33, Bates, an English professor at [[Wellesley College]], had taken a train trip to [[Colorado Springs, Colorado|Colorado Springs]], Colorado, to teach a short summer school session at [[Colorado College]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2001/nov/09/news/cl-1924|title=A Stirring Story Behind 'America the Beautiful'|last=COONEY|first=BETH|date=2001-11-09|work=Los Angeles Times|access-date=2017-08-21|language=en-US|issn=0458-3035|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125121425/http://articles.latimes.com/2001/nov/09/news/cl-1924|archivedate=January 25, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Several of the sights on her trip inspired her, and they found their way into her poem, including the [[World's Columbian Exposition]] in [[Chicago]], the "White City" with its promise of the future contained within its gleaming white buildings;<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi1238.htm|title=No. 1238: 1893 Exhibition|website=www.uh.edu|access-date=2017-08-21|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118033520/http://uh.edu/engines/epi1238.htm|archivedate=January 18, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref> the wheat fields of America's heartland [[Kansas]], through which her train was riding on July 16; and the majestic view of the [[Great Plains]] from high atop [[Pikes Peak]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/ihas.200000001/|title=America the Beautiful|last=|first=|date=|work=The Library of Congress|access-date=2017-08-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705125158/https://www.loc.gov/item/ihas.200000001/|archive-date=July 5, 2017|dead-url=no|language=en|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name=FromSeatoShiningSea>{{Cite book |last = Ponder |first = Melinda M. |title = Katharine Lee Bates: From Sea to Shining Sea |publisher=Windy City Publishers |year=2017 |location=Chicago, IL|isbn = 9781941478479}}</ref> On the pinnacle of that mountain, the words of the poem started to come to her, and she wrote them down upon returning to her hotel room at the original [[Antlers Hilton Hotel|Antlers Hotel]]. The poem was initially published two years later in ''The Congregationalist'' to commemorate [[Independence Day (United States)|the Fourth of July.]] It quickly caught the public's fancy. Amended versions were published in 1904 and 1911. The first known melody written for the song was sent in by Silas Pratt when the poem was published in ''The Congregationalist.'' By 1900, at least 75 different melodies had been written.<ref name="Collins2009">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3SXYDQAAQBAJ|title=Stories Behind the Hymns That Inspire America: Songs That Unite Our Nation|author=Ace Collins|date=30 August 2009|publisher=Zondervan|isbn=978-0-310-86685-5|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180508141241/https://books.google.com/books?id=3SXYDQAAQBAJ|archivedate=May 8, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> A [[hymn tune]] composed in 1882 by [[Samuel A. Ward]], the organist and choir director at [[Grace Church, Newark]], was generally considered the best music as early as 1910 and is still the popular tune today. Just as Bates had been inspired to write her poem, Ward, too, was inspired. The tune came to him while he was on a ferryboat trip from [[Coney Island]] back to his home in [[New York City]] after a leisurely summer day and he immediately wrote it down. Supposedly, he was so anxious to capture the tune in his head, he asked fellow passenger friend Harry Martin for his shirt cuff to write the tune on. He composed the tune for the old hymn "O Mother Dear, Jerusalem", retitling the work "Materna". Ward's music combined with Bates's poem was first published together in 1910 and titled "America the Beautiful".<ref>{{cite book |title=Songs Sung Red, White, and Blue: The Stories Behind America's Best-Loved Patriotic Songs |first=Ace |last=Collins |page=19 |publisher=Harper |year=2003 |isbn= 0-06-051304-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kKsA1Qi8BBgC&pg=PA19#v=onepage&f=false}}</ref> Ward died in 1903, not knowing the national stature his music would attain since the music was only first applied to the song in 1904. Bates was more fortunate since the song's popularity was well established by the time of her death in 1929.<ref name="Collins2009" /> At various times in the more than 100 years that have elapsed since the song was written, particularly during the [[John F. Kennedy]] administration, there have been efforts to give "America the Beautiful" legal status either as a national hymn or as a national anthem equal to, or in place of, "[[The Star-Spangled Banner]]", but so far this has not succeeded. Proponents prefer "America the Beautiful" for various reasons, saying it is easier to sing, more melodic, and more adaptable to new orchestrations while still remaining as easily recognizable as "[[The Star-Spangled Banner]]". Some prefer "America the Beautiful" over "The Star-Spangled Banner" due to the latter's war-oriented imagery. Others prefer "The Star-Spangled Banner" for the same reason. While that national dichotomy has stymied any effort at changing the tradition of the national anthem, "America the Beautiful" continues to be held in high esteem by a large number of Americans.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} This song was used as the background music of the television broadcast of the [[Tiangong-1]] launch.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/sep/30/china-launch-america-the-beautiful|title=Rocket's red glaring error: China sets space launch to America the Beautiful|first=Warren|last=Murray|date=September 30, 2011|website=the Guardian|accessdate=February 20, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180331052021/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/sep/30/china-launch-america-the-beautiful|archivedate=March 31, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The song is often included in songbooks in a wide variety of religious congregations in the United States. ==Lyrics== {{Listen|type=music|filename=America the Beautiful (US Navy Band).ogg|title="America the Beautiful"|description=Performed by the [[United States Navy Band]] and Sea Chanters, arr. Carmen Dragon |filename2=America (US Army Brass).ogg|title2="America the Beautiful"|description2=[[United States Army Band]] Brass version|filename3="America the Beautiful", performed by the United States Marine Band in the 1950s.oga|title3="America the Beautiful"|description3=1953 performance by the United States Marine Band|filename4="America the Beautiful", performed by the Second Marine Aircraft Wing Band of Cherry Point, North Carolina.oga|title4="America the Beautiful"|description4=Performed by the Second Marine Aircraft Wing Band of Cherry Point, North Carolina.}} {| style="white-space:nowrap" |+'''America. A Poem for July 4.''' |<poem>Original poem (1893)<ref>{{cite journal |title=America. A Poem for July 4 |journal=The American Kitchen Magazine |year=1897 |last=Bates |first=Katherine Lee |volume=7 |page=151 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uXbOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA151#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=2016-05-13 }}</ref> O beautiful for halcyon skies, For amber waves of grain, For purple mountain majesties Above the enameled plain! America! America! God shed His grace on thee, Till souls wax fair as earth and air And music-hearted sea! O beautiful for pilgrim feet Whose stern, impassioned stress A thoroughfare for freedom beat Across the wilderness! America! America! God shed His grace on thee Till paths be wrought through wilds of thought By pilgrim foot and knee! O beautiful for glory-tale Of liberating strife, When once or twice, for man's avail, Men lavished precious life! America! America! God shed His grace on thee Till selfish gain no longer stain, The banner of the free! O beautiful for patriot dream That sees beyond the years Thine alabaster cities gleam Undimmed by human tears! America! America! God shed His grace on thee Till nobler men keep once again Thy whiter jubilee!</poem> |<poem style="margin-left:1em;">1904 version{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} &nbsp; O beautiful for spacious skies, For amber waves of grain, For purple mountain majesties Above the fruited plain! America! America! God shed His grace on thee, And crown thy good with brotherhood From sea to shining sea! O beautiful for pilgrim feet Whose stern impassioned stress A thoroughfare for freedom beat Across the wilderness. America! America! God mend thine ev'ry flaw, Confirm thy soul in self-control, Thy liberty in law. O beautiful for glorious tale Of liberating strife, When valiantly for man's avail Men lavish precious life. America! America! May God thy gold refine Till all success be nobleness, And ev'ry gain divine. O beautiful for patriot dream That sees beyond the years Thine alabaster cities gleam Undimmed by human tears. America! America! God shed His grace on thee, And crown thy good with brotherhood From sea to shining sea.</poem> |<poem style="margin-left:1em;">1911 version<ref>[https://archive.org/details/americabeautiful00baterich Bates, Katharine Lee (1911). ''America the Beautiful and Other Poems''. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, pp. 3–4.]</ref> &nbsp; O beautiful for spacious skies, For amber waves of grain, For purple mountain majesties Above the fruited plain! America! America! God shed His grace on thee And crown thy good with brotherhood From sea to shining sea! O beautiful for pilgrim feet, Whose stern, impassioned stress A thoroughfare for freedom beat Across the wilderness! America! America! God mend thine every flaw, Confirm thy soul in self-control, Thy liberty in law! O beautiful for heroes proved In liberating strife, Who more than self their country loved And mercy more than life! America! America! May God thy gold refine, Till all success be nobleness, And every gain divine! O beautiful for patriot dream That sees beyond the years Thine alabaster cities gleam Undimmed by human tears! America! America! God shed His grace on thee And crown thy good with brotherhood From sea to shining sea!</poem> |} [[File:Portrait of Katharine Lee Bates, ca. 1880-1890.jpg|thumb|Katharine Lee Bates, ca. 1880-1890.]] ==Popular versions== [[Bing Crosby]] included the song in a medley on his album ''[[101 Gang Songs]]'' (1961). In 1976, while the United States celebrated its bicentennial, a soulful version popularized by [[Ray Charles]] peaked at number 98 on the US R&B Charts<ref>[[Ray Charles discography]]</ref> and is included on the soundtrack for the movie ''[[The Sandlot]]''. Three different renditions of the song have entered the [[Hot Country Songs]] charts. The first was by [[Charlie Rich]], which went to number 22 in 1976.<ref>{{cite book|last=Whitburn|first=Joel|title=Hot Country Songs 1944 to 2008|publisher=Record Research, Inc|year=2008|page=350|isbn=0-89820-177-2}}</ref> A second, by [[Mickey Newbury]], peaked at number 82 in 1980.<ref>Whitburn, p. 297</ref> An [[all-star]] version of "America the Beautiful" performed by [[country music|country]] singers [[Trace Adkins]], [[Sherrié Austin]], [[Billy Dean]], [[Vince Gill]], [[Carolyn Dawn Johnson]], [[Toby Keith]], [[Brenda Lee]], [[Lonestar]], [[Lyle Lovett]], [[Lila McCann]], [[Lorrie Morgan]], [[Jamie O'Neal]], [[The Oak Ridge Boys]], [[Collin Raye]], [[Kenny Rogers]], [[Keith Urban]] and [[Phil Vassar]] reached number 58 in July 2001. The song re-entered the chart following the [[September 11 attacks]].<ref>Whitburn, p. 24</ref> A [[punk rock]] adaptation of the song was recorded in 1976 by [[New York City|New York]] band [[The Dictators]], and released on their album ''Every Day is Saturday''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.discogs.com/Dictators-Every-Day-Is-Saturday/release/2656919|title=The Dictators - Every Day Is Saturday|website=Discogs|accessdate=February 20, 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180122235107/https://www.discogs.com/Dictators-Every-Day-Is-Saturday/release/2656919|archivedate=January 22, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Popularity of the song increased greatly following the September 11 attacks; at some sporting events it was sung in addition to the traditional singing of the national anthem. During the first taping of the ''[[Late Show with David Letterman]]'' following the attacks, CBS newsman [[Dan Rather]] cried briefly as he quoted the fourth verse.<ref>{{cite news |date=2001-09-18 |work=Salon.com |title=Dan Rather's tears; Journalists don't cry on camera. That was before last week. |url=http://archive.salon.com/ent/tv/feature/2001/09/18/rather/index.html |first=Stephanie |last=Zacharek |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090522064419/http://archive.salon.com/ent/tv/feature/2001/09/18/rather/index.html |archivedate=May 22, 2009 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> For [[Super Bowl XLVIII]], [[The Coca-Cola Company]] aired a multilingual version of the song, sung in several different languages. The commercial received some criticism on social media sites, such as Twitter and Facebook, and from some conservatives, such as [[Glenn Beck]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/tv-movies/coca-cola-super-bowl-ad-angers-conservatives-article-1.1600849|title=Coca Cola's Super Bowl ad angers conservatives|website=NY Daily News|access-date=2016-05-05|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160516091411/http://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/tv-movies/coca-cola-super-bowl-ad-angers-conservatives-article-1.1600849|archivedate=May 16, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation-now/2014/02/03/coca-cola-ad-super-bowl-racism/5177463/|title=Coca-Cola Super Bowl ad: Can you believe this reaction?|website=USA TODAY|access-date=2016-05-06|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423112636/http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation-now/2014/02/03/coca-cola-ad-super-bowl-racism/5177463/|archivedate=April 23, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://time.com/3773/coca-colas-its-beautiful-super-bowl-ad-brings-out-some-ugly-americans/ | work=Time | first=James | last=Poniewozik | title=Coca-Cola's "It's Beautiful" Super Bowl Ad Brings Out Some Ugly Americans | date=February 2, 2014 | deadurl=no | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217085709/http://time.com/3773/coca-colas-its-beautiful-super-bowl-ad-brings-out-some-ugly-americans/ | archivedate=December 17, 2014 | df=mdy-all }}</ref> Despite the controversies, Coca-Cola later reused the Super Bowl ad during [[Super Bowl LI]], the opening ceremonies of the [[2014 Winter Olympics]] and [[2016 Summer Olympics]] and for patriotic holidays.<ref>[http://www.coca-colacompany.com/press-center/company-statements/its-beautiful-commercial "It's Beautiful" Commercial] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161103221342/http://www.coca-colacompany.com/press-center/company-statements/its-beautiful-commercial |date=November 3, 2016 }} by the Coca-Cola Company Press Center. February 5, 2017</ref><ref name="sbnation-cocacolaagain">{{cite web|title=Coca-Cola ran a Super Bowl commercial about diversity and inclusion and people are mad|url=https://www.sbnation.com/nfl/2017/2/5/14517202/coca-cola-america-the-beautiful-add-boycott-twitter|website=SB Nation|accessdate=6 February 2017|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206031556/http://www.sbnation.com/nfl/2017/2/5/14517202/coca-cola-america-the-beautiful-add-boycott-twitter|archivedate=February 6, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref> ==Idioms== "From sea to shining sea", originally used in the charters of some of the English Colonies in North America, is an American [[idiom]] meaning "from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the [[Pacific Ocean]]" (or vice versa). Other songs that have used this phrase include the American patriotic song "[[God Bless the U.S.A.]]" and [[Schoolhouse Rock]]'s "Elbow Room". The phrase and the song are also the namesake of the [[Shining Sea Bikeway]], a [[bike path]] in Bates's hometown of [[Falmouth, Massachusetts]]. The phrase is similar to the Latin phrase "''{{Lang|la|[[A Mari Usque Ad Mare]]}}''" ("From sea to sea"), which serves as the official motto of [[Canada]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Martin|first1=Gary|title=From sea to shining sea|url=http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/from%20sea%20to%20shining%20sea.html|website=Phrases.org|accessdate=24 July 2014|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718031848/http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/from%20sea%20to%20shining%20sea.html|archivedate=July 18, 2014|df=mdy-all}}</ref> "Purple mountain majesties" refers to the shade of the [[Pikes Peak]] in [[Colorado Springs, Colorado]], which inspired Bates to write the poem.<ref>http://www.americanheritage.org/Elementary_Extraction_15-America_the_Beautiful_TX.pdf {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120904222648/http://www.americanheritage.org/Elementary_Extraction_15-America_the_Beautiful_TX.pdf |date=September 4, 2012 }}</ref> ==Books== [[Lynn Sherr]]'s 2001 book ''America the Beautiful'' discusses the origins of the song and the backgrounds of its authors in depth. The book points out that the poem has [[Common meter|the same meter]] as that of "[[Auld Lang Syne]]"; the songs can be sung interchangeably. Additionally, Sherr discusses the evolution of the lyrics, for instance, changes to the original third verse written by Bates.<ref>{{cite book |title=America the Beautiful: The Stirring True Story Behind Our Nation's Favorite Song |first=Lynn |last=Sherr |publisher=PublicAffairs |location=New York |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-58648-085-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HdSmeAv3v-oC&pg=PA78#v=onepage&q=&f=false |page=78 |accessdate=June 6, 2013}}</ref> Melinda M. Ponder, in her 2017 biography ''Katharine Lee Bates: From Sea to Shining Sea'',<ref name=FromSeatoShiningSea /> draws heavily on Bates's diaries and letters to trace the history of the poem and its place in American culture. The song appears in [[Ellen Raskin]]'s ''[[The Westing Game]]''. ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Further reading== *Collins, Ace. ''Songs Sung, Red, White, and Blue: The Stories Behind America's Best-Loved Patriotic Songs''. HarperResource, 2003. {{ISBN|0060513047}} ==External links== {{Commons category|Katharine Lee Bates America the Beautiful}} {{Wikisource}} * [http://memory.loc.gov/cocoon/ihas/loc.natlib.ihas.200000001/default.html MP3 and RealAudio recordings available at the United States Library of Congress] * {{cantorion|pieces/3049/America_the_Beautiful_(Materna)|America the Beautiful}} * [http://hymntime.com/tch/htm/o/b/f/obfsskis.htm Words, sheet music & MIDI file] at the Cyber Hymnal * [http://www.springsgov.com/Page.asp?NavID=5138 America the Beautiful Park] in Colorado Springs named for Katharine Lee Bates' words. * [http://web.me.com/highlandsarchives/The_Highlands_Archives/America.html Archival collection] of America the Beautiful lantern slides from the 1930s. * [http://www.traditional-songs.com/download_score.php?name=America%20the%20Beautiful&country=Usa Another free sheet music] {{List of official United States national symbols}} [[Category:1895 songs]] [[Category:American Christian hymns]] [[Category:American patriotic songs]] [[Category:Pikes Peak]] [[Category:Songs based on poems]] n5dilhwo8k2gkf8nlj697bmlr9awil5 0 653 859893314 855878437 2018-09-17T00:16:00Z 50.235.150.60 /* Hearing impairments */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} [[Image:Hoergeraet analog 050609.jpg|thumb|Hearing aid]] '''Assistive technology''' is an [[umbrella term]] that includes assistive, adaptive, and rehabilitative devices for [[people with disabilities]] while also including the process used in selecting, locating, and using them. People who have disabilities often have difficulty performing [[activities of daily living]] (ADLs) independently, or even with assistance. ADLs are self-care activities that include toileting, mobility (ambulation), eating, bathing, dressing and grooming. Assistive technology can ameliorate the effects of disabilities that limit the ability to perform ADLs. Assistive technology promotes greater independence by enabling people to perform tasks they were formerly unable to accomplish, or had great difficulty accomplishing, by providing enhancements to, or changing methods of interacting with, the [[technology]] needed to accomplish such tasks. For example, wheelchairs provide independent mobility for those who cannot walk, while [[assistive eating devices]] can enable people who cannot feed themselves to do so. Due to assistive technology, people with disabilities have an opportunity of a more positive and easygoing lifestyle, with an increase in "social participation," "security and control," and a greater chance to "reduce institutional costs without significantly increasing household expenses."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Parant|first=Aymeric|last2=Schiano-Lomoriello|first2=Sandrine|last3=Marchan|first3=Francis|date=October 2017|title=How would I live with a disability? Expectations of bio-psychosocial consequences and assistive technology use|journal=Disability and Rehabilitation. Assistive Technology|volume=12|issue=7|pages=681–685|doi=10.1080/17483107.2016.1218555|issn=1748-3115|pmid=27677931}}</ref> ==Adaptive Technology== The term adaptive technology is often used as the [[synonym]] for assistive technology; however, they are different terms. Assistive technology refers to "any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities",<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://section508.gov/assistive-technology-act-1998|title=Assistive Technology Act of 1998 {{!}} Section508.gov|website=section508.gov|access-date=2016-04-04}}</ref> while adaptive technology covers items that are specifically designed for persons with disabilities and would seldom be used by non-disabled persons. In other words, "assistive technology is any object or system that increases or maintains the capabilities of people with disabilities," while adaptive technology is "any object or system that is specifically designed for the purpose of increasing or maintaining the capabilities of people with disabilities."<ref>{{cite web | title = Tennessee Science Standards | url = http://glencoe.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/0078901359/594902/AAT_v4.pdf | accessdate = 2012-10-05}}</ref> Consequently, adaptive technology is a subset of assistive technology. Adaptive technology often refers specifically to electronic and information technology access.<ref>{{cite web | title = Assessing for Adaptive Technology Needs | url = http://dtn.tamu.edu/pdf/pp-assessingAT.ppt | accessdate = 2012-10-05}}</ref> ==Mobility impairments== === Wheelchairs === {{Main|Wheelchair}} Wheelchairs are devices that can be manually propelled or electrically propelled, and that include a seating system and are designed to be a substitute for the normal mobility that most people enjoy. Wheelchairs and other mobility devices allow people to perform mobility-related [[activities of daily living]] which include feeding, toileting, dressing, grooming, and bathing. The devices come in a number of variations where they can be propelled either by hand or by motors where the occupant uses electrical controls to manage motors and seating control actuators through a [[joystick]], [[sip-and-puff]] control, or other input devices. Often there are handles behind the seat for someone else to do the pushing or input devices for caregivers. Wheelchairs are used by people for whom [[walking]] is difficult or impossible due to illness, injury, or disability. People with both sitting and walking disability often need to use a wheelchair or walker. === Transfer devices === {{Main|Patient lift}} Patient transfer devices generally allow patients with impaired mobility to be moved by caregivers between beds, wheelchairs, commodes, toilets, chairs, stretchers, shower benches, automobiles, swimming pools, and other patient support systems (i.e., radiology, surgical, or examining tables). The most common devices are [[Patient lift]]s (for vertical transfer), [[Transfer bench]]es, stretcher or convertible chairs (for lateral, supine transfer), sit-to-stand lifts (for moving patients from one seated position to another i.e., from wheelchairs to commodes), air bearing inflatable mattresses (for supine transfer i.e., transfer from a gurney to an operating room table), and sliding boards (usually used for transfer from a bed to a wheelchair). Highly dependent patients who cannot assist their caregiver in moving them often require a [[Patient lift]] (a floor or ceiling-suspended sling lift) which though invented in 1955 and in common use since the early 1960s is still considered the state-of-the-art transfer device by OSHA and the American Nursing Association. === Walkers === {{Main|Walker (mobility)|l1=Walker}}A [[walker (mobility)|walker]] or walking frame or Rollator is a tool for disabled people who need additional support to maintain balance or stability while walking. It consists of a frame that is about waist high, approximately twelve inches deep and slightly wider than the user. Walkers are also available in other sizes, such as for children, or for heavy people. Modern walkers are height-adjustable. The front two legs of the walker may or may not have wheels attached depending on the strength and abilities of the person using it. It is also common to see caster wheels or glides on the back legs of a walker with wheels on the front.<ref>C. Barrué. Personalization and Shared Autonomy in Assistive Technologies. Ph. Thesis. Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya. 2012</ref> === Prosthesis === {{Main|Prosthesis}}A '''prosthesis''', '''prosthetic''', or '''prosthetic limb''' is a device that replaces a missing [[Human body|body]] part. It is part of the field of [[biomechatronics]], the science of using [[Mechanical system|mechanical]] devices with human [[muscle]], [[skeleton]], and [[nervous systems]] to assist or enhance motor control lost by [[Trauma (medicine)|trauma]], [[disease]], or [[Congenital disorder|defect]]. Prostheses are typically used to replace parts lost by injury (traumatic) or missing from birth ([[congenital]]) or to supplement defective body parts. Inside the body, [[artificial heart valve]]s are in common use with [[artificial heart]]s and [[artificial lung|lungs]] seeing less common use but under active technology development. Other medical devices and aids that can be considered prosthetics include [[hearing aids]], [[visual prosthesis|artificial eyes]], [[palatal obturator]], [[Adjustable gastric band|gastric bands]], and [[dentures]]. Prostheses are specifically ''not'' [[orthoses]], although given certain circumstances a prosthesis might end up performing some or all of the same functionary benefits as an orthosis. Prostheses are technically the complete finished item. For instance, a C-Leg knee alone is ''not'' a prosthesis, but only a prosthetic ''component''. The complete prosthesis would consist of the attachment system&nbsp; to the residual limb — usually a "socket", and all the attachment hardware components all the way down to and including the terminal device. Keep this in mind as nomenclature is often interchanged. The terms "prosthetic" and "orthotic" are adjectives used to describe devices such as a prosthetic knee. The terms "prosthetics" and "orthotics" are used to describe the respective allied health fields. == Visual impairments == {{Main|Blindness#Management}} Many people with serious visual impairments live independently, using a wide range of tools and techniques. Examples of assistive technology for visually impairment include screen readers, screen magnifiers, Braille embossers, desktop video magnifiers, and voice recorders. === Screen readers === {{Main|Screen reader}} Screen readers are used to help the visually impaired to easily access electronic information. These software programs run on a computer in order to convey the displayed information through voice ([[text-to-speech]]) or [[braille]] ([[refreshable braille display]]s) in combination with magnification for low vision users in some cases. There are a variety of platforms and applications available for a variety of costs with differing feature sets. One example of screen readers is Apple [[VoiceOver]]. This software is provided free of charge on all Apple devices. Apple VoiceOver includes the option to magnify the screen, control the keyboard, and provide verbal descriptions to describe what is happening on the screen. There are thirty languages to select from. It also has the capacity to read aloud file content, as well as web pages, E-mail messages, and word processing files. [[File:English braille sample.jpg|thumb|Braille is a system of raised dots representing letters, numbers, punctuation, and words.]] === Braille and braille embossers === {{Main|Braille}} Braille is a system of raised dots formed into units called braille cells. A full braille cell is made up of six dots, with two parallel rows of three dots, but other combinations and quantities of dots represent other letters, numbers, punctuation marks, or words. People can then use their fingers to read the code of raised dots. A braille embosser is, simply put, a printer for braille. Instead of a standard printer adding ink onto a page, the braille embosser imprints the raised dots of braille onto a page. Some braille embossers combine both braille and ink so the documents can be read with either sight or touch. === Refreshable braille display === {{Main|Refreshable braille display}} A refreshable braille display or braille terminal is an electro-mechanical device for displaying braille characters, usually by means of round-tipped pins raised through holes in a flat surface. Computer users who cannot use a computer monitor use it to read a braille output version of the displayed text. === Desktop video magnifier === {{Main|Video magnifier}} Desktop video magnifiers are electronic devices that use a camera and a display screen to perform digital magnification of printed materials. They enlarge printed pages for those with low vision. A camera connects to a monitor that displays real-time images, and the user can control settings such as magnification, focus, contrast, underlining, highlighting, and other screen preferences. They come in a variety of sizes and styles; some are small and portable with handheld cameras, while others are much larger and mounted on a fixed stand. === Screen magnification software === {{Main|Screen magnifier}} A screen magnifier is software that interfaces with a computer's graphical output to present enlarged screen content. It allows users to enlarge the texts and graphics on their computer screens for easier viewing. Similar to desktop video magnifiers, this technology assists people with low vision. After the user loads the software into their computer's memory, it serves as a kind of "computer magnifying glass." Wherever the computer cursor moves, it enlarges the area around it. This allows greater computer accessibility for a wide range of visual abilities. [[File:MAGic Large Print Keyboard.jpg|thumb|right|<center>This large-print keyboard has tactile elements and special keys for the visually impaired</center>|alt=MAGic Large Print This MAGic large-print keyboard has tactile elements and special keys for the visually impaired]] === Large-print and tactile keyboards === A large-print keyboard has large letters printed on the keys. On the keyboard shown, the round buttons at the top control software which can magnify the screen (zoom in), change the background color of the screen, or make the mouse cursor on the screen larger. The "bump dots" on the keys, installed in this case by the organization using the keyboards, help the user find the right keys in a tactile way. === Navigation Assistance === [[GPS for the visually impaired|Assistive technology for navigation]] has exploded on the [http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/Xplore/home.jsp IEEE Xplore database] since 2000, with over 7,500 engineering articles written on assistive technologies and visual impairment in the past 25 years, and over 1,300 articles on solving the problem of navigation for people who are blind or visually impaired. As well, over 600 articles on augmented reality and visual impairment have appeared in the engineering literature since 2000. Most of these articles were published within the past 5 years, and the number of articles in this area is increasing every year. GPS, accelerometers, gyroscopes, and cameras can pinpoint the exact location of the user and provide information on what’s in the immediate vicinity, and assistance in getting to a destination. === Wearable Technology === {{Main|Wearable technology}} Wearable technology are smart electronic devices that can be worn on the body as an implant or an accessory. New technologies are exploring how the visually impaired can receive visual information through wearable devices.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Pardes|first1=Arielle|title=The Wearables Giving Computer Vision to the Blind|url=https://www.wired.com/story/wearables-for-the-blind/|website=Wired|publisher=Wired|accessdate=5 September 2017}}</ref> Some wearable devices for visual impairment include: # [[eSight]] # [[Brainport]] ==Personal emergency response systems== {{Main|Telecare}} [[File:Head-wand.jpg|thumb|This voter with a [[manual dexterity]] disability is making choices on a [[touchscreen]] with a head dauber]] [[Personal emergency response systems]] (PERS), or [[Telecare]] (UK term), are a particular sort of assistive technology that use electronic sensors connected to an alarm system to help caregivers manage risk and help vulnerable people stay independent at home longer. An example would be the systems being put in place for senior people such as fall detectors, thermometers (for [[hypothermia]] risk), flooding and unlit gas sensors (for people with mild [[dementia]]). Notably, these alerts can be customized to the particular person's risks. When the alert is triggered, a message is sent to a caregiver or contact center who can respond appropriately. ==Accessibility software== {{Main|Computer accessibility}} In human–computer interaction, computer accessibility (also known as accessible computing) refers to the accessibility of a computer system to all people, regardless of disability or severity of impairment, examples include [[web accessibility]] guidelines.<ref>[http://www.learningdisabilities.org.uk/page.cfm?pagecode=ISSIWD Web accessibility guidelines]</ref> Another approach is for the user to present a token to the computer terminal, such as a smart card, that has configuration information to adjust the computer speed, text size, etc. to their particular needs. This is useful where users want to access public computer based terminals in Libraries, ATM, Information kiosks etc. The concept is encompassed by the CEN EN 1332-4 Identification Card Systems - Man-Machine Interface.<ref>[http://www.cen.eu/cen/Sectors/TechnicalCommitteesWorkshops/CENTechnicalCommittees/Pages/TCStruc.aspx?param=6205&title=Personal%20identification,%20electronic%20signature%20and%20cards%20and%20their%20related%20systems%20and%20operations CEN EN 1332-4 Identification Card Systems - Man-Machine Interface]</ref> This development of this standard has been supported in Europe by [[SNAPI]] and has been successfully incorporated into the [[Lasseo]] specifications, but with limited success due to the lack of interest from public computer terminal suppliers. ==Hearing impairments== {{Main|Assistive Technology for Deaf and Hard of Hearing}} People in the d/Deaf and hard of hearing community have a more difficult time receiving auditory information as compared to hearing individuals. These individuals often rely on visual and tactile mediums for receiving and communicating information. The use of assistive technology and devices provides this community with various solutions to auditory communication needs by providing higher sound (for those who are hard of hearing), tactile feedback, visual cues and improved technology access. Individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing utilize a variety of assistive technologies that provide them with different access to information in numerous environments.<ref>{{cite web | title = Assistive Technology for Individuals who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing | url = http://www.wati.org/content/supports/free/pdf/Ch13-Hearing.pdf | accessdate = 2015-11-08}}</ref> Most devices either provide amplified sound or alternate ways to access information through vision and/or vibration. These technologies can be grouped into three general categories: [[Assistive Technology for Deaf and Hard of Hearing#Hearing Technology|Hearing Technology]], alerting devices, and [[Assistive Technology for Deaf and Hard of Hearing#Communication Support|communication support]]. === Hearing aids === {{Main|Hearing aid}} A hearing aid or deaf aid is an electroacoustic device which is designed to amplify sound for the wearer, usually with the aim of making speech more intelligible, and to correct impaired hearing as measured by audiometry. This type of assistive technology helps people with hearing loss participate more fully in their hearing communities by allowing them to hear more clearly. They amplify any and all sound waves through use of a microphone, amplifier, and speaker. There is a wide variety of hearing aids available, including digital, in-the-ear, in-the-canal, behind-the-ear, and on-the-body aids. === Assistive listening devices === {{Main|Assistive listening device}} Assistive listening devices include FM, infrared, and loop assistive listening devices. This type of technology allows people with hearing difficulties to focus on a speaker or subject by getting rid of extra background noises and distractions, making places like auditoriums, classrooms, and meetings much easier to participate in. The assistive listening device usually uses a microphone to capture an audio source near to its origin and broadcast it wirelessly over an FM (Frequency Modulation) transmission, IR (Infra Red) transmission, IL (Induction Loop) transmission, or other transmission methods. The person who is listening may use an FM/IR/IL Receiver to tune into the signal and listen at his/her preferred volume. === Amplified telephone equipment === {{Main|Telecommunications device for the deaf|l1=Telecommunications device for the deaf#Other devices for the deaf or hard of hearing}} This type of assistive technology allows users to amplify the volume and clarity of their phone calls so that they can easily partake in this medium of communication. There are also options to adjust the frequency and tone of a call to suit their individual hearing needs. Additionally, there is a wide variety of amplified telephones to choose from, with different degrees of amplification. For example, a phone with 26 to 40 decibel is generally sufficient for mild hearing loss, while a phone with 71 to 90 decibel is better for more severe hearing loss.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Guide to Amplified Phones|url = https://assistech.com/store/amplified-telephone-guide|website = assistech.com|accessdate = 2015-11-25}}</ref> ==Augmentative and alternative communication== {{Main|Augmentative and alternative communication}} [[File:AAC user using eye gaze.JPG|thumb|An AAC user uses number coding on an eye gaze communication board]] '''Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC)''' is an umbrella term that encompasses methods of communication for those with impairments or restrictions on the production or comprehension of spoken or written language.<ref name=asha2005>[[#refASHA2005|ASHA (2005)]].</ref> AAC systems are extremely diverse and depend on the capabilities of the user. They may be as basic as pictures on a board that are used to request food, drink, or other care; or they can be advanced [[speech generating device]]s, based on speech synthesis, that are capable of storing hundreds of phrases and words.<ref name="GillamMarquardt2000">[[#refGillamMarqardt2000|Gilliam & Marquardt]], pp. 356–359.</ref> ==Cognitive impairments== {{Main|Cognitive orthotics}} Assistive Technology for Cognition (ATC)<ref>LoPresti, E.F., Mihailidis, A. & Kirsch, N. (2004). Assistive Technology for cognitive rehabilitation: State of the art. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 14, 5-39.</ref> is the use of technology (usually high tech) to augment and assist cognitive processes such as attention, memory, self-regulation, navigation, [[emotion recognition]] and management, planning, and sequencing activity. Systematic reviews of the field have found that the number of ATC are growing rapidly, but have focused on memory and planning, that there is emerging evidence for efficacy, that a lot of scope exists to develop new ATC.<ref>Gillespie, A., Best, C. & O'Neill, B. (2012). [https://lse.academia.edu/AlexGillespie/Papers/1347581/Cognitive_function_and_assistive_technology_for_cognition_A_systematic_review Cognitive function and Assistive Technology for cognition: A systematic review]. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 18, 1-19.</ref> Examples of ATC include: [[NeuroPage]] which prompts users about meetings,<ref>Wilson, et al. (1997). Evaluation of NeuroPage: A new memory aid. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 63, 113-115.</ref> [[Wakamaru]], which provides companionship and reminds users to take medicine and calls for help if something is wrong, and telephone Reassurance systems.<ref>assistivetech.net: [http://atwiki.assistivetech.net/index.php/Telephone_Reassurance Telephone Reassurance]. Accessed 2009-08-06.</ref> === Memory aids === Memory aids are any type of assistive technology that helps a user learn and remember certain information. Many memory aids are used for cognitive impairments such as reading, writing, or organizational difficulties. For example, a [[Digital pen|Smartpen]] records handwritten notes by creating both a digital copy and an audio recording of the text. Users simply tap certain parts of their notes, the pen saves it, and reads it back to them. From there, the user can also download their notes onto a computer for increased accessibility. Digital voice recorders are also used to record "in the moment" information for fast and easy recall at a later time.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Using External Aids to Compensate for Memory and Organizational Problems Post-TBI|url = http://www.brainline.org/content/2011/04/using-external-aids-to-compensate-for-memory-and-organizational-problems-post-tbi.html|accessdate = 2015-11-30}}</ref> === Educational software === {{Main|Educational software}} Educational software is software that assists people with reading, learning, comprehension, and organizational difficulties. Any accommodation software such as text readers, notetakers, text enlargers, organization tools, word predictions, and talking word processors falls under the category of educational software. == Eating Impairments == {{Main|Assistive eating devices}} Adaptive eating devices include items commonly used by the general population like spoons and forks and plates. However they become assistive technology when they are modified to accommodate the needs of people who have difficultly using standard cutlery due to a disabling condition. Common modifications include increasing the size of the utensil handle to make it easier to grasp. Plates and bowls may have a guard on the edge that stops food being pushed off of the dish when it is being scooped. More sophisticated equipment for eating includes manual and powered feeding devices. These devices support those who have little or no hand and arm function and enable them to eat independently. ==In sports== [[File:NYC Marathon wheelchair.jpg|thumb|A [[New York City Marathon]] competitor uses a racing wheelchair]] Assistive technology in sports is an area of technology design that is growing. Assistive technology is the array of new devices created to enable sports enthusiasts who have disabilities to play. Assistive technology may be used in [[adaptive sports]], where an existing sport is modified to enable players with a disability to participate; or, assistive technology may be used to invent completely new sports with athletes with disabilities exclusively in mind. An increasing number of people with disabilities are participating in sports, leading to the development of new assistive technology.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Scherer, Marcia |author2=Stefano Federici|title=Assistive Technology Assessment Handbook|year=2012|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=9781439838655|page=425}}</ref> Assistive technology devices can be simple, or "low-tech", or they may use highly advanced technology. "Low-tech" devices can include velcro gloves and adaptive bands and tubes. "High-tech" devices can include all-terrain wheelchairs and adaptive bicycles.<ref>{{cite web|title=Assistive technologies|url=http://www.understandingdisability.org/AssistiveTechnologies|publisher=Spaulding Framingham|accessdate=September 5, 2012}}</ref> Accordingly, assistive technology can be found in sports ranging from local community recreation to the elite [[Paralympic Games]]. More complex assistive technology devices have been developed over time, and as a result, sports for people with disabilities "have changed from being a clinical therapeutic tool to an increasingly competition-oriented activity".<ref>{{cite book|author1=Scherer, Marcia |author2=Stefano Federici|title=Assistive Technology Assessment Handbook|year=2012|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=9781439838655|page=427}}</ref> ==In education== In the United States there are two major pieces of legislation that govern the use of assistive technology within the school system. The first is Section 504 of the [[Rehabilitation Act of 1973]] and the second being the [[Individuals with Disabilities Education Act]] (IDEA) which was first enacted in 1975 under the name The Education for All Handicapped Children Act. In 2004, during the reauthorization period for IDEA, the National Instructional Material Access Center (NIMAC) was created which provided a repository of accessible text including publisher's textbooks to students with a qualifying disability. Files provided are in XML format and used as a starting platform for braille readers, screen readers, and other digital text software.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nimac.us/ |title=National Instructional Materials Access Center }}</ref> IDEA defines assistive technology as follows: "any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of a child with a disability. (B) Exception.--The term does not include a medical device that is surgically implanted, or the replacement of such device."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://idea.ed.gov/explore/view/p/,root,statute,I,A,602,1, |title=Building the Legacy: IDEA 2004}}</ref> Assistive technology in this area is broken down into low, mid, and high tech categories. Low tech encompasses equipment that is often low cost and does not include batteries or requires charging. Examples include adapted paper and pencil grips for writing or masks and color overlays for reading. Mid tech supports used in the school setting include the use of handheld spelling dictionaries and portable word processors used to keyboard writing. High tech supports involve the use of tablet devices and computers with accompanying software. Software supports for writing include the use of auditory feedback while keyboarding, word prediction for spelling, and speech to text. Supports for reading include the use of text to speech (TTS) software and font modification via access to digital text. Limited supports are available for math instruction and mostly consist of grid based software to allow younger students to keyboard equations and auditory feedback of more complex equations using MathML and Daisy. ==Computer accessibility== {{Main|Computer accessibility}} [[File:Sip-and-puff device.jpg|thumb|A [[sip-and-puff]] device which allows a person with substantial disability to make selections and navigate computerized interfaces by controlling inhalations and exhalations]] One of the largest problems that affect people with disabilities is discomfort with prostheses.<ref name=hussein>{{cite journal|last=Abdullah|first=Hussein A.|author2=Tarry, Cole|author3=Datta, Rahul.|author4=Mittal, Gauri S.|author5=Abderrahim, Mohamed|title=Dynamic Biomechanical Model for Assessing and Monitoring Robot-Assisted Upper-Limb Therapy|journal=Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development|year=2007|volume=44|issue=1|pages=43–62|doi=10.1682/JRRD.2006.03.0025|pmid=17551857}}</ref> An experiment performed in Massachusetts utilized 20 people with various sensors attached to their arms.<ref name=hussein /> The subjects tried different arm exercises, and the sensors recorded their movements. All of the data helped engineers develop new engineering concepts for prosthetics.<ref name=hussein /> Assistive technology may attempt to improve the ergonomics of the devices themselves such as [[Dvorak Simplified Keyboard|Dvorak]] and other alternative keyboard layouts, which offer more ergonomic layouts of the keys.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Chubon, R.A. |author2=Hester, M.R. |title=An enhanced standard computer keyboard system for single-finger and typing-stick typing |journal=[[Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development]] |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=17–24 |year=1988 |pmid=2973523 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Anson, D. |author2=George, S. |author3=Galup, R. |author4=Shea, B. |author5=Vetter, R. |title=Efficiency of the Chubon versus the QWERTY keyboard |journal=Assistive-Technology |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=40–5 |year=2001 |pmid=12212435 |doi=10.1080/10400435.2001.10132032 }}</ref> Assistive technology devices have been created to enable people with disabilities to use modern touch screen mobile computers such as the [[iPad]], [[iPhone]] and [[iPod touch]]. The Pererro is a plug and play adapter for [[iOS]] devices which uses the built in [[Apple VoiceOver]] feature in combination with a basic switch. This brings touch screen technology to those who were previously unable to use it. Apple, with the release of iOS 7 had introduced the ability to navigate apps using switch control. Switch access could be activated either through an external bluetooth connected switch, single touch of the screen, or use of right and left head turns using the device's camera. Additional accessibility features include the use of Assistive Touch which allows a user to access multi-touch gestures through pre-programmed onscreen buttons. For users with physical disabilities a large variety of switches are available and customizable to the user's needs varying in size, shape, or amount of pressure required for activation. [[Switch access]] may be placed near any area of the body which has consistent and reliable mobility and less subject to fatigue. Common sites include the hands, head, and feet. Eye gaze and head mouse systems can also be used as an alternative mouse navigation. A user may utilize single or multiple switch sites and the process often involves a scanning through items on a screen and activating the switch once the desired object is highlighted. ==Home automation== The form of [[home automation]] called [[assistive domotics]] focuses on making it possible for elderly and disabled people to live independently. Home automation is becoming a viable option for the elderly and disabled who would prefer to stay in their own homes rather than move to a healthcare facility. This field uses much of the same technology and equipment as home automation for security, entertainment, and energy conservation but tailors it towards elderly and disabled users. For example, automated prompts and reminders utilize motion sensors and pre-recorded audio messages; an automated prompt in the kitchen may remind the resident to turn off the oven, and one by the front door may remind the resident to lock the door.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Assistive technology - devices to help with everyday living|url = https://www.alzheimers.org.uk/site/scripts/documents_info.php?documentID=109|website = www.alzheimers.org.uk|accessdate = 2015-11-30|language = en|first = Natasha|last = Judd}}</ref> == Impacts == Overall, assistive technology aims to allow people with disabilities to "participate more fully in all aspects of life (home, school, and community)" and increases their opportunities for "education, social interactions, and potential for meaningful employment".<ref>{{Cite web|title = Considering Assistive Technology {{!}} Center for Parent Information and Resources|url = http://www.parentcenterhub.org/repository/considering-at/|website = www.parentcenterhub.org|accessdate = 2015-11-25}}</ref> It creates greater independence and control for disabled individuals. For example, in one study of 1,342 infants, toddlers and preschoolers, all with some kind of developmental, physical, sensory, or cognitive disability, the use of assistive technology created improvements in child development.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Desch|first=Larry W.|last2=Gaebler-Spira|first2=Deborah|date=2008-06-01|title=Prescribing Assistive-Technology Systems: Focus on Children With Impaired Communication|url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/121/6/1271|journal=Pediatrics|language=en|volume=121|issue=6|pages=1271–1280|doi=10.1542/peds.2008-0695|issn=0031-4005|pmid=18519500}}</ref> These included improvements in "cognitive, social, communication, literacy, motor, adaptive, and increases in engagement in learning activities".<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://community.fpg.unc.edu/sites/community.fpg.unc.edu/files/resources/Handout/CONNECT-Handout-5-1.pdf|title = Research Summary on Assistive Technology Interventions|date = August 2013|accessdate = 24 November 2015|website = Community|publisher = |author1=Dunst, Trivette |author2=Hamby, Simkus }}</ref> Additionally, it has been found to lighten caregiver load.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Nicolson|first1=Amy|last2=Moir|first2=Lois|last3=Millsteed|first3=Jeannine|title=Impact of assistive technology on family caregivers of children with physical disabilities: a systematic review|journal=[[Disability and Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology]]|date=22 March 2012|volume=7|issue=5|pages=345–349|doi=10.3109/17483107.2012.667194}}</ref> Both family and professional caregivers benefit from assistive technology. Through its use, the time that a family member or friend would need to care for a patient significantly decreases. However, studies show that care time for a professional caregiver increases when assistive technology is used. Nonetheless, their work load is significantly easier as the assistive technology frees them of having to perform certain tasks.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Anderson|first=Wayne L.|last2=Wiener|first2=Joshua M.|date=2015-06-01|title=The Impact of Assistive Technologies on Formal and Informal Home Care|url=https://academic.oup.com/gerontologist/article/588347/The|journal=The Gerontologist|language=en|volume=55|issue=3|pages=422–433|doi=10.1093/geront/gnt165|issn=0016-9013}}</ref>There are several platforms that use machine learning to identify the appropriate assistive device to suggest to patients, making assistive devices more accessible.<ref>https://www.atvisor.ai/</ref> ==See also== {{Commons category}} <!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short description [[WP:SEEALSO]] --> {{Div col|colwidth=20em|small=yes}} * [[Accessibility]] * [[Augmentative and alternative communication]] * [[Braille technology]] * [[Design for All (in ICT)]] * [[Durable medical equipment]] * [[Matching Person & Technology Model]] * [[OATS]]: Open Source Assistive Technology Software * [[Occupational Therapy]] * [[Transgenerational design]] * [[Universal access to education]] {{div col end}} <!-- please keep entries in alphabetical order --> ==References== ;Source * <span id="refASHA2005" class="citation">{{cite web |url=http://www.asha.org/docs/html/PS2005-00113.html|title=Roles and Responsibilities of Speech-Language Pathologists With Respect to Augmentative and Alternative Communication: Position Statement|year=2005|author=American Speech-Language-Hearing Association.|accessdate=2009-01-23| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090213100431/http://asha.org/docs/html/PS2005-00113.html| archivedate=February 13, 2009<!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</span> * <span id="refGlennenDeCoste" class="citation">{{cite book |editor=Glennen, Sharon |editor2=DeCoste, Denise C. |last=DeCoste| first= Denise C.|title=Handbook Of Augmentative And Alternative Communication|chapter=Chapter 10: Introduction to Augmentative and Alternative Communication Systems |publisher=Singular Publishing Group |location=San Diego, CA |year=1997 |isbn=1-56593-684-1 }}</span> * <span id="refSchlosserWendt" class="citation">{{cite journal |author= Schlosser, R. 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Tese (Doutorado em Educação) – Faculdade de Educação, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador, Brazil |url=http://www.galvaofilho.net/tese.htm }}</span> * <span id="refMirenda2003" class="citation">{{cite journal|last=Mirenda|first=P.|year=2003|title=Toward Functional Augmentative and Alternative Communication for Students With Autism: Manual Signs, Graphic Symbols, and Voice Output Communication Aids |journal=Language, Speech, & Hearing Services in Schools|volume=34|issue=3|pages=203–216|doi=10.1044/0161-1461(2003/017)}}</span> * <span id="refMathy2000" class="citation">{{cite book|last=Mathy|author2=Yorkston, K.|author3= Guttman|title=Augmentative and Alternative Communication Disorders for Adults with Acquired Neurologic Disorders|editor=Beukelman, D. |editor2=Yorkston, K. |editor3=Reichle, J.| chapter=Augmentative Communication for Individuals with Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis |publisher=P. H. Brookes Pub.|location=Baltimore|year=2000|isbn=978-1-55766-473-0}}</span> * <span id="refJansClark" class="citation">{{cite book |author1=Jans, Deborah |author2=Clark, Sue |chapter=Chapter 6: High Technology Aids to Communication |title=Augmentative Communication in Practice: An Introduction |isbn=978-1-898042-15-0 |url=http://www.callscotland.org.uk/Resources/Books/Augmentative-Communication-in-Practice/ |editor=Wilson, Allan |publisher=University of Edinburgh |year=1998}}</span> * <span id="refParetteEtal2000" class="citation">{{cite journal|last=Parette|first=H. P.|author2=Brotherson, M. J|author3= Huer, M. B.|year=2000|title=Giving families a voice in augmentative and alternative communication decision-making|journal=Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities|volume=35|pages=177–190|url=http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2001-17960-006}}</span> ;Notes {{Reflist}} ==External links== {{Disability navbox}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Assistive Technology}} [[Category:Assistive technology| ]] [[Category:Educational technology]] [[Category:Web accessibility]] i5rtzj74sqasjerzbu1u18w3lzlhw4a 0 654 56435663 30764945 2006-06-02T03:15:36Z Reinthal 79249 Redirecting to Computer accessibility wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Computer accessibility]] h516h2x88254d4jwexxsi0ajd5qk3xd 0 655 861363286 861363243 2018-09-26T21:54:54Z Shellwood 2366721 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/190.83.217.88|190.83.217.88]] ([[User talk:190.83.217.88|talk]]) ([[WP:HG|HG]]) (3.4.4) wikitext text/x-wiki {{Other uses}} {{Redirect2|Abaci|Abacuses|the Turkish surname|Abacı (disambiguation){{!}}Abacı|the medieval book|Liber Abaci}} {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}}{{EngvarA|date=September 2016}} [[File:Boulier1.JPG|right|thumb|A Chinese abacus, ''[[Suanpan]]'']] [[File:Houghton Typ 520.03.736 - Margarita philosophica.jpg|right|thumb|''Calculating-Table'' by [[Gregor Reisch]]: ''Margarita Philosophica'', 1503. The woodcut shows ''Arithmetica'' instructing an [[algorism|algorist]] and an abacist (inaccurately represented as [[Boethius]] and [[Pythagoras]]). There was keen competition between the two from the introduction of the ''[[The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing|Algebra]]'' into Europe in the 12th century until its triumph in the 16th.<ref name=Boyer253>{{harvnb|Boyer|Merzbach|1991|pp=252–253}}</ref>]] The '''abacus''' (''plural'' '''abaci''' or '''abacuses'''), also called a '''counting frame''', is a calculating tool that was in use in Europe, China and Russia, centuries before the adoption of the written [[Hindu–Arabic numeral system]].<ref name=Boyer253/> The exact origin of the abacus is still unknown. Today, abacuses are often constructed as a [[bamboo]] frame with beads sliding on wires, but originally they were beans or stones moved in grooves in sand or on tablets of wood, stone, or metal. Abacuses come in different designs. Some designs, like the bead frame consisting of beads divided into tens, are used mainly to teach [[arithmetic]], although they remain popular in the [[post-Soviet states]] as a tool. Other designs, such as the Japanese [[soroban]], have been used for practical calculations even involving several digits. For any particular abacus design, there usually are numerous different methods to perform a certain type of calculation, which may include basic operations like addition and multiplication, or even more complex ones, such as calculating [[Square root|square roots]]. Some of these methods may work with non-[[Natural number|natural]] numbers (numbers such as {{Math|1.5}} and {{Math|{{Frac|3|4}}}}). Although today many use [[Calculator|calculators]] and [[Computer|computers]] instead of abacuses to calculate, abacuses still remain in common use in some countries. Merchants, traders and clerks in some parts of [[Eastern Europe]], [[Russia]], [[China]] and [[Africa]] use abacuses, and they are still used to teach arithmetic to children.<ref name="Boyer253" /> Some people who are unable to use a calculator because of visual impairment may use an abacus. ==Etymology== The use of the word ''abacus'' dates before 1387 AD, when a [[Middle English]] work borrowed the word from [[Latin]] to describe a sandboard abacus. The Latin word came from [[Greek language|Greek]] ἄβαξ ''abax'' which means something without base, and improperly, any piece of rectangular board or plank.<ref>{{harvnb|de Stefani|1909|p=2}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gaisford|1962|p=2}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Lasserre|Livadaras|1976|p=4}}</ref> Alternatively, without reference to ancient texts on etymology, it has been suggested that it means "a square tablet strewn with dust",<ref>{{harvnb|Klein|1966|p=1}}</ref> or "drawing-board covered with dust (for the use of mathematics)"<ref>{{harvnb|Onions|Friedrichsen|Burchfield|1967|p=2}}</ref> (the exact shape of the Latin perhaps reflects the [[Genitive case|genitive form]] of the Greek word, ἄβακoς ''abakos''). Whereas the table strewn with dust definition is popular, there are those that do not place credence in this at all and in fact state that it is not proven.<ref name=pull17>{{harvnb|Pullan|1968|p=17}}</ref>{{refn|group=nb|Both C. J. Gadd, a keeper of the Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities at the [[British Museum]], and [[Jacob Levy]], a Jewish Historian who wrote ''Neuhebräisches und chaldäisches wörterbuch über die Talmudim und Midraschim [Neuhebräisches and Chaldean dictionary on the Talmuds and Midrashi]'' disagree with the "dust table" theory.<ref name=pull17/>}} Greek ἄβαξ itself is probably a borrowing of a [[Northwest Semitic]], perhaps [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]], word akin to [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''ʾābāq'' (אבק), "dust" (or in post-Biblical sense meaning "sand used as a writing surface").<ref name="Etymology">{{harvnb|Huehnergard|2011|p=2}}</ref> The preferred plural of ''abacus'' is a subject of disagreement, with both ''abacuses''<ref name = SOED>{{harvnb|Brown|1993|p=2}}</ref> and ''abaci''<ref name = SOED/> (hard "c") in use. The user of an abacus is called an ''abacist''.<ref>{{harvnb|Gove|1976|p=1}}</ref> ==History== ===Mesopotamian=== The period 2700–2300 BC saw the first appearance of the [[Sumer]]ian abacus, a table of successive columns which delimited the successive orders of magnitude of their [[sexagesimal]] number system.<ref>{{harvnb|Ifrah|2001|p=11}}</ref> Some scholars point to a character from the [[Babylon]]ian [[cuneiform]] which may have been derived from a representation of the abacus.<ref>{{harvnb|Crump|1992|p=188}}</ref> It is the belief of Old Babylonian<ref>{{harvnb|Melville|2001}}</ref> scholars such as Carruccio that Old Babylonians "may have used the abacus for the operations of [[addition]] and [[subtraction]]; however, this primitive device proved difficult to use for more complex calculations".<ref>{{harvnb|Carruccio|2006|p=14}}</ref> ===Egyptian=== The use of the abacus in [[Ancient Egypt]] is mentioned by the Greek historian [[Herodotus]], who writes that the Egyptians manipulated the pebbles from right to left, opposite in direction to the Greek left-to-right method. Archaeologists have found ancient disks of various sizes that are thought to have been used as counters. However, wall depictions of this instrument have not been discovered.<ref name=Smith1>{{harvnb|Smith|1958|pp=157–160}}</ref> ===Persian=== During the [[Achaemenid Empire]], around 600 BC the Persians first began to use the abacus.<ref>{{harvnb|Carr|2014}}</ref> Under the [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]], [[Sassanian]] and [[Iran]]ian empires, scholars concentrated on exchanging knowledge and inventions with the countries around them – [[India]], [[China]], and the [[Roman Empire]], when it is thought to have been exported to other countries. === Greek === [[Image:Salaminische Tafel Salamis Tablet nach Wilhelm Kubitschek Numismatische Zeitschrift Bd 31 Wien 1899 p.&nbsp;394 ff.jpg|thumb|upright|An early photograph of the Salamis Tablet, 1899. The original is marble and is held by the National Museum of Epigraphy, in Athens.]] The earliest archaeological evidence for the use of the Greek abacus dates to the 5th century BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Ifrah|2001|p=15}}</ref> Also [[Demosthenes]] (384 BC–322 BC) talked of the need to use pebbles for calculations too difficult for your head.<ref name=Will/><ref name=pull>{{harvnb|Pullan|1968|p=16}}</ref> A play by [[Alexis (poet)|Alexis]] from the 4th century BC mentions an abacus and pebbles for accounting, and both [[Diogenes of Sinope|Diogenes]] and [[Polybius]] mention men that sometimes stood for more and sometimes for less, like the pebbles on an abacus.<ref name=pull/> The Greek abacus was a table of wood or marble, pre-set with small counters in wood or metal for mathematical calculations. This Greek abacus saw use in Achaemenid Persia, the Etruscan civilization, Ancient Rome and, until the French Revolution, the Western Christian world. A tablet found on the Greek island [[Salamis Island|Salamis]] in 1846 AD (the [[Salamis Tablet]]), dates back to 300 BC, making it the oldest counting board discovered so far. It is a slab of white marble {{convert|149|cm|0|abbr=on}} long, {{convert|75|cm|0|abbr=on}} wide, and {{convert|4.5|cm|0|abbr=on}} thick, on which are 5 groups of markings. In the center of the tablet is a set of 5 parallel lines equally divided by a vertical line, capped with a semicircle at the intersection of the bottom-most horizontal line and the single vertical line. Below these lines is a wide space with a horizontal crack dividing it. Below this crack is another group of eleven parallel lines, again divided into two sections by a line perpendicular to them, but with the semicircle at the top of the intersection; the third, sixth and ninth of these lines are marked with a cross where they intersect with the vertical line.<ref>{{harvnb|Williams|1997|pp=55–56}}</ref> Also from this time frame the ''Darius Vase'' was unearthed in 1851. It was covered with pictures including a "treasurer" holding a wax tablet in one hand while manipulating counters on a table with the other.<ref name="Will"/> ===Chinese=== {{Main|Suanpan}} [[File:abacus 6.png|thumb|A Chinese abacus (''[[suanpan]]'') (the number represented in the picture is 6,302,715,408)]] {{Infobox Chinese |c=算盤 |l="calculating tray" |p=suànpán |mi={{IPAc-cmn|s|uan|4|.|p|an|2}} |j=syun³-pun⁴ |y=syun-pùhn |ci={{IPAc-yue|s|yun|3|p|un|2}} |poj=sǹg-pôaⁿ |tl=sǹg-puânn }} The earliest known written documentation of the Chinese abacus dates to the 2nd century BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Ifrah|2001|p=17}}</ref> The Chinese abacus, known as the ''[[suanpan]]'' (算盤, lit. "calculating tray"), is typically {{convert|20|cm|0|abbr=on}} tall and comes in various widths depending on the operator. It usually has more than seven rods. There are two beads on each rod in the upper deck and five beads each in the bottom. The beads are usually rounded and made of a [[hardwood]]. The beads are counted by moving them up or down towards the beam; beads moved toward the beam are counted, while those moved away from it are not.<ref name="ryerson">{{harvnb|Fernandes|2003}}</ref> The ''suanpan'' can be reset to the starting position instantly by a quick movement along the horizontal axis to spin all the beads away from the horizontal beam at the center. ''Suanpan'' can be used for functions other than counting. Unlike the simple counting board used in elementary schools, very efficient suanpan techniques have been developed to do [[multiplication]], [[division (mathematics)|division]], [[addition]], [[subtraction]], [[square root]] and [[cube root]] operations at high speed. There are currently schools teaching students how to use it. In the long scroll ''[[Along the River During the Qingming Festival]]'' painted by [[Zhang Zeduan]] during the [[Song dynasty]] (960–1297), a ''suanpan'' is clearly visible beside an account book and doctor's prescriptions on the counter of an [[apothecary]]'s (Feibao). The similarity of the [[Roman abacus]] to the Chinese one suggests that one could have inspired the other, as there is some evidence of a trade relationship between the [[Roman Empire]] and China. However, no direct connection can be demonstrated, and the similarity of the abacuses may be coincidental, both ultimately arising from counting with five fingers per hand. Where the Roman model (like most modern Korean and [[#Japanese abacus|Japanese]]) has 4 plus 1 bead per decimal place, the standard ''suanpan'' has 5 plus 2. (Incidentally, this allows use with a [[hexadecimal]] numeral system, which was used for traditional Chinese measures of weight.) Instead of running on wires as in the Chinese, Korean, and Japanese models, the beads of Roman model run in grooves, presumably making arithmetic calculations much slower. Another possible source of the ''suanpan'' is Chinese [[counting rods]], which operated with a [[decimal|decimal system]] but lacked the concept of [[0 (number)|zero]] as a place holder. The zero was probably introduced to the Chinese in the [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907) when travel in the [[Indian Ocean]] and the [[Middle East]] would have provided direct contact with [[India]], allowing them to acquire the concept of zero and the [[decimal point]] from Indian merchants and mathematicians. ===Roman=== {{Main|Roman abacus}} [[File:RomanAbacusRecon.jpg|right|thumb|Copy of a [[Roman abacus]]]] The normal method of calculation in ancient Rome, as in Greece, was by moving counters on a smooth table. Originally pebbles (''calculi'') were used. Later, and in medieval Europe, [[jeton]]s were manufactured. Marked lines indicated units, fives, tens etc. as in the [[Roman numeral]] system. This system of 'counter casting' continued into the late Roman empire and in medieval Europe, and persisted in limited use into the nineteenth century.<ref>{{harvnb|Pullan|1968|p=18}}</ref> Due to [[Pope Sylvester II]]'s reintroduction of the abacus with modifications, it became widely used in Europe once again during the 11th century<ref>{{harvnb|Brown|2010|pp=81–82}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Brown|2011}}</ref> This abacus used beads on wires, unlike the traditional Roman counting boards, which meant the abacus could be used much faster.<ref>{{harvnb|Huff|1993|p=50}}</ref> Writing in the 1st century BC, Horace refers to the wax abacus, a board covered with a thin layer of black wax on which columns and figures were inscribed using a stylus.<ref name=rome>{{harvnb|Ifrah|2001|p=18}}</ref> One example of archaeological evidence of the [[Roman abacus]], shown here in reconstruction, dates to the 1st century AD. It has eight long grooves containing up to five beads in each and eight shorter grooves having either one or no beads in each. The groove marked I indicates units, X tens, and so on up to millions. The beads in the shorter grooves denote fives –five units, five tens etc., essentially in a [[bi-quinary coded decimal]] system, related to the [[Roman numerals]]. The short grooves on the right may have been used for marking Roman "ounces" (i.e. fractions). ===Indian=== The decimal number system invented in India replaced the abacus in Western Europe.<ref name="UniOfNthC1">{{Citation|url=http://www.unc.edu/~rowlett/units/roman.html|title=Roman and "Arabic" Numerals|last=Rowlett|first=Russ|date=2004-07-04|publisher=[[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]]|accessdate=2009-06-22}}</ref> The ''[[Abhidharmakośabhāṣya]]'' of [[Vasubandhu]] (316-396), a Sanskrit work on Buddhist philosophy, says that the second-century CE philosopher [[Vasumitra]] said that "placing a wick (Sanskrit ''vartikā'') on the number one (''ekāṅka'') means it is a one, while placing the wick on the number hundred means it is called a hundred, and on the number one thousand means it is a thousand". It is unclear exactly what this arrangement may have been. Around the 5th century, Indian clerks were already finding new ways of recording the contents of the Abacus.<ref>{{harvnb|Körner|1996|p=232}}</ref> Hindu texts used the term ''śūnya'' (zero) to indicate the empty column on the abacus.<ref>{{harvnb|Mollin|1998|p=3}}</ref> ===Japanese=== {{Main|Soroban}} [[File:Soroban.JPG|thumb|Japanese [[soroban]]]] In Japanese, the abacus is called ''[[soroban]]'' ({{lang|ja|算盤, そろばん}}, lit. "Counting tray"), imported from China in the 14th century.<ref name=Gul>{{harvnb|Gullberg|1997|p=169}}</ref> It was probably in use by the working class a century or more before the ruling class started, as the class structure did not allow for devices used by the lower class to be adopted or used by the ruling class.<ref>{{harvnb|Williams|1997|p=65}}</ref> The 1/4 abacus, which is suited to decimal calculation, appeared circa 1930, and became widespread as the Japanese abandoned hexadecimal weight calculation which was still common in China. The abacus is still manufactured in Japan today even with the proliferation, practicality, and affordability of pocket [[electronic calculator]]s. The use of the soroban is still taught in Japanese [[primary school]]s as part of [[mathematics]], primarily as an aid to faster mental calculation. Using visual imagery of a soroban, one can arrive at the answer in the same time as, or even faster than, is possible with a physical instrument.<ref>{{harvnb|Murray|1982}}</ref> ===Korean=== The Chinese abacus migrated from China to [[Korea]] around 1400 AD.<ref name=Will>{{harvnb|Williams|1997|p=55}}</ref><ref name="thocp">{{harvnb|Anon|2002}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jami|1998|p=4}}</ref> Koreans call it ''jupan'' (주판), ''supan'' (수판) or ''jusan'' (주산).<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2013}}</ref> ===Native American=== [[File:Quipu.png|thumb|Representation of an [[Inca]] [[quipu]]]] [[File:Yupana 1.png|thumb|A [[yupana]] as used by the Incas.]] Some sources mention the use of an abacus called a ''nepohualtzintzin'' in ancient [[Aztec]] culture.<ref>{{harvnb|Sanyal|2008}}</ref> This Mesoamerican abacus used a 5-digit base-20 system.<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2004}}</ref> The word Nepōhualtzintzin {{IPA-nah|nepoːwaɬˈt͡sint͡sin|}} comes from [[Nahuatl]] and it is formed by the roots; ''Ne'' – personal -; ''pōhual'' or ''pōhualli'' {{IPA-nah|ˈpoːwalːi|}} – the account -; and ''tzintzin'' {{IPA-nah|ˈt͡sint͡sin|}} – small similar elements. Its complete meaning was taken as: counting with small similar elements by somebody. Its use was taught in the [[Calmecac]] to the ''temalpouhqueh'' {{IPA-nah|temaɬˈpoʍkeʔ|}}, who were students dedicated to take the accounts of skies, from childhood. The Nepōhualtzintzin was divided in two main parts separated by a bar or intermediate cord. In the left part there were four beads, which in the first row have unitary values (1, 2, 3, and 4), and in the right side there are three beads with values of 5, 10, and 15 respectively. In order to know the value of the respective beads of the upper rows, it is enough to multiply by 20 (by each row), the value of the corresponding account in the first row. Altogether, there were 13 rows with 7 beads in each one, which made up 91 beads in each Nepōhualtzintzin. This was a basic number to understand, 7 times 13, a close relation conceived between natural phenomena, the underworld and the cycles of the heavens. One Nepōhualtzintzin (91) represented the number of days that a season of the year lasts, two Nepōhualtzitzin (182) is the number of days of the corn's cycle, from its sowing to its harvest, three Nepōhualtzintzin (273) is the number of days of a baby's gestation, and four Nepōhualtzintzin (364) completed a cycle and approximate a year (1{{sfrac|1|4}} days short). When translated into modern computer arithmetic, the Nepōhualtzintzin amounted to the rank from 10 to the 18 in [[floating point]], which calculated stellar as well as infinitesimal amounts with absolute precision, meant that no round off was allowed. The rediscovery of the Nepōhualtzintzin was due to the Mexican engineer David Esparza Hidalgo,<ref>{{harvnb|Hidalgo|1977|p=94}}</ref> who in his wanderings throughout Mexico found diverse engravings and paintings of this instrument and reconstructed several of them made in gold, jade, encrustations of shell, etc.<ref>{{harvnb|Hidalgo|1977|pp=94–101}}</ref> There have also been found very old Nepōhualtzintzin attributed to the [[Olmec]] culture, and even some bracelets of [[Maya peoples|Maya]]n origin, as well as a diversity of forms and materials in other cultures. George I. Sanchez, "Arithmetic in Maya", Austin-Texas, 1961 found another base 5, base 4 abacus in the [[Yucatán Peninsula]] that also computed calendar data. This was a finger abacus, on one hand 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 were used; and on the other hand 0, 1, 2 and 3 were used. Note the use of zero at the beginning and end of the two cycles. Sanchez worked with [[Sylvanus Morley]], a noted Mayanist. The [[quipu]] of the [[Inca]]s was a system of colored knotted cords used to record numerical data,<ref>{{harvnb|Albree|2000|p=42}}</ref> like advanced [[tally stick]]s – but not used to perform calculations. Calculations were carried out using a [[yupana]] ([[Quechua languages|Quechua]] for "counting tool"; see figure) which was still in use after the conquest of Peru. The working principle of a yupana is unknown, but in 2001 an explanation of the mathematical basis of these instruments was proposed by Italian mathematician Nicolino De Pasquale. By comparing the form of several yupanas, researchers found that calculations were based using the [[Fibonacci sequence]] 1, 1, 2, 3, 5 and powers of 10, 20 and 40 as place values for the different fields in the instrument. Using the Fibonacci sequence would keep the number of grains within any one field at a minimum.<ref>{{harvnb|Aimi|De Pasquale|2005}}</ref> ===Russian=== [[File:Schoty abacus.jpg|thumb|Russian abacus]] The Russian abacus, the ''schoty'' (счёты), usually has a single slanted deck, with ten beads on each wire (except one wire, usually positioned near the user, with four beads for quarter-ruble fractions). Older models have another 4-bead wire for quarter-kopeks, which were minted until 1916. The Russian abacus is often used vertically, with wires from left to right in the manner of a book. The wires are usually bowed to bulge upward in the center, to keep the beads pinned to either of the two sides. It is cleared when all the beads are moved to the right. During manipulation, beads are moved to the left. For easy viewing, the middle 2 beads on each wire (the 5th and 6th bead) usually are of a different color from the other eight beads. Likewise, the left bead of the thousands wire (and the million wire, if present) may have a different color. As a simple, cheap and reliable device, the Russian abacus was in use in all shops and markets throughout the [[Commonwealth of Independent States|former Soviet Union]], and the usage of it was taught in most schools until the 1990s.<ref>{{harvnb|Burnett|Ryan|1998|p=7}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Hudgins|2004|p=219}}</ref> Even the 1874 invention of [[mechanical calculator]], [[Odhner Arithmometer|Odhner arithmometer]], had not replaced them in [[Russia]] and likewise the mass production of Felix arithmometers since 1924 did not significantly reduce their use in the [[Soviet Union]].<ref>{{harvnb|Leushina|1991|p=427}}</ref> The Russian abacus began to lose popularity only after the mass production of [[Pocket calculator|microcalculators]] had started in the Soviet Union in 1974. Today it is regarded as an archaism and replaced by the handheld calculator. The Russian abacus was brought to France around 1820 by the mathematician [[Jean-Victor Poncelet]], who served in [[Napoleon]]'s army and had been a prisoner of war in Russia.<ref>{{harvnb|Trogeman|Ernst|2001|p=24}}</ref> The abacus had fallen out of use in western Europe in the 16th century with the rise of decimal notation and [[algorism]]ic methods. To Poncelet's French contemporaries, it was something new. Poncelet used it, not for any applied purpose, but as a teaching and demonstration aid.<ref>{{harvnb|Flegg|1983|p=72}}</ref> The [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] and the [[Armenians|Armenian]] people also used abacuses similar to the Russian schoty. It was named a ''coulba'' by the Turks and a ''choreb'' by the Armenians.<ref>{{harvnb|Williams|1997|p=64}}</ref> ==School abacus== [[File:Kugleramme.jpg|left|150px|thumb|Early 20th century abacus used in Danish elementary school.]] [[File:Telraam.JPG|thumb|A twenty bead ''rekenrek'']] Around the world, abacuses have been used in pre-schools and elementary schools as an aid in teaching the [[numeral system]] and [[arithmetic]]. In Western countries, a bead frame similar to the Russian abacus but with straight wires and a vertical frame has been common (see image). It is still often seen as a plastic or wooden toy. The wire frame may be used either with positional notation like other abacuses (thus the 10-wire version may represent numbers up to 9,999,999,999), or each bead may represent one unit (so that e.g. 74 can be represented by shifting all beads on 7 wires and 4 beads on the 8th wire, so numbers up to 100 may be represented). In the bead frame shown, the gap between the 5th and 6th wire, corresponding to the color change between the 5th and the 6th bead on each wire, suggests the latter use. The red-and-white abacus is used in contemporary primary schools for a wide range of number-related lessons. The twenty bead version, referred to by its [[Dutch language|Dutch]] name ''rekenrek'' ("calculating frame"), is often used, sometimes on a string of beads, sometimes on a rigid framework.<ref>{{harvnb|West|2011|p=49}}</ref> {{Clear}} ==Renaissance abacuses gallery== <gallery> File:Gregor Reisch, Margarita Philosophica, 1508 (1230x1615).png File:Rechentisch.png File:Rechnung auff der Linihen und Federn.JPG File:Köbel Böschenteyn 1514.jpg File:Rechnung auff der linihen 1525 Adam Ries.PNG File:1543 Robert Recorde.PNG File:Peter Apian 1544.PNG File:Adam riesen.jpg File:Rekenaar 1553.jpg </gallery> ==Uses by the blind== An adapted abacus, invented by Tim Cranmer, called a '''Cranmer abacus''' is still commonly used by individuals who are [[blindness|blind]]. A piece of soft fabric or rubber is placed behind the beads so that they do not move inadvertently. This keeps the beads in place while the users feel or manipulate them. They use an abacus to perform the mathematical functions [[multiplication]], [[division (mathematics)|division]], [[addition]], [[subtraction]], [[square root]] and [[cube root]].<ref name="aph">{{harvnb|Terlau|Gissoni|2006}}</ref> Although blind students have benefited from talking calculators, the abacus is still very often taught to these students in early grades, both in public schools and state schools for the blind. The abacus teaches mathematical skills that can never be replaced with talking calculators and is an important learning tool for blind students.<ref>{{harvnb|Presley|D'Andrea|2009}}</ref> Blind students also complete mathematical assignments using a braille-writer and [[Nemeth Braille|Nemeth code]] (a type of braille code for mathematics) but large multiplication and [[long division]] problems can be long and difficult. The abacus gives blind and visually impaired students a tool to compute mathematical problems that equals the speed and mathematical knowledge required by their sighted peers using pencil and paper. Many blind people find this number machine a very useful tool throughout life.<ref name="aph" /> ==Binary abacus== [[File:Bbinary Abacus 002.jpg|150px|thumb|Two binary abacuses constructed by Dr. Robert C. Good, Jr., made from two Chinese abaci]] The binary abacus is used to explain how computers manipulate numbers.<ref>{{harvnb|Good Jr.|1985|p=34}}</ref> The abacus shows how numbers, letters, and signs can be stored in a [[binary number |binary system]] on a computer, or via [[ASCII]]. The device consists of a series of beads on parallel wires arranged in three separate rows. The beads represent a switch on the computer in either an "on" or "off" position. {{Clear}} ==See also== * [[Chinese Zhusuan]] * [[Chisanbop]] * [[Logical abacus]] * [[Mental abacus]] * [[Napier's bones]] * [[Sand table]] * [[Slide rule]] * [[Soroban]] * [[Suanpan]] ==Notes== {{reflist|group=nb}} ==Footnotes== {{reflist|30em}} ==References== {{Refbegin|35em}} * {{cite web |last1=Aimi |first1=Antonio |last2=De Pasquale |first2=Nicolino |others=translated by Del Bianco, Franca |url=http://www.quipus.it/english/Andean%20Calculators.pdf |format=PDF |title=Andean Calculators |year=2005 |accessdate=July 31, 2014 |archivedate=August 1, 2014 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6RUQbKM4j?url=http://www.quipus.it/english/Andean%20Calculators.pdf |deadurl=no |ref=harv |df=mdy }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last = Albree | first = Joe | editor-last = Hessenbruch | editor-first = Arne | encyclopedia = Reader's Guide to the History of Science | isbn = 1-884964-29-X | year = 2000 | publisher = Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers | location = London, UK | ref = harv }} * {{cite web |author=Anon |url=http://www.thocp.net/hardware/abacus.html |title=Abacus middle ages, region of origin Middle East |website=The History of Computing Project |date=September 12, 2002 |accessdate=July 31, 2014 |archivedate=July 31, 2014 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6RUMNJIGW?url=http://www.thocp.net/hardware/abacus.html |deadurl=no |ref=harv |df=mdy }} * {{cite web |author=Anon |url=http://www.inaoep.mx/iberamia2004/nepo_eng.htm |title=Nepohualtzintzin, The Pre Hispanic Computer |year=2004 |website=Iberamia 2004 |archivedate=August 1, 2014 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6RUPKTAzz?url=http://www.inaoep.mx/iberamia2004/nepo_eng.htm |accessdate=July 31, 2014 |deadurl=no |ref=harv |df=mdy }} * {{cite web |author=Anon |url=http://enc.daum.net/dic100/contents.do?query1=b19j3727a |script-title=ko:주판 |trans-title=Abacus |language=Korean |website=enc.daum.net |year=2013 |accessdate=July 31, 2014 |archivedate=July 31, 2014 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6RUO0RS77?url=http://100.daum.net/encyclopedia/view.do?docid=b19j3727a |deadurl=no |ref=harv |df=mdy }} * {{cite book | last1 = Boyer | first1 = Carl B. | last2 = Merzbach | first2 = Uta C.|author2-link= Uta Merzbach | title = A History of Mathematics | year = 1991 | publisher = John Wiley & Sons, Inc. | edition = 2nd | isbn = 978-0-471-54397-8 | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last = Brown | editor-first = Lesley | encyclopedia = Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles | title = abacus | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford, UK | edition = 5th | volume = 2: A-K | isbn = 978-0-19-860575-1 | year = 1993 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Brown | first = Nancy Marie | url = https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Abacus_and_the_Cross.html?id=vwy5B9ZXMh4C | title = The Abacus and the Cross: The Story of the Pope Who Brought the Light of Science to the Dark Ages | year = 2010 | publisher = Basic Books | location = Philadelphia, PA | isbn = 978-0-465-00950-3 | ref = harv }} * {{cite interview |last=Brown |first=Nancy Marie |url=http://www.religiondispatches.org/books/rd10q/3878/everything_you_think_you_know_about_the_dark_ages_is_wrong/ |title=Everything You Think You Know About the Dark Ages is Wrong |date=Jan 2, 2011 |website=rd magazine |publisher=USC Annenberg |archivedate=July 31, 2014 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6RUKXpmSJ?url=http://religiondispatches.org/everything-you-think-you-know-about-the-dark-ages-is-wrong/ |ref=harv |deadurl=no |df=mdy }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last1 = Burnett | first1 = Charles | last2 = Ryan | first2 = W. F. | editor1-last = Bud | editor1-first = Robert | editor2-last = Warner | editor2-first = Deborah Jean | title = Abacus (Western) | encyclopedia = Instruments of Science: An Historical Encyclopedia | pages = 5–7 | publisher = Garland Publishing, Inc. | location = New York, NY | year = 1998 | series = Garland Encyclopedias in the History of Science | isbn = 978-0-8153-1561-2 | ref = harv}} * {{cite web |last=Carr |first=Karen |url=http://www.historyforkids.org/learn/westasia/science/math.htm |title=West Asian Mathematics |publisher=History for Kids! |year=2014 |accessdate=Jun 19, 2014 |website=Kidipede |archivedate=June 19, 2014 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6QSPeTi7f?url=http://www.historyforkids.org/learn/westasia/science/math.htm |deadurl=no |ref=harv |df=mdy }} * {{cite book | last = Carruccio | first = Ettore | others = translated by Quigly, Isabel | title = Mathematics and Logic In History and In Contemporary Thought | publisher = Aldine Transaction | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-0-202-30850-0 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Crump | first = Thomas | title = The Japanese Numbers Game: The Use and Understanding of Numbers in Modern Japan | series = The Nissan Institute/Routledge Japanese Studies Series | publisher = Routledge | year = 1992 | isbn = 978-0-415-05609-0 | ref = harv}} * {{cite book | editor1-last = de Stefani | editor1-first = Aloysius | title = Etymologicum Gudianum quod vocatur; recensuit et apparatum criticum indicesque adiecit | year = 1909 | volume = I | publisher = Teubner | location = Leipzig, Germany | lccn = 23016143 | ref = harv }} * {{cite web | last = Fernandes | first = Luis | url = http://www.ee.ryerson.ca:8080/~elf/abacus/intro.html | title = A Brief Introduction to the Abacus | date = November 27, 2003 | work = ee.ryerson.ca | accessdate = July 31, 2014 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Flegg | first = Graham | title = Numbers: Their History and Meaning | publisher = Courier Dover Publications | year = 1983 | series = Dover Books on Mathematics | isbn = 978-0-233-97516-0 | location = Mineola, NY | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | editor-last = Gaisford | editor-first = Thomas | title = Etymologicon Magnum seu verius Lexicon Saepissime vocabulorum origines indagans ex pluribus lexicis scholiastis et grammaticis anonymi cuiusdam opera concinnatum | trans-title = The Great Etymologicon: Which Contains the Origins of the Lexicon of Words from a Large Number or Rather with a Great Amount of Research Lexicis Scholiastis and Connected Together by the Works of Anonymous Grammarians | year = 1962 | orig-year = 1848 | location = Amsterdam, The Netherlands | publisher = Adolf M. Hakkert | language = Latin | ref = harv }} * {{cite journal | last = Good Jr. | first = Robert C. | title = The Binary Abacus: A Useful Tool for Explaining Computer Operations | journal = Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching | volume = 5 | issue = 1 | pages = 34–37 | date = Fall 1985 | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last = Gove | editor-first = Philip Babcock | title = abacist | encyclopedia = Websters Third New International Dictionary | year = 1976 | edition = 17th | isbn = 0-87779-101-5 | publisher = G. & C. Merriam Company | location = Springfield, MA | ref= harv }} * {{cite book | last = Gullberg | first = Jan | year = 1997 | title = Mathematics: From the Birth of Numbers | publisher = W. W. Norton & Company | location = New York, NY | isbn = 0-393-04002-X |others= Illustrated by Pär Gullberg | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Hidalgo | first = David Esparza | title = Nepohualtzintzin: Computador Prehispánico en Vigencia |trans-title=The Nepohualtzintzin: An Effective Pre-Hispanic Computer | location = Tlacoquemécatl, Mexico | publisher = Editorial Diana | year = 1977 | language = Spanish | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Hudgins | first = Sharon | title = The Other Side of Russia: A Slice of Life in Siberia and the Russian Far East | series = Eugenia & Hugh M. Stewart '26 Series on Eastern Europe | publisher = Texas A&M University Press | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-1-58544-404-5 | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last = Huehnergard | editor-first = John | title = Appendix of Semitic Roots, under the root ''ʾbq''. | encyclopedia = American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language | edition = 5th | year = 2011 | isbn = 978-0-547-04101-8 | publisher = Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Trade | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Huff | first = Toby E. | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=DA3fkX5wQMUC&pg=PA50&lpg=PA50&dq=pope+sylvester+II+reintroduced+abacus&source=bl&ots=WvIo-rlfli&sig=pnxlRt4Q3LCsGOD4sq90Cm6gvZE&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ViWOUuuAFMrCyAG_poHYCQ&ved=0CFQQ6AEwBzgK#v=onepage&q=pope%20sylvester%20II%20reintroduced%20abacus&f=false | title = The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West | year = 1993 | edition = 1st | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge, UK | isbn = 978-0-521-43496-6 | ref = harv}} * {{cite book | last = Ifrah | first = Georges | year = 2001 | title = The Universal History of Computing: From the Abacus to the Quantum Computer | publisher = John Wiley & Sons, Inc. | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-0-471-39671-0 | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last = Jami | first = Catherine | title = Abacus (Eastern) | encyclopedia = Instruments of Science: An Historical Encyclopedia | year = 1998 | isbn = 0-8153-1561-9 | publisher = Garland Publishing, Inc. | location = New York, NY | editor1-last = Bud | editor1-first = Robert | editor2-last = Warner | editor2-first = Deborah Jean | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last = Klein | editor-first = Ernest | title = abacus | encyclopedia = A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the English Language | publisher = Elsevier Publishing Company | location = Amsterdam | year = 1966 | volume = I: A-K | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Körner | first = Thomas William | title = The Pleasures of Counting | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge, UK | year = 1996 | isbn = 978-0-521-56823-4 | ref = harv}} * {{cite book | editor1-last = Lasserre | editor1-first = Franciscus | editor2-last = Livadaras | editor2-first = Nicolaus | publisher = Edizioni dell'Ateneo | location = Rome, Italy | title = Etymologicum Magnum Genuinum: Symeonis Etymologicum: Una Cum Magna Grammatica | lccn = 77467964 | year = 1976 | volume = Primum: α — άμωσϒέπωϛ | language = Greek, Latin | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Leushina | first = A. M. | title = The development of elementary mathematical concepts in preschool children | publisher = National Council of Teachers of Mathematics | year = 1991 | isbn = 978-0-87353-299-0 | ref = harv }} * {{cite web |last=Melville |first=Duncan J. |url=http://it.stlawu.edu/~dmelvill/mesomath/chronology.html |title=Chronology of Mesopotamian Mathematics |publisher=It.stlawu.edu |date=May 30, 2001 |accessdate=Jun 19, 2014 |archivedate=June 19, 2014 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6QSPkdKoH?url=http://it.stlawu.edu/~dmelvill/mesomath/chronology.html |website=[[St. Lawrence University]] |deadurl=no |ref=harv |df=mdy }} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last = Mish | editor-first = Frederick C. | publisher = Merriam-Webster, Inc | title = abacus | encyclopedia = Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary | year = 2003 | edition = 11th | isbn = 0-87779-809-5 }} * {{cite book | last = Mollin | first = Richard Anthony | title = Fundamental Number Theory with Applications | series = Discrete Mathematics and its Applications | publisher = [[CRC Press]] | location = Boca Raton, FL |date = September 1998 | isbn = 978-0-8493-3987-5 | ref = harv }} * {{cite web |last=Murray |first=Geoffrey |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/1982/0720/072033.html |title=Ancient calculator is a hit with Japan's newest generation |website=The Christian Science Monitor |publisher=CSMonitor.com |date=July 20, 1982 |accessdate=July 31, 2014 |archivedate=July 31, 2014 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6RUMBApxo?url=http://www.csmonitor.com/1982/0720/072033.html |deadurl=no |ref=harv |df=mdy }} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last1 = Onions | editor-first1 = C. T. | editor-last2 = Friedrichsen | editor-first2 = G. W. S. | editor-last3 = Burchfield | editor-first3 = R. W. | title = abacus | encyclopedia = The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology | publisher = Oxford at the Clarendon Press | location = Oxford, UK | year = 1967 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book|title=Assistive Technology for Students who are Blind Or Visually Impaired: A Guide to Assessment|first1=Ike|last1=Presley|first2=Frances Mary|last2=D'Andrea|publisher=American Foundation for the Blind|year=2009|isbn=978-0-89128-890-9|page=61|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ooYPHSv7hEoC&pg=PA61|ref=harv}} * {{cite book | last = Pullan | first = J. M. | year = 1968 | title = The History of the Abacus | publisher = Frederick A. Praeger, Inc., Publishers | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-0-09-089410-9 | lccn = 72075113 | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor1-last = Reilly | editor1-first = Edwin D. | encyclopedia = Concise Encyclopedia of Computer Science | publisher = John Wiley and Sons, Inc. | location = New York, NY | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-470-09095-4 }} * {{cite journal | last = Sanyal | first = Amitava | title = Learning by Beads | journal = Hindustan Times | date = July 6, 2008 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Smith | first = David Eugene | title = History of Mathematics | volume = 2: Special Topics of Elementary Mathematics | series = Dover Books on Mathematics | publisher = Courier Dover Publications | year = 1958 | isbn = 978-0-486-20430-7 | ref = harv}} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor1-last = Stearns | editor1-first = Peter N. | editor2-last = Langer | editor2-first = William Leonard | encyclopedia = The Encyclopedia of World History | publisher = Houghton Mifflin Harcourt | location = New York, NY | year = 2001 | edition = 6th | isbn = 978-0-395-65237-4 }} * {{cite web |last1=Terlau |first1=Terrie |last2=Gissoni |first2=Fred |url=http://www.aph.org/tests/abacus.html |title=Abacus: Position Paper |publisher=APH.org |date=July 20, 2006 |accessdate=July 31, 2014 |archivedate=August 1, 2014 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6RURTuiln?url=http://www.aph.org/tests/abacus.html |deadurl=yes |ref=harv |df=mdy }} * {{cite book | last1 = Trogeman | first1 = Georg | last2 = Ernst | first2 = Wolfgang | editor1-last = Trogeman | editor1-first = Georg | editor2-last = Nitussov | editor2-first = Alexander Y. | editor3-last = Ernst | editor3-first = Wolfgang | title = Computing in Russia: The History of Computer Devices and Information Technology Revealed | publisher = Vieweg+Teubner Verlag | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-3-528-05757-2 | location = Braunschweig/Wiesbaden | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = West | first = Jessica F. | title = Number sense routines : building numerical literacy every day in grades K-3 | year = 2011 | publisher = Stenhouse Publishers | location = Portland, Me.| isbn = 978-1-57110-790-9 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Williams | first = Michael R. | editor-last = Baltes | editor-first = Cheryl | title = A History of Computing technology | publisher = IEEE Computer Society Press | location = Los Alamitos, CA | edition = 2nd | year = 1997 | isbn = 0-8186-7739-2 | lccn = 96045232 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Yoke | first = Ho Peng | title = Li, Qi and Shu: An Introduction to Science and Civilization in China | series = Dover Science Books | publisher = Courier Dover Publications | year = 2000 | isbn = 978-0-486-41445-4 }} {{Refend}} ==Further reading== {{Refbegin}} * {{cite web |last=Fernandes |first=Luis |url=http://www.ee.ryerson.ca/~elf/abacus/history.html |title=The Abacus: A Brief History |year=2013 |work=ee.ryerson.ca |accessdate=July 31, 2014 |archivedate=July 31, 2014 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6RUKnYTwe?url=http://www.ee.ryerson.ca/~elf/abacus/history.html |deadurl=no |ref=harv |df=mdy }} * {{Citation | last = Menninger | first = Karl W. | year = 1969 | title = Number Words and Number Symbols: A Cultural History of Numbers | publisher = MIT Press | isbn = 0-262-13040-8}} * {{Citation | last = Kojima | first = Takashi | year = 1954 | title = The Japanese Abacus: its Use and Theory | publisher = Charles E. Tuttle Co., Inc. | location = Tokyo | isbn=0-8048-0278-5}} * {{Citation | last = Kojima | first = Takashi | year = 1963 | title = Advanced Abacus: Japanese Theory and Practice | publisher = Charles E. Tuttle Co., Inc. | location = Tokyo | isbn=0-8048-0003-0}} * {{Citation |last=Stephenson |first=Stephen Kent |url=http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Ancient_Computers |title=Ancient Computers |date=July 7, 2010 | publisher = IEEE Global History Network |accessdate=2011-07-02|arxiv=1206.4349 |bibcode=2012arXiv1206.4349S }} * {{Citation | last = Stephenson | first = Stephen Kent | year = 2013 | title = Ancient Computers, Part I - Rediscovery, Edition 2 | isbn = 1-4909-6437-1}} {{Refend}} ==External links== {{wiktionary}} {{commons|Abacus}} * {{Wikisource-inline|list= ** {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Abacus |short=x |noicon=x}} ** "[[s:A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities/Abacus|Abacus]]", from ''[[s:A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities|A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities]]'', 3rd ed., 1890. }} ===Tutorials=== <!-- in alphabetical order by author --> * {{Citation | url = http://webhome.idirect.com/~totton/abacus/ | title = Abacus: Mystery of the Bead - an Abacus Manual | first = Totton & Gary Flom | last = Heffelfinger}} * [http://www.minmm.com/minc/show_classes.php?id=273 Min Multimedia] * {{Citation | url = https://www.youtube.com/view_play_list?p=545ABCC6BA8D6F44 | title = How to use a Counting Board Abacus | first = Stephen Kent | last = Stephenson | year = 2009}} ===Abacus curiosities=== * {{Citation | url = http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/Abacus/ | title = Abacus | first = Michael | last = Schreiber | publisher = The [[Wolfram Demonstrations Project]] | year = 2007}} * [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/blue/Abacus.shtml Abacus in Various Number Systems] at [[cut-the-knot]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20041009110126/http://www.tux.org/~bagleyd/abacus.html Java applet of Chinese, Japanese and Russian abaci] * [http://www.research.ibm.com/atomic/nano/roomtemp.html An atomic-scale abacus] * [http://tinas-sliderules.me.uk/Slide%20Rules/Abaci.html Examples of Abaci] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080907180002/http://www.tux.org/~bagleyd/java/AbacusAppMA.html Aztex Abacus] {{Authority control}} [[Category:Abacus| ]] [[Category:Mathematical tools]] [[Category:Chinese mathematics]] [[Category:Egyptian mathematics]] [[Category:Greek mathematics]] [[Category:Indian mathematics]] [[Category:Japanese mathematics]] [[Category:Roman mathematics]] scj4fc575wbioqirky9vyl5yelmy1n3 0 656 859907213 859905523 2018-09-17T02:16:37Z Officer781 5336741 /* Titration */ add link to acid base titration wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|acids in chemistry|the drug|Lysergic acid diethylamide|other uses}} {{Redirect|Acidity| the novelette|Acidity (novelette)}} {{redirect|Acidic|the band|Acidic (band)}} {{pp-protected|small=yes}} {{more footnotes|date=May 2009}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} [[File:Zn reaction with HCl.JPG|thumb|[[Zinc]], a typical metal, reacting with [[hydrochloric acid]], a typical acid]] {{Acids and bases}} An '''acid''' is a [[molecule]] or [[ion]] capable of donating a [[Hydron (chemistry)|hydron]] (proton or hydrogen ion H⁺), or, alternatively, capable of forming a [[covalent bond]] with an [[electron pair]] (a Lewis acid).<ref name="IUPAC_acid">[http://goldbook.iupac.org/A00071.html IUPAC Gold Book - acid]</ref> The first category of acids is the proton donors or [[Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory|Brønsted acid]]s. In the special case of [[aqueous solutions]], proton donors form the [[hydronium ion]] H₃O⁺ and are known as [[Acid-base reaction#Arrhenius theory|Arrhenius acids]]. [[Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted|Brønsted]] and [[Thomas Martin Lowry|Lowry]] generalized the Arrhenius theory to include non-aqueous solvents. A Brønsted or Arrhenius acid usually contains a hydrogen atom bonded to a chemical structure that is still energetically favorable after loss of H⁺. Aqueous Arrhenius acids have characteristic properties which provide a practical description of an acid.<ref>Petrucci R.H., Harwood, R.S. and Herring, F.G. ''General Chemistry'' (8th ed., Prentice-Hall 2002) p.146 {{ISBN|0-13-014329-4}}</ref> Acids form [[aqueous solution]]s with a sour taste, can turn blue [[litmus]] red, and react with [[Base (chemistry)|bases]] and certain metals (like [[calcium]]) to form [[Salt (chemistry)|salts]]. The word ''acid'' is derived from the [[Latin]] ''acidus/acēre'' meaning ''sour''.<ref>[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/acid Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary: ''acid'']</ref> An aqueous solution of an acid has a [[pH]] less than 7 and is colloquially also referred to as 'acid' (as in 'dissolved in acid'), while the strict definition refers only to the [[solution|solute]].<ref name="IUPAC_acid"/> A lower pH means a higher acidity, and thus a higher concentration of [[Hydron (chemistry)|positive hydrogen ions]] in the [[solution]]. Chemicals or substances having the property of an acid are said to be '''acidic'''. Common aqueous acids include [[hydrochloric acid]] (a solution of [[hydrogen chloride]] which is found in [[gastric acid]] in the stomach and activates [[digestive enzymes]]), [[acetic acid]] (vinegar is a dilute aqueous solution of this liquid), [[sulfuric acid]] (used in [[car battery|car batteries]]), and [[citric acid]] (found in citrus fruits). As these examples show, acids (in the colloquial sense) can be solutions or pure substances, and can be derived from acids (in the strict<ref name="IUPAC_acid"/> sense) that are solids, liquids, or gases. [[Acid strength|Strong acid]]s and some concentrated weak acids are [[corrosive substance|corrosive]], but there are exceptions such as [[carborane]]s and [[boric acid]]. The second category of acids are [[Lewis acids and bases|Lewis acids]], which form a covalent bond with an electron pair. An example is [[boron trifluoride]] (BF₃), whose boron atom has a vacant [[atomic orbital|orbital]] which can form a covalent bond by sharing a lone pair of electrons on an atom in a base, for example the nitrogen atom in [[ammonia]] (NH₃). [[Gilbert N. Lewis|Lewis]] considered this as a generalization of the Brønsted definition, so that an acid is a chemical species that accepts electron pairs either directly ''or'' by releasing protons (H⁺) into the solution, which then accept electron pairs. However, hydrogen chloride, acetic acid, and most other Brønsted-Lowry acids cannot form a covalent bond with an electron pair and are therefore not Lewis acids.<ref name="Oxtoby8th">Oxtoby, D. W; Gillis, H.P., Butler, L. J. (2015).''Principles of Modern Chemistry'', Brooks Cole. p. 617. {{ISBN|978-1305079113}}</ref> Conversely, many Lewis acids are not Arrhenius or Brønsted-Lowry acids. In modern terminology, an ''acid'' is implicitly a Brønsted acid and not a Lewis acid, since chemists almost always refer to a Lewis acid explicitly as ''a Lewis acid''.<ref name="Oxtoby8th" /> ==Definitions and concepts== {{main|Acid–base reaction}} Modern definitions are concerned with the fundamental chemical reactions common to all acids. Most acids encountered in everyday life are [[aqueous solutions]], or can be dissolved in water, so the Arrhenius and Brønsted-Lowry definitions are the most relevant. The Brønsted-Lowry definition is the most widely used definition; unless otherwise specified, acid-base reactions are assumed to involve the transfer of a proton (H⁺) from an acid to a base. Hydronium ions are acids according to all three definitions. Although alcohols and amines can be Brønsted-Lowry acids, they can also function as [[Lewis base]]s due to the lone pairs of electrons on their oxygen and nitrogen atoms. ===Arrhenius acids=== [[File:Arrhenius2.jpg|thumb|150px|Svante Arrhenius]] The Swedish chemist [[Svante Arrhenius]] attributed the properties of acidity to [[hydron (chemistry)|hydrogen ions]] (H⁺) or [[proton]]s in 1884. An '''Arrhenius acid''' is a substance that, when added to water, increases the concentration of H⁺ ions in the water.<ref name="Oxtoby8th"/><ref name="Ebbing">Ebbing, D.D., & Gammon, S. D. (2005). ''General chemistry'' (8th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. {{ISBN|0-618-51177-6}}</ref> Note that chemists often write H⁺(''aq'') and refer to the [[hydrogen ion]] when describing acid-base reactions but the free hydrogen nucleus, a [[proton]], does not exist alone in water, it exists as the hydronium ion, H₃O⁺. Thus, an Arrhenius acid can also be described as a substance that increases the concentration of hydronium ions when added to water. Examples include molecular substances such as HCl and acetic acid. An Arrhenius [[base (chemistry)|base]], on the other hand, is a substance which increases the concentration of [[hydroxide]] (OH⁻) ions when dissolved in water. This decreases the concentration of hydronium because the ions react to form H₂O molecules: H₃O{{su|p=+|b=(aq)}} + OH{{su|p=−|b=(aq)}} ⇌ H₂O_(l) + H₂O_(l) Due to this equilibrium, any increase in the concentration of hydronium is accompanied by a decrease in the concentration of hydroxide. Thus, an Arrhenius acid could also be said to be one that decreases hydroxide concentration, while an Arrhenius base increases it. In an acidic solution, the concentration of hydronium ions is greater than 10⁻⁷ [[Mole (unit)|moles]] per liter. Since pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the concentration of hydronium ions, acidic solutions thus have a pH of less than 7. ===Brønsted–Lowry acids{{anchor|Brønsted acids}}=== {{Main|Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory}} [[File:Acetic-acid-dissociation-3D-balls.png|thumb|350px|alt=Acetic acid, CH₃COOH, is composed of a methyl group, CH₃, bound chemically to a carboxylate group, COOH. The carboxylate group can lose a proton and donate it to a water molecule, H₂0, leaving behind an acetate anion CH₃COO- and creating a hydronium cation H₃O. This is an equilibrium reaction, so the reverse process can also take place.|[[Acetic acid]], a [[weak acid]], donates a proton (hydrogen ion, highlighted in green) to water in an equilibrium reaction to give the [[acetate]] ion and the [[hydronium]] ion. Red: oxygen, black: carbon, white: hydrogen.]] While the Arrhenius concept is useful for describing many reactions, it is also quite limited in its scope. In 1923 chemists [[Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted]] and [[Thomas Martin Lowry]] independently recognized that acid-base reactions involve the transfer of a proton. A '''Brønsted-Lowry acid''' (or simply Brønsted acid) is a species that donates a proton to a Brønsted-Lowry base.<ref name="Ebbing" /> Brønsted-Lowry acid-base theory has several advantages over Arrhenius theory. Consider the following reactions of [[acetic acid]] (CH₃COOH), the [[organic acid]] that gives vinegar its characteristic taste: :{{chem|CH|3|COOH}} + {{chem|H|2|O}} {{eqm}} {{chem|CH|3|COO|−}} + {{chem|H|3|O|+}} :{{chem|CH|3|COOH}} + {{chem|NH|3}} {{eqm}} {{chem|CH|3|COO|−}} + {{chem|NH|4|+}} Both theories easily describe the first reaction: CH₃COOH acts as an Arrhenius acid because it acts as a source of H₃O⁺ when dissolved in water, and it acts as a Brønsted acid by donating a proton to water. In the second example CH₃COOH undergoes the same transformation, in this case donating a proton to ammonia (NH₃), but does not relate to the Arrhenius definition of an acid because the reaction does not produce hydronium. Nevertheless, CH₃COOH is both an Arrhenius and a Brønsted-Lowry acid. Brønsted-Lowry theory can be used to describe reactions of [[molecule|molecular compounds]] in nonaqueous solution or the gas phase. [[Hydrogen chloride]] (HCl) and ammonia combine under several different conditions to form [[ammonium chloride]], NH₄Cl. In aqueous solution HCl behaves as [[hydrochloric acid]] and exists as hydronium and chloride ions. The following reactions illustrate the limitations of Arrhenius's definition: # H₃O{{su|p=+|b=(aq)}} + Cl{{su|p=−|b=(aq)}} + NH₃ → Cl{{su|p=−|b=(aq)}} + NH{{su|b=4|p=+}}_(aq) + H₂O # HCl_(benzene) + NH_3(benzene) → NH₄Cl_(s) # HCl_(g) + NH_3(g) → NH₄Cl_(s) As with the acetic acid reactions, both definitions work for the first example, where water is the solvent and hydronium ion is formed by the HCl solute. The next two reactions do not involve the formation of ions but are still proton-transfer reactions. In the second reaction hydrogen chloride and ammonia (dissolved in [[benzene]]) react to form solid ammonium chloride in a benzene solvent and in the third gaseous HCl and NH₃ combine to form the solid. ===Lewis acids=== {{main article|Lewis acids and bases}} A third, only marginally related concept was proposed in 1923 by [[Gilbert N. Lewis]], which includes reactions with acid-base characteristics that do not involve a proton transfer. A '''Lewis acid''' is a species that accepts a pair of electrons from another species; in other words, it is an electron pair acceptor.<ref name="Ebbing" /> Brønsted acid-base reactions are proton transfer reactions while Lewis acid-base reactions are electron pair transfers. Many Lewis acids are not Brønsted-Lowry acids. Contrast how the following reactions are described in terms of acid-base chemistry: :[[File:LewisAcid.png|374px]] In the first reaction a [[fluoride|fluoride ion]], F⁻, gives up an [[lone pair|electron pair]] to [[boron trifluoride]] to form the product [[tetrafluoroborate]]. Fluoride "loses" a pair of [[valence electron]]s because the electrons shared in the B—F bond are located in the region of space between the two atomic [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]] and are therefore more distant from the fluoride nucleus than they are in the lone fluoride ion. BF₃ is a Lewis acid because it accepts the electron pair from fluoride. This reaction cannot be described in terms of Brønsted theory because there is no proton transfer. The second reaction can be described using either theory. A proton is transferred from an unspecified Brønsted acid to ammonia, a Brønsted base; alternatively, ammonia acts as a Lewis base and transfers a lone pair of electrons to form a bond with a hydrogen ion. The species that gains the electron pair is the Lewis acid; for example, the oxygen atom in H₃O⁺ gains a pair of electrons when one of the H—O bonds is broken and the electrons shared in the bond become localized on oxygen. Depending on the context, a Lewis acid may also be described as an [[Oxidizing agent|oxidizer]] or an [[electrophile]]. Organic Brønsted acids, such as acetic, citric, or oxalic acid, are not Lewis acids.<ref name="Oxtoby8th" /> They dissociate in water to produce a Lewis acid, H⁺, but at the same time also yield an equal amount of a Lewis base (acetate, citrate, or oxalate, respectively, for the acids mentioned). Few, if any, of the acids discussed in the following are Lewis acids. ==Dissociation and equilibrium== <!-- linked from redirect [[Free acid]] --> Reactions of acids are often generalized in the form HA {{eqm}} H⁺ + A⁻, where HA represents the acid and A⁻ is the [[conjugate acid|conjugate base]]. This reaction is referred to as '''protolysis'''. The protonated form (HA) of an acid is also sometimes referred to as the '''free acid'''.<ref>{{cite book | editor-last1 = Stahl | editor-first1 = P. Heinrich | editor-last2 = Warmth | editor-first2 = Camille G. | last1 = Stahl | first1 = P. Heinrich | last2 = Nakamo | first2 = Masahiro | name-list-format = vanc | title = Handbook of Pharmaceutical Salts: Properties, Selection, and Use | date = 2008 | publisher = Wiley-VCH | location = Weinheim | isbn = 978-3-906390-58-1 | chapter = Pharmaceutical Aspects of the Salt Form | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=IvSEXUZUON8C&pg=PA92&dq=%22free+acid%22+salt&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22free%20acid%22%20salt&f=false | pages = 92–94 }}</ref> Acid-base conjugate pairs differ by one proton, and can be interconverted by the addition or removal of a proton ([[protonation]] and [[deprotonation]], respectively). Note that the acid can be the charged species and the conjugate base can be neutral in which case the generalized reaction scheme could be written as HA⁺ {{eqm}} H⁺ + A. In solution there exists an [[chemical equilibrium|equilibrium]] between the acid and its conjugate base. The [[equilibrium constant]] ''K'' is an expression of the equilibrium concentrations of the molecules or the ions in solution. Brackets indicate concentration, such that [H₂O] means ''the concentration of H₂O''. The [[acid dissociation constant]] ''K''_a is generally used in the context of acid-base reactions. The numerical value of ''K''_a is equal to the product of the concentrations of the products divided by the concentration of the reactants, where the reactant is the acid (HA) and the products are the conjugate base and H⁺. :<math chem>K_a = \frac\ce{[H+] [A^-]}\ce{[HA]}</math> The stronger of two acids will have a higher ''K''_a than the weaker acid; the ratio of hydrogen ions to acid will be higher for the stronger acid as the stronger acid has a greater tendency to lose its proton. Because the range of possible values for ''K''_a spans many orders of magnitude, a more manageable constant, p''K''_a is more frequently used, where p''K''_a = &minus;log₁₀ ''K''_a. Stronger acids have a smaller p''K''_a than weaker acids. Experimentally determined p''K''_a at 25&nbsp;°C in aqueous solution are often quoted in textbooks and reference material. ==Nomenclature== In the classical naming system, acids are named according to their [[anion]]s. That ionic suffix is dropped and replaced with a new suffix (and sometimes prefix), according to the table below. For example, HCl has [[chloride]] as its anion, so the -ide suffix makes it take the form [[hydrochloric acid]]. In the [[IUPAC]] naming system, "aqueous" is simply added to the name of the ionic compound. Thus, for hydrogen chloride, the IUPAC name would be aqueous hydrogen chloride. The prefix "hydro-" is added only if the acid is made up of just hydrogen and one other element. Classical naming system: {| class="wikitable" !Anion prefix !Anion suffix !Acid prefix !Acid suffix !Example |- |per |ate |per |ic acid |[[perchloric acid]] (HClO₄) |- | |ate | |ic acid |[[chloric acid]] (HClO₃) |- | |ite | |ous acid |[[chlorous acid]] (HClO₂) |- |hypo |ite |hypo |ous acid |[[hypochlorous acid]] (HClO) |- | |ide |hydro |ic acid |[[hydrochloric acid]] (HCl) |} ==Acid strength== {{main|Acid strength}} The strength of an acid refers to its ability or tendency to lose a proton. A strong acid is one that completely dissociates in water; in other words, one [[mole (unit)|mole]] of a strong acid HA dissolves in water yielding one mole of H⁺ and one mole of the conjugate base, A⁻, and none of the protonated acid HA. In contrast, a weak acid only partially dissociates and at equilibrium both the acid and the conjugate base are in solution. Examples of [[strong acid]]s are [[hydrochloric acid]] (HCl), [[hydroiodic acid]] (HI), [[hydrobromic acid]] (HBr), [[perchloric acid]] (HClO₄), [[nitric acid]] (HNO₃) and [[sulfuric acid]] (H₂SO₄). In water each of these essentially ionizes 100%. The stronger an acid is, the more easily it loses a proton, H⁺. Two key factors that contribute to the ease of deprotonation are the [[chemical polarity|polarity]] of the H—A bond and the size of atom A, which determines the strength of the H—A bond. Acid strengths are also often discussed in terms of the stability of the conjugate base. Stronger acids have a larger ''K''_a and a more negative p''K''_a than weaker acids. Sulfonic acids, which are organic oxyacids, are a class of strong acids. A common example is [[toluenesulfonic acid]] (tosylic acid). Unlike sulfuric acid itself, sulfonic acids can be solids. In fact, [[polystyrene]] functionalized into polystyrene sulfonate is a solid strongly acidic plastic that is filterable. [[Superacid]]s are acids stronger than 100% sulfuric acid. Examples of superacids are [[fluoroantimonic acid]], [[magic acid]] and [[perchloric acid]]. Superacids can permanently protonate water to give ionic, crystalline [[hydronium]] "salts". They can also quantitatively stabilize [[carbocation]]s. While ''K''_a measures the strength of an acid compound, the strength of an aqueous acid solution is measured by pH, which is an indication of the concentration of hydronium in the solution. The pH of a simple solution of an acid compound in water is determined by the dilution of the compound and the compound's ''K''_a. ==Chemical characteristics== ===Monoprotic acids=== Monoprotic acids, also known as monobasic acids, are those acids that are able to donate one [[proton]] per molecule during the process of [[dissociation (chemistry)|dissociation]] (sometimes called ionization) as shown below (symbolized by HA): :HA_(aq) + H₂O_(l) {{eqm}} H₃O{{su|p=+|b=(aq)}} + A{{su|p=−|b=(aq)}} &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; ''K''_a Common examples of monoprotic acids in [[mineral acid]]s include [[hydrochloric acid]] (HCl) and [[nitric acid]] (HNO₃). On the other hand, for [[organic acids]] the term mainly indicates the presence of one [[carboxylic acid]] group and sometimes these acids are known as monocarboxylic acid. Examples in [[organic acids]] include [[formic acid]] (HCOOH), [[acetic acid]] (CH₃COOH) and [[benzoic acid]] (C₆H₅COOH). {{See also|Acid dissociation constant#Monoprotic acids}} ===Polyprotic acids=== Polyprotic acids, also known as polybasic acids, are able to donate more than one proton per acid molecule, in contrast to monoprotic acids that only donate one proton per molecule. Specific types of polyprotic acids have more specific names, such as diprotic acid (two potential protons to donate) and triprotic acid (three potential protons to donate). A diprotic acid (here symbolized by H₂A) can undergo one or two dissociations depending on the pH. Each dissociation has its own dissociation constant, K_a1 and K_a2. :{{nowrap|H₂A_(aq) + H₂O_(l) {{eqm}} H₃O{{su|p=+|b=(aq)}} + HA{{su|p=−|b=(aq)}} &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; ''K''_a1}} :{{nowrap|HA{{su|p=−|b=(aq)}} + H₂O_(l) {{eqm}} H₃O{{su|p=+|b=(aq)}} + A{{su|p=2−|b=(aq)}} &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; ''K''_a2}} The first dissociation constant is typically greater than the second; i.e., ''K''_a1 > ''K''_a2. For example, [[sulfuric acid]] (H₂SO₄) can donate one proton to form the [[bisulfate]] anion (HSO{{su|b=4|p=−}}), for which ''K''_a1 is very large; then it can donate a second proton to form the [[sulfate]] anion (SO{{su|b=4|p=2−}}), wherein the ''K''_a2 is intermediate strength. The large ''K''_a1 for the first dissociation makes sulfuric a strong acid. In a similar manner, the weak unstable [[carbonic acid]] {{nowrap|(H₂CO₃)}} can lose one proton to form [[bicarbonate]] anion {{nowrap|(HCO{{su|b=3|p=−}})}} and lose a second to form [[carbonate]] anion (CO{{su|b=3|p=2−}}). Both ''K''_a values are small, but ''K''_a1 > ''K''_a2 . A triprotic acid (H₃A) can undergo one, two, or three dissociations and has three dissociation constants, where ''K''_a1 > ''K''_a2 > ''K''_a3. :{{nowrap|H₃A_(aq) + H₂O_(l) {{eqm}} H₃O{{su|p=+|b=(aq)}} + H₂A{{su|p=−|b=(aq)}} &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; ''K''_a1}} :{{nowrap|H₂A{{su|p=−|b=(aq)}} + H₂O_(l) {{eqm}} H₃O{{su|p=+|b=(aq)}} + HA{{su|p=2−|b=(aq)}} &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; ''K''_a2}} :{{nowrap|HA{{su|p=2−|b=(aq)}} + H₂O_(l) {{eqm}} H₃O{{su|p=+|b=(aq)}} + A{{su|p=3−|b=(aq)}} &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ''K''_a3}} An [[inorganic]] example of a triprotic acid is orthophosphoric acid (H₃PO₄), usually just called [[phosphoric acid]]. All three protons can be successively lost to yield H₂PO{{su|b=4|p=−}}, then HPO{{su|b=4|p=2−}}, and finally PO{{su|b=4|p=3−}}, the orthophosphate ion, usually just called [[phosphate]]. Even though the positions of the three protons on the original phosphoric acid molecule are equivalent, the successive ''K''_a values differ since it is energetically less favorable to lose a proton if the conjugate base is more negatively charged. An [[organic compound|organic]] example of a triprotic acid is [[citric acid]], which can successively lose three protons to finally form the [[citrate]] ion. Although the subsequent loss of each hydrogen ion is less favorable, all of the conjugate bases are present in solution. The fractional concentration, ''α'' (alpha), for each species can be calculated. For example, a generic diprotic acid will generate 3 species in solution: H₂A, HA⁻, and A²⁻. The fractional concentrations can be calculated as below when given either the pH (which can be converted to the [H⁺]) or the concentrations of the acid with all its conjugate bases: :<math chem>\begin{align} \alpha_\ce{H2A} &= \frac\ce{[H+]^2}{\ce{[H+]^2} + [\ce{H+}]K_1 + K_1 K_2} = \frac\ce{[H2A]}\ce{{[H2A]}+{[HA^-]}+{[A^{2-}]}} \\ \alpha_\ce{HA^-} &= \frac{[\ce{H+}]K_1}{\ce{[H+]^2} + [\ce{H+}]K_1 + K_1 K_2} = \frac\ce{[HA^-]}\ce{{[H2A]}+{[HA^-]}+{[A^{2-}]}} \\ \alpha_\ce{A^{2-}} &= \frac{K_1 K_2}{\ce{[H+]^2} + [\ce{H+}]K_1 + K_1 K_2} = \frac\ce{[A^{2-}]}\ce{{[H2A]}+{[HA^-]}+{[A^{2-}]}} \end{align}</math> A plot of these fractional concentrations against pH, for given ''K''₁ and ''K''₂, is known as a [[Bjerrum plot]]. A pattern is observed in the above equations and can be expanded to the general ''n'' -protic acid that has been deprotonated ''i'' -times: :<math chem> \alpha_{\ce H_{n-i} A^{i-} }= {{[\ce{H+}]^{n-i} \displaystyle \prod_{j=0}^{i}K_j} \over { \displaystyle \sum_{i=0}^n \Big[ [\ce{H+}]^{n-i} \displaystyle \prod_{j=0}^{i}K_j} \Big] } </math> where ''K''₀ = 1 and the other K-terms are the dissociation constants for the acid. {{See also|Acid dissociation constant#Polyprotic acids}} ===Neutralization=== [[Image:Hydrochloric acid ammonia.jpg|thumb|[[Hydrochloric acid]] (in [[beaker (glassware)|beaker]]) reacting with [[ammonia]] fumes to produce [[ammonium chloride]] (white smoke).]] [[Neutralization (chemistry)|Neutralization]] is the reaction between an acid and a base, producing a [[salt (chemistry)|salt]] and neutralized base; for example, [[hydrochloric acid]] and [[sodium hydroxide]] form [[sodium chloride]] and water: :HCl_(aq) + NaOH_(aq) → H₂O_(l) + NaCl_(aq) Neutralization is the basis of [[titration]], where a [[pH indicator]] shows equivalence point when the equivalent number of moles of a base have been added to an acid. It is often wrongly assumed that neutralization should result in a solution with pH 7.0, which is only the case with similar acid and base strengths during a reaction. Neutralization with a base weaker than the acid results in a weakly acidic salt. An example is the weakly acidic [[ammonium chloride]], which is produced from the strong acid [[hydrogen chloride]] and the weak base [[ammonia]]. Conversely, neutralizing a weak acid with a strong base gives a weakly basic salt, e.g. [[sodium fluoride]] from [[hydrogen fluoride]] and [[sodium hydroxide]]. ===Weak acid–weak base equilibrium=== {{main|Henderson–Hasselbalch equation}} In order for a protonated acid to lose a proton, the pH of the system must rise above the p''K''_a of the acid. The decreased concentration of H⁺ in that basic solution shifts the equilibrium towards the conjugate base form (the deprotonated form of the acid). In lower-pH (more acidic) solutions, there is a high enough H⁺ concentration in the solution to cause the acid to remain in its protonated form. Solutions of weak acids and salts of their conjugate bases form [[buffer solution]]s. == Titration == {{main|Acid–base titration}} To determine the concentration of an acid in an aqueous solution, an acid-base titration is commonly performed. A strong base solution with a known concentration, usually NaOH or KOH, is added to neutralize the acid solution according to the color change of the indicator with the amount of base added.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Aqueous Acid-Base Equilibria and Titrations.|first = Robert|last = de Levie|publisher = Oxford University Press|year = 1999|isbn = |location = New York|pages = }}</ref> The titration curve of an acid titrated by a base has two axes, with the base volume on the x-axis and the solution's pH value on the y-axis. The pH of the solution always goes up as the base is added to the solution. === Example: Diprotic acid === [[File:Titration alanine.jpg|thumb|This is an ideal titration curve for [[alanine]], a diprotic amino acid.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Assignment of the proton-association constants for 3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)alanine (L-dopa)|url = http://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/1978/dt/dt9780000043|website = pubs.rsc.org|access-date = 2016-01-29|doi = 10.1039/DT9780000043|language = en|first = Reginald F.|last = Jameson}}</ref> Point 2 is the first equivalent point where the amount of NaOH added equals the amount of alanine in the original solution.]] For each diprotic acid titration curve, from left to right, there are two midpoints, two equivalence points, and two buffer regions.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Ion Exchange|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=F9OQMEA88CAC|publisher = Courier Corporation|date = 1962-01-01|isbn = 9780486687841|language = en|first = Friedrich G.|last = Helfferich}}</ref> ==== Equivalence points ==== Due to the successive dissociation processes, there are two equivalence points in the titration curve of a diprotic acid.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Titration of Diprotic Acid|url = http://dwb.unl.edu/calculators/activities/diproticacid.html|website = dwb.unl.edu|access-date = 2016-01-24}}</ref> The first equivalence point occurs when all first hydrogen ions from the first ionization are titrated.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=i1g8AwAAQBAJ|publisher = Cengage Learning|date = 2014-01-24|isbn = 9781305176461|language = en|first = John C.|last = Kotz|first2 = Paul M.|last2 = Treichel|first3 = John|last3 = Townsend|first4 = David|last4 = Treichel}}</ref> In other words, the amount of OH⁻ added equals the original amount of H₂A at the first equivalence point. The second equivalence point occurs when all hydrogen ions are titrated. Therefore, the amount of OH⁻ added equals twice the amount of H₂A at this time. For a weak diprotic acid titrated by a strong base, the second equivalence point must occur at pH above 7 due to the hydrolysis of the resulted salts in the solution.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Chemistry and Chemical Reactivity, Enhanced Edition|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=IBESYmQcb0sC|publisher = Cengage Learning|date = 2009-02-09|isbn = 0495390291|language = en|first = John|last = Kotz|first2 = Paul|last2 = Treichel|first3 = John|last3 = Townsend}}</ref> At either equivalence point, adding a drop of base will cause the steepest rise of the pH value in the system. ==== Buffer regions and mid points ==== A titration curve for a diprotic acid contains two midpoints where pH=pK_a. Since there are two different K_a values, the first midpoint occurs at pH=pK_a1 and the second one occurs at pH=pK_a2.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=7chAN0UY0LYC|publisher = Macmillan|date = 2005-01-01|isbn = 9780716743392|language = en|first = Albert L.|last = Lehninger|first2 = David L.|last2 = Nelson|first3 = Michael M.|last3 = Cox}}</ref> Each segment of the curve which contains a midpoint at its center is called the buffer region. Because the buffer regions consist of the acid and its conjugate base, it can resist pH changes when base is added until the next equivalent points.<ref>{{Cite book|title = General Chemistry|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=BnccCgAAQBAJ|publisher = Cengage Learning|date = 2016-01-01|isbn = 9781305887299|language = en|first = Darrell|last = Ebbing|first2 = Steven D.|last2 = Gammon}}</ref> ==Applications of acids== Acids exist universally in our life. There are both numerous kinds of natural acid compounds with biological functions and massive synthesized acids which are used in many ways. ===In industry=== Acids are fundamental reagents in treating almost all processes in today's industry. Sulfuric acid, a diprotic acid, is the most widely used acid in industry, which is also the most-produced industrial chemical in the world. It is mainly used in producing fertilizer, detergent, batteries and dyes, as well as used in processing many products such like removing impurities.<ref>{{Cite web|title = The Top 10 Industrial Chemicals - For Dummies|url = http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/the-top-10-industrial-chemicals.html|website = www.dummies.com|access-date = 2016-02-05}}</ref> According to the statistics data in 2011, the annual production of sulfuric acid was around 200 million tonnes in the world.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Sulfuric acid|url = http://www.essentialchemicalindustry.org/chemicals/sulfuric-acid.html|website = www.essentialchemicalindustry.org|access-date = 2016-02-06}}</ref> For example, phosphate minerals react with sulfuric acid to produce [[phosphoric acid]] for the production of phosphate fertilizers, and [[zinc]] is produced by dissolving zinc oxide into sulfuric acid, purifying the solution and electrowinning. In the chemical industry, acids react in neutralization reactions to produce salts. For example, [[nitric acid]] reacts with [[ammonia]] to produce [[ammonium nitrate]], a fertilizer. Additionally, [[carboxylic acid]]s can be [[Esterification|esterified]] with alcohols, to produce [[ester]]s. Acids are often used to remove rust and other corrosion from metals in a process known as [[pickling (metal)|pickling]]. They may be used as an electrolyte in a [[wet cell battery]], such as [[sulfuric acid]] in a [[car battery]]. ===In food=== [[File:Lata Coca Cola.JPG|thumb|Carbonated water (H₂CO₃ aqueous solution) is one of the main ingredients listed the ingredient sheet of a can of Coca-Cola.]] [[Tartaric acid]] is an important component of some commonly used foods like unripened mangoes and tamarind. Natural fruits and vegetables also contain acids. [[Citric acid]] is present in oranges, lemon and other citrus fruits. [[Oxalic acid]] is present in tomatoes, spinach, and especially in [[carambola]] and [[rhubarb]]; rhubarb leaves and unripe carambolas are toxic because of high concentrations of oxalic acid. [[Ascorbic acid]] (Vitamin C) is an essential vitamin for the human body and is present in such foods as amla ([[Phyllanthus emblica|Indian gooseberry]]), lemon, citrus fruits, and guava. Many acids can be found in various kinds of food as additives, as they alter their taste and serve as preservatives. [[Phosphoric acid]], for example, is a component of [[cola]] drinks. [[Acetic acid]] is used in day-to-day life as vinegar. Citric acid is used as a preservative in sauces and pickles. [[Carbonic acid]] is one of the most common acid additive that is widely added in [[soft drink]]<nowiki/>s, such as [[Coca-Cola]]. During the manufacturing process of soft drinks, CO₂ is usually pressurized to dissolve in these drinks to generate carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is very unstable and tend to decompose into water and CO₂ in normal temperature and pressure. Therefore, when we open the bottles or cans of these kinds of soft drinks, CO₂ bubbles come out and thus we feel 'sparks'.<ref>{{Citation|title = Method of and apparatus for making and dispensing a carbonated beverage utilizing propellant carbon dioxide gas for carbonating|url = http://www.google.com/patents/US4304736|date = Dec 8, 1981|accessdate = 2016-02-06|first = John R.|last = McMillin|first2 = Gene A.|last2 = Tracy|first3 = William A.|last3 = Harvill|first4 = William S., Jr.|last4 = Credle}}</ref> Certain acids are used as drugs. [[Acetylsalicylic acid]] (Aspirin) is used as a pain killer and for bringing down fevers. ===In human bodies=== Acids play important roles in the human body. The hydrochloric acid present in the stomach aids digestion by breaking down large and complex food molecules. Amino acids are required for synthesis of proteins required for growth and repair of body tissues. Fatty acids are also required for growth and repair of body tissues. Nucleic acids are important for the manufacturing of DNA and RNA and transmitting of traits to offspring through genes. Carbonic acid is important for maintenance of pH equilibrium in the body. Human bodies contain a variety of organic and inorganic compounds, among those [[dicarboxylic acid]]s play an essential role in many biological behaviors. Many of those acids are [[amino acids]] which mainly serve as materials for the synthesis of proteins.<ref>{{Cite web|title = 8 - Biological roles of amino acids and peptides - University Publishing Online|url = http://ebooks.cambridge.org/chapter.jsf?bid=CBO9781139163828&cid=CBO9781139163828A114|website = ebooks.cambridge.org|access-date = 2016-02-06}}</ref> Other weak acids serve as buffers with their conjugate bases to keep the body's pH from undergoing large scale changes which would be harmful to cells.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://fitsweb.uchc.edu/student/selectives/TimurGraham/Acid_Buffering.html|title = Acid Buffering|date = 2006|access-date = 2016-02-06|website = Acid Base Online Tutorial|publisher = University of Connecticut|last = Graham|first = Timur}}</ref> The rest of the dicarboxylic acids also participate in the synthesis of various biologically important compounds in human bodies. ===Acid catalysis=== {{Main|Acid catalysis}} Acids are used as [[catalyst]]s in industrial and organic chemistry; for example, [[sulfuric acid]] is used in very large quantities in the [[alkylation]] process to produce gasoline. Some acids, such as sulfuric, phosphoric, and hydrochloric acids, also effect [[Dehydration reaction|dehydration]] and [[condensation reaction]]s. In biochemistry, many [[enzyme]]s employ acid catalysis.<ref name="Voet acid cat">{{cite book |author=Voet, Judith G.|author2=Voet, Donald |title=Biochemistry |publisher=J. Wiley & Sons |location=New York |date=2004 |pages=496–500 |isbn=978-0-471-19350-0 }}</ref> ==Biological occurrence== [[Image:Aminoacid.png|thumb|left|Basic structure of an [[amino acid]].]]Many biologically important molecules are acids. [[Nucleic acid]]s, which contain acidic [[phosphate|phosphate groups]], include [[DNA]] and [[RNA]]. Nucleic acids contain the genetic code that determines many of an organism's characteristics, and is passed from parents to offspring. DNA contains the chemical blueprint for the synthesis of [[protein]]s which are made up of [[amino acid]] subunits. [[Cell membrane]]s contain [[fatty acid]] [[ester]]s such as [[phospholipids]]. An α-amino acid has a central carbon (the α or [[alpha and beta carbon|''alpha'' carbon]]) which is covalently bonded to a [[carboxyl]] group (thus they are [[carboxylic acid]]s), an [[amine|amino]] group, a hydrogen atom and a variable group. The variable group, also called the R group or side chain, determines the identity and many of the properties of a specific amino acid. In [[glycine]], the simplest amino acid, the R group is a hydrogen atom, but in all other amino acids it is contains one or more carbon atoms bonded to hydrogens, and may contain other elements such as sulfur, oxygen or nitrogen. With the exception of glycine, naturally occurring amino acids are [[Chirality (chemistry)|chiral]] and almost invariably occur in the [[Chirality (chemistry)#By configuration: D- and L-|<small>L</small>-configuration]]. [[Peptidoglycan]], found in some bacterial [[cell wall]]s contains some <small>D</small>-amino acids. At physiological pH, typically around 7, free amino acids exist in a charged form, where the acidic carboxyl group (-COOH) loses a proton (-COO⁻) and the basic amine group (-NH₂) gains a proton (-NH{{su|b=3|p=+}}). The entire molecule has a net neutral charge and is a [[zwitterion]], with the exception of amino acids with basic or acidic side chains. [[Aspartic acid]], for example, possesses one protonated amine and two deprotonated carboxyl groups, for a net charge of −1 at physiological pH. Fatty acids and fatty acid derivatives are another group of carboxylic acids that play a significant role in biology. These contain long hydrocarbon chains and a carboxylic acid group on one end. The cell membrane of nearly all organisms is primarily made up of a [[phospholipid bilayer]], a [[micelle]] of hydrophobic fatty acid esters with polar, hydrophilic [[phosphate]] "head" groups. Membranes contain additional components, some of which can participate in acid-base reactions. In humans and many other animals, [[hydrochloric acid]] is a part of the [[gastric acid]] secreted within the [[stomach]] to help hydrolyze [[protein]]s and [[polysaccharide]]s, as well as converting the inactive pro-enzyme, [[pepsinogen]] into the [[digestive enzyme|enzyme]], [[pepsin]]. Some organisms produce acids for defense; for example, ants produce [[formic acid]]. Acid-base equilibrium plays a critical role in regulating [[mammal]]ian breathing. [[molecular oxygen|Oxygen]] gas (O₂) drives [[cellular respiration]], the process by which animals release the chemical [[potential energy]] stored in food, producing [[carbon dioxide]] (CO₂) as a byproduct. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged in the [[lungs]], and the body responds to changing energy demands by adjusting the rate of [[ventilation (physiology)|ventilation]]. For example, during periods of exertion the body rapidly breaks down stored [[carbohydrate]]s and fat, releasing CO₂ into the blood stream. In aqueous solutions such as blood CO₂ exists in equilibrium with [[carbonic acid]] and [[bicarbonate]] ion. : CO₂ + H₂O {{eqm}} H₂CO₃ {{eqm}} H⁺ + HCO{{su|b=3|p=−}} It is the decrease in pH that signals the brain to breathe faster and deeper, expelling the excess CO₂ and resupplying the cells with O₂. [[Image:Aspirin-skeletal.svg|thumb|right|[[Aspirin]] (acetylsalicylic acid) is a [[carboxylic acid]].]] [[Cell membrane]]s are generally impermeable to charged or large, polar molecules because of the [[lipophilicity|lipophilic]] fatty acyl chains comprising their interior. Many biologically important molecules, including a number of pharmaceutical agents, are organic weak acids which can cross the membrane in their protonated, uncharged form but not in their charged form (i.e. as the conjugate base). For this reason the activity of many drugs can be enhanced or inhibited by the use of antacids or acidic foods. The charged form, however, is often more soluble in blood and [[cytosol]], both aqueous environments. When the extracellular environment is more acidic than the neutral pH within the cell, certain acids will exist in their neutral form and will be membrane soluble, allowing them to cross the phospholipid bilayer. Acids that lose a proton at the [[intracellular pH]] will exist in their soluble, charged form and are thus able to diffuse through the cytosol to their target. [[Ibuprofen]], [[aspirin]] and [[penicillin]] are examples of drugs that are weak acids. ==Common acids== ===Mineral acids (inorganic acids)=== * [[Hydrogen halides]] and their solutions: [[hydrofluoric acid]] (HF), [[hydrochloric acid]] (HCl), [[hydrobromic acid]] (HBr), [[hydroiodic acid]] (HI) * Halogen oxoacids: [[hypochlorous acid]] (HClO), [[chlorous acid]] (HClO₂), [[chloric acid]] (HClO₃), [[perchloric acid]] (HClO₄), and corresponding analogs for bromine and iodine ** [[Hypofluorous acid]] (HFO), the only known oxoacid for fluorine. * [[Sulfuric acid]] (H₂SO₄) * [[Fluorosulfuric acid]] (HSO₃F) * [[Nitric acid]] (HNO₃) * [[Phosphoric acid]] (H₃PO₄) * [[Fluoroantimonic acid]] (HSbF₆) * [[Fluoroboric acid]] (HBF₄) * [[Hexafluorophosphoric acid]] (HPF₆) * [[Chromic acid]] (H₂CrO₄) * [[Boric acid]] (H₃BO₃) ===Sulfonic acids=== A [[sulfonic acid]] has the general formula RS(=O)₂–OH, where R is an organic radical. * [[Methanesulfonic acid]] (or mesylic acid, CH₃SO₃H) * [[Ethanesulfonic acid]] (or esylic acid, CH₃CH₂SO₃H) * [[Benzenesulfonic acid]] (or besylic acid, C₆H₅SO₃H) * [[p-Toluenesulfonic acid]] (or tosylic acid, CH₃C₆H₄SO₃H) * [[Trifluoromethanesulfonic acid]] (or triflic acid, CF₃SO₃H) * [[Polystyrene sulfonic acid]] (sulfonated [[polystyrene]], [CH₂CH(C₆H₄)SO₃H]_n) ===Carboxylic acids=== A [[carboxylic acid]] has the general formula R-C(O)OH, where R is an organic radical. The carboxyl group -C(O)OH contains a [[carbonyl]] group, C=O, and a [[hydroxyl]] group, O-H. * [[Acetic acid]] (CH₃COOH) * [[Citric acid]] (C₆H₈O₇) * [[Formic acid]] (HCOOH) * [[Gluconic acid]] HOCH₂-(CHOH)₄-COOH * [[Lactic acid]] (CH₃-CHOH-COOH) * [[Oxalic acid]] (HOOC-COOH) * [[Tartaric acid]] (HOOC-CHOH-CHOH-COOH) ===Halogenated carboxylic acids=== Halogenation at [[alpha and beta carbon|alpha position]] increases acid strength, so that the following acids are all stronger than acetic acid. * [[Fluoroacetic acid]] * [[Trifluoroacetic acid]] * [[Chloroacetic acid]] * [[Dichloroacetic acid]] * [[Trichloroacetic acid]] ===Vinylogous carboxylic acids=== Normal carboxylic acids are the direct union of a carbonyl group and a hydroxyl group. In [[vinylogous]] carboxylic acids, a carbon-carbon double bond separates the carbonyl and hydroxyl groups. * [[Ascorbic acid]] ===Nucleic acids=== * [[Deoxyribonucleic acid]] (DNA) * [[Ribonucleic acid]] (RNA) ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20011218075412/http://www.csudh.edu/oliver/chemdata/data-ka.htm Listing of strengths of common acids and bases] * [http://goldbook.iupac.org/A00071.html IUPAC Gold Book - acid] * Zumdahl, Chemistry, 4th Edition. * Ebbing, D.D., & Gammon, S. D. (2005). ''General chemistry'' (8th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. {{ISBN|0-618-51177-6}} * Pavia, D.L., Lampman, G.M., & Kriz, G.S. (2004). ''Organic chemistry volume 1: Organic chemistry 351.'' Mason, OH: Cenage Learning. {{ISBN|0-7593-4727-1}} ==External links== * [http://www2.iq.usp.br/docente/gutz/Curtipot_.html Curtipot]: Acid-Base equilibria diagrams, [[pH]] calculation and [[titration]] curves simulation and analysis – [[freeware]] {{Authority control}} [[Category:Acids| ]] [[Category:Acid–base chemistry]] akc5vmghnslfcc11zqotogfg0z263f5 0 657 855900704 855898303 2018-08-21T15:51:36Z Tcr25 73751 Restore to last version by [[Chrissymad]] to revert good-faith IP edits. Asphalt (as used in this article) is synonymous with bitumen (as used in this article). There is variation around the English-speaking world as to how both words are used and degrees of overlap, as is noted in the article. wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|Bitumen|naturally occurring bituminous sands used for petroleum production|Oil sands}} {{other uses}} {{hatnote|Note: The terms '''bitumen''' and '''asphalt''' are mostly interchangeable, except where asphalt is used as a shorthand for [[asphalt concrete]].}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2014}} [[File:Bitumen.jpg|thumb|Natural bitumen from the [[Dead Sea]]]] [[File:Refined bitumen.JPG|thumb|Refined asphalt]] [[File:University of Queensland Pitch drop experiment-white bg.jpg|thumb|upright|The University of Queensland [[pitch drop experiment]], demonstrating the [[viscosity]] of asphalt]] '''Asphalt''', also known as '''bitumen''' ({{IPAc-en|uk|ˈ|b|ɪ|tj|ʊ|m|ɪ|n}}, {{IPAc-en|us|b|ɪ|ˈ|tj|uː|m|ə|n|,_|b|aɪ|-}}),<ref>{{cite EPD|18}}</ref> is a sticky, black, and highly [[viscosity|viscous]] liquid or semi-solid form of [[petroleum]]. It may be found in natural deposits or may be a refined product, and is classed as a [[Pitch (resin)|pitch]]. Before the 20th century, the term '''asphaltum''' was also used.<ref name="Abraham1938">{{cite book|first=Herbert|last=Abraham|year=1938| title=Asphalts and Allied Substances: Their Occurrence, Modes of Production, Uses in the Arts, and Methods of Testing | edition=4th| publisher=D. Van Nostrand Co| location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/asphaltsandallie031010mbp|accessdate=16 November 2009}} Full text at Internet Archive (archive.org)</ref> The word is derived from the [[Ancient Greek]] ἄσφαλτος ''ásphaltos''. The primary use (70%) of asphalt is in road construction, where it is used as the glue or binder mixed with [[construction aggregate|aggregate]] particles to create [[asphalt concrete]]. Its other main uses are for [[bituminous waterproofing]] products, including production of [[roofing felt]] and for sealing flat roofs.<ref name=Ullmann>Anja Sörensen and Bodo Wichert "Asphalt and Bitumen" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2009. {{DOI|10.1002/14356007.a03_169.pub2}}http://www.qrpoil.com/site/?bitumen</ref> The terms "asphalt" and "bitumen" are often used interchangeably to mean both natural and manufactured forms of the substance. In [[American English]], "asphalt" (or "asphalt cement") is commonly used for a refined residue from the [[distillation]] process of selected crude oils. Outside the United States, the product is often called "bitumen", and geologists worldwide often prefer the term for the naturally occurring variety. Common colloquial usage often refers to various forms of asphalt as "[[tar]]", as in the name of the [[La Brea Tar Pits]]. Naturally occurring asphalt is sometimes specified by the term "crude bitumen". Its viscosity is similar to that of cold [[molasses]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Oil Sands – Glossary |work=Oil Sands Royalty Guidelines |publisher=Government of Alberta |year=2008 |url=http://www.energy.gov.ab.ca/OilSands/1106.asp |accessdate=2 February 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071101112113/http://www.energy.gov.ab.ca/OilSands/1106.asp |archivedate=1 November 2007 |deadurl=no |df=dmy }}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Walker |first=Ian C. |title=Marketing Challenges for Canadian Bitumen |place=Tulsa, OK |publisher=International Centre for Heavy Hydrocarbons |year=1998 |url=http://www.oildrop.org/Info/Centre/Lib/7thConf/19980101.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313084908/http://www.oildrop.org/Info/Centre/Lib/7thConf/19980101.pdf |dead-url=yes |archive-date=2012-03-13 |format=PDF |quote=Bitumen has been defined by various sources as crude oil with a dynamic viscosity at reservoir conditions of more than 10,000 centipoise. Canadian "bitumen" supply is more loosely accepted as production from the Athabasca, Wabasca, Peace River and Cold Lake oil-sands deposits. The majority of the oil produced from these deposits has an API gravity of between 8° and 12° and a reservoir viscosity of over 10,000 centipoise although small volumes have higher API gravities and lower viscosities. }}</ref> while the material obtained from the [[fractional distillation]] of [[crude oil]] boiling at {{convert|525|C|F}} is sometimes referred to as "refined bitumen". The Canadian province of [[Alberta]] has most of the world's reserves of natural asphalt in the [[Athabasca oil sands]], which cover {{convert|142000|km2}}, an area larger than [[England]].<ref name="ST98">{{cite web| title = ST98-2015: Alberta's Energy Reserves 2014 and Supply/Demand Outlook 2015–2024| work = Statistical Reports (ST)| publisher = Alberta Energy Regulator| year = 2015| url = http://www.aer.ca/documents/sts/ST98/ST98-2015.pdf| accessdate = 19 January 2016}}</ref> == Terminology == === Etymology === The word "asphalt" is derived from the late Middle English, in turn from French ''asphalte'', based on [[Late Latin]] ''asphalton'', ''asphaltum'', which is the [[Latinisation (literature)|latinisation]] of the [[Greek language|Greek]] ἄσφαλτος (''ásphaltos'', ''ásphalton''), a word meaning "asphalt/bitumen/[[Pitch (resin)|pitch]]",<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29%2Fsfaltos ἄσφαλτος], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref> which perhaps derives from ἀ-, "without" and σφάλλω (''sfallō''), "make fall".<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dsfa%2Fllw σφάλλω], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref> The first use of asphalt by the ancients was in the nature of a cement for securing or joining together various objects, and it thus seems likely that the name itself was expressive of this application. Specifically, [[Herodotus]] mentioned that bitumen was brought to Babylon to build its gigantic fortification wall.<ref>Herodotus, ''The Histories'', [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+1.179.4&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 1.179.4], on Perseus</ref> From the Greek, the word passed into late Latin, and thence into French (''asphalte'') and English ("asphaltum" and "asphalt"). In French, the term ''asphalte'' is used for naturally occurring asphalt-soaked limestone deposits, and for specialised manufactured products with fewer voids or greater bitumen content than the "asphaltic concrete" used to pave roads. The expression "bitumen" originated in the [[Sanskrit]] words ''jatu'', meaning "pitch", and ''jatu-krit'', meaning "pitch creating" or "pitch producing" (referring to [[coniferous]] or resinous trees). The Latin equivalent is claimed by some to be originally ''gwitu-men'' (pertaining to pitch), and by others, ''pixtumens'' (exuding or bubbling pitch), which was subsequently shortened to ''bitumen'', thence passing via French into English. From the same root is derived the [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] word ''cwidu'' (mastix), the German word ''Kitt'' (cement or mastic) and the old Norse word ''kvada''.<ref name="Abraham19381">Abraham, Herbert (1938), p.1</ref> === Modern terminology === In [[British English]], "bitumen" is used instead of "asphalt". The word "asphalt" is instead used to refer to [[asphalt concrete]], a mixture of [[construction aggregate]] and asphalt itself (also called "tarmac" in common parlance). Bitumen mixed with clay was usually called "asphaltum", but the term is less commonly used today.{{citation needed|date=January 2016}} In [[Australian English]], "bitumen" is often used as the generic term for road surfaces. In [[American English]], "asphalt" is equivalent to the British "bitumen". However, "asphalt" is also commonly used as a shortened form of "[[asphalt concrete]]" (therefore equivalent to the British "asphalt" or "tarmac"). In [[Canadian English]], the word "bitumen" is used to refer to the vast Canadian deposits of extremely heavy [[crude oil]],<ref name="oilsands">{{cite web|url=http://www.energy.gov.ab.ca/OilSands/793.asp|title=What is Oil Sands|year=2007|publisher=Alberta Energy|accessdate=10 January 2008|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205055523/http://www.qrpoil.com/site/?bitumen|archivedate=5 February 2016|deadurl=no}}</ref> while "asphalt" is used for the oil refinery product. Diluted bitumen (diluted with [[naphtha]] to make it flow in pipelines) is known as "[[dilbit]]" in the Canadian petroleum industry, while bitumen "[[Upgrader|upgraded]]" to [[synthetic crude]] oil is known as "syncrude", and syncrude blended with bitumen is called "synbit".<ref name="CAPP">{{cite web|url=http://www.capp.ca/default.asp?V_DOC_ID=1220|title=2007 Canadian Crude Oil Forecast and Market Outlook|date=June 2007|publisher=Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers|accessdate=30 May 2008|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226022714/http://membernet.capp.ca/default.asp?V_DOC_ID=1220|archivedate=February 26, 2014}}</ref> "Bitumen" is still the preferred geological term for naturally occurring deposits of the solid or semi-solid form of petroleum. "Bituminous rock" is a form of [[sandstone]] impregnated with bitumen. The [[tar sands]] of [[Alberta, Canada]] are a similar material. Neither of the terms "asphalt" or "bitumen" should be confused with [[tar]] or [[coal tars]].{{elucidate|date=June 2017}} == Composition == {{see also|Asphaltene}} === Normal composition === The components of asphalt include four main classes of compounds: * Naphthene aromatics ([[naphthalene]]), consisting of partially hydrogenated polycyclic aromatic compounds * Polar aromatics, consisting of high [[molecular weight]] [[phenols]] and [[carboxylic acid]]s produced by partial oxidation of the material * [[Saturated hydrocarbons]]; the percentage of saturated compounds in asphalt correlates with its softening point * Asphaltenes, consisting of high molecular weight phenols and [[heterocyclic compound]]s The naphthene aromatics and polar aromatics are typically the majority components. Most natural bitumens also contain [[organosulfur compound]]s, resulting in an overall sulfur content of up to 4%. [[Nickel]] and [[vanadium]] are found at <10 parts per million, as is typical of some petroleum.<ref name=Ullmann/> The substance is soluble in [[carbon disulfide]]. It is commonly modelled as a [[colloid]], with [[asphaltene]]s as the dispersed phase and [[wikt:maltene|maltenes]] as the continuous phase.<ref name="Quddus">{{cite book|author=Muhammad Abdul Quddus|year=1992|title=Thesis submitted to Department of Applied Chemistry; University of Karachi|chapter=Catalytic Oxidation of Asphalt|publisher=Higher Education Commission Pakistan: Pakistan Research Repository|location=Pakistan|page=6, in ch.2 pdf|url=http://eprints.hec.gov.pk/1171/1/891.html.htm|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110205060447/http://eprints.hec.gov.pk/1171/1/891.html.htm|archivedate=5 February 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref> "It is almost impossible to separate and identify all the different molecules of asphalt, because the number of molecules with different chemical structure is extremely large".<ref name="Quddus99">Muhammad Abdul Quddus (1992), p.99, in ch.5 pdf</ref> Asphalt may be confused with [[coal tar]], which is a visually similar black, thermoplastic material produced by the [[destructive distillation]] of [[coal]]. During the early and mid-20th century, when [[town gas]] was produced, coal tar was a readily available byproduct and extensively used as the binder for road aggregates. The addition of coal tar to [[macadam]] roads led to the word "[[Tarmacadam|tarmac]]", which is now used in common parlance to refer to road-making materials. However, since the 1970s, when natural gas succeeded town gas, asphalt has completely overtaken the use of coal tar in these applications. Other examples of this confusion include the [[La Brea Tar Pits]] and the Canadian [[oil sands]], both of which actually contain natural bitumen rather than tar. "Pitch" is another term sometimes informally used at times to refer to asphalt, as in [[Pitch Lake]]. ===Additives, mixtures and contaminants=== For economic and other reasons, asphalt is sometimes sold combined with other materials, often without being labeled as anything other than simply "asphalt."<ref name="whats_in_your_asphalt_2017_09_fhwa">Arnold, Terence S. (senior research chemist, Pavement Materials Team, Office of Infrastructure Research and Development, [[Federal Highway Administration]]; Federal lab manager for the chemistry lab, [[Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center]]; fellow of the [[Royal Society of Chemistry]] in the [[United Kingdom]]), [https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/publicroads/17sept/03.cfm "What's in Your Asphalt?,"] September 2017 (last modified October 25, 2017), ''Public Roads,'' FHWA-HRT-17-006.htm," Office of Research, Development, and Technology, Office of Corporate Research, Technology, and Innovation Management, [[Federal Highway Administration]], [[U.S. Department of Transportation]]</ref> Of particular note, in the 21st century, is the use of [[Automotive oil recycling#REOB|re-refined engine oil bottoms -- "REOB" or "REOBs"]] -- the residue of [[Automotive oil recycling|recycled autmotive engine oil]], collected from the bottoms of re-refining [[vaccuum distillation]] towers. It contains the various non-refined elements and compounds in recycled engine oil, leftover from the re-refining process -- both additives to the original oil, and materials accumulating from its circulation in the engine (typically [[iron]] and [[copper]]). Some research has indicated a correlation between this contamination of asphalt and poorer-performing pavement.<ref name="whats_in_your_asphalt_2017_09_fhwa" /> ==Occurrence== [[File:Puy de Poix, gisement bitumeux.JPG|thumb|right|upright|Bituminous outcrop of the Puy de la Poix, [[Clermont-Ferrand]], France]] The majority of asphalt used commercially is obtained from petroleum.<ref>{{cite book|last=Speight|first=James G.|title=Asphalt Materials Science and Technology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PtMVBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA82|year=2015|publisher=Elsevier Science|isbn=978-0-12-800501-9|page=82}}</ref> Nonetheless, large amounts of asphalt occur in concentrated form in nature. Naturally occurring deposits of bitumen are formed from the remains of ancient, microscopic [[algae]] ([[diatom]]s) and other once-living things. These remains were deposited in the mud on the bottom of the ocean or lake where the organisms lived. Under the heat (above 50&nbsp;°C) and [[pressure]] of burial deep in the earth, the remains were transformed into materials such as bitumen, [[kerogen]], or petroleum. Natural deposits of bitumen include lakes such as the [[Pitch Lake]] in Trinidad and Tobago and [[Lake Bermudez]] in [[Venezuela]]. Natural [[petroleum seep|seeps]] occur in the [[La Brea Tar Pits]] and in the [[Dead Sea]]. Bitumen also occurs in unconsolidated sandstones known as "oil sands" in [[Alberta]], Canada, and the similar "tar sands" in [[Utah]], US. The Canadian province of [[Alberta]] has most of the world's reserves, in three huge deposits covering {{convert|142000|km2}}, an area larger than [[England]] or [[New York state]]. These bituminous sands contain {{convert|166|Goilbbl}} of commercially established oil reserves, giving Canada the third largest [[oil reserves]] in the world. Although historically it was used without refining to pave roads, nearly all of the output is now used as [[raw material]] for [[Oil refinery|oil refineries]] in Canada and the United States.<ref name="ST98"/> The world's largest deposit of natural bitumen, known as the [[Athabasca oil sands]], is located in the [[McMurray Formation]] of Northern Alberta. This formation is from the early [[Cretaceous]], and is composed of numerous [[lens (geology)|lenses]] of oil-bearing sand with up to 20% oil.<ref name=bunger>{{cite journal | last1 = Bunger | first1 = J. | last2 = Thomas | first2 = K. | last3 = Dorrence | first3 = S. | year = 1979 | title = Compound types and properties of Utah and Athabasca tar sand bitumens | url = | journal = Fuel | volume = 58 | issue = 3| pages = 183–195 | doi=10.1016/0016-2361(79)90116-9}}</ref> Isotopic studies show the oil deposits to be about 110 million years old.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Selby | first1 = D. | last2 = Creaser | first2 = R. | year = 2005 | title = Direct radiometric dating of hydrocarbon deposits using rhenium-osmium isotopes | url = | journal = Science | volume = 308 | issue = 5726| pages = 1293–1295 | doi=10.1126/science.1111081 | pmid=15919988| bibcode = 2005Sci...308.1293S }}</ref> Two smaller but still very large formations occur in the [[Peace River oil sands]] and the [[Cold Lake oil sands]], to the west and southeast of the Athabasca oil sands, respectively. Of the Alberta deposits, only parts of the Athabasca oil sands are shallow enough to be suitable for surface mining. The other 80% has to be produced by oil wells using [[enhanced oil recovery]] techniques like [[steam-assisted gravity drainage]].<ref name=oilsandfacts>{{cite web|title=Facts about Alberta’s oil sands and its industry |publisher=Oil Sands Discovery Centre |url=http://history.alberta.ca/oilsands/resources/docs/facts_sheets09.pdf |accessdate=19 January 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123024928/http://history.alberta.ca/oilsands/resources/docs/facts_sheets09.pdf |archivedate=23 November 2015 |df= }}</ref> Much smaller heavy oil or bitumen deposits also occur in the [[Uinta Basin]] in Utah, US. The [[Tar Sand Triangle]] deposit, for example, is roughly 6% bitumen.<ref name=bunger /> Bitumen may occur in [[hydrothermal vein]]s. An example of this is within the [[Uinta Basin]] of [[Utah]], in the US, where there is a swarm of laterally and vertically extensive veins composed of a solid hydrocarbon termed [[Gilsonite]]. These veins formed by the polymerization and solidification of hydrocarbons that were mobilized from the deeper oil shales of the [[Green River Formation]] during burial and [[diagenesis]].<ref>{{cite book |author=T. Boden and B. Tripp |title=Gilsonite veins of the Uinta Basin, Utah |publisher=Utah Geological Survey, Special Study 141 |location=Utah, US |year=2012}}</ref> Bitumen is similar to the organic matter in carbonaceous [[meteorite]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hayatsu | display-authors = etal | year = | title =none | url = | journal = Meteoritics | volume = 18 | issue = | page = 310 }}</ref> However, detailed studies have shown these materials to be distinct.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kim | first1 = | last2 = Yang | year = | title =none | url = | journal = Journal of Astronomy and Space Sciences | volume = 15 | issue = 1| pages = 163–174 }}</ref> The vast Alberta bitumen resources are considered to have started out as living material from marine plants and animals, mainly [[algae]], that died millions of years ago when an ancient ocean covered Alberta. They were covered by mud, buried deeply over time, and gently cooked into oil by geothermal heat at a temperature of {{convert|50|to|150|C|sigfig=2}}. Due to pressure from the rising of the [[Rocky Mountains]] in southwestern Alberta, 80 to 55 million years ago, the oil was driven northeast hundreds of kilometres and trapped into underground sand deposits left behind by ancient river beds and ocean beaches, thus forming the oil sands.<ref name=oilsandfacts/> ==History== === Ancient times === The use of natural [[bitumen]] for [[waterproofing]], and as an [[adhesive]] dates at least to the fifth [[millennium]] BC, with a crop storage basket discovered in [[Mehrgarh]], of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]], lined with it.<ref>McIntosh, Jane. The Ancient Indus Valley. p. 57</ref> By the 3rd millennia BC refined rock asphalt was in use, in the region, and was used to waterproof the [[Great Bath, Mohenjo-daro]]. In the ancient Middle East, the [[Sumer]]ians used natural bitumen deposits for [[mortar (masonry)|mortar]] between [[brick]]s and stones, to cement parts of carvings, such as eyes, into place, for ship [[caulking]], and for waterproofing.<ref name="Abraham1938" /> The Greek historian [[Herodotus]] said hot bitumen was used as mortar in the walls of [[Babylon]].<ref>Herodotus, Book I, 179</ref> The {{convert|1|km}} long [[Euphrates Tunnel]] beneath the river [[Euphrates]] at [[Babylon]] in the time of Queen [[Semiramis]] (ca. 800 BC) was reportedly constructed of burnt bricks covered with bitumen as a waterproofing agent.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/asphaltsandallie031010mbp/asphaltsandallie031010mbp_djvu.txt|title=Asphalts And Allied Substances|year=1920|author=Abraham, Herbert|publisher=D. Van Nostrand}}</ref> Bitumen was used by [[ancient Egypt]]ians to [[Embalming|embalm]] mummies.<ref name="Abraham1938" /><ref>{{cite book |author=Pringle, Heather Anne |title=The Mummy Congress: Science, Obsession, and the Everlasting Dead |publisher=Barnes & Noble Books |location=New York, NY |year=2001 |pages= 196–197|isbn=0-7607-7151-0}}</ref> The [[Persian language|Persian]] word for asphalt is ''moom'', which is related to the English word [[mummy]]. The Egyptians' primary source of bitumen was the [[Dead Sea]], which the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] knew as ''Palus Asphaltites'' (Asphalt Lake). Approximately 40 AD, [[Dioscorides]] described the [[Dead Sea]] material as ''Judaicum bitumen'', and noted other places in the region where it could be found.<ref>{{cite book|title=De Materia Medica|author=Pedanius Dioscorides|year=}}. Original written ca. 40 AD, translated by Goodyer (1655) [https://web.archive.org/web/20090206022946/http://www.therenaissanceman.org/images/DIOSCORIDES-Intro_Book_1.doc] ''or'' ''(Greek/Latin)'' compiled by Sprengel (1829) [https://books.google.com/books/download/Pedanii_Dioscoridis_____de_materia_medic.pdf?id=JwAUAAAAQAAJ&output=pdf] p. 100 (p. 145 in PDF).</ref> The Sidon bitumen is thought to refer to material found at [[Hasbeya]].<ref name="ConnanNissenbaum2004">{{cite journal|last1=Connan|first1=Jacques|last2=Nissenbaum|first2=Arie|title=The organic geochemistry of the Hasbeya asphalt (Lebanon): comparison with asphalts from the Dead Sea area and Iraq|journal=Organic Geochemistry|volume=35|issue=6|year=2004|pages=775–789|issn=0146-6380|doi=10.1016/j.orggeochem.2004.01.015|url=https://www.academia.edu/16512751}}</ref> Pliny refers also to bitumen being found in [[Selenicë|Epirus]]. It was a valuable strategic resource, the object of the first known battle for a hydrocarbon deposit—between the [[Seleucid]]s and the [[Nabateans]] in 312 BC.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://payperview.datapages.com/data/open/offer.do?target=%2Fbulletns%2F1977-79%2Fdata%2Fpg%2F0062%2F0005%2F0800%2F0837.htm|title=Dead Sea Asphalts—Historical Aspects [free abstract]|author=Arie Nissenbaum|journal=AAPG Bulletin|volume=62|issue=5|date=May 1978|pages=837–844|doi=10.1306/c1ea4e5f-16c9-11d7-8645000102c1865d}}</ref> In the ancient Far East, natural bitumen was slowly boiled to get rid of the higher [[Fraction (chemistry)|fractions]], leaving a [[thermoplastic]] material of higher molecular weight that when layered on objects became quite hard upon cooling. This was used to cover objects that needed waterproofing,<ref name="Abraham1938" /> such as [[scabbard]]s and other items. [[Statuettes]] of household [[deities]] were also cast with this type of material in [[Japan]], and probably also in [[China]]. In [[North America]], archaeological recovery has indicated bitumen was sometimes used to adhere stone [[projectile point]]s to wooden shafts.<ref>{{cite web|author=The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map |url=http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=18502 |title=C.Michael Hogan (2008) '&#39;Morro Creek'&#39;, ed. by A. Burnham |publisher=Megalithic.co.uk |accessdate=27 August 2013}}</ref> In Canada, aboriginal people used bitumen seeping out of the banks of the [[Athabasca River|Athabasca]] and other rivers to waterproof birch bark [[canoe]]s, and also heated it in smudge pots to ward off [[mosquito]]es in the summer.<ref name=oilsandfacts/> ===Continental Europe=== In 1553, [[Pierre Belon]] described in his work ''[[Observations (Pierre Belon)|Observations]]'' that ''pissasphalto'', a mixture of [[Pitch (resin)|pitch]] and bitumen, was used in the [[Republic of Ragusa]] (now [[Dubrovnik]], [[Croatia]]) for tarring of ships.<ref>Africa and the Discovery of America, Volume 1, page 183, [[Leo Wiener]], BoD – Books on Demand, 1920 reprinted in 2012, {{ISBN|978-3864034329}}</ref> An 1838 edition of ''Mechanics Magazine'' cites an early use of asphalt in France. A pamphlet dated 1621, by "a certain Monsieur d'Eyrinys, states that he had discovered the existence (of asphaltum) in large quantities in the vicinity of Neufchatel", and that he proposed to use it in a variety of ways – "principally in the construction of air-proof granaries, and in protecting, by means of the arches, the water-courses in the city of Paris from the intrusion of dirt and filth", which at that time made the water unusable. "He expatiates also on the excellence of this material for forming level and durable terraces" in palaces, "the notion of forming such terraces in the streets not one likely to cross the brain of a Parisian of that generation".<ref name="MechanicsMagazineSep1838176">{{cite book|date=7 April – 29 September 1838 | title=The Mechanic's magazine, museum, register, journal and gazette| volume=29|chapter=Nothing New under the Sun (on French asphaltum use in 1621)| publisher=W.A. Robertson| location=London |page=176 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ygoAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA479&lpg=PA479&dq=1838+september+%22mechanic's+magazine%22#v=onepage&q=asphaltum%20museum&f=false}}</ref> But the substance was generally neglected in France until the [[July Revolution|revolution of 1830]]. In the 1830s there was a surge of interest, and asphalt became widely used "for pavements, flat roofs, and the lining of cisterns, and in England, some use of it had been made of it for similar purposes". Its rise in Europe was "a sudden phenomenon", after natural deposits were found "in France at Osbann ([[Bas-Rhin]]), the Parc ([[Ain]]) and the Puy-de-la-Poix ([[Puy-de-Dôme]])", although it could also be made artificially.<ref name="LewisMiles">{{cite book|author=Miles, Lewis|title=in Australian Building: A Cultural Investigation|volume=|chapter=Section 10.6: Damp Proofing|year=2000|publisher=|location=|page=10.06.1|url=http://www.mileslewis.net/australian-building/pdf/climatic-design/climatic-design-damp-proofing.pdf|accessdate=11 November 2009|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101215052541/http://mileslewis.net/australian-building/pdf/climatic-design/climatic-design-damp-proofing.pdf|archivedate=15 December 2010|df=dmy-all}}. Note: different sections of Miles' online work were written in different years, as evidenced at the top of each page (not including the heading page of each section). This particular section appears to have been written in 2000</ref> One of the earliest uses in France was the laying of about 24,000 square yards of Seyssel asphalt at the [[Place de la Concorde]] in 1835.<ref name=Forbes1858>{{citation |year=1958 |author=R.J. Forbes|title=Studies in Early Petroleum History |page=24 |place=[[Leiden]], Netherlands |publisher=E.J. Brill |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eckUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA24&dq=asphalt+claridge#v=onepage&q=asphalt%20claridge&f=false |accessdate=10 June 2010}}</ref> ===United Kingdom=== Among the earlier uses of bitumen in the United Kingdom was for etching. William Salmon's ''Polygraphice'' (1673) provides a recipe for varnish used in etching, consisting of three ounces of virgin wax, two ounces of [[mastic (plant resin)|mastic]], and one ounce of asphaltum.<ref name="SalmonPolygraphice">{{cite book|first=William|last=Salmon|year=1673|publisher=R. Jones|location=London|title=Polygraphice; Or, The Arts of Drawing, Engraving, Etching, Limning, Painting, Washing, Varnishing, Gilding, Colouring, Dying, Beautifying and Perfuming |edition= Second |page=81|url=http://shipbrook.com/jeff/bookshelf/download.html?bookid=22}}</ref> By the fifth edition in 1685, he had included more asphaltum recipes from other sources.<ref name=SalmonPolygraphice1685>{{citation |year=1685 |author=Salmon, William |title=Polygraphice; Or, The Arts of Drawing, Engraving, Etching, Limning, Painting, Washing, Varnishing, Gilding, Colouring, Dying, Beautifying and Perfuming |edition=5th |pages=76–77 |place=London |publisher=R. Jones |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h_sC9X95PT0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Polygraphice#v=snippet&q=%22arts%20of%20drawing%22&f=false |accessdate=18 August 2010}} [https://archive.org/stream/polygraphiceorar00salm#page/76/mode/2up Text at Internet Archive]</ref> The first British patent for the use of asphalt was "Cassell's patent asphalte or bitumen" in 1834.<ref name="LewisMiles" /> Then on 25 November 1837, [[Captain R. T. Claridge|Richard Tappin Claridge]] patented the use of Seyssel asphalt (patent #7849), for use in asphalte pavement,<ref name="ClaridgePatentspecs">{{cite book | date=July 1838 | title=Journal of the Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania and Mechanics' Register |chapter=Specification of the Patent granted to Richard Tappin Claridge, of the County of Middlesex, for a Mastic Cement, or Composition applicable to Paving and Road making, covering Buildings and various purposes|volume=Vol. 22| location=London |pages=414–418 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W8oGAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA414&lpg=PA414&dq=%22richard+tappin+claridge%22#v=onepage&q=%22richard%20tappin%20claridge%22&f=false|accessdate=18 November 2009 | publisher=Pergamon Press}}</ref><ref name="Notes&Queries1904">{{cite book|date=20 January 1904| title=Notes and Queries: A medium of intercommunication for Literary Men, General Readers, etc. Ninth series. | volume=Volume XII, July–December, 1903 (9th S. XII, 4 July 1903)|chapter=Comments on asphalt patents of R.T. Claridge, Esq| publisher=John C. Francis| location=London |pages=18–19 |url=https://archive.org/stream/s9notesqueries12londuoft#page/18/mode/2up/search/claridge}} Writer is replying to note or query from previous publication, cited as ''9th S. xi. 30''</ref> having seen it employed in France and Belgium when visiting with [[Frederick Walter Simms]], who worked with him on the introduction of asphalt to Britain.<ref name=FWSimmsObituary>{{cite journal| title=Obituary of Frederick Walter Simms| journal= [[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]]| volume=XXVI| pages= 120–121| publisher= Strangeways & Walden| location= London |date=November 1865 – June 1866 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=3wsAAAAAMAAJ |doi=|accessdate=12 November 2009}}</ref><ref name=Broome1963>{{Cite journal |year=1963 |author=Broome, D.C. |title=The development of the modern asphalt road |journal=The Surveyor and municipal and county engineer |place=London |volume=122 |issue=3278 & 3279 |pages=1437–1440 & 1472–1475|postscript= [https://books.google.com/books?cd=10&id=j77mAAAAMAAJ&q=claridge+1857 Snippet view: Simms & Claridge p.1439]}}</ref> Dr T. Lamb Phipson writes that his father, Samuel Ryland Phipson, a friend of Claridge, was also "instrumental in introducing the asphalte pavement (in 1836)".<ref name="Phipson1902">{{cite book|first=Dr T. Lamb|last=Phipson|year=1902| title=Confessions of a Violinist: Realities and Romance | publisher=Chatto & Windus| location=London|page=11 |url=https://archive.org/details/confessionsofvio00phiprich|accessdate=26 November 2009}} Full text at Internet Archive (archive.org)</ref> Indeed, mastic pavements had been previously employed at [[Vauxhall]] by a competitor of Claridge, but without success.<ref name=Forbes1858/> Claridge obtained a patent in Scotland on 27 March 1838, and obtained a patent in Ireland on 23 April 1838. In 1851, extensions for the 1837 patent and for both 1838 patents were sought by the trustees of a company previously formed by Claridge.<ref name="LewisMiles"/><ref name="LondonGazette1851">{{cite book|date=25 February 1851 | title=The London Gazette|chapter=Claridge's UK Patents in 1837 & 1838|page=489 |url=http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/21185/pages/489}}</ref><ref name="BritishHistoryOnline1994">{{cite book|author=Hobhouse, Hermione (General Editor) |title='Northern Millwall: Tooke Town', Survey of London: volumes 43 and 44: Poplar, Blackwall and Isle of Dogs |chapter=British History Online |pages=423–433 (see text at refs 169 & 170)|year=1994 | url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=46514&amp;strquery=Claridge|accessdate=8 November 2009}}</ref><ref name="MechanicsMagazineSep1838">{{cite book|date=7 April – 29 September 1838 | title=The Mechanic's magazine, museum, register, journal and gazette| volume=29|chapter=Claridge's Scottish and Irish Patents in 1838 | publisher=W.A. Robertson| location=London |pages=vii, viii, 64, 128 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ygoAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA479&lpg=PA479&dq=1838+september+%22mechanic's+magazine%22#v=onepage&q=claridge&f=false}}</ref> ''Claridge's Patent Asphalte Company''—formed in 1838 for the purpose of introducing to Britain "Asphalte in its natural state from the mine at Pyrimont Seysell in France",<ref name="CivilEngineer&ArchitectsJ199">{{cite book | date=October 1837 – December 1838 | title=The Civil Engineer and Architects Journal |chapter=Joint Stock Companies (description of asphalte use by Claridge's company)|volume=Vol. 1| location=London |page=199 |url=https://archive.org/details/civilengineerarc01lond|accessdate=16 November 2009}} Full text at Internet Archive (archive.org). Alternative viewing at: https://books.google.com/books?id=sQ5AAAAAYAAJ&pg</ref>—"laid one of the first asphalt pavements in Whitehall".<ref name="LewisMiles10.06.1-2">Miles, Lewis (2000), pp.10.06.1–2</ref> Trials were made of the pavement in 1838 on the footway in Whitehall, the stable at Knightsbridge Barracks,<ref name="CivilEngineer&ArchitectsJ199" /><ref name="responsetoquery18">Comments on asphalt patents of R.T. Claridge, Esq (1904), p.18</ref> "and subsequently on the space at the bottom of the steps leading from Waterloo Place to St. James Park".<ref name="responsetoquery18" /> "The formation in 1838 of Claridge's Patent Asphalte Company (with a distinguished list of aristocratic patrons, and [[Marc Isambard Brunel|Marc]] and [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel|Isambard Brunel]] as, respectively, a trustee and consulting engineer), gave an enormous impetus to the development of a British asphalt industry".<ref name="BritishHistoryOnline1994" /> "By the end of 1838, at least two other companies, Robinson's and the Bastenne company, were in production",<ref name="LewisMiles10.06.2">Miles, Lewis (2000), p.10.06.2</ref> with asphalt being laid as paving at Brighton, Herne Bay, Canterbury, Kensington, the Strand, and a large floor area in Bunhill-row, while meantime Claridge's Whitehall paving "continue(d) in good order".<ref name="MechanicsMagazineSep221838">{{cite book|date=22 September 1838 | title=The Mechanic's magazine, museum, register, journal and gazette| volume=29|chapter=1838 bitumen UK uses by Robinson's and Claridge's companies, & the Bastenne company | publisher=W.A. Robertson| location=London |page=448 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ygoAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA479&lpg=PA479&dq=1838+september+%22mechanic's+magazine%22#v=onepage&q=bastenne&f=false}}</ref> In 1838, there was a flurry of entrepreneurial activity involving asphalt, which had uses beyond paving. For example, asphalt could also be used for flooring, damp proofing in buildings, and for waterproofing of various types of pools and baths, both of which were also proliferating in the 19th century.<ref name="Abraham1938"/><ref name="LewisMiles"/><ref name="Gerhard1908">{{cite book|first=W.M. Paul|last=Gerhard|year=1908| title=Modern Baths and Bath Houses| edition=1st| publisher=John Wiley and Sons| location=New York |url=https://archive.org/stream/modernbathsandb00unkngoog#page/n11/mode/1up}} (Enter "asphalt" into the search field for list of pages discussing the subject)</ref> On the London stockmarket, there were various claims as to the exclusivity of asphalt quality from France, Germany and England. And numerous patents were granted in France, with similar numbers of patent applications being denied in England due to their similarity to each other. In England, "Claridge's was the type most used in the 1840s and 50s".<ref name="LewisMiles10.06.2"/> In 1914, Claridge's Company entered into a joint venture to produce [[Macadam#Tar-bound macadam|tar-bound macadam]],<ref name=AsphalteCoMovespremises>{{citation |date=January 1914 |title=Claridge's Patent Asphalte Co. ventures into tarred slag macadam |journal=Concrete and Constructional Engineering |volume=IX |issue=1 |page=760|place=London |url=https://archive.org/stream/concreteconstruc09lond#page/760/mode/1up |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref> with materials manufactured through a subsidiary company called Clarmac Roads Ltd.<ref name=ClarmacRoadsRegistration>{{citation |year=1921 |title=Registration of Clarmac Roads |journal=The Law Reports: Chancery Division |volume=Vol. 1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2AQxAAAAIAAJ&q=clarmac&dq=clarmac|pages=544–547 |accessdate=17 June 2010}}</ref> Two products resulted, namely ''Clarmac'', and ''Clarphalte'', with the former being manufactured by Clarmac Roads and the latter by Claridge's Patent Asphalte Co., although ''Clarmac'' was more widely used.<ref name=ClarmacAndClarphalte>{{citation |date=7 July 1915 |title=Clarmac and Clarphalte |pages=2–4 (n13–15 in electronic page field)|journal=The Building News and Engineering Journal |volume=Vol. 109: July to December 1915 |issue=No. 3157 |url=https://archive.org/stream/buildingnewseng109londuoft#page/n13/mode/1up/search/clarmac |accessdate=18 June 2010}}</ref>{{refn|''The Building News and Engineering Journal'' contains photographs of the following roads where ''Clarmac'' was used, being "some amongst many laid with 'Clarmac'": Scott's Lane, [[Beckenham]]; Dorset Street, Marylebone; Lordswood Road, [[Birmingham]]; Hearsall Lane, [[Coventry]]; Valkyrie Avenue, [[Westcliff-on-Sea]]; and Lennard Road, [[Penge]].<ref name=Clarmaclaidroads>[https://archive.org/stream/buildingnewseng109londuoft#page/n14/mode/1up Roads laid with Clarmac] ''The Building News and Engineering Journal'', 1915 '''109''' (3157), p.3 (n14 in electronic field).</ref>|group="note"}} However, the [[First World War]] ruined the Clarmac Company, which entered into liquidation in 1915.<ref name=WW1Impact>[https://books.google.com/books?id=2AQxAAAAIAAJ&q=%22war,+and+the+Claridge+%22&dq=%22war,+and+the+Claridge+%22&hl=en&ei=q7UaTOjQFcyVcezpwI8K&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAQ Clarmac financial difficults due to WW1] [https://books.google.com/books?id=2AQxAAAAIAAJ&q=%22debentures+with+the+clarmac%22&dq=%22debentures+with+the+clarmac%22&hl=en&ei=pbgaTKv9N8WecZaimJ4K&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA Debentures deposited] ''The Law Reports: Chancery Division'', (1921) '''Vol. 1''' p.545. Retrieved 17 June 2010.</ref><ref name=LondonGazette26Oct1915>{{citation |date=26 October 1915 |title=Notice of the Winding up of Clarmac Roads |journal=The London Gazette |issue=29340 |page=10568 |url=http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/29340/pages/10568 |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref> The failure of Clarmac Roads Ltd had a flow-on effect to Claridge's Company, which was itself compulsorily wound up,<ref name=NewCompanyFunded>[https://books.google.com/books?id=TiYyAAAAIAAJ&q=claridge+%22compulsorily+wound+up%22&dq=claridge+%22compulsorily+wound+up%22&hl=en&ei=F9EbTIfvIMTJcdqF-bAK&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA Claridge's Patent Asphalte Co. compulsorily wound up] [https://books.google.com/books?id=TiYyAAAAIAAJ&q=%22funds+in+the+new+company%22&dq=%22funds+in+the+new+company%22&hl=en&ei=9dMbTKWTB4yxcbH2-PMM&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA Funds invested in new company] ''The Law Times Reports'' (1921) '''Vol.125''', p.256. Retrieved 15 June 2010.</ref> ceasing operations in 1917,<ref name="LondonGazette1917">{{cite book|date=16 November 1917 | title=The London Gazette|chapter=Claridge's Patent Asphalte Co. winds up 10 November 1917|page=11863| url=http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/30384/pages/11863}}</ref><ref name="BritishHistoryOnline">{{cite book|author=Hobhouse, Hermione (General Editor) |title='Cubitt Town: Riverside area: from Newcastle Drawdock to Cubitt Town Pier', Survey of London: volumes 43 and 44: Poplar, Blackwall and Isle of Dogs |chapter=British History Online |pages=528–532 (see text at refs 507 & 510)|year=1994 | url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=46529&amp;strquery=claridge |accessdate=8 November 2009}}</ref> having invested a substantial amount of funds into the new venture, both at the outset<ref name=NewCompanyFunded/> and in a subsequent attempt to save the Clarmac Company.<ref name=WW1Impact/> === United States === The first use of bitumen in the New World was by indigenous peoples. On the west coast, as early as the 13th century, the [[Tongva people|Tongva]], [[Luiseño people|Luiseño]] and [[Chumash people|Chumash]] peoples collected the naturally occurring bitumen that seeped to the surface above underlying petroleum deposits. All three groups used the substance as an adhesive. It is found on many different artifacts of tools and ceremonial items. For example, it was used on [[rattle (percussion instrument)|rattle]]s to adhere gourds or turtle shells to rattle handles. It was also used in decorations. Small round shell beads were often set in asphaltum to provide decorations. It was used as a sealant on baskets to make them watertight for carrying water, possibly poisoning those who drank the water.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Stockton|first1=Nick|title=Plastic Water Bottles Might Have Poisoned Ancient Californians|url=https://www.wired.com/story/plastic-water-bottles-might-have-poisoned-ancient-californians/|accessdate=26 June 2017|work=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]|date=23 June 2017}}</ref> Asphalt was used also to seal the planks on ocean-going canoes. Asphalt was first used to pave streets in the 1870s. At first naturally occurring "bituminous rock" was used, such as at Ritchie Mines in Macfarlan in [[Ritchie County, West Virginia]] from 1852 to 1873. In 1876, asphalt-based paving was used to pave Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington DC, in time for the celebration of the national centennial.<ref name="NAPA2005">{{cite book|first=Dan|last=McNichol|year=2005|title=Paving the Way: Asphalt in America|edition=|chapter=|publisher=National Asphalt Pavement Association|location=Lanham, MD|pages=|url=http://store.hotmix.org/index.php?productID=144|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060829062836/http://store.hotmix.org/index.php?productID=144|dead-url=yes|archive-date=2006-08-29|isbn=0-914313-04-5}}</ref> In the horse-drawn era, streets were unpaved and covered with dirt or gravel. However, that produced uneven wear, opened new hazards for pedestrians and made for dangerous potholes for bicycles and for motor vehicles. Manhattan alone had 130,000 horses in 1900, pulling streetcars, wagons, and carriages, and leaving their waste behind. They were not fast, and pedestrians could dodge and scramble their way across the crowded streets. Small towns continued to rely on dirt and gravel, but larger cities wanted much better streets. They looked to wood or granite blocks by the 1850s.<ref>David O. Whitten, "A Century of Parquet Pavements: Wood as a Paving Material In The United States And Abroad, 1840-1940." ''Essays in Economic and Business History'' 15 (1997): 209-26.</ref> In 1890, a third of Chicago's 2000 miles of streets were paved, chiefly with wooden blocks, which gave better traction than mud. Brick surfacing was a good compromise, but even better was asphalt paving, which was easy to install and to cut through to get at sewers. With London and Paris serving as models, Washington laid 400,000 square yards of asphalt paving by 1882; it became the model for Buffalo, Philadelphia and elsewhere. By the end of the century, American cities boasted 30 million square yards of asphalt paving, well ahead of brick.<ref>Arthur Maier Schlesinger, ''The Rise of the City: 1878-1898'' (1933) p 88-93.</ref> The streets became faster and more dangerous so electric traffic lights were installed. Electric trolleys (at 12 miles per hour) became the main transportation service for middle class shoppers and office workers until they bought automobiles after 1945 and commuted from more distant suburbs in privacy and comfort on asphalt highways.<ref>John D. Fairfield, "Rapid Transit: Automobility and Settlement in Urban America" ''Reviews in American History'' 23#1 (1995), pp. 80-85 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2703240 online].</ref> === Canada === {{see also | Bitumount | History of the petroleum industry in Canada (oil sands and heavy oil)}} Canada has the world's largest deposit of natural bitumen in the [[Athabasca oil sands]], and Canadian [[First Nations]] along the [[Athabasca River]] had long used it to waterproof their canoes. In 1719, a [[Cree]] named Wa-Pa-Su brought a sample for trade to [[Henry Kelsey]] of the [[Hudson’s Bay Company]], who was the first recorded European to see it. However, it wasn't until 1787 that fur trader and explorer [[Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)|Alexander MacKenzie]] saw the Athabasca oil sands and said, "At about 24 miles from the fork (of the Athabasca and Clearwater Rivers) are some bituminous fountains into which a pole of 20 feet long may be inserted without the least resistance."<ref name=oilsandfacts/> The value of the deposit was obvious from the start, but the means of extracting the bitumen was not. The nearest town, [[Fort McMurray, Alberta]], was a small fur trading post, other markets were far away, and transportation costs were too high to ship the raw bituminous sand for paving. In 1915, Sidney Ells of the Federal Mines Branch experimented with separation techniques and used the product to pave 600 feet of road in [[Edmonton]], Alberta. Other roads in Alberta were paved with material extracted from oil sands, but it was generally not economic. During the 1920s [[Karl Clark (chemist)|Dr. Karl A. Clark]] of the [[Alberta Research Council]] patented a hot water oil separation process and entrepreneur Robert C. Fitzsimmons<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.canadianpetroleumhalloffame.ca/robert-fitzsimmons.html | title = Robert C. Fitzsimmons (1881–1971) | year = 2010 | publisher = Canadian Petroleum Hall of Fame | access-date = 2016-01-20}}</ref> built the [[Bitumount]] oil separation plant, which between 1925 and 1958 produced up to {{convert|300|oilbbl|sigfig=1}} per day of bitumen using Dr. Clark's method. Most of the bitumen was used for waterproofing roofs, but other uses included fuels, lubrication oils, printers ink, medicines, rust- and acid-proof paints, fireproof roofing, street paving, patent leather, and fence post preservatives.<ref name = oilsandfacts/> Eventually Fitzsimmons ran out of money and the plant was taken over by the Alberta government. Today the Bitumount plant is a [[Provincial historic sites of Alberta|Provincial Historic Site]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.history.alberta.ca/energyheritage/bitumount/default.aspx | title = Bitumount | year = 2016 | publisher = Government of Alberta | access-date = 2016-01-20}}</ref> ===Photography and art=== Bitumen was used in early photographic technology. In 1826 or 1827, it was used by French scientist [[Joseph Nicéphore Niépce]] to make the [[View from the Window at Le Gras|oldest surviving photograph from nature]]. The bitumen was thinly coated onto a [[pewter]] plate which was then exposed in a camera. Exposure to light hardened the bitumen and made it insoluble, so that when it was subsequently rinsed with a solvent only the sufficiently light-struck areas remained. Many hours of exposure in the camera were required, making bitumen impractical for ordinary photography, but from the 1850s to the 1920s it was in common use as a [[photoresist]] in the production of printing plates for various photomechanical printing processes.<ref>[http://www.niepce.org/pagus/pagus-inv.html Niépce Museum history pages.] Retrieved 27 October 2012. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070803222723/http://www.niepce.org/pagus/pagus-inv.html |date=3 August 2007 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/permanent/wfp/ The First Photograph (Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin).] Retrieved 27 October 2012.</ref> Bitumen was the nemesis of many artists during the 19th century. Although widely used for a time, it ultimately proved unstable for use in oil painting, especially when mixed with the most common diluents, such as linseed oil, varnish and turpentine. Unless thoroughly diluted, bitumen never fully solidifies and will in time corrupt the other pigments with which it comes into contact. The use of bitumen as a glaze to set in shadow or mixed with other colors to render a darker tone resulted in the eventual deterioration of many paintings, for instance those of [[Eugène Delacroix|Delacroix]]. Perhaps the most famous example of the destructiveness of bitumen is [[Théodore Géricault]]'s [[Raft of the Medusa]] (1818–1819), where his use of bitumen caused the brilliant colors to degenerate into dark greens and blacks and the paint and canvas to buckle.<ref name="WSJ 2009-08-21">{{cite news |last=Spiegelman |first=Willard |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970204119704574236393080650258 |title=Revolutionary Romanticism: 'The Raft of the Medusa' brought energy to French art |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |location=New York City |date=2009-08-21 |accessdate=2016-01-27 }}</ref> ==Modern use== === Global use === The vast majority of refined asphalt is used in construction: primarily as a constituent of products used in paving and roofing applications. According to the requirements of the end use, asphalt is produced to specification. This is achieved either by refining or blending. It is estimated that the current world use of asphalt is approximately 102 million tonnes per year. Approximately 85% of all the asphalt produced is used as the [[Binder (material)|binder]] in asphalt concrete for roads. It is also used in other paved areas such as airport runways, car parks and footways. Typically, the production of asphalt concrete involves mixing fine and coarse [[Construction aggregate|aggregates]] such as [[sand]], [[gravel]] and crushed rock with asphalt, which acts as the binding agent. Other materials, such as recycled polymers (e.g., [[Natural rubber|rubber]] [[tire|tyres]]), may be added to the asphalt to modify its properties according to the application for which the asphalt is ultimately intended. A further 10% of global asphalt production is used in roofing applications, where its waterproofing qualities are invaluable. The remaining 5% of asphalt is used mainly for sealing and insulating purposes in a variety of building materials, such as pipe coatings, carpet tile backing and paint. Asphalt is applied in the construction and maintenance of many structures, systems, and components, such as the following: {{div col|colwidth=22em}} * Highways * Airport runways * Footways and pedestrian ways * Car parks * Racetracks * Tennis courts * Roofing * Damp proofing * Dams * Reservoir and pool linings * Soundproofing * Pipe coatings * Cable coatings * Paints * Building water proofing * Tile underlying waterproofing * Newspaper ink production * and many other applications {{div col end}} === Rolled asphalt concrete === {{main|Asphalt concrete}}The largest use of asphalt is for making [[asphalt concrete]] for road surfaces; this accounts for approximately 85% of the asphalt consumed in the United States. There are about 4,000 asphalt concrete mixing plants in the US, and a similar number in Europe.<ref name="the_asphalt_paving_industry_2nd_ed">{{cite book | title = The Asphalt Paving Industry: A Global Perspective, 2nd Edition | publisher = National Asphalt Pavement Association and European Asphalt Pavement Association | date = February 2011 | location = Lanham, Maryland, and Brussels | url = http://www.asphaltpavement.org/images/stories/GL_101_Edition_3.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 27 September 2012 | isbn = 0-914313-06-1}}</ref> Asphalt concrete pavement mixes are typically composed of 5% asphalt cement and 95% aggregates (stone, sand, and gravel). Due to its highly viscous nature, asphalt cement must be heated so it can be mixed with the aggregates at the asphalt mixing facility. The temperature required varies depending upon characteristics of the asphalt and the aggregates, but [[Asphalt concrete#Mixture formulations|warm-mix asphalt technologies]] allow producers to reduce the temperature required.<ref name="the_asphalt_paving_industry_2nd_ed" /><ref name="whats_in_your_asphalt_2017_09_fhwa" /> The weight of an asphalt pavement depends upon the [[aggregate (paving)|aggregate]] type, the asphalt, and the air void content. An average example in the United States is about 112 pounds per square yard, per inch of pavement thickness.<ref name="whats_in_your_asphalt_2017_09_fhwa" /> When maintenance is performed on asphalt pavements, such as [[Pavement milling|milling]] to remove a worn or damaged surface, the removed material can be returned to a facility for processing into new pavement mixtures. The asphalt in the removed material can be reactivated and put back to use in new pavement mixes.<ref>{{cite journal|title=How Should We Express RAP and RAS Contents? |journal=Asphalt Technology E-News |year=2014 |authorlink=National Center for Asphalt Technology |volume=26 |issue=2 |url=http://www.eng.auburn.edu/research/centers/ncat/info-pubs/newsletters/fall-2014/recycledcontents.html |accessdate=2015-08-13 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150609020500/http://www.eng.auburn.edu/research/centers/ncat/info-pubs/newsletters/fall-2014/recycledcontents.html |archivedate=9 June 2015 |df= }}</ref> With some 95% of paved roads being constructed of or surfaced with asphalt,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policyinformation/statistics/2012/hm12.cfm |title=Highway Statistics Series: Public Road Length Miles by Type of Surface and Ownership |publisher=[[Federal Highway Administration]] |date=2013-10-01 |accessdate=2015-08-13 }}</ref> a substantial amount of asphalt pavement material is reclaimed each year. According to industry surveys conducted annually by the [[Federal Highway Administration]] and the National Asphalt Pavement Association, more than 99% of the asphalt removed each year from road surfaces during widening and resurfacing projects is reused as part of new pavements, roadbeds, shoulders and embankments.<ref>{{cite web|title=Asphalt Pavement Recycling|url=http://www.asphaltpavement.org/recycling|work=Annual Asphalt Pavement Industry Survey on Recycled Materials and Warm-Mix Asphalt Usage: 2009–2013|publisher=National Asphalt Pavement Association|accessdate=13 August 2015}}</ref> Asphalt concrete paving is widely used in airports around the world. Due to the sturdiness and ability to be repaired quickly, it is widely used for [[runway]]s. === Mastic asphalt === {{further|Fibre mastic asphalt}} [[Mastic asphalt]] is a type of asphalt that differs from dense graded asphalt ([[asphalt concrete]]) in that it has a higher asphalt ([[binder (material)|binder]]) content, usually around 7–10% of the whole aggregate mix, as opposed to rolled asphalt concrete, which has only around 5% asphalt. This thermoplastic substance is widely used in the building industry for waterproofing flat roofs and tanking underground. Mastic asphalt is heated to a temperature of {{convert|210|°C|°F}} and is spread in layers to form an impervious barrier about {{convert|20|mm|in|1|abbr=off|sp=us}} thick. === Asphalt emulsion === A number of technologies allow asphalt to be mixed at much lower temperatures. These involve mixing with petroleum solvents to form "cutbacks" with reduced melting point or mixing with water to turn the asphalt into an [[emulsion]]. Asphalt emulsions contain up to 70% asphalt and typically less than 1.5% chemical additives. There are two main types of emulsions with different affinity for aggregates, [[cationic]] and [[anionic]]. Asphalt emulsions are used in a wide variety of applications. [[Chipseal]] involves spraying the road surface with asphalt emulsion followed by a layer of crushed rock, gravel or crushed slag. Slurry seal involves the creation of a mixture of asphalt emulsion and fine crushed aggregate that is spread on the surface of a road. Cold-mixed asphalt can also be made from asphalt emulsion to create pavements similar to hot-mixed asphalt, several inches in depth, and asphalt emulsions are also blended into recycled hot-mix asphalt to create low-cost pavements. === Synthetic crude oil === {{main|Synthetic crude oil}} {{see also|Petroleum production in Canada}} Synthetic crude oil, also known as syncrude, is the output from a bitumen upgrader facility used in connection with oil sand production in Canada. Bituminous sands are mined using enormous (100 ton capacity) [[power shovel]]s and loaded into even larger (400 ton capacity) [[dump trucks]] for movement to an upgrading facility. The process used to extract the bitumen from the sand is a hot water process originally developed by [[Karl Clark (chemist)|Dr. Karl Clark]] of the [[University of Alberta]] during the 1920s. After extraction from the sand, the bitumen is fed into a [[Upgrader|bitumen upgrader]] which converts it into a [[light crude oil]] equivalent. This synthetic substance is fluid enough to be transferred through conventional [[oil pipeline]]s and can be fed into conventional oil refineries without any further treatment. By 2015 Canadian bitumen upgraders were producing over {{convert|1|Moilbbl}} per day of synthetic crude oil, of which 75% was exported to oil refineries in the United States.<ref name=NEBstats>{{Cite web | url = https://www.neb-one.gc.ca/nrg/sttstc/crdlndptrlmprdct/index-eng.html | title = Crude Oil and Petroleum Products | publisher = [[National Energy Board]] of Canada | accessdate = January 21, 2016}}</ref> In Alberta, five bitumen upgraders produce synthetic crude oil and a variety of other products: The [[Suncor Energy]] upgrader near [[Fort McMurray, Alberta]] produces synthetic crude oil plus diesel fuel; the [[Syncrude Canada]], [[Canadian Natural Resources]], and [[Nexen]] upgraders near Fort McMurray produce synthetic crude oil; and the Shell [[Scotford Upgrader]] near Edmonton produces synthetic crude oil plus an intermediate feedstock for the nearby Shell Oil Refinery.<ref name=CAPP2015>{{Cite web|url=http://www.capp.ca/publications-and-statistics/publications/264673 |title=2015 CAPP Crude Oil Forecast, Markets & Transportation |publisher=[[Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers]] |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160120081514/http://www.capp.ca/publications-and-statistics/publications/264673 |archivedate=20 January 2016 |df= }}</ref> A sixth upgrader, under construction in 2015 near [[Redwater, Alberta]], will upgrade half of its crude bitumen directly to diesel fuel, with the remainder of the output being sold as feedstock to nearby oil refineries and petrochemical plants.<ref>{{Cite web | url = http://www.nwrpartnership.com/ | title = The Project | publisher = North West Redwater Partnership | accessdate = January 21, 2016}}</ref> === Non-upgraded crude bitumen === {{See also|Western Canadian Select}} Canadian bitumen does not differ substantially from oils such as Venezuelan extra-heavy and Mexican [[heavy crude oil|heavy oil]] in chemical composition, and the real difficulty is moving the extremely viscous bitumen through [[oil pipeline]]s to the refinery. Many modern oil refineries are extremely sophisticated and can process non-upgraded bitumen directly into products such as gasoline, diesel fuel, and refined asphalt without any preprocessing. This is particularly common in areas such as the US [[Gulf coast]], where refineries were designed to process Venezuelan and Mexican oil, and in areas such as the US [[Midwest]] where refineries were rebuilt to process heavy oil as domestic light oil production declined. Given the choice, such heavy oil refineries usually prefer to buy bitumen rather than synthetic oil because the cost is lower, and in some cases because they prefer to produce more diesel fuel and less gasoline.<ref name=CAPP2015/> By 2015 Canadian production and exports of non-upgraded bitumen exceeded that of synthetic crude oil at over {{convert|1.3|Moilbbl}} per day, of which about 65% was exported to the United States.<ref name=NEBstats/> Because of the difficulty of moving crude bitumen through pipelines, non-upgraded bitumen is usually diluted with [[natural-gas condensate]] in a form called [[dilbit]] or with synthetic crude oil, called [[synbit]]. However, to meet international competition, much non-upgraded bitumen is now sold as a blend of multiple grades of bitumen, conventional crude oil, synthetic crude oil, and condensate in a standardized benchmark product such as [[Western Canadian Select]]. This sour, heavy crude oil blend is designed to have uniform refining characteristics to compete with internationally marketed heavy oils such as [[Petroleum industry in Mexico|Mexican Mayan]] or Arabian [[Dubai Crude]].<ref name=CAPP2015/> ===Radioactive waste encapsulation matrix=== Asphalt was used starting in the 1960s as an [[hydrophobic]] matrix aiming to encapsulate radioactive waste such as medium-activity salts (mainly soluble [[sodium nitrate]] and [[sodium sulfate]]) produced by the reprocessing of [[spent nuclear fuel]]s or radioactive [[sludge]]s from sedimentation ponds.<ref>Rodier, J., Scheidhauer, J., & Malabre, M. (1961). The conditioning of radioactive waste by bitumen (No. CEA-R—1992). CEA Marcoule.</ref><ref>Lefillatre, G., Rodier, J., Hullo, R., Cudel, Y., & Rodi, L. (1969). Use of a thin-film evaporator for bitumen coating of radioactive concentrates (No. CEA-R—3742). CEA Marcoule.</ref> Bituminised radioactive waste containing highly [[radiotoxic]] [[ionizing radiation#Alpha particles|alpha-emitting]] [[Transuranium element|transuranic element]]s from nuclear reprocessing plants have been produced at industrial scale in France, Belgium and Japan, but this type of waste conditioning has been abandoned because operational safety issues (risks of fire, as occurred in a bituminisation plant at Tokai Works in Japan)<ref>Sato, Y., Miura, A., Kato, Y., Suzuki, H., Shigetome, Y., Koyama, T., ... & Yamanouchi, T. (2000). Study on the cause of the fire and explosion incident at Bituminization Demonstration Facility of PNC Tokai Works. In Nuclear waste: from research to industrial maturity. International conference (pp. 179–190).</ref><ref>Okada, K., Nur, R. M., & Fujii, Y. (1999). The formation of explosive compounds in bitumen/nitrate mixtures. Journal of hazardous materials, 69(3), 245–256.</ref> and long-term stability problems related to their [[Deep geological repository|geological disposal]] in deep rock formations. One of the main problem is the swelling of asphalt exposed to radiation and to water. Asphalt swelling is first induced by radiation because of the presence of [[hydrogen]] gas bubbles generated by alpha and gamma [[radiolysis]].<ref>Johnson, D.I., Hitchon, J.W., & Phillips, D.C. (1986). Further observations of the swelling of bitumens and simulated bitumen wasteforms during γ-irradiation (No. AERE-R—12292). UKAEA Harwell Lab. Materials Development Division.</ref><ref>Phillips, D. C., Hitchon, J. W., Johnson, D. I., & Matthews, J. R. (1984). The radiation swelling of bitumens and bitumenised wastes. Journal of nuclear materials, 125(2), 202–218.</ref> A second mechanism is the matrix swelling when the encapsulated [[hygroscopic]] salts exposed to water or moisture start to rehydrate and to dissolve. The high concentration of salt in the pore solution inside the bituminised matrix is then responsible for [[osmosis|osmotic]] effects inside the bituminised matrix. The water moves in the direction of the concentrated salts, the asphalt acting as a [[Semipermeable membrane|semi-permeable membrane]]. This also causes the matrix to swell. The swelling pressure due to osmotic effect under constant volume can be as high as 200 bar. If not properly managed, this high pressure can cause fractures in the near field of a disposal gallery of bituminised medium-level waste. When the bituminised matrix has been altered by swelling, encapsulated radionuclides are easily leached by the contact of ground water and released in the geosphere. The high [[ionic strength]] of the concentrated saline solution also favours the migration of radionuclides in clay host rocks. The presence of chemically reactive nitrate can also affect the [[redox]] conditions prevailing in the host rock by establishing oxidizing conditions, preventing the reduction of redox-sensitive radionuclides. Under their higher valences, radionuclides of elements such as [[selenium]], [[technetium]], [[uranium]], [[neptunium]] and [[plutonium]] have a higher solubility and are also often present in water as non-retarded [[anion]]s. This makes the disposal of medium-level bituminised waste very challenging. Different type of asphalt have been used: blown bitumen (partly oxidized with air oxygen at high temperature after distillation, and harder) and direct distillation bitumen (softer). Blown bitumens like Mexphalte, with a high content of saturated hydrocarbons, are more easily biodegraded by microorganisms than direct distillation bitumen, with a low content of saturated hydrocarbons and a high content of aromatic hydrocarbons.<ref>Ait-Langomazino, N., Sellier, R., Jouquet, G., & Trescinski, M. (1991). Microbial degradation of bitumen. Experientia, 47(6), 533–539.</ref> Concrete encapsulation of radwaste is presently considered a safer alternative by the [[nuclear industry]] and the waste management organisations. ===Other uses=== [[Asphalt shingle|Roofing shingle]]s account for most of the remaining asphalt consumption. Other uses include cattle sprays, fence-post treatments, and waterproofing for fabrics. Asphalt is used to make [[Japan black]], a [[lacquer]] known especially for its use on iron and steel, and it is also used in paint and marker inks by some exterior paint supply companies to increase the weather resistance and permanence of the paint or ink, and to make the color darker.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mohd|first=Meraj Jafri|last2=Singh|first2=D. K.|date=1 Mar 2013|title=Cashew Nutshell Liquid Resin|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f5e2/547698e8e0070452ffeee58903bb4b0c5946.pdf|journal=IJRREST: International Journal of Research Review in Engineering Science and Technology|volume=2|pages=60–65|via=}}</ref> Asphalt is also used to seal some alkaline batteries during the manufacturing process. ==Production== [[File:Asphalt plant pic.jpg|thumbnail|right|Typical asphalt plant for making asphalt]] About 40,000,000 tons were produced in 1984.{{update inline|date=June 2014}} It is obtained as the "heavy" (i.e., difficult to distill) fraction. Material with a [[boiling point]] greater than around 500&nbsp;°C is considered asphalt. Vacuum distillation separates it from the other components in crude oil (such as [[naphtha]], gasoline and [[Diesel fuel|diesel]]). The resulting material is typically further treated to extract small but valuable amounts of lubricants and to adjust the properties of the material to suit applications. In a [[de-asphalting unit]], the crude asphalt is treated with either [[propane]] or [[butane]] in a [[Supercritical fluid|supercritical]] phase to extract the lighter molecules, which are then separated. Further processing is possible by "blowing" the product: namely reacting it with [[oxygen]]. This step makes the product harder and more viscous.<ref name=Ullmann/> Asphalt is typically stored and transported at temperatures around {{convert|150|°C|°F|abbr=on}}. Sometimes [[diesel oil]] or [[kerosene]] are mixed in before shipping to retain liquidity; upon delivery, these lighter materials are separated out of the mixture. This mixture is often called "bitumen feedstock", or BFS. Some [[dump truck]]s route the hot engine exhaust through pipes in the dump body to keep the material warm. The backs of tippers carrying asphalt, as well as some handling equipment, are also commonly sprayed with a releasing agent before filling to aid release. Diesel oil is no longer used as a [[release agent]] due to environmental concerns. ===Oil sands=== {{main|Oil sands}} Naturally occurring crude bitumen impregnated in sedimentary rock is the prime feed stock for petroleum production from "[[oil sands]]", currently under development in Alberta, Canada. Canada has most of the world's supply of natural bitumen, covering 140,000 square kilometres<ref name=oilsands/> (an area larger than England), giving it the second-largest proven [[oil reserves]] in the world. The [[Athabasca oil sands]] are the largest bitumen deposit in Canada and the only one accessible to [[surface mining]], although recent technological breakthroughs have resulted in deeper deposits becoming producible by ''[[in-situ#Petroleum|in situ]]'' methods. Because of [[world oil market chronology from 2003|oil price increases after 2003]], producing bitumen became highly profitable, but as a result of the decline after 2014 it became uneconomic to build new plants again. By 2014, Canadian crude bitumen production averaged about {{convert|2.3|Moilbbl|m3}} per day and was projected to rise to {{convert|4.4|Moilbbl|m3}} per day by 2020.<ref name="CAPP"/> The total amount of crude bitumen in Alberta that could be extracted is estimated to be about {{convert|310|Goilbbl|e9m3|sigfig=1}},<ref name=ST98/> which at a rate of {{convert|4400000|oilbbl/d}} would last about 200 years. ===Alternatives and bioasphalt === {{Main|Peak oil|Global warming|Bioasphalt}} Although uncompetitive economically, asphalt can be made from nonpetroleum-based renewable resources such as sugar, [[molasses]] and rice, corn and potato [[starch]]es. Asphalt can also be made from waste material by [[fractional distillation]] of used [[motor oil]], which is sometimes otherwise disposed of by burning or dumping into landfills. Use of motor oil may cause premature cracking in colder climates, resulting in roads that need to be repaved more frequently.<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1080/10298436.2010.488729| issn = 1029-8436| volume = 11| issue = 6| pages = 541–553| last = Hesp| first = Simon A.M.|author2=Herbert F. Shurvell| title = X-ray fluorescence detection of waste engine oil residue in asphalt and its effect on cracking in service| journal = International Journal of Pavement Engineering| accessdate = 2014-03-24| year = 2010| url = http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10298436.2010.488729}}</ref> Nonpetroleum-based asphalt binders can be made light-colored. Lighter-colored roads absorb less heat from solar radiation, reducing their contribution to the [[urban heat island]] effect.<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/ Heat Island Effect]. From the website of the US Environmental Protection Agency.</ref> Parking lots that use asphalt alternatives are called [[green parking lot]]s. ===Albanian deposits=== Selenizza is a naturally occurring solid hydrocarbon bitumen found in native deposits in [[Selenice]], in [[Albania]], the only European asphalt mine still in use. The bitumen is found in the form of veins, filling cracks in a more or less horizontal direction. The bitumen content varies from 83% to 92% (soluble in carbon disulphide), with a penetration value near to zero and a softening point (ring and ball) around 120&nbsp;°C. The insoluble matter, consisting mainly of silica ore, ranges from 8% to 17%. Albanian bitumen extraction has a long history and was practiced in an organized way by the Romans. After centuries of silence, the first mentions of Albanian bitumen appeared only in 1868, when the Frenchman [[Henri Coquand|Coquand]] published the first geological description of the deposits of Albanian bitumen. In 1875, the exploitation rights were granted to the Ottoman government and in 1912, they were transferred to the Italian company Simsa. Since 1945, the mine was exploited by the Albanian government and from 2001 to date, the management passed to a French company, which organized the mining process for the manufacture of the natural bitumen on an industrial scale.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Giavarini|first1=Carlo|title=Six Thousand Years of Asphalt|date=March 2013|publisher=SITEB|isbn=978-88-908408-3-8|pages=71–78}}</ref> Today the mine is predominantly exploited in an open pit quarry but several of the many underground mines (deep and extending over several km) still remain viable. Selenizza is produced primarily in granular form, after melting the bitumen pieces selected in the mine. Selenizza<ref name="Selenice Bitumi">[http://www.selenicebitumi.com/engindex.php], Selenice Bitumi for more information about Selenizza</ref> is mainly used as an additive in the road construction sector. It is mixed with traditional asphalt to improve both the viscoelastic properties and the resistance to ageing. It may be blended with the hot asphalt in tanks, but its granular form allows it to be fed in the mixer or in the recycling ring of normal asphalt plants. Other typical applications include the production of mastic asphalts for sidewalks, bridges, car-parks and urban roads as well as drilling fluid additives for the oil and gas industry. Selenizza is available in powder or in granular material of various particle sizes and is packaged in sacks or in thermal fusible polyethylene bags. A [[life-cycle assessment]] study of the natural selenizza compared with petroleum asphalt has shown that the environmental impact of the selenizza is about half the impact of the road asphalt produced in oil refineries in terms of carbon dioxide emission.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Giavarini|first1=C.|last2=Pellegrini|first2=A.|title=Life cycle assessment of Selenice asphalt compared with petroleum bitumen|journal=The 1st Albanian Congress on Roads|pages=234–237}}</ref> == Economics == Although asphalt typically makes up only 4 to 5 percent (by weight) of the pavement mixture, as the pavement’s binder, it is also the most expensive part of the cost of the road-paving material.<ref name="whats_in_your_asphalt_2017_09_fhwa" /> During asphalt's early use in modern paving, oil refiners gave it away. However, asphalt is, today, a highly traded commodity. Its prices increased substantially in the early 21st Century. A U.S. government report states: :"In 2002, asphalt sold for approximately $160 per ton. By the end of 2006, the cost had doubled to approximately $320 per ton, and then it almost doubled again in 2012 to approximately $610 per ton."<ref name="whats_in_your_asphalt_2017_09_fhwa" /> The report indicates that an "average" 1-mile (1.6-kilometer)-long, four-lane highway would include "300 tons of asphalt," which, "in 2002 would have cost around $48,000. By 2006 this would have increased to $96,000 and by 2012 to $183,000... an increase of about $135,000 for every mile of highway in just 10 years."<ref name="whats_in_your_asphalt_2017_09_fhwa" /> == Health and safety == People can be exposed to asphalt in the workplace by breathing in fumes or skin absorption. The [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] (NIOSH) has set a [[recommended exposure limit]] of 5&nbsp;mg/m³ over a 15-minute period.<ref>{{Cite web|title = CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Asphalt fumes|url = https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0042.html|website = www.cdc.gov|accessdate = 2015-11-27}}</ref> Asphalt is basically an inert material that must be heated or diluted to a point where it becomes workable for the production of materials for paving, roofing, and other applications. In examining the potential health hazards associated with asphalt, the [[International Agency for Research on Cancer]] (IARC) determined that it is the application parameters, predominantly temperature, that affect occupational exposure and the potential bioavailable [[carcinogenic]] hazard/risk of the asphalt emissions.<ref>{{cite book |last=IARC |url=http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol103/ |title=Bitumens and Bitumen Emissions, and Some N- and S-Heterocyclic Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons |volume=103 |location=Lyon, France |publisher=[[International Agency for Research on Cancer]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-92-832-1326-0 |accessdate=2015-12-07 }}</ref> In particular, temperatures greater than 199&nbsp;°C (390&nbsp;°F), were shown to produce a greater exposure risk than when asphalt was heated to lower temperatures, such as those typically used in asphalt pavement mix production and placement.<ref name="CavallariZwack2012">{{cite journal|last1=Cavallari|first1=J. M.|last2=Zwack|first2=L. M.|last3=Lange|first3=C. R.|last4=Herrick|first4=R. F.|last5=Mcclean|first5=M. D.|title=Temperature-Dependent Emission Concentrations of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Paving and Built-Up Roofing Asphalts|journal=Annals of Occupational Hygiene|volume=56|issue=2|year=2012|pages=148–160|issn=0003-4878|doi=10.1093/annhyg/mer107|doi-access=free}}</ref> IARC has classified asphalt as a [[List of IARC Group 2B carcinogens|Class 2B]] possible carcinogen. [[File:Asfaltna baza Ivanovec.1.jpg|thumb|An asphalt mixing plant for hot aggregate]] ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=22em}} * [[Asphalt plant]] * [[Asphaltene]] * [[Bioasphalt]] * [[Bitumen-based fuel]] * [[Bituminous coal]] * [[Bituminous rocks]] * [[Blacktop]] * [[Cariphalte]] * [[Cooper Research Technology]] * [[Duxit]] * [[International Grooving & Grinding Association]] * [[Macadam]] * [[Oil sands]] * [[Pitch (resin)]] * [[Tar]] * [[Tarmacadam|Tarmac]] * [[Sealcoat]] * [[Stamped asphalt]] {{div col end}} ==Notes== {{reflist|group="note"}} ==References== {{reflist|30em}} <!-- <ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=http://www.qrpoil.com/site/?bitumen|title=QRPOIL:: - Bitumen - Bitumen|website=www.qrpoil.com}}</ref><ref name=":0" />{{refbegin}}{{refend}} --> ==Sources== * Barth, Edwin J., ''Asphalt: Science and Technology'' Gordon and Breach (1962). {{ISBN|0-677-00040-5}}. * {{citation |date=1993|origyear=Reprint of 1964 ed. |author=Forbes, R.J. |title=Studies in Ancient Technology |volume=Volume 1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gLQnmxGjpjIC&pg=PA5&dq=chapter+introduction+%22petroleum+family%22#v=onepage&q=chapter%20introduction%20%22petroleum%20family%22&f=false |place=The Netherlands |publisher=E.J. Brill |isbn=90-04-00621-4}} *{{citation |year=1992 |author=Lay, Maxwell G |title=The Ways of the World: A History of the World's Roads and of the Vehicles that Used Them |place= |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=0-8135-2691-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=flvS-nJga8QC&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Ways+of+the+World%22#v=onepage&q&f=false}} ==External links== {{Commons category|Bitumen}} {{commons category|Asphalt}} {{wiktionary|asphalt}} *{{cite EB1911 |first=Boverton |last=Redwood |wstitle=Asphalt|volume=2|page=768|short=x}} *{{ICSC|0612|06}} *[http://pavementinteractive.org/index.php?title=Asphalt Pavement Interactive – Asphalt] *[http://www.asphaltmagazine.com/ Asphalt Magazine] *[http://ecs.csus.edu/~gordonvs/asphalt/asphalt.html CSU Sacramento, The World Famous Asphalt Museum!] *[https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/asphalt/ National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health – Asphalt Fumes] *{{Cite NIE|wstitle=Bitumen|year=1905 |short=x}} <!-- BEFORE REMOVING LINKS PLEASE READ THE ARTICLES AND CHECK THAT THEY DO NOT DESCRIBE ASPHALT OR BITUMEN / PLEASE REMOVE LINKS TO ASPHALT CONCRETE SOME ARTICLES ARE POOR, UNCLEAR OR DESCRIBE BOTH, THEY MAY BECOME INVALID LINKS LATER AS THEY ARE IMPROVED --> {{Authority control}} [[Category:Asphalt| ]] [[Category:Amorphous solids]] [[Category:Chemical mixtures]] [[Category:IARC Group 2B carcinogens]] [[Category:Pavements]] [[Category:Petroleum products]] [[Category:Road construction materials]] [[Category:Building materials]] mqb2b14co7blbwayqm0lmesffq3u7ue 0 659 861806078 861803647 2018-09-30T04:25:35Z LiberatorG 10052219 Reverted 1 edit by [[Special:Contributions/Razorvs1|Razorvs1]] ([[User talk:Razorvs1|talk]]): [[WP:PROMO]]. ([[WP:TW|TW]]) wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect2|American Standards Association|ANSI|the film speed scale|ASA film speed|other uses|ANSI (disambiguation)}} {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox organization | name = American National Standards Institute | bgcolor = <!-- header background color --> | fgcolor = <!-- header text color --> | image = ANSI logo.svg | image_border = | size = <!-- default 200px --> | alt = <!-- alt text; see [[WP:ALT]] --> | caption = An official [[logo]] of the American National Standards Institute | msize = <!-- map size, optional, default 200px --> | malt = <!-- map alt text --> | mcaption = <!-- optional --> | abbreviation = ANSI | motto = | formation = {{Start date and age|1918|10|19|paren=yes}}<ref>19 October 1918, Minutes, American Engineering Standards Committee (AESC), p. 1</ref> | type = [[non-profit organization|NPO]] | status = [[501(c)(3)]] private | purpose = [[Standards organization|National standards]] | headquarters = [[Washington, D.C.]], USA<br>{{Coordinates|38|54|14|N|77|02|35|W}} | location = | region_served = | membership = 125,000 companies and 3.5 million professionals<ref name="membership"/> | language = [[American English|English]] | leader_title = President and [[CEO]] | leader_name = Joe Bhatia | main_organ = <!--(gral. assembly, board of directors, etc)--> | parent_organization = [[International Organization for Standardization]] | affiliations = | num_staff = | num_volunteers = | budget = | website = {{URL|ansi.org}} | remarks = }} The '''American National Standards Institute''' ('''ANSI''', {{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|n|s|i}} {{respell|AN|see}}) is a private [[non-profit organization]] that oversees the development of [[Standardization|voluntary consensus standards]] for products, services, processes, systems, and personnel in the United States.<ref>{{IETF RFC|4949}}</ref> The organization also coordinates U.S. standards with international standards so that American products can be used worldwide. ANSI accredits standards that are developed by representatives of other [[standards organization]]s, [[government agency|government agencies]], [[consumer organization|consumer groups]], companies, and others. These standards ensure that the characteristics and performance of products are consistent, that people use the same definitions and terms, and that products are tested the same way. ANSI also accredits organizations that carry out product or personnel certification in accordance with requirements defined in international standards.<ref>ANSI 2009 Annual Report</ref> The organization's headquarters are in [[Washington, D.C.]] ANSI's operations office is located in [[New York City]]. The ANSI annual operating budget is funded by the sale of publications, membership dues and fees, accreditation services, fee-based programs, and international standards programs. == History == ANSI was originally formed in 1918, when five engineering societies and three government agencies founded the '''American Engineering Standards Committee''' ('''AESC''').<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ansi.org/about_ansi/introduction/history.aspx|title=ANSI: Historical Overview|website=ansi.org|access-date=2016-10-31}}</ref> In 1928, the AESC became the '''American Standards Association''' ('''ASA'''). In 1966, the ASA was reorganized and became '''United States of America Standards Institute''' ('''USASI'''). The present name was adopted in 1969. Prior to 1918, these five founding engineering societies: *[[American Institute of Electrical Engineers]] (AIEE, now [[IEEE]]) *[[American Society of Mechanical Engineers]] (ASME) *[[American Society of Civil Engineers]] (ASCE) *American Institute of Mining Engineers (AIME, now [[American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers]]) *American Society for Testing and Materials (now [[ASTM International]]) had been members of the United Engineering Society (UES). At the behest of the AIEE, they invited the U.S. government Departments of War, Navy (combined in 1947 to become the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] or DOD) and Commerce<ref>[http://www.ansi.org/about_ansi/introduction/history.aspx?menuid=1 ANSI history]- Retrieved 2011-09-27</ref> to join in founding a national standards organization. According to Adam Stanton, the first permanent secretary and head of staff in 1919, AESC started as an ambitious program and little else. Staff for the first year consisted of one executive, Clifford B. LePage, who was on loan from a founding member, ASME. An annual budget of $7,500 was provided by the founding bodies. In 1931, the organization (renamed ASA in 1928) became affiliated with the U.S. National Committee of the [[International Electrotechnical Commission]] ([[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]]), which had been formed in 1904 to develop electrical and electronics standards.<ref>[http://www.iec.ch/ Welcome to IEC - International Electrotechnical Commission<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> ==Members== ANSI's members are government agencies, organizations, academic and international bodies, and individuals. In total, the Institute represents the interests of more than 270,000 companies and organizations and 30 million professionals worldwide.<ref name="membership">{{cite web |url=https://www.ansi.org/membership/overview/overview?menuid=2www.ansi.org/membership |title=ANSI Membership – A Value Proposition |publisher=ANSI |date= |accessdate=March 22, 2018}}</ref> ==Process== Although ANSI itself does not develop standards, the Institute oversees the development and use of standards by accrediting the procedures of standards developing organizations. ANSI accreditation signifies that the procedures used by standards developing organizations meet the Institute's requirements for openness, balance, consensus, and due process. ANSI also designates specific standards as American National Standards, or ANS, when the Institute determines that the standards were developed in an environment that is equitable, accessible and responsive to the requirements of various stakeholders.<ref>[http://publicaa.ansi.org/sites/apdl/Documents/News%20and%20Publications/Brochures/Value%20of%20the%20ANS.pdf ''Value of the ANS Designation'' brochure]</ref> Voluntary consensus standards quicken the market acceptance of products while making clear how to improve the safety of those products for the protection of consumers. There are approximately 9,500 American National Standards that carry the ANSI designation. The American National Standards process involves: *consensus by a group that is open to representatives from all interested parties *broad-based public review and comment on draft standards *consideration of and response to comments *incorporation of submitted changes that meet the same consensus requirements into a draft standard *availability of an appeal by any participant alleging that these principles were not respected during the standards-development process. ==International activities== In addition to facilitating the formation of standards in the United States, ANSI promotes the use of U.S. standards internationally, advocates U.S. policy and technical positions in international and regional standards organizations, and encourages the adoption of international standards as national standards where appropriate. The Institute is the official U.S. representative to the two major international standards organizations, the [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO), as a founding member,<ref>[http://www.ansi.org/about_ansi/introduction/introduction.aspx ISO founding member]- Retrieved 2011-09-27</ref> and the [[International Electrotechnical Commission]] (IEC), via the U.S. National Committee (USNC). ANSI participates in almost the entire technical program of both the ISO and the IEC, and administers many key committees and subgroups. In many instances, U.S. standards are taken forward to ISO and IEC, through ANSI or the USNC, where they are adopted in whole or in part as international standards. Adoption of ISO and IEC standards as American standards increased from 0.2% in 1986 to 15.5% in May 2012.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8007 |title=A Review of U.S.A. Participation in ISO and IEC |last1=Choi |first1=Dong Geun |last2=Puskar |first2=Erik |year=2014 |publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology |page=29 |format=PDF}}</ref> ===Standards panels=== The Institute administers nine standards panels:<ref>[http://www.ansi.org/standards_activities/standards_boards_panels/overview.aspx?menuid=3 Overview]. Ansi.org. Retrieved on 2013-08-12.</ref> *ANSI Homeland Defense and Security Standardization Collaborative (HDSSC) *[[American National Standards Institute Nanotechnology Panel|ANSI Nanotechnology Standards Panel (ANSI-NSP)]] *ID Theft Prevention and ID Management Standards Panel (IDSP) *ANSI Energy Efficiency Standardization Coordination Collaborative (EESCC) *Nuclear Energy Standards Coordination Collaborative (NESCC) *Electric Vehicles Standards Panel (EVSP) *ANSI-NAM Network on Chemical Regulation *ANSI Biofuels Standards Coordination Panel *Healthcare Information Technology Standards Panel (HITSP) Each of the panels works to identify, coordinate, and harmonize voluntary standards relevant to these areas. In 2009, ANSI and the [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] (NIST) formed the Nuclear Energy Standards Coordination Collaborative (NESCC). NESCC is a joint initiative to identify and respond to the current need for standards in the nuclear industry. ===American national standards=== *The [[ASA film speed|ASA]] (as for American Standards Association) photographic exposure system, originally defined in ASA Z38.2.1 (since 1943) and ASA PH2.5 (since 1954), together with the [[DIN film speed|DIN system (DIN 4512 since 1934)]], became the basis for the [[ISO film speed|ISO]] system (since 1974), currently used worldwide ([[ISO 6]], [[ISO 2240]], [[ISO 5800]], [[ISO 12232]]). *A standard for the set of values used to represent characters in digital computers. The ANSI code standard extended the previously created [[ASCII]] seven bit code standard (ASA X3.4-1963), with additional codes for European alphabets (see also [[Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code]] or EBCDIC). In [[Microsoft Windows]], the phrase "ANSI" refers to the [[Windows code page|Windows ANSI code page]]s (even though they are not ANSI standards).<ref name="ms glossary">[http://www.microsoft.com/globaldev/reference/glossary.mspx Microsoft Glossary]</ref> Most of these are fixed width, though some characters for [[ideographic language]]s are variable width. Since these characters are based on a draft of the [[ISO-8859]] series, some of Microsoft's symbols are visually very similar to the ISO symbols, leading many to falsely assume that they are identical. *The first computer [[programming language]] standard was "American Standard [[Fortran]]" (informally known as "FORTRAN 66"), approved in March 1966 and published as ASA X3.9-1966. *The programming language [[COBOL]] had ANSI standards in 1968, 1974, and 1985. The COBOL 2002 standard was issued by [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]]. *The original standard implementation of the [[C (computer language)|C]] programming language was standardized as ANSI X3.159-1989, becoming the well-known [[ANSI C]]. *The [[X3J13|X3J13 committee]] was created in 1986 to formalize the ongoing consolidation of [[Common Lisp]],<ref>http://www.nhplace.com/kent/CL/x3j13-sd-05.html</ref> culminating in 1994 with the publication of ANSI's first object-oriented programming standard.<ref>http://dmoztools.net/Computers/Programming/Languages/Lisp/</ref> *A popular [[Unified Thread Standard]] for nuts and bolts is ANSI/ASME B1.1 which was defined in 1935, 1949, 1989, and 2003. *The ANSI-NSF International standards used for commercial kitchens, such as restaurants, cafeterias, delis, etc. *The ANSI/APSP (Association of Pool & Spa Professionals) standards used for pools, spas, hot tubs, barriers, and suction entrapment avoidance. *The ANSI/HI ([[Hydraulic Institute]]) standards used for pumps. *The ANSI for [[eye protection]] is Z87.1, which gives a specific impact resistance rating to the eyewear. This standard is commonly used for shop glasses, shooting glasses, and many other examples of protective eyewear. *The [[Paper size#ANSI paper sizes|ANSI paper sizes]] (ANSI/ASME Y14.1). ===Other initiatives=== *In 2008, ANSI, in partnership with [[Citation Technologies]],<ref>[http://www.citationtechnologies.com/alliances/ansi ] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202011754/http://www.citationtechnologies.com/alliances/ansi |date=December 2, 2008 }}</ref> created the first dynamic, online web library for [[ISO 14000]] standards.<ref name=iPackages>[http://ansi.org/news_publications/news_story.aspx?menuid=7&articleid=1892 ANSI ISO 14000 Press Release]</ref> *On June 23, 2009, ANSI announced a product and services agreement with [[Citation Technologies]] to deliver all ISO Standards on a web-based platform. Through the ANSI-Citation partnership, 17,765 International Standards developed by more than 3,000 ISO technical bodies will be made available on the citation platform, arming subscribers with powerful search tools and collaboration, notification, and change-management functionality.<ref name="ANSI Press Release 07.23.09">[http://www.ansi.org/news_publications/news_story.aspx?menuid=7&articleid=2261 ANSI Press Release 07.23.09]</ref> *ANSI, in partnership with [[Citation Technologies]], [[Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation|AAMI]], [[ASTM]], and [[DIN]], created a single, centralized database for medical device standards on September 9, 2009.<ref name="Medical Device Standards Press Release 09/09/09">[http://astmnewsroom.org/default.aspx?pageid=1881 Medical Device Standards Database Press Release 09/09/09]</ref> *In early 2009, ANSI launched a new Certificate Accreditation Program (ANSI-CAP) to provide neutral, third-party attestation that a given certificate program meets the American National Standard ASTM E2659-09. *In 2009, ANSI began accepting applications for certification bodies seeking accreditation according to requirements defined under the Toy Safety Certification Program (TSCP) as the official third-party accreditor of TSCP's product certification bodies. *In 2006, ANSI launched [http://www.standardsportal.org/ www.StandardsPortal.org], an online resource for facilitating more open and efficient trade between international markets in the areas of standards, conformity assessment, and technical regulations. The site currently features content for China, India, and Korea, with additional countries and regions planned for future content. *ANSI design standards have also been incorporated into building codes encompassing several specific building sub-sets, such as the ANSI/SPRI ES-1, which pertains to "Wind Design Standard for Edge Systems Used With Low Slope Roofing Systems", for example.<ref name="The ANSI/SPRI ES-1 Standard Explained">{{Cite web |url=http://www.area-24.com/ANSI_SPRI_ES-1.html |title=The ANSI/SPRI ES-1 Standard Explained |access-date=December 17, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512124402/http://www.area-24.com/ANSI_SPRI_ES-1.html |archive-date=May 12, 2013 |dead-url=yes |df=mdy-all }}</ref> ==See also== {{Div col|colwidth=}} * [[Accredited Crane Operator Certification]] * [[ANSI ASC X9]] * [[ANSI ASC X12]] * [[ANSI C]] * [[Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology]] (IEST) * [[Institute of Nuclear Materials Management]] (INMM) * [[ISO]] (to which ANSI is the official US representative) * [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] (NIST) * [[Open standard]]s {{Div col end}} ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} == External links == <!-- Per [[WP:ELMINOFFICIAL]], choose one official website only --> * {{Official website|www.ansi.org}} {{International Organization for Standardization}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:1918 establishments in the United States]] [[Category:American National Standards Institute]] [[Category:Charities based in Washington, D.C.]] [[Category:ISO member bodies]] [[Category:Organizations established in 1918]] [[Category:Technical specifications]] f7aoj75m7w5jxsj1q5u5jklymnsw5w1 0 661 807987888 807979635 2017-10-31T05:52:11Z Jerome Kohl 1920374 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contribs/24.130.218.176|24.130.218.176]] ([[User talk:24.130.218.176|talk]]) to last version by 216.38.2.215 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wiktionary|argument}} In logic and philosophy, an '''[[argument]]''' is an attempt to persuade someone of something, or give evidence or reasons for accepting a particular conclusion. '''Argument''' may also refer to: {{TOC right}} {{anchor|Mathematics}} ==Mathematics and computer science== *[[Argument (complex analysis)]], a function which returns the polar angle of a complex number *[[Parameter (computer programming)]], a piece of data provided as input to a subroutine *[[Argument principle]], a theorem in complex analysis *An [[argument of a function]], also known as an independent variable ==Language and rhetoric== *[[Argument (literature)]], a brief summary, often in prose, of a poem or section of a poem or other work *[[Argument (linguistics)]], a phrase that appears in a syntactic relationship with the verb in a clause *[[Oral argument]], in US law, a spoken presentation to a judge or appellate court by a lawyer (or parties when representing themselves) of the legal reasons why they should prevail *[[Closing argument]], in law, the concluding statement of each party's counsel reiterating the important arguments in a court case ==Music== *[[Musical argument]], a concept in the theory of musical form ==Other uses== *[[Argument (ship)|''Argument'' (ship)]], an Australian sloop wrecked in 1809 *''[[The Argument]]'', the sixth studio album from the post-hardcore band Fugazi *[[Argument Clinic]], a Monty Python sketch *A [[Controversy|disagreement]] between two or more parties or the discussion of the disagreement {{disambiguation}} equks2nnmumgg9huu5uy255xqu4j9tu 0 662 861912783 861912498 2018-09-30T22:58:17Z Hawkeye7 302229 /* Spacecraft */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|First crewed mission to land on the Moon}} {{About|the 1969 manned lunar mission}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Good article}} {{Infobox spaceflight | name = Apollo 11 | image = Aldrin Apollo 11 original.jpg | image_caption = [[Buzz Aldrin]] poses on the Moon, allowing [[Neil Armstrong]] to photograph both of them using the visor's reflection. | insignia = Apollo_11_insignia.png | insignia_alt = Circular insignia: Eagle with wings outstretched holds olive branch on Moon with Earth in background, in blue and gold border. | mission_type = Crewed lunar landing | operator = [[NASA]] | COSPAR_ID = {{Unbulleted list |CSM: 1969-059A |LM: 1969-059C }} | SATCAT = {{Unbulleted list |CSM: 4039 |LM: 4041 }} | mission_duration = 8&nbsp;days, 3&nbsp;hours, 18&nbsp;minutes, 35&nbsp;seconds | spacecraft = {{Unbulleted list |[[Apollo Command/Service Module|Apollo CSM]]-107 |[[Apollo Lunar Module|Apollo LM]]-5 }} | manufacturer = {{Unbulleted list |CSM: [[Rockwell International|North American Rockwell]] |LM: [[Grumman]] }} | launch_mass = {{convert|100756|lb|kg}} | landing_mass = {{convert|10873|lb|kg}} | launch_date = {{start-date|July 16, 1969, 13:32:00|timezone=yes}}&nbsp;UTC | launch_rocket = [[Saturn V]] SA-506 | launch_site = [[Kennedy Space Center]] [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39|LC-39A]] | landing_date = {{end-date|July 24, 1969, 16:50:35|timezone=yes}}&nbsp;UTC | landing_site = North Pacific Ocean<br/>{{Coord|13|19|N|169|9|W|type:event|name=Apollo 11 splashdown}} | recovery_by = {{USS|Hornet|CV-12|6}} | orbit_epoch = July 19, 1969, 21:44&nbsp;UTC<ref name="orbit">{{cite web |url=http://airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/apollo/as11/a11sum.htm |title=Apollo 11 Mission Summary |publisher=Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum |work=The Apollo Program |accessdate=September 7, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130829082429/http://airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/apollo/as11/a11sum.htm |archivedate=August 29, 2013 |df=mdy}}</ref> | orbit_reference = [[selenocentric orbit|Selenocentric]] | orbit_periapsis = {{convert|54.5|nmi|km|order=flip|sp=us}}<ref name="orbit"/> | orbit_apoapsis = {{convert|66.1|nmi|km|order=flip|sp=us}}<ref name="orbit"/> | orbit_inclination = 1.25&nbsp;degrees<ref name="orbit"/> | orbit_period = 2&nbsp;hours<ref name="orbit"/> | apsis = selene |interplanetary = {{Infobox spaceflight/IP |type = orbiter |object = [[Moon|Lunar]] |component = [[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command/Service Module]] |orbits = 30 |arrival_date = July 19, 1969, 17:21:50&nbsp;UTC{{sfn|Orloff|2000|pp=102–110}} |departure_date = July 22, 1969, 04:55:42&nbsp;UTC{{sfn|Orloff|2000|pp=102–110}} }} {{Infobox spaceflight/IP |type = lander |object = [[Moon|Lunar]] |component = [[Apollo Lunar Module|Lunar Module]] |arrival_date = July 20, 1969, 20:18:04&nbsp;UTC<ref name="ALSJ 1" /> |departure_date = July 21, 1969, 17:54&nbsp;UTC |location = [[Mare Tranquillitatis]]<br/>{{Lunar coords and quad cat|0.67408|N|23.47297|E}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/lunar_sites.html |title=Apollo Landing Site Coordinates |publisher=US National Space Science Data Center |first=David R. |last=Williams |date=December 11, 2003 |accessdate=September 7, 2013}}</ref> |sample_mass = {{convert|47.51|lb|kg|order=flip}} |surface_EVAs = 1 |surface_EVA_time = 2&nbsp;hours, 31&nbsp;minutes 40&nbsp;seconds }} | docking = {{Infobox spaceflight/Dock | docking_target = LM | docking_type = dock | docking_date = July 16, 1969, 16:56:03&nbsp;UTC{{sfn|Orloff|2000|pp=102–110}} | undocking_date = July 20, 1969, 17:44:00&nbsp;UTC{{sfn|Orloff|2000|pp=102–110}} | time_docked = }} {{Infobox spaceflight/Dock | docking_target = LM ascent stage | docking_type = dock | docking_date = July 21, 1969, 21:35:00&nbsp;UTC{{sfn|Orloff|2000|pp=102–110}} | undocking_date = July 21, 1969, 23:41:31&nbsp;UTC{{sfn|Orloff|2000|pp=102–110}} | time_docked = }} | crew_size = 3 | crew_members = {{Unbulleted list |[[Neil Armstrong|Neil A. Armstrong]] |[[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]] |[[Buzz Aldrin|Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin, Jr.]] }} | crew_callsign = {{Unbulleted list |CSM: ''Columbia'' |LM: ''Eagle'' |On surface: ''[[Tranquility Base]]'' }} | crew_photo = apollo_11.jpg | crew_photo_caption = Left to right: [[Neil Armstrong]], [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]], [[Buzz Aldrin]] | crew_photo_alt = Three astronauts in spacesuits without helmets sitting in front of a large photo of the Moon. | previous_mission = [[Apollo 10]] | next_mission = [[Apollo 12]] | programme = [[Apollo program]] }} '''Apollo 11''' was the [[human spaceflight|spaceflight]] that [[Moon landing|landed]] the first two people on the [[Moon]]. Mission commander [[Neil Armstrong]] and pilot [[Buzz Aldrin]], both American, landed the [[Apollo Lunar Module|lunar module]] ''Eagle'' on July 20, 1969, at 20:17 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]. Armstrong became the first person to step onto the lunar surface six hours after landing on July 21 at 02:56:15 UTC; Aldrin joined him about 20 minutes later. They spent about two and a quarter hours together outside the spacecraft, and collected {{convert|47.5|lb|kg}} of lunar material to bring back to Earth. [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]] piloted the [[Apollo Command/Service Module|command module]] ''Columbia'' alone in lunar orbit while they were on the Moon's surface. Armstrong and Aldrin spent 21.5 hours on the lunar surface before rejoining ''Columbia'' in lunar orbit. Apollo 11 was launched by a [[Saturn V]] rocket from [[Kennedy Space Center]] on [[Merritt Island, Florida]], on July 16 at 13:32 UTC, and was the fifth crewed mission of [[NASA]]'s [[Apollo program]]. The Apollo [[Apollo (spacecraft)|spacecraft]] had three parts: a command module (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, and the only part that returned to Earth; a service module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a lunar module (LM) that had two stages – a descent stage for landing on the Moon, and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit. After being [[Trans-lunar injection|sent to the Moon]] by the Saturn V's third stage, the astronauts separated the spacecraft from it and traveled for three days until they entered into lunar orbit. Armstrong and Aldrin then moved into the lunar module ''Eagle'' and landed in the [[Sea of Tranquillity]]. The astronauts used ''Eagle''{{'}}s upper stage to lift off from the lunar surface and rejoin Collins in the command module. They jettisoned ''Eagle'' before they performed the maneuvers that blasted them out of lunar orbit on a trajectory back to Earth. They returned to Earth and [[splashdown|splashed down]] in the Pacific Ocean on July 24 after more than eight days in space. The landing was broadcast on live TV to a worldwide audience. Armstrong stepped onto the lunar surface and described the event as "one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." Apollo 11 effectively ended the [[Space Race]] and fulfilled a national goal proposed in 1961 by [[President of the United States|President]] [[John F. Kennedy]]: "before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth."<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/TECH/space/05/25/kennedy.moon/ |title=Man on the Moon: Kennedy speech ignited the dream |publisher=CNN |last=Stenger |first=Richard |date=May 25, 2001 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100606035837/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/TECH/space/05/25/kennedy.moon/ |archivedate=June 6, 2010}}</ref> ==Background== In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the United States was engaged in the [[Cold War]], a geopolitical rivalry with the [[Soviet Union]].{{sfn|Logsdon|1976|p=134}} On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched [[Sputnik 1]], the first [[Satellite|artificial satellite]]. This surprise success fired fears and imaginations around the world. It not only demonstrated that the Soviet Union had the capability to deliver nuclear weapons over intercontinental distances, it challenged American claims of military, economic and technological superiority.{{sfn|Logsdon|1976|pp=13–15}} This precipitated the [[Sputnik crisis]], and triggered the [[Space Race]].{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|p=1}} [[President of the United States|President]] [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] responded by creating the [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] (NASA), and initiating [[Project Mercury]],{{sfn|Swenson|Grimwood|Alexander|1966|pp=101–106}} which aimed to launch a man into [[Earth orbit]].{{sfn|Swenson|Grimwood|Alexander|1966|p=134}} But on April 12, 1961, Soviet [[cosmonaut]] [[Yuri Gagarin]] became the first person in space, and the first to orbit the Earth.{{sfn|Swenson|Grimwood|Alexander|1966|pp=332–333}} It was another body blow to American pride.{{sfn|Swenson|Grimwood|Alexander|1966|p=342}} Nearly a month later, on May 5, 1961, [[Alan Shepard]] became the first American in space, completing a 15-minute suborbital journey. After being recovered from the Atlantic ocean, he received a congratulatory telephone call from Eisenhower's successor, [[John F. Kennedy]]. {{sfn|Logsdon|1976|p=121}} Kennedy cared about what people in other nations thought of the United States, and believed that not only was it in the national interest of the United States to be superior to other nations, but that the perception of American power was at least as important as the actuality. It was therefore intolerable that the Soviet Union was more advanced in the field of space exploration. He was determined that the United States should compete, and sought a challenge that maximized its chances of winning.{{sfn|Logsdon|1976|p=134}} Since the Soviet Union had better [[Booster (rocketry)|booster]] [[rocket]]s, he required a challenge that was beyond the capacity of the existing generation of rocketry, and therefore would mean the US and Soviet Union would be starting from a position of equality. Something spectacular, even if it could not be justified on military, economic or scientific grounds. After consulting with his experts and advisors, he chose such a project.{{sfn|Logsdon|1976|pp=112–117}} On May 25, 1961, he addressed the [[United States Congress]] on "Urgent National Needs" and declared:{{quote|I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish. We propose to accelerate the development of the appropriate lunar space craft. We propose to develop alternate liquid and solid fuel boosters, much larger than any now being developed, until certain which is superior. We propose additional funds for other engine development and for unmanned explorations-explorations which are particularly important for one purpose which this nation will never overlook: the survival of the man who first makes this daring flight. But in a very real sense, it will not be one man going to the moon-if we make this judgment affirmatively, it will be an entire nation. For all of us must work to put him there.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/vision/space/features/jfk_speech_text.html |title=Excerpt: 'Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs' |publisher=NASA |access-date=September 16, 2018 }}</ref>}} The effort to land a man on the Moon already had a name: [[Project Apollo]].{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|p=15}} An early and crucial decision was the adoption of [[lunar orbit rendezvous]], under which a specialized spacecraft would land on the lunar surface. The [[Apollo (spacecraft)|Apollo spacecraft]] therefore had three parts: a command module (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, and the only part that returned to Earth; a service module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a lunar module (LM) that had two stages – a descent stage for landing on the Moon, and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit.{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|pp=72–77}} This choice of mode meant that the spacecraft could be launched by the [[Saturn V]] rocket that was then under development.{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|pp=48–49}} Technologies and technics required for Apollo were developed by [[Project Gemini]].{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|pp=181–182, 205–208}} Project Apollo was abruptly halted by the [[Apollo 1]] fire on January 27, 1967, in which three astronauts died, and the subsequent investigation.{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|pp=214–218}} In October 1968, [[Apollo 7]] tested the command module in Earth obit,{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|pp=265–272}} and in December, [[Apollo 8]] tested it in lunar orbit.{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|pp=274–284}} In March 1969, [[Apollo 9]] tested the lunar module in Earth obit,{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|pp=292–300}} and then in May 1969, [[Apollo 10]] conducted a "dress rehearsal", testing the lunar module in lunar orbit. By July 1969, all was in readiness for Apollo 11 to take the final step onto the Moon.{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|pp=303–312}} The Soviet Union competed with the US, but were hampered by repeated failures in development of [[N1 (rocket)|a launcher comparable to the Saturn V]].<ref name="sovlun">{{cite web |url=http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/science-technology-and-society/sts-471j-engineering-apollo-the-moon-project-as-a-complex-system-spring-2007/readings/soviet_mand_lunr.pdf |title=The Soviet Manned Lunar Program |last=Lindroos |first=Marcus |work=[[MIT OpenCourseWare]] |publisher=[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] |format=PDF |accessdate=October 4, 2011}}</ref> Meanwhile, they tried to beat the US to return lunar material to the Earth by means of [[Unmanned spacecraft|unmanned probes]]. On July 13, three days before Apollo 11's launch, they launched [[Luna 15]], which reached lunar orbit before Apollo 11. During descent, a malfunction caused Luna 15 to crash in [[Mare Crisium]] about two hours before Armstrong and Aldrin took off from the Moon's surface to begin their voyage home. The [[Jodrell Bank Observatory]] radio telescope in England was later discovered to have recorded transmissions from Luna 15 during its descent, and this was published in July 2009 on the 40th anniversary of Apollo 11.<ref>{{cite news |title=Recording tracks Russia's Moon gatecrash attempt |first=Jonathan |last=Brown |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/recording-tracks-russias-moon-gatecrash-attempt-1730851.html |work=[[The Independent]] |location=London |date=July 3, 2009 |accessdate=January 10, 2011}}</ref> ==Framework== ===Crew=== {{Spaceflight crew |terminology = Astronaut |position1 = Commander |crew1_up = [[Neil Armstrong|Neil A. Armstrong]] |flights1_up = Second and last |position2 = Command Module Pilot |crew2_up = [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]] |flights2_up = Second and last |position3 = Lunar Module Pilot |crew3_up = [[Buzz Aldrin|Edwin "Buzz" E. Aldrin, Jr.]] |flights3_up = Second and last }} The crew assignment of [[Neil Armstrong]] as Commander, [[Jim Lovell]] as Command Module Pilot (CMP) and [[Buzz Aldrin]] as Lunar Module Pilot (LMP) was officially announced on November 20, 1967.{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|p=374}} Apollo 11 was the second all-veteran multi-person crew on an American mission,{{sfn|Orloff|2000|p=90}} the first being that of Apollo 10.{{sfn|Orloff|2000|p=72}} An all-veteran crew would not be flown again until [[STS-26]] in 1988.{{sfn|Orloff|2000|p=90}} Lovell and Aldrin had previously flown together as the crew of [[Gemini 12]]. The crew was initially assigned as the backup for Apollo 9. Due to design and manufacturing delays in the Lunar Module (LM), Apollo 8 and Apollo 9 swapped prime and backup crews, and Armstrong's crew became the backup for Apollo 8. Based on the normal crew rotation scheme, Armstrong was then expected to command Apollo 11.{{sfn|Hansen|2005|pp=312–313}} There would be one change. [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Mike Collins]] on the Apollo 8 crew began experiencing trouble with his legs. Doctors diagnosed the problem as a bony growth between his fifth and sixth vertebrae, requiring surgery.{{sfn|Collins|2001|pp=288–289}} Lovell took his place on the Apollo 8 crew, and, when he recovered, Collins joined Armstrong's crew as CMP. In the meantime, [[Fred Haise]] filled in as backup LMP, and Aldrin as backup CMP for Apollo 8.{{sfn|Cunningham|2010|p=109}} ===Backup crew=== {{Spaceflight crew |terminology = Astronaut |position1 = Commander |crew1_up = [[Jim Lovell|James A. Lovell, Jr.]] |position2 = Command Module Pilot |crew2_up = [[William Anders|William A. Anders]] |position3 = Lunar Module Pilot |crew3_up = [[Fred Haise|Fred W. Haise, Jr.]] }} The backup crew consisted of Lovell as Commander, [[William Anders]] as CMP, and Haise as LMP. Anders had flown with Lovell on Apollo 8.{{sfn|Orloff|2000|p=90}} In early 1969, he accepted a job with the [[National Space Council]] effective August 1969, and announced that he would retire as an astronaut on that date. At that point [[Ken Mattingly]] was moved from the support crew into parallel training with Anders as backup CMP in case Apollo 11 was delayed past its intended July launch date, at which point Anders would be unavailable. Lovell, Haise, and Mattingly would ultimately be assigned as the prime crew of [[Apollo 13]].{{sfn|Slayton|Cassutt|1994|p=237}} ===Support crew=== During Projects Mercury and Gemini, each mission had a prime and a backup crew. For Apollo, a third crew of astronauts was added, known as the support crew. The support crew maintained the flight plan, checklists and mission ground rules, and ensured that the prime and backup crews were apprised of any changes. The support crew developed procedures in the simulators, especially those for emergency situations, so these were ready for when the prime and backup crews came to train in the simulators, allowing them to concentrate on practicing and mastering them.{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|p=261}} For Apollo 11, the support crew consisted of Ken Mattingly, [[Ronald Evans (astronaut)|Ronald Evans]] and [[William R. Pogue|Bill Pogue]].{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|p=375}} ===Capsule communicators=== [[File:Duke, Lovell and Haise at the Apollo 11 Capcom, Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas - 19690720.jpg|thumb|CAPCOM [[Charles Duke]], with backup crewmen [[Jim Lovell]] and [[Fred Haise]] listening in during Apollo 11's descent]] The [[Capsule communicator]] (CAPCOM) was an astronaut, and the only person who communicated directly with the flight crew.{{sfn|Kranz|2000|p=27}} For Apollo 11, the CAPCOMs were: [[Charles Duke|Charlie Duke]], Ronald Evans, [[Bruce McCandless II]],Jim Lovell, Bill Anders, Ken Mattingly, Fred Haise, [[Don L. Lind]], [[Owen K. Garriott]] and [[Harrison Schmitt]].{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|p=375}} ===Flight direcctors=== The four shift [[Flight controller#Flight Director (FLIGHT)|Flight Directors]] for this mission were:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_18-08_Flight_Directors.htm |title=Flight Directors |publisher=NASA |access-date=September 18, 2018 }}</ref>{{sfn|Kranz|2000|pp=230, 236, 273, 320}} *[[Clifford E. Charlesworth]] (Green Team), launch and [[Extravehicular activity]] (EVA) *[[Gerald D. Griffin]] (Gold Team) *[[Gene Kranz]] (White Team), lunar landing *[[Glynn Lunney]] (Black Team), lunar ascent ===Call signs=== After the crew of Apollo 10 named their spacecraft ''Charlie Brown'' and ''Snoopy'', assistant manager for public affairs Julian Scheer wrote to [[Manned Spacecraft Center]] director [[George M. Low]] to suggest the Apollo 11 crew be less flippant in naming their craft. During early mission planning, the names ''Snowcone'' and ''Haystack'' were used and put in the news release.<ref name="Snowcone">{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/ap11fj/pdf/a11-techsum.pdf |title=Technical Information Summary, Apollo-11 (AS-506) Apollo Saturn V Space Vehicle |date=June 25, 1969 |work=[[Marshall Space Flight Center|George C. Marshall Space Flight Center]] |publisher=NASA |location=Huntsville, Alabama |page=8 |format=PDF |id=Document ID: 19700011707; Accession Number: 70N21012; Report Number: NASA-TM-X-62812; S&E-ASTR-S-101-69 |accessdate=June 12, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603093127/http://history.nasa.gov/ap11fj/pdf/a11-techsum.pdf |archivedate=June 3, 2012 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> The Command Module was named ''Columbia'' after the ''[[Columbiad#In fiction|Columbiad]]'', the giant cannon shell spacecraft fired by a giant cannon (also from Florida) in [[Jules Verne]]'s 1865 novel ''[[From the Earth to the Moon]]''. It also referenced [[Columbia (name)|Columbia]], a personification of the United States. The Lunar Module was named ''Eagle'' for the [[national bird]] of the United States, the [[bald eagle]], which was featured prominently on the mission insignia.{{sfn|Collins|2001|pp=334–335}} ===Insignia=== The Apollo 11 [[Mission patch|mission insignia]] was designed by Collins, who wanted a symbol for "peaceful lunar landing by the United States". At Lovell's suggestion, he chose an eagle as the symbol, put an [[olive branch]] in its beak, and drew a lunar background with the Earth in the distance. The sunlight in the image was coming from the wrong direction; the shadow should have been in the lower part of the Earth instead of the left. NASA officials felt that the talons of the eagle looked too "warlike" and after some discussion, the olive branch was moved to the claws. Armstrong was concerned that "eleven" would not be understood by non-English speakers, so they went with "Apollo 11";{{sfn|Collins|2001|pp=332–334}} they decided not to put their names on the patch, so it would "be representative of ''everyone'' who had worked toward a lunar landing".{{sfn|Collins|2001|p=332}} When the [[Eisenhower Dollar|Eisenhower dollar coin]] was released in 1971, the patch design provided the eagle for its reverse side.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://coinsite.com/CoinSite-PF/pparticles/$1eisen.asp |title=1971–78 Dollar Eisenhower |work=CoinSite |publisher=ROKO Design Group, Inc. |date=1994 |accessdate=July 20, 2009}}</ref> The design was also used for the smaller [[Susan B. Anthony dollar]] unveiled in 1979, ten years after the Apollo 11 mission.<ref>{{cite web |title=Susan B. Anthony Dollar – 1979–1999 |url=http://www.usmint.gov/historianscorner/?action=coinDetail&id=347 |publisher=United States Mint |accessdate=August 12, 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811123227/https://www.usmint.gov/historianscorner/?action=coinDetail&id=347 |archivedate=August 11, 2014 |df=mdy}}</ref> ===Mementos=== [[File:Apollo 11 Flown Silver Robbins Medallion (SN-416).jpg|thumb|Apollo 11 space-flown silver [[NASA space-flown Robbins medallions of the Apollo missions|Robbins medallion]]]] Neil Armstrong's personal preference kit carried a piece of wood from the [[Wright brothers]]' 1903 airplane's left propeller and a piece of fabric from its wing,{{sfn|Hansen |2005|p=527}} along with a diamond-studded [[astronaut pin]] originally given to [[Deke Slayton]] by the widows of the Apollo 1 crew. This pin had been intended to be flown on that mission and given to Slayton afterwards; but following the disastrous launch pad fire and subsequent funerals, the widows gave the pin to Slayton. Armstrong took it with him on Apollo 11.{{sfn|Slayton|Cassutt|1994|pp=191–192}} ===Site selection=== [[File:Lunar site selection globe.jpg|thumb|right|Map of Moon showing prospective sites for Apollo 11. Actual site was site 2.]] NASA's Apollo Site Selection Board announced five potential landing sites on February 8, 1968. These were the result of two years of studies based on high-resolution photography of the lunar surface by the five unmanned probes of the [[Lunar Orbiter program]] and information about surface conditions provided by the [[Surveyor program]].<ref name="Site Selection">{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/50-years-ago-lunar-landing-sites-selected |title=50 Years Ago: Lunar Landing Sites Selected |publisher=NASA |access-date=September 22, 2018 }}</ref> The best Earth-bound telescopes could not resolve features with the resolution Project Apollo required.{{sfn|Cortright|1975|p=79}} Areas that appeared to be clear and promising on photographs taken on Earth were often found to be totally unacceptable. The original requirement that the site be free of craters had to be relaxed, as no such site was found.{{sfn|Cortright|1975|pp=98–99}} The sites were: * Site 1: 34° East, 2°40' North, in the Sea of Tranquility (''[[Mare Tranquilitatis]]''); * Site 2: 23°37' East, 0°45' North, in the Sea of Tranquility (''Mare Tranquilitatis''); * Site 3: 1°20' West, 0°25' North, in the Central Bay (''[[Sinus Medii]]''); * Site 4: 36°25' West, 3°30' South, in the Ocean of Storms (''[[Oceanus Procellarum]]''); and * Site 5: 41°40' West, 1°40' North, in the Ocean of Storms (''Oceanus Procellarum'').<ref name="Site Selection" /> The final site selection was based on seven criteria: * The site needed to be smoothness, with relatively few craters; * with approach paths free of large hills, tall cliffs or deep craters that might confuse the landing radar and cause it to issue incorrect readings; * reachable with a minimum amount of propellant; * allowing for delays in the launch countdown; * providing the Apollo spacecraft with a free-return trajectory, one that would allow it to coast around the Moon and safely return to Earth without requiring any engine firings should a problem arise on the way to the Moon; * with good visibility during the landing approach, meaning that the Sun would be between 7 and 20 degrees behind the Lunar Module; and * a general slope (less than 2 degrees) in the landing area.<ref name="Site Selection" /> The requirement for the Sun angle was particularly restrictive, limiting the launch date to one day per month.<ref name="Site Selection" /> The Apollo Site Selection Board selected Site 2, with Sites 3 and 5 as backups in the event of the launch being delayed. In May 1969, Apollo 10 flew to within {{convert|15|km}} of Site 2, and reported that it was acceptable.{{sfn|Cappellari|1972|p=976}} ==Preparations== [[File:69-HC-620 - SA506.jpg|thumb|left|Saturn V SA-506, the rocket carrying the Apollo 11 spacecraft, heads out of the Vehicle Assembly Building and down to [[Launch Complex 39]]]] The ascent stage of lunar module LM-5 arrived at the [[Kennedy Space Center]] on January 8, 1969, followed by the descent stage four days later, and Command and Service Module CM-107 on January, 23.<ref name="Mission Overview">{{cite web |title=Apollo 11 Mission Overview |publisher=NASA |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/missions/apollo11.html |access-date=September 22, 2018 }}</ref> There were several differences between LM-5 and Apollo 10's LM-4; LM-5 had a VHF radio antenna to facilitate communication with the astronauts during their EVA on the lunar surface; a lighter ascent engine; more thermal protection on the landing gear; and a package of scientific experiments known as the Early Apollo Surface Experiments Package (EASEP). The only change in the configuration of the command module was the removal of some insulation from the forward hatch.{{sfn|Benson|Faherty|1978|p=472}}<ref name="EASEP">{{cite web |url=https://airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/apollo-to-the-moon/online/science/scientific-experiments.cfm |title=Scientific Experiments |publisher=National Air and Space Museum |access-date=September 22, 2018 }}</ref> The command and service modules were mated on 29 January, and shipped from the [[Operations and Checkout Building]] to the [[Vehicle Assembly Building]] on April 14.<ref name="Mission Overview" /> Meanwhile, the [[S-IVB]] third stage of Saturn V AS-506 had arrived on January 18, followed by the [[S-II]] second stage on February 6, [[S-IC]] first stage on February 20, and the [[Saturn V Instrument Unit]] on February 27. At 1230 on May 20, the {{convert|5443|t|adj=on}} assembly departed the Vehicle Assembly Building atop the [[crawler-transporter]], bound for Launch Pad 39A, part of [[Launch Complex 39]], while Apollo 10 was still on its way to the Moon. A countdown test commenced on June 27, and concluded on July 2. The launch complex was floodlit on the night of July 15, when the crawler-transporter carried the [[service structure|mobile service structure]] back to its parking area. In the early hours of the morning, the fuel tanks of the S-II and S-IVB stages were filled with [[liquid hydrogen]].{{sfn|Benson|Faherty|1978|p=474}} Fuelling was completed by three hours before launch.{{sfn|Benson|Faherty|1978|p=475}} Launch operations were partly automated, with 43 programs written in the [[ATOLL (programming language)|Atoll programming language]].{{sfn|Benson|Faherty|1978|pp=355–356}} Haise entered ''Columbia'' about three hours and ten minutes before launch time. Along with a technician, he helped Armstrong into the left hand couch at 06:54. Five minutes later, Collins joined him, taking up his position on the right hand couch. Finally, Aldrin entered, taking the center couch. The closeout crew sealed the hatch, and the cabin was purged and pressurized. The closeout crew then left the launch complex about an hour before launch time. The countdown became automated at three minutes and twenty seconds before launch time.{{sfn|Benson|Faherty|1978|p=475}} Over 450 personnel were at the consoles in the [[firing room]].{{sfn|Benson|Faherty|1978|p=474}} ==Mission== ===Launch and flight to lunar orbit=== [[File:Apollo 11 Launch2.jpg|thumb|right|Saturn V carrying Apollo 11 rises past the [[service structure]] camera]] An estimated one million spectators watched the launch of Apollo 11 from the highways and beaches vicinity of the launch site. Dignitaries included the [[Chief of Staff of the United States Army]], [[General (United States)|General]] [[William C. Westmoreland]], four [[Cabinet of the United States|cabinet members]], 19 [[Governor (United States)|state governors]], 40 [[Mayoralty in the United States|mayors]], 60 [[ambassador]]s and 200 [[congressmen]]. [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] [[Spiro T. Agnew]] viewed the launch with the former president, [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] and his wife [[Lady Bird Johnson]].{{sfn|Bilstein|1980|pp=369–370}}{{sfn|Benson|Faherty|1978|p=474}} Around 3,500 media representatives were present.{{sfn|Brooks|Grimwood|Swenson|1979|p=338}} About two-thirds were from the United States; the rest came from 55 other countries. The launch was televised live in 33 countries, with an estimated 25 million viewers in the United States alone. Millions more around the world listened to radio broadcasts.{{sfn|Bilstein|1980|pp=369–370}}{{sfn|Benson|Faherty|1978|p=474}} President [[Richard M. Nixon]] viewed the launch from his office in the [[White House]] with Apollo astronaut [[Frank Borman]].<ref>{{cite web |title=President Richard Nixon's Daily Diary |url=https://www.nixonlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/virtuallibrary/documents/PDD/1969/013%20July%2016-31%201969.pdf |publisher=Richard Nixon Presidential Library |accessdate=September 3, 2018 |page=2 |date=July 16, 1969}}</ref> Saturn V AS-506 launched Apollo 11 on July 16, 1969, at 13:32:00 UTC (9:32:00 EDT).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/missions/apollo11.html |title=Apollo 11 Mission Overview |publisher=NASA }}</ref> It entered Earth orbit at an altitude of {{convert|100.4|nmi|km}} by {{convert|98.9|nmi|km}}, twelve minutes later. After one and a half orbits, the S-IVB third-stage engine pushed the spacecraft onto its trajectory toward the Moon with the [[trans-lunar injection]] (TLI) burn at 16:22:13 UTC. About 30 minutes later, the [[transposition, docking, and extraction]] maneuver was performed: this involved separating ''Columbia'' from the spent S-IVB stage, turning around, and docking with ''Eagle'' still attached to the stage. After the Lunar Module was extracted, the combined spacecraft headed for the Moon, while the rocket stage flew on a trajectory past the Moon and into [[heliocentric orbit|orbit around the Sun]].{{sfn|Orloff|2000|pp=102–110}} On July 19 at 17:21:50 UTC, Apollo 11 passed behind the Moon and fired its service propulsion engine to enter [[lunar orbit]].{{sfn|Orloff|2000|pp=102–110}} In the thirty orbits that followed, <ref name="Apollo-11 (27)">{{cite web |url=http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/apollo/apollo-11/apollo-11.html |title=Apollo-11 (27) |work=Historical Archive for Manned Missions |publisher=NASA |accessdate=June 13, 2013}}</ref> the crew saw passing views of their landing site in the southern Sea of Tranquillity about {{convert|12|mi|km}} southwest of the crater [[Collins (crater)|Sabine D]]. The site was selected in part because it had been characterized as relatively flat and smooth by the automated [[Ranger 8]] and [[Surveyor 5]] landers and the Lunar Orbiter mapping spacecraft and unlikely to present major landing or [[extravehicular activity]] (EVA) challenges.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/A11_PressKit.pdf |title=Apollo 11 Lunar Landing Mission |date=July 6, 1969 |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |type=Press kit |format=PDF |id=Release No: 69-83K |accessdate=June 13, 2013}}</ref> It lay about {{convert|25|km|sp=us}} southeast of the Surveyor 5 landing site, and {{convert|68|km|sp=us}} southwest of Ranger 8's crash site.{{sfn|Manned Spacecraft Center|1969|p=130}} ===Lunar descent=== [[File:Apollo 11 CSM photographed from Lunar Module (AS11-37-5445).jpg|thumb|left|''Columbia'' in lunar orbit, photographed from ''Eagle'']] At 12:52:00 UTC on July 20, Aldrin and Armstrong entered ''Eagle'', and began the final preparations for lunar descent. At 17:44:00 ''Eagle'' separated from the ''Columbia''.{{sfn|Orloff|2000|pp=102–110}} Collins, alone aboard ''Columbia'', inspected ''Eagle'' as it pirouetted before him to ensure the craft was not damaged, and that the landing gear was correctly deployed.{{sfn|Manned Spacecraft Center|1969|p=9}}{{sfn|Collins|Aldrin|1975|p=209}} Armstrong exclaimed: "The ''Eagle'' has wings!"{{sfn|Collins|Aldrin|1975|p=209}} As the descent began, Armstrong and Aldrin found that they were passing landmarks on the surface two or three seconds early, and reported that they were "long"; they would land miles west of their target point. ''Eagle'' was travelling too fast. The problem could have been [[mass concentration (astronomy)|mascons]]—concentrations of high mass that could have altered the trajectory. Flight Director Gene Kranz speculated that it could have resulted from extra air pressire in the docking tunnel. Or it could have been the result of ''Eagle''{{'}}s pirouette maneuver.{{sfn|Mindell|2008|pp=220–221}} Five minutes into the descent burn, and {{convert|6000|ft|m|-2}} above the surface of the Moon, the [[Apollo Guidance Computer|LM navigation and guidance computer]] distracted the crew with the first of several unexpected "1202" and "1201" program alarms. Inside [[Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center|Mission Control Center]] in Houston, Texas, computer engineer [[Jack Garman]] told [[Flight controller#Guidance Officer (GUIDANCE or GUIDO)|guidance officer]] [[Steve Bales]] it was safe to continue the descent, and this was relayed to the crew. The program alarms indicated "executive overflows", meaning the guidance computer could not complete all of its tasks in real time and had to postpone some of them.{{sfn|Collins|Aldrin|1975|pp=210–212}} [[Margaret Hamilton (scientist)|Margaret Hamilton]], the Director of Apollo Flight Computer Programming at the [[MIT]] [[Charles Stark Draper Laboratory]] later recalled: {{quote|To blame the computer for the Apollo 11 problems is like blaming the person who spots a fire and calls the fire department. Actually, the computer was programmed to do more than recognize error conditions. A complete set of recovery programs was incorporated into the software. The software's action, in this case, was to eliminate lower priority tasks and re-establish the more important ones. The computer, rather than almost forcing an abort, prevented an abort. If the computer hadn't recognized this problem and taken recovery action, I doubt if Apollo 11 would have been the successful moon landing it was.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Hamilton |first=Margaret H. |authorlink=Margaret Hamilton (scientist) |date=March 1, 1971 |p=13 |title=Computer Got Loaded |journal=[[Datamation]] |type=Letter |issn=0011-6963}}</ref>}} [[File:Apollo 11 Lunar Module Eagle in landing configuration in lunar orbit from the Command and Service Module Columbia.jpg|thumb|right|''Eagle'' in [[lunar orbit]] photographed from ''Columbia'']] During the mission, the cause was diagnosed as the rendezvous radar switch being in the wrong position, causing the computer to process data from both the rendezvous and landing radars at the same time.{{sfn|Manned Spacecraft Center|1969|pp=190–192}}<ref name="Martin">{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/a11.1201-fm.html |title=Apollo 11: 25 Years Later |last=Martin |first=Fred H. |date=July 1994 |work=Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=June 13, 2013}}</ref> However, software engineer Don Eyles concluded in a 2005 Guidance and Control Conference paper that the problem was actually due to a hardware design bug previously seen during testing of the first unmanned LM in [[Apollo 5]]. Having the rendezvous radar on (so that it was warmed up in case of an emergency landing abort) should have been irrelevant to the computer, but an electrical phasing mismatch between two parts of the rendezvous radar system could cause the stationary antenna to appear to the computer as dithering back and forth between two positions, depending upon how the hardware randomly powered up. The extra spurious [[cycle stealing]], as the rendezvous radar updated an involuntary counter, caused the computer alarms.<ref name="Eyles">{{cite web |url=http://klabs.org/history/apollo_11_alarms/eyles_2004/eyles_2004.htm |title=Tales from the Lunar Module Guidance Computer |last=Eyles |first=Don |date=February 6, 2004 |work=27th annual Guidance and Control Conference |publisher=[[American Astronautical Society]] |location=Breckenridge, Colorado |accessdate=June 13, 2013}}</ref> The Apollo onboard flight software for both the CM and LM was developed using an asynchronous executive so that higher priority jobs could interrupt lower priority jobs. The sequence that occurred in the Apollo 11 landing was successful because of its global error detection and recovery system. This included the restart capability to "kill and start over again" and recompute and the display interface routines ("priority displays") providing the ability, in the case of an emergency, to interrupt nominal displays with higher priority alarm displays. Steps previously taken to create solutions that took advantage of this multiprogramming environment suggested solutions for multiprocessing. Although only one process is actively executing at a given time in a multiprogramming environment, other processes in the same system―sleeping or waiting―exist in parallel with the executing process. With this as a backdrop, the priority display mechanisms were created, essentially changing the man-machine interface between the astronauts and the onboard flight software from synchronous to asynchronous displays so that a mission could be reconfigured in real time should it become necessary to do so.{{sfn|Hamilton|Hackler|2008|pp=34–43}} ===Landing=== When Armstrong again looked outside, he saw that the computer's landing target was in a boulder-strewn area just north and east of a {{convert|300|m|ft|adj=on|sp=us}} diameter crater (later determined to be [[West (lunar crater)|West crater]], named for its location in the western part of the originally planned landing ellipse). Armstrong took semi-automatic control.{{sfn|Mindell|2008|pp=195–197}} [[File:AP11 FINAL APPROACH.ogv|thumb|left|Landing on the Moon, July 20, 1969]] Throughout the descent, Aldrin called out navigation data to Armstrong, who was busy piloting the ''Eagle''. A few moments before the landing, a light informed Aldrin that at least one of the {{convert|67|in|cm|0|adj=on}} probes hanging from ''Eagle''{{'s}} footpads had touched the surface, and he said: "Contact light!" Three seconds later, ''Eagle'' landed and Armstrong said "Shutdown." Aldrin immediately said "Okay, engine stop. ACA – out of [[detent]]." Armstrong acknowledged "Out of detent. Auto" and Aldrin continued "Mode control – both auto. Descent engine command override off. Engine arm – off. 413 is in."{{sfn|Mindell|2008|p=226}} The ''Eagle'' landed at 20:17:40 UTC on Sunday July 20 with about 25 seconds of fuel left.<ref name="ALSJ 1" /> Apollo 11 landed with less fuel than subsequent missions, and the astronauts encountered a premature low fuel warning. This was later found to be the result of greater propellant 'slosh' than expected, uncovering a fuel sensor. On subsequent missions, extra anti-slosh baffles were added to the tanks to prevent this.<ref name="ALSJ 1" /> Armstrong acknowledged Aldrin's completion of the post landing checklist with "Engine arm is off", before responding to the CAPCOM, Charles Duke, with the words, "Houston, [[Tranquillity Base]] here. The ''Eagle'' has landed." Armstrong's unrehearsed change of call sign from "Eagle" to "Tranquillity Base" emphasized to listeners that landing was complete and successful.<ref name="failure">{{cite AV media |type=TV production |title=Failure is Not an Option |publisher=[[The History Channel]] |date=August 24, 2003 |oclc=54435670}}</ref> Duke mispronounced his reply as he expressed the relief at Mission Control: "Roger, Twan— Tranquillity, we copy you on the ground. You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue. We're breathing again. Thanks a lot."<ref name="ALSJ 1">{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/a11.landing.html |title=The First Lunar Landing |date=1995 |editor-last= Jones |editor-first=Eric M. |work=Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=June 13, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/archive/moonlandings/7630.shtml?all=2&id=7630 |title=James May speaks to Charles Duke |date=2009 |publisher=BBC Archives |accessdate=June 7, 2009}}</ref> [[File:A New Look at the Apollo 11 Landing Site.ogg|thumb|The Apollo 11 landing site visualized in three dimensions using photography and a stereo digital elevation model from the [[Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter|LRO]] camera.]] Two and a half hours after landing, before preparations began for the EVA, Aldrin radioed to Earth: {{quote|This is the LM pilot. I'd like to take this opportunity to ask every person listening in, whoever and wherever they may be, to pause for a moment and contemplate the events of the past few hours and to give thanks in his or her own way.<ref name="ALSJ 2">{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/a11.postland.html |title=Post-landing Activities |date=1995 |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Eric M. |work=Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=June 13, 2013}}</ref>}} He then took [[Eucharist|communion]] privately. At this time NASA was still fighting a lawsuit brought by atheist [[Madalyn Murray O'Hair]] (who had objected to the [[Apollo 8 Genesis reading|Apollo 8 crew reading from the Book of Genesis]]) demanding that their astronauts refrain from broadcasting religious activities while in space. As such, Aldrin chose to refrain from directly mentioning taking communion on the Moon. Aldrin was an elder at the [[Webster, Texas|Webster]] [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian Church]], and his communion kit was prepared by the pastor of the church, the Rev. Dean Woodruff. Aldrin described communion on the Moon and the involvement of his church and pastor in the October 1970 edition of ''Guideposts'' magazine and in his book ''Return to Earth''. Webster Presbyterian possesses the chalice used on the Moon and commemorates the event each year on the Sunday closest to July 20.{{sfn|Chaikin|1994|pp=204, 623}} The schedule for the mission called for the astronauts to follow the landing with a five-hour sleep period as they had been awake since early morning. However, they elected to forgo the sleep period and begin the preparations for the EVA early, thinking that they would be unable to sleep.{{sfn|Manned Spacecraft Center|1969|pp=21–22}} ===Lunar surface operations=== [[File:As11-40-5886.jpg|thumb|left|A photograph of Armstrong taken by Aldrin. This is one of the only photographs of Armstrong on the lunar surface; most of the time he had the camera.]] Preparations for the EVA began at 23:43.{{sfn|Orloff|2000|pp=102–110}} These took longer than expected; three and a half hours instead of two.<ref name="ALSJ 3" /> During training on Earth, everything required had been neatly laid out in advance, but on the Moon the cabin contained a large number of other items as well.{{sfn|Manned Spacecraft Center|1969|p=22}} Once Armstrong and Aldrin were ready to go outside, ''Eagle'' was depressurized. The hatch was opened at 02:39:33 and Armstrong made his way down the ladder.{{sfn|Cortright|1975|p=215}}{{sfn|Orloff|2000|pp=102–110}} Armstrong initially had some difficulties squeezing through the hatch with his [[Primary Life Support System|Portable Life Support System]] (PLSS).<ref name="ALSJ 3">{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/a11.summary.html |title=First Steps |date=1995 |editor1-last=Jones |editor1-first=Eric M. |editor2-last=Glover |editor2-first=Ken |work=Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=September 23, 2006}}</ref> Some of the highest heart rates recorded from Apollo astronauts occurred during LM egress and ingress.{{sfn|Waligora|Horrigan|1975|pp=115–120}} At 02:39 UTC on Monday July 21, 1969, Armstrong opened the hatch, and at 02:51 began his descent to the lunar surface. The Remote Control Unit controls on his chest kept him from seeing his feet. Climbing down the nine-rung ladder, Armstrong pulled a D-ring to deploy the Modular Equipment Stowage Assembly (MESA) folded against ''Eagle''{{'s}} side and activate the TV camera.<ref name="neil82">{{cite news |title=Neil Armstrong, first man to step on the Moon, dies at 82 |first=Paul |last=Duggan |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/neil-armstrong-first-man-to-step-on-the-moon-dies-at-82/2012/08/25/7091c8bc-412d-11e0-a16f-4c3fe0fd37f0_story.html |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=August 25, 2012 |accessdate=May 25, 2013}}</ref><ref name="ALSJ 4">{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/a11.step.html |title=One Small Step |date=1995 |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Eric M. |work=Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=June 13, 2013}}</ref> Apollo 11 used [[slow-scan television]] incompatible with commercial TV, so it was displayed on a special monitor and a conventional TV camera viewed this monitor, significantly reducing the quality of the picture.<ref name="Blunder 5">{{cite news |title=One giant blunder for mankind: how NASA lost Moon pictures |last=Macey |first=Richard |url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/one-giant-blunder-for-mankind-how-nasa-lost-moon-pictures/2006/08/04/1154198328978.html |newspaper=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] |location=Sydney |date=August 5, 2006 |accessdate=June 13, 2013}}</ref> The signal was received at [[Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex|Goldstone]] in the United States, but with better fidelity by [[Honeysuckle Creek Tracking Station]] near [[Canberra]] in Australia. Minutes later the feed was switched to the more sensitive [[Parkes Observatory|Parkes radio telescope]] in Australia.{{sfn|Sarkissian|2001|p=287}} Despite some technical and weather difficulties, ghostly black and white images of the first lunar EVA were received and broadcast to at least 600 million people on Earth.{{sfn|Sarkissian|2001|p=287}} Although copies of this video in broadcast format were saved and are widely available, [[Apollo 11 missing tapes|recordings of the original slow scan source transmission from the lunar surface]] were likely destroyed during routine magnetic tape re-use at NASA.<ref name="Blunder 5" /> [[File:Apollo 11 plaque closeup on Moon.jpg|right|thumb|The plaque left on the ladder of ''Eagle'']] {{Listen|pos=right|filename=Frase de Neil Armstrong.ogg|title=That's one small step&nbsp;...|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}} While still on the ladder, Armstrong uncovered a [[lunar plaque|plaque]] mounted on the LM descent stage bearing two drawings of Earth (of the Western and Eastern Hemispheres), an inscription, and signatures of the astronauts and President Nixon. The inscription read: {{quote|Here men from the planet Earth first set foot upon the Moon, July 1969 A.D. We came in peace for all mankind.<ref name="ALSJ 4"/>}} After describing the surface dust as "very fine-grained" and "almost like a powder,"<ref name="ALSJ 4" /> six and a half hours after landing,{{sfn|Orloff|2000|pp=102–110}} Armstrong stepped off ''Eagle''{{'s}} footpad and declared, "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/5-8/features/F_Apollo_35th_Anniversary.html |title=Apollo Moon Landing&nbsp;– 35th Anniversary |date=July 15, 2004 |origyear=updated December 9, 2007 |editor-last=Canright |editor-first=Shelley |work=NASA Education |publisher=NASA |accessdate=June 13, 2013}} Includes the "a" article as intended.</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Armstrong 'got Moon quote right' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/5398560.stm |date=October 2, 2006 |publisher=[[BBC News]] |location=London |accessdate=June 13, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Armstrong's 'poetic' slip on Moon |first=Pallab |last=Ghosh |authorlink=Pallab Ghosh |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8081817.stm |date=June 3, 2009 |publisher=BBC News |location=London |accessdate=June 13, 2013}} News story on later reanalysis which suggests the line was said incorrectly.</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Hear what Neil Armstrong really said on the moon |first=Mark |last=Carreau |url=http://www.chron.com/news/nation-world/article/Hear-what-Neil-Armstrong-really-said-on-the-moon-1862496.php |work=[[Houston Chronicle]] |date=September 30, 2006 |accessdate=June 13, 2013}}</ref> Armstrong intended to say "That's one small step for a man", but the word "a" is not audible in the transmission, and thus was not initially reported by most observers of the live broadcast. When later asked about his quote, Armstrong said he believed he said "for a man", and subsequent printed versions of the quote included the "a" in square brackets. One explanation for the absence may be that his accent caused him to slur the words "for a" together; another is the intermittent nature of the audio and video links to Earth, partly because of storms near Parkes. More recent digital analysis of the tape claims to reveal the "a" may have been spoken but obscured by static.<ref name="Straight Dope">{{cite web |url=http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a3_362.html |last=Adams |first=Cecil |title=Did astronaut Neil Armstrong muff his historic "one small step" line?}}</ref><ref name="snopes a">{{snopes | link = http://www.snopes.com/quotes/onesmall.asp | title = One Small Step }}</ref> About seven minutes after stepping onto the Moon's surface, Armstrong collected a contingency soil sample using a sample bag on a stick. He then folded the bag and tucked it into a pocket on his right thigh. This was to guarantee there would be some lunar soil brought back in case an emergency required the astronauts to abandon the EVA and return to the LM.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/lsc/10010.pdf |title=Lunar Sample Compendium: Contingency Soil (10010) |last=Meyer |first=Charles |date=2009 |work=Astromaterials Research & Exploration Science |publisher=NASA |format=PDF |accessdate=June 13, 2013}}</ref> Twelve minutes after the sample was collected,{{sfn|Orloff|2000|pp=102–110}} He removed the TV camera from the MESA and made a panoramic sweep, then mounted it on a tripod.<ref name="ALSJ 3" /> The TV camera cable remained partly coiled and presented a tripping hazard throughout the EVA. Still photography was accomplished with a [[Hasselblad]] camera which could be operated hand held or mounted on Armstrong's suit.{{sfn|Manned Spacecraft Center|1969|p=23}} Aldrin joined Armstrong on the surface. He described the view with the simple phrase: "Magnificent desolation."<ref name="ALSJ 4" /> Armstrong said that moving in the [[Gravitation of the Moon|lunar gravity]], one-sixth of Earth's, was "even perhaps easier than the simulations&nbsp;... It's absolutely no trouble to walk around."<ref name="ALSJ 4"/> Aldrin joined him on the surface and tested methods for moving around, including two-footed kangaroo hops. The PLSS backpack created a tendency to tip backward, but neither astronaut had serious problems maintaining balance. Loping became the preferred method of movement. The astronauts reported that they needed to plan their movements six or seven steps ahead. The fine soil was quite slippery. Aldrin remarked that moving from sunlight into ''Eagle''{{'s}} shadow produced no temperature change inside the suit, though the helmet was warmer in sunlight, so he felt cooler in shadow.<ref name="ALSJ 4"/> The MESA failed to provide a stable work platform and was in shadow, slowing work somewhat. As they worked, the moonwalkers kicked up gray dust which soiled the outer part of their suits, the integrated thermal meteoroid garment.{{sfn|Manned Spacecraft Center|1969|p=23}} [[File:Buzz salutes the U.S. Flag.jpg|thumb|left|Aldrin salutes the deployed United States flag on the [[lunar surface]]]] The astronauts planted a [[Lunar Flag Assembly|specially designed U.S. flag]] on the lunar surface, in clear view of the TV camera. Sometime later, President Richard Nixon spoke to them through a telephone-radio transmission which Nixon called "the most historic phone call ever made from the White House."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/american_originals/apollo11.html |title=Exhibit: Apollo 11 and Nixon |date=March 1996 |work=American Originals |publisher=[[National Archives and Records Administration]] |location=Washington, D.C. |accessdate=April 13, 2008}}</ref> Nixon originally had a long speech prepared to read during the phone call, but Frank Borman, who was at the White House as a NASA liaison during Apollo 11, convinced Nixon to keep his words brief, to respect the lunar landing as Kennedy's legacy.<ref>This was related by Frank Borman during the 2008 documentary ''[[When We Left Earth: The NASA Missions]]'', part 2.</ref> {{quote|'''Nixon:''' Hello, Neil and Buzz. I'm talking to you by telephone from the Oval Room at the White House. And this certainly has to be the most historic telephone call ever made. I just can't tell you how proud we all are of what you've done. For every American, this has to be the proudest day of our lives. And for people all over the world, I am sure they too join with Americans in recognizing what an immense feat this is. Because of what you have done, the heavens have become a part of man's world. And as you talk to us from the Sea of Tranquillity, it inspires us to redouble our efforts to bring peace and tranquillity to Earth. For one priceless moment in the whole history of man, all the people on this Earth are truly one: one in their pride in what you have done, and one in our prayers that you will return safely to Earth. '''Armstrong:''' Thank you, Mr. President. It's a great honor and privilege for us to be here, representing not only the United States, but men of peace of all nations, and with interest and curiosity, and men with a vision for the future. It's an honor for us to be able to participate here today.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=2133 |title=Richard Nixon: Telephone Conversation With the Apollo 11 Astronauts on the Moon |publisher=The American Presidency Project |access-date=September 23, 2018 }}</ref>}} [[File:Apollo 11 bootprint.jpg|thumb|right|Aldrin bootprint; part of an experiment to test the properties of the lunar [[regolith]]]] During this period, Mission They deployed the EASEP, which included a Passive Seismic Experiment Package used to measure [[moonquake]]s and a [[Retroreflector#Retroreflectors on the Moon|retroreflector]] array used for the [[Lunar Laser Ranging experiment|Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment]].<ref name="ALSJ 4"/> Then Armstrong walked {{convert|196|ft|m}} from the LM to snap photos at the rim of Little West Crater <!-- There is no "East Crater", see https://history.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/a11EastCraterRIP.html --> while Aldrin collected two core tubes. He used the [[geological hammer]] to pound in the tubes – the only time the hammer was used on Apollo 11, but was unable to penetrate more than six inches deep. The astronauts then collected rock samples using scoops and tongs on extension handles. Many of the surface activities took longer than expected, so they had to stop documenting sample collection halfway through the allotted 34 minutes. Aldrin shovelled {{convert|6|kg}} of soil into the box of rocks in order to pack them in tightly.{{sfn|Harland|1999|pp=28–29}} Three new minerals were discovered in the rock samples collected by the astronauts: [[armalcolite]], [[tranquillityite]], and [[pyroxferroite]]. Armalcolite was named after Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins. All have subsequently been found on Earth.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/01/120115223636.htm |title=Moon-walk mineral discovered in Western Australia |publisher=ScienceDaily |access-date=September 24, 2018 }}</ref> Control used a coded phrase to warn Armstrong that his metabolic rates were high and that he should slow down. He was moving rapidly from task to task as time ran out. However, as metabolic rates remained generally lower than expected for both astronauts throughout the walk, Mission Control granted the astronauts a 15-minute extension.<ref name="ALSJ 5">{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/a11.clsout.html |title=EASEP Deployment and Closeout |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Eric M. |date=1995 |work=Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=June 13, 2013}}</ref> In a 2010 interview, Armstrong, who had walked a maximum of {{convert|196|ft|m}} from the LM, explained that NASA limited the first moonwalk's time and distance because there was no empirical proof of how much cooling water the astronauts' PLSS backpacks would consume to handle their body heat generation while working on the Moon.<ref name="neilmoonwalk">{{cite web |url=http://www.space.com/10469-neil-armstrong-explains-famous-apollo-11-moonwalk.html |title=Neil Armstrong Explains His Famous Apollo 11 Moonwalk |date=December 10, 2010 |work=[[space.com]] |publisher=[[TechMediaNetwork, Inc.]] |location=New York |accessdate=May 25, 2013}}</ref> ===Lunar ascent and return=== Aldrin entered ''Eagle'' first. With some difficulty the astronauts lifted film and two sample boxes containing {{convert|21.55|kg|lb}} of lunar surface material to the LM hatch using a flat cable pulley device called the Lunar Equipment Conveyor (LEC). This was an inefficient tool, and later missions would carry equipment and samples up to the LM by hand.<ref name="ALSJ 3" /> Armstrong reminded Aldrin of a bag of memorial items in his suit pocket sleeve, and Aldrin tossed the bag down; Armstrong then jumped to the ladder's third rung and climbed into the LM. After transferring to LM [[life support]], the explorers lightened the ascent stage for the return to lunar orbit by tossing out their PLSS backpacks, lunar overshoes, one Hasselblad camera, and other equipment. They then pressurized the LM and settled down to sleep.<ref name="ALSJ 6">{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/a11.posteva.html |title=Trying to Rest |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Eric M. |date=1995 |work=Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=June 13, 2013}}</ref> [[File:Aldrin with experiment.jpg|thumb|left|Aldrin next to the Passive Seismic Experiment Package with ''Eagle'' in the background]] Nixon's speech writer [[William Safire]] had prepared ''In Event of Moon Disaster'' for the President to read on television in the event the Apollo 11 astronauts were stranded on the Moon.<ref name="lostinspace">{{cite web |url=http://www.thesmokinggun.com/documents/crime/white-house-lost-space-scenarios |title=White House 'Lost In Space' Scenarios |date=August 8, 2005 |work=[[The Smoking Gun]] |location=New York |accessdate=May 25, 2013}} Scanned copy of the "In Event of Moon Disaster" memo.</ref> The contingency plan originated in a memo from Safire to Nixon's [[White House Chief of Staff]] [[H. R. Haldeman]], in which Safire suggested a protocol the administration might follow in reaction to such a disaster.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Story of a Tragedy That Was Not to Be |first=Jim |last=Mann |url=http://articles.latimes.com/1999/jul/07/news/mn-53678 |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=July 7, 1999 |accessdate=May 25, 2013}}</ref><ref name="safire">{{cite news |title=Essay; Disaster Never Came |first=William |last=Safire |authorlink=William Safire |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/07/12/opinion/essay-disaster-never-came.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=July 12, 1999 |accessdate=May 25, 2013}}</ref> According to the plan, Mission Control would "close down communications" with the LM, and a clergyman would "commend their souls to the deepest of the deep" in a public ritual likened to [[burial at sea]]. The last line of the prepared text contained an allusion to [[Rupert Brooke]]'s First World War poem, "[[The Soldier (poem)|The Soldier]]".<ref name="safire"/> While moving inside the cabin, Aldrin accidentally damaged the [[circuit breaker]] that would arm the main engine for lift off from the Moon. There was a concern this would prevent firing the engine, stranding them on the Moon. However, a felt-tip pen was sufficient to activate the switch. Had this not worked, the Lunar Module circuitry could have been reconfigured to allow firing the ascent engine.<ref name="ALSJ 6" /> After more than {{frac|21|1|2}} hours on the lunar surface, in addition to the scientific instruments, the astronauts left behind an Apollo 1 mission patch and a memorial bag containing a gold replica of an olive branch as a traditional symbol of peace and a silicon message disk. The disk carries the [[Apollo 11 goodwill messages|goodwill statements]] by Presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon and messages from leaders of 73 countries around the world. The disc also carries a listing of the leadership of the US Congress, a listing of members of the four committees of the House and Senate responsible for the NASA legislation, and the names of NASA's past and present top management.<ref>{{cite press release |title=Apollo 11 Goodwill Messages |date=July 13, 1969 |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |url=https://history.nasa.gov/ap11-35ann/goodwill/Apollo_11_material.pdf |format=PDF |id=Release No: 69-83F |accessdate=June 14, 2013}}</ref> [[File:Apollo 11 photo map.svg|thumb|right|Map showing landing site and photos taken]] After about seven hours of rest, the crew was awakened by Houston to prepare for the return flight. Two and a half hours later, at 17:54 UTC, they lifted off in ''Eagle''{{'s}} ascent stage to rejoin Collins aboard ''Columbia'' in lunar orbit. Film taken from the LM Ascent Stage upon liftoff from the Moon reveals the American flag, planted some {{Convert|25|ft|m|0}} from the descent stage, whipping violently in the exhaust of the ascent stage engine. Aldrin looked up in time to witness the flag topple:{{sfn|Orloff|2000|pp=102–110}} "The ascent stage of the LM separated&nbsp;... I was concentrating on the computers, and Neil was studying the [[attitude indicator]], but I looked up long enough to see the flag fall over."<ref name="Apollo-11 (27)" /> Subsequent Apollo missions usually planted the American flags further from the LM to prevent them being blown over by the ascent engine exhaust.<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/space/9439047/American-flags-still-standing-on-the-Moon-say-scientists.html |date=June 30, 2012 |title=American flags still standing on the Moon, say scientists |access-date=September 24, 2018 }}</ref> After rendezvous with ''Columbia'', ''Eagle''{{'}}s ascent stage was jettisoned into lunar orbit on July 21, 1969, at 23:41 UTC. Just before the [[Apollo 12]] flight, it was noted that ''Eagle'' was still likely to be orbiting the Moon. Later NASA reports mentioned that ''Eagle''{{'s}} orbit had decayed, resulting in it impacting in an "uncertain location" on the lunar surface.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo_tables.html |title=Apollo Tables |last=Williams |first=David R. |work=[[National Space Science Data Center]] |publisher=NASA |accessdate=September 23, 2006 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061001125211/http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo_tables.html |archivedate=October 1, 2006 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> The location is uncertain because the ''Eagle'' ascent stage was not tracked after it was jettisoned, and the lunar gravity field is sufficiently non-uniform to make the orbit of the spacecraft unpredictable after a short time. NASA estimated that the orbit had decayed within months and would have impacted on the Moon.<ref name="Eagle location">{{cite web |url=https://airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/apollo/apollo-program/spacecraft/location/lm.cfm?dom=pscau&src=syn |title=Location of Apollo Lunar Modules |publisher=National Air and Space Museum |access-date=September 24, 2018 }}</ref> On July 23, the last night before splashdown, the three astronauts made a television broadcast in which Collins commented: {{quote|...&nbsp;The Saturn V rocket which put us in orbit is an incredibly complicated piece of machinery, every piece of which worked flawlessly&nbsp;... We have always had confidence that this equipment will work properly. All this is possible only through the blood, sweat, and tears of a number of a people&nbsp;... All you see is the three of us, but beneath the surface are thousands and thousands of others, and to all of those, I would like to say, "Thank you very much."<ref name="Apollo-11 (27)" />}} [[File:Apollo 11 lunar module.jpg|thumb|left|''Eagle''{{'s}} ascent stage approaching ''Columbia'']] Aldrin added: {{quote|This has been far more than three men on a mission to the Moon; more, still, than the efforts of a government and industry team; more, even, than the efforts of one nation. We feel that this stands as a symbol of the insatiable curiosity of all mankind to explore the unknown&nbsp;... Personally, in reflecting on the events of the past several days, a verse from Psalms comes to mind. "When I consider the heavens, the work of Thy fingers, the Moon and the stars, which Thou hast ordained; What is man that Thou art mindful of him?"<ref name="Apollo-11 (27)" /><ref>Psalm 8:3–4</ref>}} Armstrong concluded: {{quote|The responsibility for this flight lies first with history and with the giants of science who have preceded this effort; next with the American people, who have, through their will, indicated their desire; next with four administrations and their Congresses, for implementing that will; and then, with the agency and industry teams that built our spacecraft, the Saturn, the Columbia, the Eagle, and the little [[Extravehicular Mobility Unit|EMU]], the spacesuit and backpack that was our small spacecraft out on the lunar surface. We would like to give special thanks to all those Americans who built the spacecraft; who did the construction, design, the tests, and put their hearts and all their abilities into those craft. To those people tonight, we give a special thank you, and to all the other people that are listening and watching tonight, God bless you. Good night from Apollo 11.<ref name="Apollo-11 (27)" />}} On the return to Earth, a bearing at the Guam tracking station failed, potentially preventing communication on the last segment of the Earth return. A regular repair was not possible in the available time but the station director, Charles Force, had his ten-year-old son Greg use his small hands to reach into the housing and pack it with grease. Greg later was thanked by Armstrong.<ref>{{cite news |title=The 10-year-old who helped Apollo 11, 40 years later |last=Rodriguez |first=Rachel |url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/TECH/space/07/20/apollo11.irpt/index.html |work=CNN |date=July 20, 2009 |accessdate=January 10, 2011}}</ref> ===Splashdown and quarantine=== [[File:Splashdown 3.jpg|thumb|''Columbia'' floats on the ocean as Navy divers assist in retrieving the astronauts]] The [[aircraft carrier]] {{USS|Hornet|CV-12|6}}, under the command of [[Captain (United States Navy)|Captain]] [[Carl J. Seiberlich]],{{sfn|Carmichael|2010|p=3}} was selected as the primary recovery ship (PRS) for Apollo 11 on June 5, replacing its sister ship, the [[Landing Platform Helicopter|LPH]] {{USS|Princeton|LPH-5|6}}, which had performed the recovery of Apollo 10 on May 26. The ''Hornet'' was then at her home port of [[Long Beach, California]].{{sfn|Carmichael|2010|p=21}} On reaching [[Pearl Harbor]] on July 5, ''Hornet'' embarked the [[Sikorsky SH-3 Sea King]] helicopters of [[HS-4]], a unit which specialized in recovery of Apollo spacecraft, specialized divers of [[Underwater Demolition Team|UDT]] Detachment Apollo, a 35-man NASA recovery team, and about 120 media representatives. To make room, most of ''Hornet''{{'}}s air wing was left behind in Long Beach. Special recovery equipment was also loaded, including a [[Boilerplate (spaceflight)|boilerplate]] command module used for training.{{sfn|Carmichael|2010|pp=38–43, 71–72}} On July 12, with Apollo 11 still on the launch pad, ''Hornet'' departed Pearl Harbor to retrieve the crew.{{sfn|Carmichael|2010|p=85}} A presidential party consisting of Nixon, Borman, [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[William P. Rogers]] and [[National Security Advisor (United States)|National Security Advisor]] [[Henry Kissinger]] flew to [[Johnston Atoll]] on [[Air Force One]], then to the [[command ship]] {{USS|Arlington|AGMR-2|6}} in [[Marine One]]. After a night on board, they would fly to ''Hornet'' in Marine One for a few hours of ceremonies. On arrival on the ''Hornet'', the party was greeted by the [[United States Pacific Command|Commander-in-Chief, Pacific Command (CINCPAC)]], [[Admiral (United States)|Admiral]] [[John S. McCain Jr.]], and [[NASA Administrator]] [[Thomas O. Paine]], who flew to ''Hornet'' from [[Pago Pago]] in one of ''Hornet''{{'}}s [[carrier onboard delivery]] aircraft.{{sfn|Carmichael|2010|pp=107–108, 145–146}} Weather satellites were not yet common, but US Air Force [[captain (O-3)|Captain]] Hank Brandli had access to top secret spy satellite images. He realized that a storm front was headed for the Apollo recovery area. Poor visibility was serious threat to the mission; if the helicopters could not locate the command module, the spacecraft, its crew, and its priceless cargo of moon rocks might be lost. Brandli alerted Navy Captain Willard S. Houston Jr., the commander of the Fleet Weather Center at Pearl Harbor, who had the required security clearance. On their recommendation, [[Rear Admiral (United States)|Rear Admiral]] [[Donald C. Davis]], the commander of Manned Spaceflight Recovery Forces, Pacific, advised NASA to change the splashdown target. This was done; a new splashdown target was designated,{{sfn|Carmichael|2010|pp=136–137, 144–145}} {{convert|215|nmi|km}} northeast of the original. This altered the flight plan. A different sequence of computer programs was used, one never before attempted.<ref name="ALSJ Re-entry">{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/afj/ap11fj/26day9-reentry.html |work=Apollo 11 Flight Journal |title=Day 9: Re-entry and Splashdown |publisher=NASA |editor-first1=W. David |editor-last1=Woods ||editor-first2=Kenneth D. |editor-last2=MacTaggart |editor-first3=Frank |editor-last3=O'Brien |access-date=September 27, 2018 }}</ref> Before dawn on July 24, ''Hornet'' launched four Sea King helicopters and three [[Grumman E-1 Tracer]]s. Two of the E-1s were designated as "air boss" while the third acted as a communications relay aircraft. Two of the Sea Kings carried divers and recovery equipment. The third carried photographic equipment, and the fourth carried the decontamination swimmer and the flight surgeon.{{sfn| Manned Spacecraft Center|1969|p=169-170}} At 16:44 UTC (05:54 local time) the [[drogue parachute]]s were deployed. Seven minutes later ''Columbia'' struck the water forcefully {{convert|2660|km|nmi|abbr=on}} east of [[Wake Island]], {{convert|380|km|nmi|abbr=on}} south of Johnston Atoll, and {{convert|24|km|nmi|abbr=on}} from ''Hornet''.{{sfn|Orloff|2000|pp=102–110}}<ref name="ALSJ Re-entry" /> During [[splashdown]], ''Columbia'' landed upside down but was righted within ten minutes by flotation bags triggered by the astronauts.{{sfn| Manned Spacecraft Center|1969|pp=164–167}} A diver from the Navy helicopter hovering above attached a [[sea anchor]] to prevent it from drifting.{{sfn|Carmichael|2010|pp=184–185}} Additional divers attached flotation collars to stabilize the module and position rafts for astronaut extraction.{{sfn|Carmichael|2010|pp=186–188}} [[File:President Nixon welcomes the Apollo 11 astronauts aboard the U.S.S. Hornet.jpg|thumb|left|The crew of Apollo 11 in [[quarantine]] after returning to Earth, visited by Richard Nixon]] The divers then passed biological isolation garments (BIGs) to the astronauts, and assisted them into the life raft. Though the chance of bringing back [[pathogen]]s from the lunar surface was considered remote, it was a possibility, and NASA took precautions at the recovery site. Divers provided the astronauts with Biological Isolation Garments (BIGs) which were worn until they reached isolation facilities on board the ''Hornet''. Additionally, they were rubbed down with a [[sodium hypochlorite]] solution and the Command Module wiped with [[Betadine]] to remove any lunar dust that might be present. The raft containing decontamination materials was then intentionally sunk.{{sfn| Manned Spacecraft Center|1969|pp=164–167}} After touchdown on the ''Hornet'' at 17:53 UTC, the helicopter was lowered by the elevator into hangar bay, where the astronauts walked the {{convert|30|ft|m}} to the [[Mobile Quarantine Facility]] (MQF), where they would begin the Earth-based portion of their 21 days of quarantine.{{sfn|Carmichael|2010|pp=199–200}} This practice would continue for two more Apollo missions, Apollo 12 and [[Apollo 14]], before the Moon was proven to be barren of life, and the quarantine process dropped.<ref name="Smithsonian ">{{cite web |url=http://airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/apollo-to-the-moon/online/a11.jh.3.html |archive-url=https://archive.is/20130815101507/http://airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/apollo-to-the-moon/online/a11.jh.3.html |dead-url=yes |archive-date=August 15, 2013 |title=After Splashdown |date=July 1999 |work=Apollo to the Moon |publisher=[[National Air and Space Museum]] |location=Washington, D.C. |accessdate=August 15, 2013}}</ref> Nixon welcomed the astronauts back to Earth. He told them: "As a result of what you've done, the world has never been closer together before."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://thenewnixon.org/2008/07/23/24-july-1969-home-from-the-moon/ |title=24 July 1969: Home From The Moon |last=Gannon |first=Frank |date=July 23, 2008 |work=The New Nixon |publisher=[[Richard Nixon Foundation]] |accessdate=July 20, 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100509164913/http://thenewnixon.org/2008/07/23/24-july-1969-home-from-the-moon/ |archivedate=May 9, 2010 |df=mdy}}</ref> After Nixon departed, the ''Hornet'' was brought alongside the five-ton Command Module, which was was lifted aboard by the ship's crane, placed on a dolly and moved next to the MQF. The ''Hornet'' returned to Pearl Harbor, where the MQF was loaded onto a [[Lockheed C-141 Starlifter]] and airlifted to the Manned Spacecraft Center. The astronauts arrived at the [[Lunar Receiving Laboratory]] at 10:00 UTC on July 28. ''Columbia'' was taken to [[Ford Island]] for deactivation, and its pyrotechnics made safe. It was then taken to [[Hickham Air Force Base]], from whence it was flown to Houston in a [[Douglas C-133 Cargomaster]], reaching the Lunar Receiving Laboratory on July 30.{{sfn| Manned Spacecraft Center|1969|pp=171–173}} In accordance with the [[Extra-Terrestrial Exposure Law]], a set of regulations promulgated by NASA on July 16 to codify its quarantine protocol,<ref>Extra-Terrestrial Exposure, 34 [[Fed. Reg.]] 11975 (July 16, 1969), ''codified at'' [[14 C.F.R.]] pt. [https://books.google.com/books?id=7rU5AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA94 1200]</ref> the astronauts continued in quarantine. However, after three weeks in confinement (first in the Apollo spacecraft, then in their trailer on the ''Hornet'', and finally in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory ), the astronauts were given a clean bill of health.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasaexplores.com/extras/apollo11/hirasaki.html |archive-url=https://archive.is/20060319184027/http://www.nasaexplores.com/extras/apollo11/hirasaki.html |dead-url=yes |archive-date=March 19, 2006 |title=A Front Row Seat For History |date=July 15, 2004 |work=NASAexplores |publisher=NASA |accessdate=June 14, 2013}}</ref> On August 10, 1969, the Interagency Committee on Back Contamination met in Atlanta and lifted the quarantine on the astronauts, on those who had joined them in quarantine (NASA physician [[William Carpentier]] and MQF project engineer [[John Hirasaki]]),{{sfn|Carmichael|2010|p=118}} and on ''Columbia'' itself. Loose equipment from the spacecraft remained in isolation until the lunar samples were released for study.{{sfn|Ertel|Newkirk|Brooks|1978|p=312}} ===Celebration=== [[File:Apollo 11 ticker tape parade 1.jpg|thumb|Ticker tape parade in New York City]] On August 13, the three astronauts rode in parades in their honor in New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Taylor |first1=Alan |title=The Year Men Walked on the Moon |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2014/07/45-years-ago-we-landed-men-on-the-moon/100775/ |accessdate=October 24, 2017 |work=The Atlantic |date=July 15, 2014}}</ref><ref name=LADinner>{{cite web |title=Richard Nixon: Remarks at a Dinner in Los Angeles Honoring the Apollo 11 Astronauts |url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=2202 |website=The American Presidency Project |accessdate=October 24, 2017 |date=August 13, 1969}}</ref> On the same evening in Los Angeles there was an official [[state dinner]] to celebrate the flight, attended by members of Congress, 44 governors, the [[Chief Justice of the United States]], and ambassadors from 83 nations at the [[Century Plaza Hotel]]. Nixon and Agnew honored each astronaut with a presentation of the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]].<ref name=LADinner/> This celebration was the beginning of a 45-day "Giant Leap" tour that brought the astronauts to 25 foreign countries and included visits with prominent leaders such as [[Queen Elizabeth II]] of the United Kingdom. Many nations honored the first human [[Moon landing]] with special features in magazines or by issuing Apollo 11 commemorative postage stamps or coins.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Wilson |first=Bill |title=Families Wait for Moon Men |date=July 23, 1969 |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article43460781 |magazine=[[The Australian Women's Weekly]] |location=Sydney |volume=37 |number=8 |pages=2–4 |accessdate=July 19, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lunarhall.org/missions/apollo/11.html |title=Lunar Missions: Apollo 11 |date=2008 |website=Lunar Hall of Fame |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081024222503/http://www.lunarhall.org/missions/apollo/11.html |archivedate=2008-10-24 |deadurl=yes |accessdate=June 9, 2014}}</ref> On September 16, 1969, the three astronauts spoke before a [[joint session of the United States Congress|joint session of Congress]] on [[Capitol Hill]]. They presented two US flags, one to the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] and the other to the [[United States Senate|Senate]], that had been carried to the surface of the Moon with them.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://history.house.gov/HistoricalHighlight/Detail/35693 |title=The Apollo 11 Crew Members Appear Before a Joint Meeting of Congress|access-date=March 3, 2018 |publisher=United States House of Representatives}}</ref> The [[flag of American Samoa]] which was brought to the moon by Apollo 11 is on display at the [[Jean P. Haydon Museum]] in Pago Pago, the capital of American Samoa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fodors.com/world/australia-and-the-pacific/american-samoa/things-to-do/sights/reviews/jean-p-haydon-museum-584573 |title=Jean P. Haydon Museum |website=www.fodors.com |accessdate=March 5, 2018}}</ref> ==Legacy== ===Spacecraft=== [[File:NASA Apollo 11 command module.jpg|thumb|left|''Columbia'' at the [[National Air and Space Museum]]]] The Command Module ''Columbia'' was displayed at the [[National Air and Space Museum]] (NASM) in Washington, DC. It was in the central ''Milestones of Flight'' exhibition hall in front of the Jefferson Drive entrance, sharing the main hall with other pioneering flight vehicles such as the ''[[Wright Flyer]]'', the ''[[Spirit of St. Louis]]'', the [[Bell X-1]], the [[North American X-15]], and Mercury spacecraft ''[[Friendship 7]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://airandspace.si.edu/about/history/museum-dc |title=Museum in DC |publisher=National Air and Space Museum |access-date=September 25, 2018 }}</ref> Armstrong's and Aldrin's space suits are displayed in the museum's ''Apollo to the Moon'' exhibit.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/apollo-moon |title=Apollo to the Moon |publisher=National Air and Space Museum |access-date=September 25, 2018 }}</ref> The quarantine trailer, the flotation collar and the righting spheres are in the Smithsonian's [[Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center]] annex near [[Washington Dulles International Airport]] in Chantilly, Virginia, where they are on display along with a test lunar module,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://airandspace.si.edu/collection-objects/mobile-quarantine-facility |title=Mobile Quarantine Facility |publisher=National Air and Space Museum |access-date=September 30, 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://airandspace.si.edu/collection-objects/flotation-collar-apollo-11 |title=Apollo 11 Flotation Collar |publisher=National Air and Space Museum |access-date=September 30, 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://airandspace.si.edu/newsroom/press-releases/national-air-and-space-museum-moves-apollo-artifact-future-home |title=National Air and Space Museum Moves Apollo Artifact to Future Home |publisher=National Air and Space Museum |access-date=September 25, 2018 }}</ref> The descent stage of the Lunar Module ''Eagle'' remains on the Moon. In 2009, the [[Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter]] (LRO) imaged the various Apollo landing sites on the surface of the Moon, for the first time with sufficient resolution to see the descent stages of the lunar modules, scientific instruments, and foot trails made by the astronauts.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LRO/multimedia/lroimages/apollosites.html |title=LRO Sees Apollo Landing Sites |publisher=NASA |access-date=September 25, 2018 }}</ref> The remains of the ascent stage are presumed to lie at an unknown location on the lunar surface, after being abandoned and impacting the Moon.<ref name="Eagle location" /> In March 2012 a team of specialists financed by [[Amazon.com|Amazon]] founder [[Jeff Bezos]] located the [[F-1 (rocket engine)|F-1 engines]] that launched Apollo 11 into space. They were found below the Atlantic Ocean's surface through the use of advanced sonar scanning.<ref>{{cite news |title=Amazon boss Jeff Bezos 'finds Apollo 11 Moon engines' |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-17544565 |work=BBC News |location=London |date=March 28, 2012 |accessdate=June 14, 2013}}</ref> His team brought parts of two of the five engines to the surface. In July 2013, a conservator discovered a serial number under the rust on one of the engines raised from the Atlantic, which NASA confirmed was from Apollo 11.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/innovations/wp/2013/07/19/bezos-expeditions-retrieves-and-identifies-apollo-11-engine-5-nasa-confirms-identity/ |title=Bezos Expeditions retrieves and identifies Apollo 11 engine #5, NASA confirms identity |last=Kolawole |first=Emi |date=19 July 2013 |accessdate=13 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bezosexpeditions.com/updates.html |title=F-1 Engine Recovery – Updates |last=Bezos |first=Jeff |date=19 July 2013}}</ref> ''Columbia'' was moved in 2017 to the NASM Mary Baker Engen Restoration Hangar at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia, to be readied for a four-city tour titled ''Destination Moon: The Apollo 11 Mission''. This included [[Space Center Houston]] from October 14, 2017 to March 18, 2018, the [[Saint Louis Science Center]] from April 14 to September 3, 2018, the Senator John [[Heinz History Center]] in [[Pittsburgh]] from September 29, 2018 to February 18, 2019, and the [[Seattle]] [[Museum of Flight]] from March 16 to September 2, 2019.<ref>{{cite web |title=Apollo 11 Command Module Columbia |url=https://airandspace.si.edu/collection-objects/command-module-apollo-11 |publisher=National Air and Space Museum |accessdate=27 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.airspacemag.com/daily-planet/apollo-11-artifacts-go-tour-180962247/#vdLWIR4Sfofhv24g.99 |title=Apollo 11 Moonship To Go On Tour |first=Rebecca |last=Maksel |magazine=Air and Space magazine |date=February 22, 2017 |accessdate=August 27, 2017}}</ref> [[File:Apollo 11 Command Module in Hangar.jpg|thumb|right|''Columbia'' at the Mary Baker Engen Restoration Hangar]] The S-IVB third stage which performed Apollo 11's trans-lunar injection remains in a solar orbit near to that of Earth.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1969-059B |title=Apollo 11 SIVB NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1969-059B |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219055609/https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1969-059B |archive-date=February 19, 2017 |publisher=NASA }}</ref> ===Moon rocks=== The main repository for the Apollo Moon rocks is the [[Lunar Sample Laboratory Facility]] at the [[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center]] in [[Houston, Texas]]. For safe keeping, there is also a smaller collection stored at [[White Sands Test Facility]] in [[Las Cruces, New Mexico]]. Most of the rocks are stored in nitrogen to keep them free of moisture. They are handled only indirectly, using special tools. Over 100 research laboratories around the world conduct studies of the samples, and approximately 500 samples are prepared and sent to investigators every year.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/lun-fac.cfm |title=Lunar Sample Laboratory Facility |publisher=NASA |access-date=September 25, 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://world.wng.org/2016/09/the_mystery_of_the_missing_moon_rocks |title=The mystery of the missing moon rocks |publisher=World |first=Kristen |last=Flavin |date=September 10, 2016 |access-date=September 25, 2018 }}</ref> In November 1969, Nixon asked NASA to make up about 250 presentation [[Apollo 11 lunar sample display]]s for 135 nations, the fifty states of the United States and its possessions, and the United Nations. Each display included Moon dust from Apollo 11. The rice-sized particles were four small pieces of Moon soil weighing about 50&nbsp;mg and were enveloped in a clear acrylic button about as big as a [[Half dollar (United States coin)|United States half dollar coin]]. This acrylic button magnified the grains of lunar dust. The Apollo 11 lunar sample displays were given out as goodwill gifts by Nixon in 1970.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.collectspace.com/resources/moonrocks_apollo11.html |title=Where today are the Apollo 11 goodwill lunar sample displays? |first1=Robert |last1=Pearlman |authorlink=Robert Pearlman |website=collectspace.com |accessdate=November 2, 2012}}</ref><ref name = "Earth">''Earth'' magazine, March 2011, pp. 42–51</ref> The Passive Seismic Experiment ran until the command uplink failed on August 25, 1969. The downlink failed on December 14.{{sfn|Bates|Lauderdale|Kernaghan|1979|pp=2-3, 4-32}} <!-- Hyphens, not ndashes --> {{As of|2018}}, the Lunar Laser Ranging experiment remains operational.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.palmbeachpost.com/news/report-humans-have-left-500-000-pounds-trash-the-moon/8UcB7ECGVXSLyMWrdhqk1L/ |title=Report: Humans have left 500,000 pounds of 'trash' on the Moon |newspaper=Palm Beach Post |date=March 5, 2018 |first=Chelsea |last=Todaro |access-date=September 27, 2018}}</ref> ===40th anniversary events=== On July 15, 2009, [[Life (magazine)|Life.com]] released a photo gallery of previously unpublished photos of the astronauts taken by ''Life'' photographer [[Ralph Morse]] prior to the Apollo 11 launch.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://life.time.com/history/photos-up-close-with-apollo-11/#1 |title=LIFE: Up Close With Apollo 11 |work=[[Life (magazine)|Life]] |accessdate=June 14, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521161407/https://life.time.com/history/photos-up-close-with-apollo-11/ |archivedate=May 21, 2013 |df=mdy}}</ref> From July 16 to 24, 2009, NASA streamed the original mission audio on its website in real time 40 years to the minute after the events occurred.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/40th/apollo11_audio.html |title=Apollo 11 Onboard Audio |work=Apollo 40th Anniversary |publisher=NASA |accessdate=June 14, 2013}}</ref> In addition, it is in the process of restoring the video footage and has released a preview of key moments.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/hd/apollo11_hdpage.html |title=Apollo 11 Partial Restoration HD Videos (Downloads) |editor-last=Garner |editor-first=Robert |publisher=NASA |accessdate=June 14, 2013}}</ref> In July 2010, air-to-ground voice recordings and film footage shot in Mission Control during the Apollo 11 powered descent and landing was re-synchronized and released for the first time.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Sound restored to mission control film shot during Apollo 11 moon landing |first=Christopher |last=Riley |authorlink=Christopher Riley |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/blog/2010/jul/20/sound-apollo-11-moon-landing |work=[[The Guardian]] |location=London |date=July 20, 2010 |accessdate=July 11, 2013}}</ref> The [[John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum]] set up an [[Adobe Flash]] website that rebroadcasts the transmissions of Apollo 11 from launch to landing on the Moon.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wechoosethemoon.org/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090617230719/http://wechoosethemoon.org/|dead-url=yes|archive-date=June 17, 2009 |title=We Choose the Moon |publisher=[[John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum]] |accessdate=July 19, 2009}}</ref> On July 20, 2009, the crew of Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins met with U.S. President [[Barack Obama]] at the White House.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_1422.html |title=Apollo 11 Crew Meets With President Obama |date=July 20, 2009 |work=Image of the Day Gallery |publisher=NASA |accessdate=June 9, 2014}}</ref> "We expect that there is, as we speak, another generation of kids out there who are looking up at the sky and are going to be the next Armstrong, Collins, and Aldrin", Obama said. "We want to make sure that NASA is going to be there for them when they want to take their journey."<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/21/science/space/21obama.html |work=The New York Times |first=Jeff |last=Zeleny |title=Obama Hails Apollo Crew From a Lens of Childhood |date=July 21, 2009}}</ref> On August 7, 2009, an act of Congress awarded the three astronauts a [[Congressional Gold Medal]], the highest civilian award in the United States. The bill was sponsored by Florida Senator [[Bill Nelson (politician)|Bill Nelson]] and Florida Representative [[Alan Grayson]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.opencongress.org/bill/111-s951/text |title=Text of S.951 as Engrossed in Senate: New Frontier Congressional Gold Medal Act – U.S. Congress – OpenCongress |publisher=OpenCongress.org |accessdate=June 14, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103063854/https://www.opencongress.org/bill/111-s951/text |archivedate=November 3, 2012 |df=mdy}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.opencongress.org/bill/111-h2245/text |title=Text of H.R.2245 as Enrolled Bill: New Frontier Congressional Gold Medal Act – U.S. Congress – OpenCongress |publisher=OpenCongress.org |accessdate=June 14, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103064013/https://www.opencongress.org/bill/111-h2245/text |archivedate=November 3, 2012 |df=mdy}}</ref> A group of British scientists interviewed as part of the anniversary events reflected on the significance of the Moon landing: {{quote|It was carried out in a technically brilliant way with risks taken&nbsp;... that would be inconceivable in the risk-averse world of today&nbsp;... The Apollo programme is arguably the greatest technical achievement of mankind to date&nbsp;... nothing since Apollo has come close [to] the excitement that was generated by those astronauts – Armstrong, Aldrin and the 10 others who followed them.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Moon landings: British scientists salute space heroes |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/space/5848707/Moon-landings-British-scientists-salute-space-heroes.html |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |location=London |date=July 17, 2009 |accessdate=June 14, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130308224145/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/space/5848707/Moon-landings-British-scientists-salute-space-heroes.html |archivedate=March 8, 2013 |df=mdy}}</ref>}} {{clear}} ==Notes== {{Notes}} {{Reflist}} {{Include-NASA}} ==References== {{refbegin|30em}} *{{cite report |last=Bates |first=James R. |last2=Lauderdale |first2=W. W. |last3=Kernaghan |first3=Harold |title=ALSEP Termination Report |date=April 1979 |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, DC |id=1036 |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/misc/documents/b32116.pdf |access-date=September 27, 2018 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Benson |first=Charles D. |last2=Faherty |first2=William B. |title=Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations |date=1978 |id=SP 4204 |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, DC |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19790003956.pdf |access-date=September 22, 2018 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Bilstein |first=Roger E. |title=Stages to Saturn: A Technological History of the Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicle |year=1980 |publisher=National Air and Space Administration |id=SP 4206 |series=NASA History Series |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19970009949.pdf |access-date=September 19, 2018 |ref=harv }} *{{cite book |last1=Brooks |first1=Courtney G. |last2=Grimwood |first2=James M. |last3=Swenson |first3=Loyd S., Jr. |title=Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4205/cover.html |accessdate=July 20, 2010 |series=NASA History Series |date=1979 |publisher=Scientific and Technical Information Branch, NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-486-46756-6 |oclc=4664449 |lccn=79001042 |id=NASA SP-4205 |ref=harv }} *{{cite journal |last=Cappellari |first=J.O. Jr. |title=Where on the Moon? An Apollo Systems Engineering Problem |journal=[[Bell System Technical Journal]] |volume=51 |issue=5 |date=May–June 1972 |issn=0005-8580 |doi=10.1002/j.1538-7305.1972.tb02642.x |oclc=17779623 |pp=955–1127 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last1=Carmichael |first1=Scott W. |title=Moon Men Return: USS ''Hornet'' and the Recovery of the Apollo 11 Astronauts |date=2010 |publisher=Naval Institute Press |location=Annapolis, Maryland |isbn=978-1-59114-110-5 |oclc=562772897 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Chaikin |first=Andrew |title=A Man on the Moon: The Triumphant Story Of The Apollo Space Program |date=1994 |publisher=Penguin Group |location=New York |isbn=0-14-027201-1 |oclc=890357362 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last1=Collins |first1=Michael |authorlink1=Michael Collins (astronaut) |last2=Aldrin |first2=Edwin E., Jr. |authorlink2=Buzz Aldrin |editor-last=Cortright |editor-first=Edgar M |editor-link=Edgar Cortright |contribution=The Eagle Has landed |pp=203–224 |title=Apollo Expeditions to the Moon |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-350/cover.html |accessdate=June 13, 2013 |date=1975 |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |oclc=1623434 |id=NASA SP-350 |ref=harv }} *{{cite book |last=Collins |first=Michael |authorlink=Michael Collins (astronaut) |origyear=1974 |date=2001 |title=Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut's Journeys |publisher=Cooper Square Press |location=New York |isbn=0-8154-1028-X |lccn=2001017080 |oclc=45755963 |ref=harv }} *{{cite book |last=Cortright |first=Edgar M |author-link=Edgar Cortright |editor-last=Cortright |editor-first=Edgar M |editor-link=Edgar Cortright |title=Apollo Expeditions to the Moon |contribution=Scouting the Moon |pp=79–102 |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-350/cover.html |accessdate=June 13, 2013 |date=1975 |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |oclc=1623434 |id=NASA SP-350|ref=harv }} *{{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Cunningham |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-87696-324-8 |title=The All-American Boys|orig-year=1977 |publisher=ipicturebooks |oclc=713908039 |ref=harv}} *{{cite web |last1=Ertel |first1=Ivan D. |last2=Newkirk |first2=Roland W. |last3=Brooks |first3=Courtney G. |title=The Apollo Spacecraft - A Chronology. Vol. IV. Part 3 (1969 3rd quarter) |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4009/v4p3e.htm |id=SP-4009 |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=NASA |accessdate=October 24, 2017 |year=1978 |ref=harv}} *{{cite journal |last1=Hamilton |first1=Margaret H. |last2=Hackler |first2=William R. |date=December 2008 |title=Universal Systems Language: Lessons Learned from Apollo |volume=41 |issue=12 |pages=34–43 |journal=Computer |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=[[IEEE Computer Society]] |issn=0018-9162 |doi=10.1109/MC.2008.541 |ref=harv }} *{{cite book |last=Hansen |first=James R. |author-link=James R. Hansen |title=First Man: The Life of Neil A. Armstrong |title-link=First Man: The Life of Neil A. Armstrong |date=2005 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7432-5631-5 |lccn=2005049992 |oclc=937302502 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Harland |first=David |title=Exploring the Moon: The Apollo Expeditions |location=London ; New York |publisher=Springer |date=1999 |isbn=978-1-85233-099-6 |oclc=982158259 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Kranz |first=Gene |author-link=Gene Kranz |title=Failure Is Not An Option |year=2000 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |isbn=0-7432-0079-9 |oclc=829406416 |ref=harv }} *{{cite book |last=Logsdon |first=John M. |title=The Decision to Go to the Moon: Project Apollo and the National Interest |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1976 |oclc=849992795 |ref=harv }} *{{cite book |author=Manned Spacecraft Center |title=Apollo 11 Mission Report |url=https://history.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/A11_MissionReport.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=July 10, 2013 |date=November 1969 |work=[[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|Manned Spacecraft Center]], Mission Evaluation Team |publisher=NASA |location=Houston, Texas |oclc=10970862 |id=MSC-00171 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Mindell |first=David A. |title=Digital Apollo: Human and Machine in Spaceflight |date=2008 |publisher=MIT Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=978-0-262-13497-2 |lccn=2007032255 |oclc=751829782 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Orloff |first=Richard W. |title=Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm |accessdate=June 12, 2013 |series=NASA History Series |year=2000 |publisher=NASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0-16-050631-X |lccn=00061677 |id=NASA SP-2000-4029 |oclc=829406439 |ref=harv }} *{{cite journal |last=Sarkissian |first=John M. |title=On Eagle's Wings: The Parkes Observatory's Support of the Apollo 11 Mission |date=2001 |journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=287–310 |location=Collingwood, Victoria |publisher=[[CSIRO Publishing]] for the [[Astronomical Society of Australia]] |doi=10.1071/AS01038 |accessdate=May 24, 2013 |url=http://www.parkes.atnf.csiro.au/news_events/apollo11/tv_broadcasts.html |bibcode=2001PASA...18..287S |doi-access=free|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last1=Slayton |first1=Donald K. "Deke" |authorlink1=Deke Slayton |last2=Cassutt |first2=Michael |authorlink2=Michael Cassutt |title=Deke! U.S. Manned Space: From Mercury to the Shuttle |date=1994 |publisher=Forge |location=New York |isbn=0-312-85503-6 |oclc=29845663 |lccn=94002463 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last1=Swenson |first1=Loyd S. Jr. |first2=James M. |last2=Grimwood |first3=Charles C. |last3=Alexander |title=This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4201/cover.htm |accessdate=June 28, 2007 |series=The NASA History Series |year=1966 |publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration |location=Washington, DC |oclc=569889 |id=NASA SP-4201 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last1=Waligora |first1=J.M. |last2=Horrigan |first2=D.J. |editor-last1=Johnston |editor-first1=Richard S. |editor-last2=Dietlein |editor-first2=Lawrence F. |editor-last3=Berry |editor-first3=Charles A. |title=Biomedical Results of Apollo |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-368/sp368.htm |accessdate=February 14, 2017 |date=1975 |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |id=NASA SP-368 |contribution=Chapter 4: Metabolism and Heat Dissipation During Apollo EVA Periods |ref=harv }} {{refend}} ==External links== {{commons category|Apollo 11}} {{wikisource|In Event of Moon Disaster}} *[http://apollo11.spacelog.org/ "Apollo 11 transcripts"] at [http://spacelog.org/ Spacelog] *[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/a11_eva_thumbs.html "Magnificent Desolation: The Apollo 11 Moonwalk Pictures"] by [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj ''Apollo Lunar Surface Journal''] contributor Joseph O'Dea. Complete gallery of Apollo 11 EVA pictures. *[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo11info.html "Apollo 11"] Detailed mission information by Dr. David R. Williams, NASA [[Goddard Space Flight Center]] *[http://blaisephoto.fr/photographies-de-la-mission-apollo-11-nasa.php "Apollo 11"] Photographer Blaise Thirard's presentation of Apollo 11 photographs *{{cite news |title=Men on the Moon |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/system/topicRoot/Men_on_the_moon/ |newspaper=[[The Times]] |location=London |accessdate=May 24, 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100531095612/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/system/topicRoot/Men_on_the_moon/ |archivedate=May 31, 2010 |first1=Rachel |last1=Sylvester |first2=Sam |last2=Coates |deadurl=no |df=mdy}} Original reports from ''The Times'' (London) *{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/40th/ |title=Apollo 40th Anniversary |publisher=NASA |date=July 2009 |accessdate=July 18, 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090718120003/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/40th/ |archivedate=July 18, 2009 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl=no}} NASA website honoring the mission *[http://www.collectspace.com/news/news-111507a.html "The untold story: how one small silicon disc delivered a giant message to the Moon"] at collectSPACE.com *[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/07/0714_040714_moonlanding.html "Apollo Anniversary: Moon Landing 'Inspired World'"] ''National Geographic News'', July 16, 2004 – 35th anniversary of Apollo 11; Steven Dick, NASA's chief historian: "...&nbsp;a thousand years from now, that step may be considered the crowning achievement of the 20th century." *[http://www.popsci.com/military-aviation-amp-space/article/2009-06/40-years-later-ten-things-you-didnt-know-about-apollo-ii-moon-landing "Ten Things You Didn't Know About the Apollo 11 Moon Landing"] by Craig Nelson, ''[[Popular Mechanics]]'', July 13, 2009 *[http://www.radiotapes.com/specialpostings.html#Apollo11 "Coverage of the Flight of Apollo 11 – (1969)"] provided by Todd Kosovich for RadioTapes.com. Radio station recordings (airchecks) covering the flight of Apollo 11. *[http://buzzaldrin.com/the-man/space-missions/ "Space Missions"] at Buzz Aldrin's official website ===NASA reports=== *{{cite web |title=Apollo Program Summary Report |publisher=NASA History Program Office |date=April 1975 |accessdate=September 23, 2018 |url=https://history.nasa.gov/alsj/APSR-JSC-09423.pdf}} – 200+ pages *{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/a11MIssionReport_1971015566.pdf |title=Apollo 11 Mission Report |format=PDF |date=1971 |publisher=NASA}} – 230 pages ===Multimedia=== *{{cite news |url=http://life.time.com/history/apollo-11-to-the-moon-and-back-life-covers-the-1969-lunar-landing/#1 |title='To the Moon and Back': ''LIFE'' Covers the Apollo 11 Mission |accessdate=July 20, 2013 |work=Time |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130720103800/https://life.time.com/history/apollo-11-to-the-moon-and-back-life-covers-the-1969-lunar-landing/ |archivedate=July 20, 2013 |df=mdy}} – ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'' magazine Special Edition, August 11, 1969 *{{cite web |url=http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/23232/apollo-11-scenes-from-the-moon |title=Apollo 11: Scenes From the Moon |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090717195032/http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/23232/apollo-11-scenes-from-the-moon |archivedate=July 17, 2009 |accessdate=June 13, 2013 |deadurl=no |df=mdy}} – slideshow by ''Life'' magazine *{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/hd/apollo11_hdpage.html |title=Apollo 11 Partial Restoration HD Videos (Downloads) |editor-last=Garner |editor-first=Robert |publisher=NASA |accessdate=June 13, 2013}} – Remastered videos of the original landing. *{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/a11.html |title=Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal |date=1995 |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Eric M. Jones |work=Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=September 23, 2006}} – Transcripts and audio clips of important parts of the mission *{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/images11.html |title=Apollo 11 Image Library |editor1-last=Jones |editor1-first=Eric M. |editor2-last=Glover |editor2-first=Ken |date=1995–2009 |work=Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=September 23, 2006}} – Hundreds of high-resolution images of the mission, including assembled panoramas. *{{cite web |last=Simon |first=Johnny |title=Extremely high-res outtakes from Apollo 11's 1969 moon landing |url=https://qz.com/1329999/outtakes-from-1969-moon-landing/ |date=July 20, 2018 |work=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]] |accessdate=July 20, 2018 }} – Extremely high-resolution images (July 20, 2018). *{{cite web |url=https://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/LunarAtlas/maps/ |title=''Apollo'' Mission Traverse Maps |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey|USGS]] |accessdate=September 23, 2006 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060924151815/http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/LunarAtlas/maps/ |archivedate=September 24, 2006}} – Several maps showing routes of moonwalks *[http://moon.google.com/ Google Moon] – with lunar landing sites tagged *[http://moonpans.com/vr Apollo Lunar Surface VR Panoramas] at moonpans.com *[http://apollo.sese.asu.edu/ Apollo Image Archive] at [[Arizona State University]] *[http://www.apollotv.net/ Apollo launch and mission videos] at ApolloTV.net *[http://www.firstmenonthemoon.com/ Real-time audiovisual recreation of the lunar module landing] with audio feeds from the crew of Apollo 11 and Ground Control *{{Internet Archive short film | gov.archives.arc.1257628 | Moonwalk One }} *{{Internet Archive short film | gov.archives.arc.45017 | The Eagle Has Landed: The Flight of Apollo 11 }} *[https://vimeo.com/14275570 Apollo 11 Restored EVA Part 1] (1h of restored footage) {{Project Apollo}} {{Moon spacecraft}} {{Orbital launches in 1969}} {{NASA navbox}} {{portal bar|Houston|Moon|Space|Spaceflight|United States Air Force|United States Navy}} {{Authority control}} {{Use American English|date=January 2014}} {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} [[Category:Apollo 11| ]] [[Category:Apollo program missions|Apollo 11]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] [[Category:Soft landings on the Moon]] [[Category:Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets]] [[Category:Buzz Aldrin]] [[Category:Neil Armstrong]] f5jf63wjdjvohqvgdic6doetlf19ppp 0 663 860434959 858981060 2018-09-20T17:19:12Z JFG 168812 Add category for spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets (via [[WP:JWB]]) wikitext text/x-wiki {{pp-move-indef|small=yes}} {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox spaceflight | name = Apollo 8 | image = NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg | image_caption = ''[[Earthrise]]'', taken from Apollo 8 by [[William Anders]] on December 24, 1968. | insignia = Apollo-8-patch.png | mission_type = Crewed Lunar orbiter | operator = [[NASA]]<ref name="Orloff">{{cite book |last=Orloff |first=Richard W. |title=Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm |accessdate=June 28, 2013 |series=NASA History Series |origyear=First published 2000 |date=September 2004 |work=NASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans |publisher=[[NASA]] |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0-16-050631-X |lccn=00061677 |id=NASA SP-2000-4029 |chapter=Table of Contents |chapterurl=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00g_Table_of_Contents.htm}}</ref> | COSPAR_ID = 1968-118A | SATCAT = 3626 | mission_duration = 6&nbsp;days, 3&nbsp;hours, 42&nbsp;seconds | spacecraft = {{Unbulleted list |[[Apollo Command/Service Module|Apollo CSM]]-103 |Apollo LTA-B }} | manufacturer = [[Rockwell International|North American Rockwell]] | launch_mass = {{Unbulleted list |CSM: {{convert|63650|lb|kg|order=flip}}<ref name="PressKit">{{cite web |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19690003059_1969003059.pdf |title=Apollo 8 Press Kit |date=December 15, 1968 |publisher=NASA |pages=33–34 |type=Press kit |format=PDF |id=Release No. 68-208 |accessdate=June 28, 2013}} – The spacecraft mass at launch includes the CM and SM, but excludes the {{convert|8900|lb|kg|order=flip}} Launch Escape System (LES), which was discarded before reaching Earth orbit.</ref> |CM:{{convert|12392|lb|kg|order=flip}} |SM:{{convert|51258|lb|kg|order=flip}} |LTA: {{convert|19900|lb|kg|order=flip}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/pdf/a08-missionreport.pdf |title=Apollo 8 Mission Report |date=February 1969 |publisher=NASA |page=A-14 |format=PDF |id=MSC-PA-R-69-1 |accessdate=June 28, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302223118/http://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/pdf/a08-missionreport.pdf |archivedate=March 2, 2013 |df=mdy-all }} – The mass for LTA-B was less than that of a flying LM, because it was essentially a boilerplate descent stage. A fully loaded, flight-ready LM, like the ''Eagle'' from Apollo 11, had a mass of {{convert|33278|lb|kg|order=flip}}, including propellants.</ref> }} | landing_mass = {{convert|10977|lb|kg|order=flip}} | launch_date = {{start-date|December 21, 1968, 12:51:00|timezone=yes}}&nbsp;UTC | launch_rocket = [[Saturn V]] SA-503 | launch_site = [[Kennedy Space Center|Kennedy]] [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39|LC-39A]] | landing_date = {{end-date|December 27, 1968, 15:51:42|timezone=yes}}&nbsp;UTC<ref name="MissionReport">{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a410/A08_MissionReport.pdf |title=Apollo 8 Mission Report |date=February 1969 |publisher=NASA |page=3-2 |format=PDF |id=MSC-PA-R-69-1|accessdate=June 28, 2013}}</ref> | landing_site = North Pacific Ocean<br/>{{Coord|8|8|N|165|1|W|type:event|name=Apollo 8 landing}}<ref name="MissionReport"/> | recovery_by = {{USS|Yorktown|CV-10|6}} | orbit_epoch = December 21, 1968, ~13:02&nbsp;UTC | orbit_reference = | orbit_periapsis = {{convert|99.57|nmi|km|order=flip|sp=us}} | orbit_apoapsis = {{convert|99.99|nmi|km|order=flip|sp=us}} | orbit_inclination = 32.15&nbsp;degrees | orbit_period = 88.19&nbsp;minutes | orbit_rev_number = 2 | apsis = gee |interplanetary = {{Infobox spaceflight/IP |type = orbiter |object = [[Moon|Lunar]] |orbits = 10 |component = CSM |arrival_date = December 24, 1968, 9:59:20&nbsp;UTC<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a410/A08_MissionReport.pdf |title=Apollo 8 Mission Report |date=February 1969 |publisher=NASA |page=3-1 |format=PDF |id=MSC-PA-R-69-1|accessdate=May 8, 2015}}</ref> |departure_date = December 25, 1968, 6:10:17&nbsp;UTC<ref name="MissionReport"/> <!--Orbit parameters, ONLY USE IF THE ABOVE ORBIT PARAMETERS SECTION DOESN'T APPLY TO THE TARGET--> |epoch = December 24, 1968, ~02:30&nbsp;UTC |periapsis = {{convert|59.7|nmi|km|order=flip|sp=us}} |apoapsis = {{convert|60.7|nmi|km|order=flip|sp=us}} |inclination = 12&nbsp;degrees |apsis = selene |period = 2&nbsp;hours }} | crew_size = 3 | crew_members = {{Unbulleted list |[[Frank Borman|Frank F. Borman, II]] |[[Jim Lovell|James A. Lovell, Jr.]] |[[William Anders|William A. Anders]] }} | crew_callsign = Apollo 8 | crew_photo = Apollo 8 Crewmembers - GPN-2000-001125.jpg | crew_photo_caption = Left to right: Lovell, Anders, Borman | previous_mission = [[Apollo 7]] | next_mission = [[Apollo 9]] | programme = [[Apollo program]] }} '''Apollo 8''', the second [[manned spaceflight]] mission in the United States [[Apollo program|Apollo space program]], was launched on December 21, 1968, and became the first manned [[spacecraft]] to leave [[low Earth orbit]], reach the Earth's [[Moon]], orbit it and return safely to Earth. The three-[[astronaut]] crew — Commander [[Frank Borman]], Command Module Pilot [[Jim Lovell|James Lovell]], and Lunar Module Pilot [[William Anders]] — became the first humans to: travel beyond [[low Earth orbit]]; see Earth as a whole planet; enter the gravity well of another celestial body (Earth's moon); orbit another celestial body (Earth's moon); directly see the [[far side of the Moon]] with their own eyes; witness an [[Earthrise]]; escape the gravity of another celestial body (Earth's moon); and re-enter the gravitational well of Earth. The 1968 mission, the third flight of the [[Saturn V|Saturn&nbsp;V]] rocket and that rocket's first crewed launch, was also the first human spaceflight launch from the [[Kennedy Space Center]], Florida, located adjacent to [[Cape Canaveral Air Force Station]]. Originally planned as a second [[Apollo Lunar Module|Lunar Module]]/[[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command Module]] test in an elliptical [[medium Earth orbit]] in early 1969, the mission profile was changed in August 1968 to a more ambitious Command Module-only lunar orbital flight to be flown in December, because the Lunar Module was not yet ready to make its first flight. This meant Borman's crew was scheduled to fly two to three months sooner than originally planned, leaving them a shorter time for training and preparation, thus placing more demands than usual on their time and discipline. Apollo 8 took 68 hours (2.8 days) to travel the distance to the Moon. It orbited ten times over the course of 20 hours, during which the crew made a Christmas Eve [[Apollo TV camera|television broadcast]] where they [[Apollo 8 Genesis reading|read the first 10 verses from]] the [[Book of Genesis]]. At the time, the broadcast was the most watched TV program ever. Apollo 8's successful mission paved the way for [[Apollo 11]] to fulfill U.S. President [[John F. Kennedy]]'s goal of landing a man on the Moon before the end of the 1960s. The Apollo 8 astronauts returned to Earth on December 27, 1968, when their spacecraft splashed down in the Northern Pacific Ocean. The crew members were named [[Time (magazine)|''Time'' magazine]]'s "Men of the Year" for 1968 upon their return. ==Crew== {{Spaceflight crew |terminology = Astronaut |position1 = Commander |crew1_up = [[Frank Borman|Frank F. Borman, II]] |flights1_up = Second and last |position2 = Command Module Pilot |crew2_up = [[Jim Lovell|James A. "Jim" Lovell, Jr.]] |flights2_up = Third |position3 = Lunar Module Pilot |crew3_up = [[William Anders|William A. Anders]] |flights3_up = Only |notes = '''Lunar Module Pilot''' was the official title used for the third pilot position in Block II missions, regardless of whether the [[Apollo Lunar Module|LM spacecraft]] was present or not. }} Lovell was originally the CMP on the back-up crew, with [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]] as the prime crew's CMP. However, Collins was replaced in July 1968, after suffering a [[intervertebral disc|cervical]] [[Spinal disc herniation|disc herniation]] that required surgery to repair.<ref>[[#Collins|Collins 2001]], pp. 288–294</ref> This crew was unique among pre-shuttle era missions in that the commander was not the most experienced member of the crew, as Lovell had flown twice before, on [[Gemini 7|Gemini VII]] and [[Gemini 12|Gemini XII]]. This was also the first case of the rarity of an astronaut who had commanded a spaceflight mission subsequently flying as a non-commander, as Lovell had previously commanded Gemini XII. ===Backup crew=== {{Spaceflight crew |terminology = Astronaut<ref>{{cite web|url=https://airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/apollo/apollo-program/orbital-missions/apollo8-crew.cfm|title=Apollo 8 Crew - National Air and Space Museum|website=airandspace.si.edu}}</ref> |position1 = Commander |crew1_up = [[Neil Armstrong|Neil A. Armstrong]] |flights1_up = |position2 = Command Module Pilot |crew2_up = [[Buzz Aldrin|Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr.]] |position3 = Lunar Module Pilot |crew3_up = [[Fred Haise|Fred W. Haise, Jr.]] }} On a lunar mission, the Command Module Pilot (CMP) was assigned the role of [[Celestial navigation|navigator]], while the Lunar Module Pilot (LMP) was assigned the role of [[flight engineer]], responsible for monitoring all spacecraft systems, even if the flight didn't include a Lunar Module.<ref name="Baker 1981">[[#Baker|Baker 1981]]</ref> [[Buzz Aldrin|Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin]] was originally the backup LMP. When Lovell was rotated to the prime crew, no one with experience on [[Apollo Command/Service Module|CSM]]-103 (the specific spacecraft used for the mission) was available, so Aldrin was moved to CMP and [[Fred Haise]] brought in as backup LMP. Neil Armstrong went on to command Apollo 11, where Aldrin was returned to the LMP position and Collins was assigned as CMP. Haise was rotated out of the crew and onto the backup crew of Apollo 11 as LMP. ===Mission control=== The Earth-based mission control teams for Apollo&nbsp;8 consisted of astronauts assigned to the support crew, as well as non-astronaut flight directors and their staffs. The support crew members were not trained to fly the mission, but were able to stand in for astronauts in meetings and be involved in the minutiae of mission planning, while the prime and backup crews trained. They also served as [[Flight controller#Capsule Communicator (CAPCOM)|CAPCOMs]] during the mission. For Apollo&nbsp;8, these crew members included astronauts [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]], [[John S. Bull]], [[Vance D. Brand]], [[Gerald P. Carr]], and [[Ken Mattingly]].<ref name="chronapp6">{{cite book |last1=Ertel |first1=Ivan D. |last2=Newkirk |first2=Roland W. |last3=Brooks |first3=Courtney G. |others=Compiled by Sally D. Gates, History Office, [[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|JSC]], with Cyril E. Baker, Astronaut Office, JSC |title=The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/contents.htm#Volume%20IV |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080205020128/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/contents.htm |archivedate=February 5, 2008 |accessdate=January 29, 2008 |volume=IV |year=1969–1978 |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |id=NASA SP-4009 |oclc=23818 |lccn=69060008 |chapter=Appendix 6: Crews and Support for Manned Apollo Flights |chapterurl=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/v4app6.htm |display-authors=2<!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> The mission control teams on Earth rotated in three shifts, each led by a flight director. The directors for Apollo&nbsp;8 included Clifford E. Charlesworth (Green team), [[Glynn Lunney]] (Black team), and [[Milton Windler]] (Maroon team).<ref name="expeditions1">{{cite book |last=Phillips |first=Samuel C. |authorlink=Samuel C. Phillips |editor-last=Cortright |editor-first=Edgar M |editor-link=Edgar Cortright |title=Apollo Expeditions to the Moon |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-350/cover.html |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080219204538/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-350/ch-9-5.html |archivedate=February 19, 2008 |deadurl=no |accessdate=January 28, 2008 |year=1975 |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |oclc=1623434 |id=NASA SP-350 |chapter=Lifting From a Sea of Flame |chapterurl=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-350/ch-9-5.html}} Chapter 9.5.</ref> ===Mission insignia=== [[File:Apollo 8 Flown Silver Robbins Medallion (SN-264).jpg|thumb|Apollo 8 space-flown silver [[NASA space-flown Robbins medallions of the Apollo missions|Robbins medallion]]]] The triangular shape of the insignia symbolizes the shape of the Apollo Command Module (CM). It shows a red figure-8 looping around the Earth and Moon representing the mission number as well as the circumlunar nature of the mission. On the red number 8 are the names of the three astronauts.<ref name="Lattimer 1985">[[#Lattimer|Lattimer 1985]]</ref> The initial design of the insignia was developed by Jim Lovell. Lovell reportedly sketched the initial design while riding in the backseat of a [[Northrop T-38 Talon|T-38]] flight from [[California]] to [[Houston]], shortly after learning of the re-designation of the flight to become a lunar-orbital mission. The graphic design of the insignia was done by Houston artist and animator William Bradley.<ref name="Lattimer 1985"/> ==Planning== {{Main|List of Apollo mission types}} [[Apollo 4]] and [[Apollo 6]] had been "A" missions, unmanned tests of the Saturn V launch vehicle using an unmanned Block&nbsp;I production model of the Apollo Command and Service Module in Earth orbit. {{nowrap|[[Apollo 7]]}}, scheduled for October 1968, would be a manned Earth-orbit flight of the CSM, completing the objectives for Mission&nbsp;"C". [[File:Apollo-linedrawing.png|thumb|Apollo [[Command/Service Module|CSM]] diagram]] Further missions depended on the readiness of the Lunar Module. Apollo 8 was planned as the "D" mission, to test the LM in a low Earth orbit in December 1968 by [[James McDivitt]], [[David Scott]] and [[Rusty Schweickart|Russell Schweickart]], while Borman's crew would fly the "E" mission, a more rigorous LM test in an elliptical medium Earth orbit as Apollo 9, in early 1969. But production of the LM fell behind schedule, and when Apollo 8's LM arrived at the Kennedy Space Center in June 1968, significant defects were discovered, leading [[Grumman]], the lead contractor for the LM, to predict that the first mission-ready LM would not be ready until at least February 1969. This would mean delaying the "D" and subsequent missions, endangering the program's goal of a lunar landing before the end of 1969.<ref name="Baker 1981"/><ref name="augsep1968">{{cite book |last1=Ertel |first1=Ivan D. |last2=Newkirk |first2=Roland W. |last3=Brooks |first3=Courtney G. |title=The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/contents.htm#Volume%20IV |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080205020128/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/contents.htm |archivedate=February 5, 2008 |accessdate=January 29, 2008 |volume=IV |year=1969–1978 |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |id=NASA SP-4009 |oclc=23818 |lccn=69060008 |chapter=Part 2 (N): Recovery, Spacecraft Redefinition, and First Manned Apollo Flight: August through September 1968 |chapterurl=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/v4p2n.htm |display-authors=2 |deadurl=no}}</ref> [[George Low]], the Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office, proposed a solution in August to keep the program on track despite the LM delay. Since the [[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command/Service Module]] (CSM) would be ready three months before the Lunar Module, a CSM-only mission could be flown in December 1968. Instead of just repeating the "C" mission flight of Apollo&nbsp;7, this CSM could be sent all the way to the Moon, with the possibility of entering a lunar orbit. The new mission would also allow NASA to test lunar landing procedures that would otherwise have to wait until [[Apollo 10]], the scheduled "F" mission.<ref name="augsep1968" /> This also meant that the medium Earth orbit "E" mission could be dispensed with. The net result was that only the "D" mission had to be delayed. [[File:Apollo 8 first stage in the Vehicle Assembly Building.jpg|thumb|upright|The first stage of AS-503 being erected in the [[Vehicle Assembly Building|Vertical Assembly Building]] (VAB) on February 1, 1968]] Almost every senior manager at NASA agreed with this new mission, citing both confidence in the hardware and personnel, and the potential for a significant morale boost provided by a circumlunar flight. The only person who needed some convincing was [[James E. Webb]], the NASA administrator. With the rest of his agency in support of the new mission, Webb eventually approved the mission change. The mission was officially changed from a "D" mission to a "C-Prime" lunar-orbit mission, but was still referred to in press releases as an Earth-orbit mission at Webb's direction.<ref name="chariots11-5">{{cite book |last1=Brooks |first1=Courtney G. |last2=Grimwood |first2=James M. |last3=Swenson |first3=Loyd S., Jr. |others=Foreword by Samuel C. Phillips |title=Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/cover.html |accessdate=January 29, 2008 |series=NASA History Series |year=1979 |publisher=Scientific and Technical Information Branch, NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-486-46756-6 |oclc=4664449 |id=NASA SP-4205 |chapter=The Apollo 8 Decision |chapterurl=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch11-5.html}}</ref> No public announcement was made about the change in mission until November 12, three weeks after Apollo 7's successful Earth-orbit mission and less than 40 days before launch.<ref name="chariots11-2">{{cite book |last1=Brooks |first1=Courtney G. |last2=Grimwood |first2=James M. |last3=Swenson |first3=Loyd S., Jr. |others=Foreword by Samuel C. Phillips |title=Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/cover.html |accessdate=January 29, 2008 |series=NASA History Series |year=1979 |publisher=Scientific and Technical Information Branch, NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-486-46756-6 |oclc=4664449 |id=NASA SP-4205 |chapter=Proposal for a Lunar Orbit Mission |chapterurl=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch11-2.html}}</ref> With the change in mission for Apollo&nbsp;8, Director of Flight Crew Operations [[Deke Slayton]] decided to swap the crews of the D and E missions. This swap also meant a swap of spacecraft, requiring Borman's crew to use CSM-103, while McDivitt's crew would use CSM-104.<ref name="augsep1968" /><ref name="chariots11-3">{{cite book |last1=Brooks |first1=Courtney G. |last2=Grimwood |first2=James M. |last3=Swenson |first3=Loyd S., Jr. |others=Foreword by Samuel C. Phillips |title=Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/cover.html |accessdate=January 29, 2008 |series=NASA History Series |year=1979 |publisher=Scientific and Technical Information Branch, NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-486-46756-6 |oclc=4664449 |id=NASA SP-4205 |chapter=Selecting and Training Crews |chapterurl=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch11-3.html}}</ref> On September 9, the crew entered the [[Space simulator|simulators]] to begin their preparation for the flight. By the time the mission flew, the crew had spent seven&nbsp;hours training for every actual hour of flight. Although all crew members were trained in all aspects of the mission, it was necessary to specialize. Borman, as commander, was given training on controlling the spacecraft during the [[Atmospheric entry|re-entry]]. Lovell was trained on [[Celestial navigation|navigating]] the spacecraft in case communication was lost with the Earth. Anders was placed in charge of checking that the spacecraft was in working order.<ref name="Baker 1981"/> Added pressure on the Apollo program to make its 1969 landing goal was provided by the [[Soviet Union]]'s flight of some living creatures, including [[Russian tortoise]]s, in a [[cislunar]] loop around the Moon on [[Zond 5]] and return to Earth on September 21.<ref>[[#Chaikin|Chaikin 1994]], p. 76</ref> There was speculation within NASA and the press that they might be preparing to launch [[astronaut#Russian|cosmonauts]] on a similar [[Zond program#Circumlunar missions|circumlunar mission]] before the end of 1968.<ref name="Moon Race 1968">{{cite news |title=Poised for the Leap |url=http://www.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,844661-1,00.html |accessdate=December 15, 2011 |work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=December 6, 1968 |location=New York}}</ref> The Apollo 8 crew, now living in the crew quarters at Kennedy Space Center, received a visit from [[Charles Lindbergh]] and his wife, [[Anne Morrow Lindbergh]], the night before the launch.<ref name="Benke">{{cite news |title=Astronauts look back 30 years after historic lunar launch |first=Richard |last=Benke |url=http://cgi.canoe.ca/SpaceArchive/981221_30.html |agency=[[Associated Press]] |work=[[The Augusta Chronicle]] |publisher=[[Morris Communications]] |location=[[Augusta, Georgia|Augusta, GA]] |date=December 21, 1998 |accessdate=June 28, 2013}}</ref> They talked about how, before his [[Spirit of St. Louis|1927 flight]], Lindbergh had used a piece of string to measure the distance from New York City to Paris on a globe and from that calculated the fuel needed for the flight. The total was a tenth of the amount that the Saturn&nbsp;V would burn every second.<ref name="zimmerman1">[[#Zimmerman|Zimmerman 1998]]</ref> The next day, the Lindberghs watched the launch of Apollo&nbsp;8 from a nearby dune.<ref name="zimmerman1" /> ==Saturn V== {{Main|Saturn V}} [[File:Ap8-KSC-68PC-147.jpg|thumb|The Apollo&nbsp;8 Saturn V being rolled out to [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39|Pad 39A]]]] The Saturn&nbsp;V rocket used by Apollo&nbsp;8 was designated SA-503, or the "03rd" model of the Saturn&nbsp;V ("5") Rocket to be used in the Saturn-Apollo ("SA") program. When it was erected in the [[Vehicle Assembly Building|Vertical Assembly Building]] on December 20, 1967, it was thought that the rocket would be used for an unmanned Earth-orbit test flight carrying a [[Boilerplate (spaceflight)|boilerplate]] Command/Service Module. Apollo&nbsp;6 had suffered several major problems during its April 1968 flight, including severe [[pogo oscillation]] during its first stage, two second stage engine failures, and a third stage that failed to reignite in orbit. Without assurances that these problems had been rectified, NASA administrators could not justify risking a manned mission until additional unmanned test flights proved that the Saturn&nbsp;V was ready.<ref name="stages1">[[#Bilstein|Bilstein 1996]], pp. 360–370</ref><ref name="chariots10-5">{{cite book |last1=Brooks |first1=Courtney G. |last2=Grimwood |first2=James M. |last3=Swenson |first3=Loyd S., Jr. |others=Foreword by Samuel C. Phillips |title=Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/cover.html |accessdate=February 1, 2008 |series=NASA History Series |year=1979 |publisher=Scientific and Technical Information Branch, NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-486-46756-6 |oclc=4664449 |id=NASA SP-4205 |chapter=''Apollo 6:'' Saturn V's Shaky Dress Rehearsal |chapterurl=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch10-5.html}}</ref> Teams from the [[Marshall Space Flight Center]] (MSFC) went to work on the problems. Of primary concern was the pogo oscillation, which would not only hamper engine performance, but could exert significant g-forces on a crew. A task force of contractors, NASA agency representatives, and MSFC researchers concluded that the engines vibrated at a frequency similar to the frequency at which the spacecraft itself vibrated, causing a resonance effect that induced oscillations in the rocket. A system using helium gas to absorb some of these vibrations was installed.<ref name="stages1" /> Of equal importance was the failure of three engines during flight. Researchers quickly determined that a leaking hydrogen fuel line ruptured when exposed to vacuum, causing a loss of fuel pressure in engine two. When an automatic shutoff attempted to close the liquid hydrogen valve and shut down engine two, it accidentally shut down engine three's liquid oxygen due to a miswired connection. As a result, engine three failed within one second of engine two's shutdown. Further investigation revealed the same problem for the third-stage engine—a faulty igniter line. The team modified the igniter lines and fuel conduits, hoping to avoid similar problems on future launches.<ref name="stages1" /> The teams tested their solutions in August 1968 at the Marshall Space Flight Center. A Saturn stage IC was equipped with shock absorbing devices to demonstrate the team's solution to the problem of pogo oscillation, while a Saturn Stage&nbsp;II was retrofitted with modified fuel lines to demonstrate their resistance to leaks and ruptures in vacuum conditions. Once NASA administrators were convinced that the problems were solved, they gave their approval for a manned mission using SA-503.<ref name="stages1" /><ref name="orloff1">{{cite book |last=Orloff |first=Richard W. |title=Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm |accessdate=June 28, 2013 |series=NASA History Series |origyear=First published 2000 |date=September 2004 |work=NASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0-16-050631-X |lccn=00061677 |id=NASA SP-2000-4029 |chapter=Apollo 8 - The Second Mission: Testing the CSM in Lunar Orbit |chapterurl=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_08a_Summary.htm}}</ref> The Apollo&nbsp;8 spacecraft was placed on top of the rocket on September 21 and the rocket made the slow 3-mile (5&nbsp;km) journey to the launch pad on October 9.<ref name="satVillust">{{cite book |last=Akens |first=David S. |title=Saturn Illustrated Chronology |url=https://history.nasa.gov/MHR-5/cover.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307132427/https://history.nasa.gov/MHR-5/app_h.htm |archivedate=March 7, 2008 |accessdate=February 1, 2008 |year=1971 |publisher=[[Marshall Space Flight Center]] |location=Huntsville, AL |id=MSFC MHR-5 |chapter=Appendix H - Saturn at the Cape |chapterurl=https://history.nasa.gov/MHR-5/app_h.htm |deadurl=no}}</ref> Testing continued all through December until the day before launch, including various levels of readiness testing from December 5 through 11. Final testing of modifications to address the problems of pogo oscillation, ruptured fuel lines, and bad igniter lines took place on December 18, a mere three days before the scheduled launch.<ref name="stages1" /> ==Mission== ===Parameter summary=== [[File:Apollo-8-mission-profile.png|thumb|upright=1.5| Dec 21, 1968, 12:51 (UTC): Launch<br />—15:47 (2h56m): Translunar injection<br />Dec 24, 09:59 (2d21h08m): Lunar orbit insertion (10 orbits)<br />Dec 25, 06:10 (3d17h19m): Transearth injection<br />Dec 27, 15:37 (6d02h46m): Reentry<br />—15:51 (6d03h00m): Splashdown.<ref name="orloff2">{{cite book |last=Orloff |first=Richard W. |title=Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm |accessdate=June 28, 2013 |series=NASA History Series |origyear=First published 2000 |date=September 2004 |work=NASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0-16-050631-X |lccn=00061677 |id=NASA SP-2000-4029 |chapter=Apollo 8 Timeline |chapterurl=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_08i_Timeline.htm}}</ref>{{refn | group = n | [[Service Propulsion System|SPS]] is the rocket engine of the SM. [[Apollo CSM#Reaction Control System|RCS]] are the small thrusters on its side.}}]] As the first manned spacecraft to orbit more than one celestial body, Apollo 8's profile had two different sets of orbital parameters, separated by a translunar injection maneuver. Apollo lunar missions would begin with a nominal {{convert|100|nmi|km|sigfig=4|adj=on}} circular Earth parking orbit. Apollo 8 was launched into an initial orbit with an [[apogee]] of {{convert|99.99|nmi|km}} and a [[perigee]] of {{convert|99.57|nmi|km}}, with an [[inclination]] of 32.51° to the [[Equator]], and an [[orbital period]] of 88.19&nbsp;minutes. Propellant venting increased the apogee by {{convert|6.4|nmi|km}} over the 2&nbsp;hours, 44&nbsp;minutes and 30&nbsp;seconds spent in the parking orbit.<ref name="orloff1" /> This was followed by a [[Trans-lunar injection|Trans-Lunar Injection]] (TLI) burn of the [[S-IVB]] third stage for 318&nbsp;seconds, accelerating the {{convert|63650|lb|kg|abbr=on}} Command/Service Module and {{convert|19900|lb|kg|abbr=on}} LM test article from an orbital velocity of {{convert|25567|ft/s|m/s}} to the injection velocity of {{convert|35505|ft/s|m/s|abbr=on}},<ref name="orloff1" /><ref name="PressKit"/> which set a record for the highest speed, relative to Earth, that humans had ever traveled.<ref name="chariots11-6">{{cite book |last1=Brooks |first1=Courtney G. |last2=Grimwood |first2=James M. |last3=Swenson |first3=Loyd S., Jr. |others=Foreword by Samuel C. Phillips |title=Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/cover.html |accessdate=January 29, 2008 |series=NASA History Series |year=1979 |publisher=Scientific and Technical Information Branch, NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-486-46756-6 |oclc=4664449 |id=NASA SP-4205 |chapter=Apollo 8: The First Lunar Voyage |chapterurl=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch11-6.html}}</ref> This speed was slightly less than the Earth's [[escape velocity]] of {{convert|36747|ft/s|m/s}}, but put Apollo 8 into an elongated elliptical Earth orbit, to a point where the Moon's gravity would capture it.<ref name="woods">[[#Woods|Woods 2008]], pp. 108–109</ref> The standard lunar orbit for Apollo missions was planned as a nominal {{convert|60|nmi|km|adj=on}} circular orbit above the Moon's surface. Initial lunar orbit insertion was an ellipse with a [[perilune]] of {{convert|60.0|nmi|km}} and an [[apolune]] of {{convert|168.5|nmi|km}}, at an inclination of 12° from the lunar equator. This was then circularized at {{convert|60.7|nmi|km}} by {{convert|59.7|nmi|km}}, with an orbital period of 128.7&nbsp;minutes. The effect of lunar [[mass concentration (astronomy)|mass concentrations]] ("masscons") on the orbit was found to be greater than initially predicted; over the course of the ten lunar orbits lasting twenty hours, the orbital distance was perturbated to {{convert|63.6|nmi|km}} by {{convert|58.6|nmi|km}}.<ref name="orloff1" /> Apollo 8 achieved a maximum distance from Earth of {{convert|203,752|nmi|smi km|abbr=off|sp=us}}.<ref name="orloff1" /> ===Launch and trans-lunar injection=== [[File:Ap8-KSC-68PC-329.jpg|thumb|upright|Apollo&nbsp;8 during launch, with a [[Multiple exposure|double exposure]] of the Moon, which was not visible at the time]] Apollo&nbsp;8 launched at 7:51:00&nbsp;a.m. [[Eastern Time Zone (North America)|Eastern Standard Time]] on December 21, 1968, using the Saturn&nbsp;V's [[Multistage rocket|three stages]] to achieve Earth orbit.<ref name="orloff1" /> The [[S-IC]] first stage impacted the [[Atlantic Ocean]] at {{Coord|30|12|N|74|7|W|name=Apollo 8 S-IC impact}} and the [[S-II]] second stage at {{Coord|31|50|N|37|17|W|name=Apollo 8 S-II impact}}.<ref name="zimmerman1" /><ref name="orloff1" /> The [[S-IVB]] third stage injected the craft into Earth orbit, but remained attached to later perform the [[trans-lunar injection]] (TLI) burn that put the spacecraft on a trajectory to the Moon. Once the [[space vehicle|vehicle]] reached Earth orbit, both the crew and [[Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center|Houston]] [[flight controller]]s spent the next 2&nbsp;hours and 38&nbsp;minutes checking that the spacecraft was in proper working order and ready for TLI. The proper operation of the S-IVB third stage of the rocket was crucial: in the last unmanned test, it had failed to re-ignite for TLI.<ref name="chariots11-6" /> During the flight, three fellow astronauts served on the ground as [[Flight controller#Capsule Communicator (CAPCOM)|Capsule Communicator]]s (usually referred to as "CAPCOMs") on a rotating schedule. The CAPCOMs were the only people who regularly communicated with the crew. Michael Collins was the first CAPCOM on duty and at 2&nbsp;hours, 27&nbsp;minutes and 22&nbsp;seconds after launch radioed, "Apollo&nbsp;8. You are Go for TLI."<ref name="journal day 1 TLI">{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/02earth_orbit_tli.htm |title=Day 1: Earth Orbit and Translunar Injection |last1=Woods |first1=W. David |last2=O'Brien |first2=Frank |date=April 22, 2006 |work=Apollo 8 Flight Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=February 7, 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080218181006/https://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/02earth_orbit_tli.htm |archivedate=February 18, 2008 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy-all }}</ref> This communication signified that Mission Control had given official permission for Apollo&nbsp;8 to go to the Moon. Over the next 12&nbsp;minutes before the TLI burn, the Apollo&nbsp;8 crew continued to monitor the spacecraft and the S-IVB. The engine ignited on time and performed the TLI burn perfectly. After the S-IVB had performed its required tasks, it was jettisoned. The crew then rotated the spacecraft to take some photographs of the spent stage and then practiced flying in formation with it. As the crew rotated the spacecraft, they had their first views of the Earth as they moved away from it. This marked the first time humans could view the whole Earth at once.<ref name="chariots11-6" /> Borman became worried that the S-IVB was staying too close to the Command/Service Module and suggested to Mission Control that the crew perform a separation maneuver. Mission Control first suggested pointing the spacecraft towards Earth and using the [[Apollo CSM#Reaction Control System|Reaction Control System]] (RCS) thrusters on the [[Apollo Command/Service Module#Service Module (SM)|Service Module]] (SM) to add {{convert|3|ft/s|m/s|abbr=on}} away from the Earth, but Borman did not want to lose sight of the S-IVB. After discussion, the crew and Mission Control decided to burn in this direction, but at {{convert|9|ft/s|m/s|abbr=on}} instead.<ref name="orloff1" /> These discussions put the crew an hour behind their flight plan.<ref name="chariots11-6" /> [[File:As8-16-2583.jpg|thumb|Apollo 8 [[S-IVB]] rocket stage, shortly after separation]] Five&nbsp;hours after launch, Mission Control sent a command to the S-IVB booster to vent its remaining fuel through its engine bell to change the booster's trajectory. This S-IVB would then pass the Moon and enter into a solar orbit, posing no further hazard to Apollo&nbsp;8. The S-IVB subsequently went into a {{convert|0.99|by|0.92|AU|Gm|lk=on|adj=on}} solar orbit with an [[inclination]] of 23.47° from the [[Ecliptic|plane of the ecliptic]], and an orbital period of 340.80&nbsp;days.<ref name="orloff1" /> After the [[translunar injection|insertion]] into trans-Lunar orbit, the [[S-IVB|Saturn IVB]] [[third stage]] became a [[:Category:Derelict satellites in heliocentric orbit|derelict]] [[space debris|object]]. It will continue to [[heliocentric orbit|orbit the Sun]] for many years.<ref name=ha20130923>{{cite web |title=Saturn S-IVB-503N - Satellite Information |url=http://www.heavens-above.com/SatInfo.aspx?satid=3627&lat=0&lng=0&loc=Unspecified&alt=0&tz=UCT |work=Satellite database |publisher=Heavens-Above |accessdate=2013-09-23 }}</ref> The Apollo&nbsp;8 crew were the first humans to pass through the [[Van Allen radiation belt]]s, which extend up to {{convert|15000|mi|km}} from Earth. Scientists predicted that passing through the belts quickly at the spacecraft's high speed would cause a radiation dosage of no more than a chest [[X-ray]], or 1 [[Gray (unit)|milligray]] (during a year, the average human receives a dose of 2&nbsp;to&nbsp;3&nbsp;mGy). To record the actual radiation dosages, each crew member wore a Personal Radiation [[Dosimeter]] that transmitted data to Earth as well as three passive film dosimeters that showed the cumulative radiation experienced by the crew. By the end of the mission, the crew experienced an average radiation dose of 1.6 mGy.<ref name="Biomedical">{{cite book |last=Bailey |first=J. Vernon |title=Biomedical Results of Apollo |url=http://lsda.jsc.nasa.gov/books/apollo/eboard2.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080117135912/http://lsda.jsc.nasa.gov/books/apollo/S2ch3.htm |archivedate=January 17, 2008 |accessdate=January 28, 2008 |year=1975 |publisher=[[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center]] |id=[https://history.nasa.gov/SP-368/sp368.htm NASA SP-368] |chapter=Radiation Protection and Instrumentation |chapterurl=http://lsda.jsc.nasa.gov/books/apollo/S2ch3.htm |deadurl=yes |df=mdy-all }} Sec.2, Ch.3.</ref> ===Lunar trajectory=== [[File:As08-16-2593.jpg|thumb|The first image ever taken by humans of the whole Earth, probably photographed by [[William Anders]];<ref name="Apollo8FlightJournalDay1">{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/03day1_green_sep.htm |title=Day 1: The Green Team and Separation |last1=Woods |first1=W. David |last2=O'Brien |first2=Frank |year=2006 |work=Apollo 8 Flight Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=October 29, 2008 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080923012425/http://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/03day1_green_sep.htm |archivedate=September 23, 2008 |df=mdy-all }} TIMETAG 003:42:55.</ref> South is up with South America in the middle]] Jim Lovell's main job as Command Module Pilot was as [[flight officer|navigator]]. Although Mission Control performed all the actual navigation calculations, it was necessary to have a crew member serving as navigator so that the crew could return to Earth in case of loss of communication with Mission Control. Lovell navigated by star sightings using a [[sextant]] built into the spacecraft, measuring the angle between a star and the Earth's (or the Moon's) [[horizon]]. This task was difficult, because a large cloud of debris around the spacecraft, formed by the venting S-IVB, made it hard to distinguish the stars. By seven hours into the mission, the crew was about one hour and 40 minutes behind flight plan, because of the problems in moving away from the S-IVB and Lovell's obscured star sightings. The crew now placed the spacecraft into Passive Thermal Control (PTC), also called "barbecue roll", in which the spacecraft rotated about once per hour around its long axis to ensure even heat distribution across the surface of the spacecraft. In direct sunlight, the spacecraft could be heated to over {{convert|200|C|F}} while the parts in shadow would be {{convert|-100|C|F}}. These temperatures could cause the [[atmospheric reentry#Thermal protection systems|heat shield]] to crack and propellant lines to burst. Because it was impossible to get a perfect roll, the spacecraft swept out a [[Conical surface|cone]] as it rotated. The crew had to make minor adjustments every half hour as the cone pattern got larger and larger.<ref name="journal day 1 Maroon">{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/04day1_maroon.htm |title=Day 1: Maroon Team |last1=Woods |first1=W. David |last2=O'Brien |first2=Frank |work=Apollo 8 Flight Journal |publisher=NASA |date=April 22, 2006 |accessdate=February 4, 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080107002315/https://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/04day1_maroon.htm |archivedate=January 7, 2008 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy-all }}</ref> The first mid-course correction came 11 hours into the flight. Testing on the ground had shown that the [[Apollo Command/Service Module#Service Propulsion System|Service Propulsion System]] (SPS) engine had a small chance of exploding when burned for long periods unless its [[combustion chamber]] was "coated" first. Burning the engine for a short period would accomplish coating. This first correction burn was only 2.4 seconds and added about {{convert|20.4|ft/s|m/s|abbr=on}} velocity [[Retrograde and prograde motion|prograde]] (in the direction of travel).<ref name="orloff1" /> This change was less than the planned {{convert|24.8|ft/s|m/s|abbr=on}}, because of a bubble of [[helium]] in the [[nitrogen tetroxide|oxidizer]] lines, which caused unexpectedly low propellant pressure. The crew had to use the small RCS thrusters to make up the shortfall. Two later planned mid-course corrections were canceled because the Apollo&nbsp;8 trajectory was found to be perfect.<ref name="journal day 1 Maroon"/> Eleven hours into the flight, the crew had been awake for more than 16 hours. Before launch, NASA had decided that at least one crew member should be awake at all times to deal with problems that might arise. Borman started the first sleep shift, but found sleeping difficult because of the constant radio chatter and mechanical noises.<ref name="journal day 1 Maroon"/> About an hour after starting his sleep shift, Borman obtained permission from [[flight controller|ground control]] to take a [[Secobarbital|Seconal]] [[Barbiturate|sleeping pill]]. The pill had little effect. Borman eventually fell asleep, and then awoke feeling ill. He vomited twice and had a bout of diarrhea; this left the spacecraft full of small globules of vomit and feces, which the crew cleaned up as well as they could. Borman initially did not want everyone to know about his medical problems, but Lovell and Anders wanted to inform Mission Control. The crew decided to use the Data Storage Equipment (DSE), which could tape voice recordings and telemetry and dump them to Mission Control at high speed. After recording a description of Borman's illness they asked Mission Control to check the recording, stating that they "would like an evaluation of the voice comments".<ref name="journal day 2 green">{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/06day2_green.htm |title=Day 2: Green Team |last1=Woods |first1=W. David |last2=O'Brien |first2=Frank |date=April 22, 2006 |work=Apollo 8 Flight Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=January 30, 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080311114001/https://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/06day2_green.htm |archivedate=March 11, 2008 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy-all }}</ref> The Apollo&nbsp;8 crew and Mission Control medical personnel held a conference using an unoccupied second-floor control room (there were two identical control rooms in Houston, on the second and third floors, only one of which was used during a mission). The conference participants concluded that there was little to worry about and that Borman's illness was either a [[Gastroenteritis|24-hour flu]], as Borman thought, or a reaction to the sleeping pill.<ref>[[#Collins|Collins 2001]], p. 306</ref> Researchers now believe that he was suffering from [[Space adaptation syndrome|space-adaptation syndrome]], which affects about a third of astronauts during their first day in space as their [[Labyrinth (inner ear)|vestibular system]] adapts to [[weightlessness]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Quine |first=Tony |date=April 2007|title=Addicted to space: An appreciation of Anousheh Ansari, Part II |journal= Spaceflight|volume=49 |issue=4 |page=144|issn=0038-6340 |publisher=[[British Interplanetary Society]]}}</ref> Space-adaptation syndrome had not occurred on previous spacecraft ([[Project Mercury|Mercury]] and [[Project Gemini|Gemini]]), because those astronauts couldn't move freely in the small cabins of those spacecraft. The increased cabin space in the Apollo Command Module afforded astronauts greater freedom of movement, contributing to symptoms of space sickness for Borman and, later, astronaut Russell Schweickart during [[Apollo 9]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lsda.jsc.nasa.gov/scripts/experiment/exper.aspx?exp_index=747 |title=The Effects of Long-Duration Space Flight on Eye, Head, and Trunk Coordination During Locomotion |last1=Kozlovskaya |first1=Inessa B |last2=Bloomberg |first2=Jacob J. |last3=Layne |first3=Charles S. |year=2004 |work=Life Sciences Data Archive |publisher=Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center |id=LSDA Exp ID: 9307191 |accessdate=June 28, 2013 |display-authors=2}}</ref> [[File:Ap8-S68-56531.jpg|thumb|right|Film of the crew taken while they were in orbit around the Moon; Frank Borman is in the center]] The cruise phase was a relatively uneventful part of the flight, except for the crew checking that the spacecraft was in working order and that they were on course. During this time, NASA scheduled a television broadcast at 31&nbsp;hours after launch. The Apollo&nbsp;8 crew used a 2&nbsp;kg camera that broadcast in [[black-and-white]] only, using a [[Video camera tube|Vidicon]] tube. The camera had two [[lens (optics)|lenses]], a very [[wide-angle lens|wide-angle (160°) lens]], and a [[telephoto lens|telephoto (9°) lens]].<ref name="chariots11-6" /> During this first broadcast, the crew gave a tour of the spacecraft and attempted to show how the Earth appeared from space. However, difficulties aiming the narrow-angle lens without the aid of a monitor to show what it was looking at made showing the Earth impossible. Additionally, the Earth image became saturated by any bright source without proper [[Optical filter|filters]]. In the end, all the crew could show the people watching back on Earth was a bright blob. After broadcasting for 17&nbsp;minutes, the rotation of the spacecraft took the [[high-gain antenna]] out of view of the receiving stations on Earth and they ended the transmission with Lovell wishing his mother a happy birthday.<ref name="chariots11-6" /> By this time, the crew had completely abandoned the planned sleep shifts. Lovell went to sleep 32½&nbsp;hours into the flight—3½&nbsp;hours before he had planned to. A short while later, Anders also went to sleep after taking a sleeping pill.<ref name="chariots11-6" /> The crew was unable to see the Moon for much of the outward cruise. Two factors made the Moon almost impossible to see from inside the spacecraft: three of the five windows fogging up due to out-gassed oils from the [[silicone]] [[sealant]], and the [[Orientation (geometry)|attitude]] required for the PTC. It was not until the crew had gone behind the Moon that they would be able to see it for the first time.<ref name="zimmerman1" /> Apollo&nbsp;8 made a second television broadcast at 55&nbsp;hours into the flight. This time, the crew rigged up filters meant for the still cameras so they could acquire images of the Earth through the telephoto lens. Although difficult to aim, as they had to maneuver the entire spacecraft, the crew was able to broadcast back to Earth the first television pictures of the Earth. The crew spent the transmission describing the Earth and what was visible and the colors they could see. The transmission lasted 23&nbsp;minutes.<ref name="chariots11-6" /> ===Lunar sphere of influence=== At about 55&nbsp;hours and 40&nbsp;minutes into the flight, the crew of Apollo&nbsp;8 became the first humans to enter the gravitational sphere of influence of another celestial body.<ref name="orloff1" /> In other words, the effect of the Moon's [[Newton's law of universal gravitation|gravitational force]] on Apollo&nbsp;8 became stronger than that of the Earth. At the time it happened, Apollo&nbsp;8 was {{convert|38759|mi|km}} from the Moon and had a speed of {{convert|3990|ft/s|m/s|abbr=on}} relative to the Moon.<ref name="orloff1" /> This historic moment was of little interest to the crew since they were still calculating their [[trajectory]] with respect to the launch pad at Kennedy Space Center. They would continue to do so until they performed their last mid-course correction, switching to a [[Frame of reference|reference frame]] based on ideal orientation for the second engine burn they would make in lunar orbit. It was only 13&nbsp;hours until they would be in lunar orbit.<ref name="lostmoon">[[#Lovell & Kluger|Lovell & Kluger 1994]]</ref> The last major event before Lunar Orbit Insertion (LOI) was a second mid-course correction. It was in [[Retrograde and direct motion|retrograde]] (against direction of travel) and slowed the spacecraft down by {{convert|2.0|ft/s|m/s|abbr=on}}, effectively lowering the closest distance that the spacecraft would pass the moon.<ref name="orloff1" /> At exactly 61&nbsp;hours after launch, about {{convert|24200|mi|km}} from the Moon, the crew burned the RCS for 11&nbsp;seconds. They would now pass {{convert|71.7|mi|km}} from the [[Geology of the Moon#Lunar landscape|lunar surface]].<ref name="zimmerman1" /><ref name="orloff1" /> At 64&nbsp;hours into the flight, the crew began to prepare for Lunar Orbit Insertion-1 (LOI-1). This maneuver had to be performed perfectly, and due to [[orbital mechanics]] had to be on the far side of the Moon, out of contact with the Earth. After Mission Control was polled for a "[[Launch status check|go/no go]]" decision, the crew was told at 68&nbsp;hours, they were Go and "riding the best bird we can find".<ref name="journal day 3 LOI">{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/11day3_black_approach.htm |title=Day 3: The Black Team - Approaching the Moon |last1=Woods |first1=W. David |last2=O'Brien |first2=Frank |date=April 22, 2006 |work=Apollo 8 Flight Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=February 7, 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080204015340/https://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/11day3_black_approach.htm |archivedate=February 4, 2008 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Lovell replied, "We'll see you on the other side", and for the first time in history, humans travelled behind the Moon and out of radio contact with the Earth.<ref name="lostmoon" /><ref name="journal day 3 LOI"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-350/ch-9-5.html|title=Apollo Expeditions to the Moon: Chapter 9|website=history.nasa.gov}}</ref> With 10&nbsp;minutes before the LOI-1, the crew began one last check of the spacecraft systems and made sure that every switch was in the correct place. At that time, they finally got their first glimpses of the Moon. They had been flying over the unlit side, and it was Lovell who saw the first shafts of sunlight [[wiktionary:oblique|oblique]]ly illuminating the lunar surface. The LOI burn was only two&nbsp;minutes away, so the crew had little time to appreciate the view.<ref name="lostmoon" /> ===Lunar orbit=== The SPS ignited at 69&nbsp;hours, 8&nbsp;minutes, and 16&nbsp;seconds after launch and burned for 4&nbsp;minutes and 7&nbsp;seconds, placing the Apollo&nbsp;8 spacecraft in orbit around the Moon. The crew described the burn as being the longest four minutes of their lives. If the burn had not lasted exactly the correct amount of time, the spacecraft could have ended up in a highly [[ellipse|elliptical]] lunar orbit or even flung off into space. If it lasted too long they could have struck the Moon. After making sure the spacecraft was working, they finally had a chance to look at the Moon, which they would orbit for the next 20&nbsp;hours.<ref name="nssdc orbit">{{cite web |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCatalog.do?sc=1968-118A |title=Apollo 8 |work=[[National Space Science Data Center]] |publisher=NASA |accessdate=June 28, 2013}}</ref> On Earth, Mission Control continued to wait. If the crew had not burned the engine or the burn had not lasted the planned length of time, the crew would appear early from behind the Moon. However, this time came and went without Apollo&nbsp;8 reappearing. Exactly at the calculated moment, the signal was received from the spacecraft, indicating it was in a {{convert|193.3|by|69.5|mi|km|adj=on}} orbit about the Moon.<ref name="nssdc orbit" /> After reporting on the status of the spacecraft, Lovell gave the first description of what the lunar surface looked like: {{quote|The Moon is essentially grey, no color; looks like [[plaster of Paris]] or sort of a grayish beach sand. We can see quite a bit of detail. The [[Mare Fecunditatis|Sea of Fertility]] doesn't stand out as well here as it does back on Earth. There's not as much contrast between that and the surrounding craters. The craters are all rounded off. There's quite a few of them, some of them are newer. Many of them look like—especially the round ones—look like hit by [[meteorite]]s or projectiles of some sort. [[Langrenus (crater)|Langrenus]] is quite a huge crater; it's got a central cone to it. The walls of the crater are terraced, about six or seven different [[wiktionary:terrace|terraces]] on the way down.<ref name="journal day 4-123">{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/13day4_orbits123.htm |title=Day 4: Lunar Orbits 1, 2 and 3 |last1=Woods |first1=W. David |last2=O'Brien |first2=Frank |date=April 22, 2006 |work=Apollo 8 Flight Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=September 20, 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070922045003/https://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/13day4_orbits123.htm |archivedate=September 22, 2007 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy-all }}</ref>}} [[File:The Lunar Farside - GPN-2000-001127.jpg|thumb|A portion of the [[Far side of the Moon|lunar far side]] as seen from Apollo 8]] Lovell continued to describe the terrain they were passing over. One of the crew's major tasks was [[reconnaissance]] of planned future landing sites on the Moon, especially one in [[Mare Tranquillitatis]] that would be the Apollo&nbsp;11 landing site. The launch time of Apollo&nbsp;8 had been chosen to give the best lighting conditions for examining the site. A [[film camera]] had been set up in one of the spacecraft windows to record a frame every second of the Moon below. Bill Anders spent much of the next 20&nbsp;hours taking as many photographs as possible of targets of interest. By the end of the mission the crew had taken 700 photographs of the Moon and 150 of the Earth.<ref name="zimmerman1" /> Throughout the hour that the spacecraft was in contact with Earth, Borman kept asking how the data for the SPS looked. He wanted to make sure that the engine was working and could be used to return early to the Earth if necessary. He also asked that they receive a "go/no go" decision before they passed behind the Moon on each orbit.<ref name="journal day 4-123" /> As they reappeared for their second pass in front of the Moon, the crew set up the equipment to broadcast a view of the lunar surface. Anders described the craters that they were passing over. At the end of this second orbit they performed the 11-second LOI-2 burn of the SPS to circularize the orbit to {{convert|70.0|by|71.3|mi|km}}.<ref name="nssdc orbit" /><ref name="journal day 4-123" /> Through the next two orbits, the crew continued to keep check of the spacecraft and to observe and photograph the Moon. During the third pass, Borman read a small prayer for his church. He had been scheduled to participate in a service at St. Christopher's [[Episcopal Church (United States)|Episcopal Church]] near [[Seabrook, Texas]], but due to the Apollo&nbsp;8 flight he was unable to. A fellow parishioner and engineer at Mission Control, Rod Rose, suggested that Borman read the prayer which could be recorded and then replayed during the service.<ref name="zimmerman1" /><ref name="journal day 4-123" /> ====Earthrise==== {{Main|Earthrise}} When the spacecraft came out from behind the Moon for its fourth pass across the front, the crew witnessed "Earthrise" for the first time in human history (NASA's [[Lunar Orbiter 1]] took the very first picture of an Earthrise from the vicinity of the Moon, on August 23, 1966).<ref>[[#Poole|Poole 2008]]</ref> Anders saw the Earth emerging from behind the lunar horizon, and then called in excitement to the others, taking a black-and-white photograph as he did so. Anders asked Lovell for a color film and then took ''[[Earthrise]]'', a more famous color photo, later picked by ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'' magazine as one of its hundred photos of the century.<ref name="journal day 4-456">{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/14day4_orbits456.htm |title=Day 4: Lunar Orbits 4, 5 and 6 |last1=Woods |first1=W. David |last2=O'Brien |first2=Frank |date=April 22, 2006 |work=Apollo 8 Flight Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=September 20, 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071002204030/https://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/14day4_orbits456.htm |archivedate=October 2, 2007 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Due to the [[tidal locking|synchronous rotation]] of the Moon about the Earth, Earthrise is not generally visible from the lunar surface. Earthrise is generally only visible when orbiting the Moon, other than at selected places near the Moon's [[lunar limb|limb]], where [[libration]] carries the Earth slightly above and below the lunar horizon. Anders continued to take photographs while Lovell assumed control of the spacecraft so Borman could rest.<ref name="journal day 4-456"/> Despite the difficulty resting in the cramped and noisy spacecraft, Borman was able to sleep for two orbits, awakening periodically to ask questions about their status.<ref name="journal day 4-456"/> Borman awoke fully, however, when he started to hear his fellow crew members make mistakes. They were beginning to not understand questions and would have to ask for the answers to be repeated. Borman realized that everyone was extremely tired from not having a good night's sleep in over three days. He ordered Anders and Lovell to get some sleep and that the rest of the flight plan regarding observing the Moon be scrubbed. At first Anders protested saying that he was fine, but Borman would not be swayed. At last Anders agreed as long as Borman would set up the camera to continue to take automatic shots of the Moon. Borman also remembered that there was a second television broadcast planned, and with so many people expected to be watching he wanted the crew to be alert. For the next two orbits Anders and Lovell slept while Borman sat at the helm. On subsequent Apollo missions, crews would avoid this situation by sleeping on the same schedule. [[File:Apollo 8 genesis reading.ogg|left|thumb|The Apollo 8 Genesis reading.]] As they rounded the Moon for the ninth time, the second television transmission began. Borman introduced the crew, followed by each man giving his impression of the lunar surface and what it was like to be orbiting the Moon. Borman described it as being "a vast, lonely, forbidding expanse of nothing".<ref>[[#De Groot|De Groot 2006]], p. 229</ref> Then, after talking about what they were flying over, Anders said that the crew had a message for all those on Earth. Each man on board [[Apollo 8 Genesis reading|read a section from the Biblical creation story]] from the Book of Genesis. Borman finished the broadcast by wishing a Merry Christmas to everyone on Earth. His message appeared to sum up the feelings that all three crewmen had from their vantage point in lunar orbit. Borman said, "And from the crew of Apollo 8, we close with good night, good luck, a Merry Christmas and God bless all of you—all of you on the good Earth."<ref name="moonport">{{cite book |last1=Benson |first1=Charles D. |last2=Faherty |first2=William Barnaby |title=Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/contents.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080123133438/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/contents.html |archivedate=January 23, 2008 |accessdate=February 7, 2008 |year=1978 |publisher=NASA |id=NASA SP-4204 |chapter=Apollo 8 - A Christmas Gift |chapterurl=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/ch20-9.html |deadurl=no}} Ch.20-9.</ref> The only task left for the crew at this point was to perform the [[Trans-Earth injection|Trans-Earth Injection]] (TEI), which was scheduled for 2½&nbsp;hours after the end of the television transmission. The TEI was the most critical burn of the flight, as any failure of the SPS to ignite would strand the crew in lunar orbit, with little hope of escape. As with the previous burn, the crew had to perform the maneuver above the far side of the Moon, out of contact with Earth. The burn occurred exactly on time. The spacecraft telemetry was reacquired as it re-emerged from behind the Moon at 89&nbsp;hours, 28&nbsp;minutes, and 39&nbsp;seconds, the exact time calculated. When voice contact was regained, Lovell announced, "Please be informed, there is a [[Santa Claus]]", to which Ken Mattingly, the current CAPCOM, replied, "That's affirmative, you are the best ones to know."<ref name="journal day 4 TEI">{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/16day4_final_orbit_tei.htm |title=Day 4: Final Orbit and Trans-Earth Injection |last1=Woods |first1=W. David |last2=O'Brien |first2=Frank |date=April 22, 2006 |work=Apollo 8 Flight Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=February 7, 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116172357/https://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/16day4_final_orbit_tei.htm |archivedate=January 16, 2008 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy-all }}</ref> The spacecraft began its journey back to Earth on December 25, [[Christmas Day]]. ===Unplanned manual re-alignment=== Later, Lovell used some otherwise idle time to do some navigational sightings, maneuvering the module to view various stars by using the computer keyboard. However, he accidentally erased some of the computer's memory, which caused the [[Apollo PGNCS#Inertial Measurement Unit|Inertial Measurement Unit]] (IMU) to think the module was in the same relative position it had been in before lift-off and fire the thrusters to "correct" the module's attitude.<ref name="Benke" /> Once the crew realized why the computer had changed the module's attitude, they realized they would have to re-enter data that would tell the computer its real position. It took Lovell ten&nbsp;minutes to figure out the right numbers, using the thrusters to get the stars [[Rigel]] and [[Sirius]] aligned, and another 15&nbsp;minutes to enter the corrected data into the computer.<ref name="lostmoon" /> Sixteen months later, Lovell would once again have to perform a similar manual re-alignment, under more critical conditions, during the [[Apollo 13]] mission, after that module's IMU had to be turned off to conserve energy. In his 1994 book, ''[[Lost Moon|Lost Moon: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13]]'', Lovell wrote, "My training &#91;on Apollo 8&#93; came in handy!" In that book he dismissed the incident as a "planned experiment", requested by the ground crew.<ref name="lostmoon" /> In subsequent interviews Lovell has acknowledged that the incident was an accident, caused by his mistake.<ref name="Benke" /><ref name="zimmerman1" /> ===Cruise back to Earth and re-entry=== [[File:Apollo 8 reentry, December 27, 1968.jpg|thumb|Reentry, December 27, 1968, photographed from a [[KC-135]] at 40,000 feet]] The cruise back to Earth was mostly a time for the crew to relax and monitor the spacecraft. As long as the trajectory specialists had calculated everything correctly, the spacecraft would re-enter two-and-half days after TEI and [[splashdown (spacecraft landing)|splash down]] in the Pacific. On Christmas afternoon, the crew made their fifth television broadcast.<ref> {{Cite AV media | date = 2003 | title = Apollo 8: Leaving the Cradle | url = http://www.collectspace.com/resources/reviews/dvd/apollo8_leaving_the_cradle.html | time = Chapter 5, Disk 2 | medium = DVD | publisher = Spacecraft Films/[[20th Century Fox Home Entertainment]] }} </ref> This time they gave a tour of the spacecraft, showing how an astronaut lived in space. When they finished broadcasting they found a small present from [[Deke Slayton]] in the food locker: a real turkey dinner with stuffing, in the same kind of pack that the troops in Vietnam received.<ref>[[#Wilford|Wilford 1973]], p. 68</ref> Another Slayton surprise was a gift of three [[Miniature (alcohol)|miniature bottles]] of [[brandy]], that Borman ordered the crew to leave alone until after they landed. They remained unopened, even years after the flight.<ref name="Unopened minis of brandy">[[#Schefter|Schefter 1999]], p. 275</ref> There were also small presents to the crew from their wives. The next day, at about 124&nbsp;hours into the mission, the sixth and final TV transmission showed the mission's best video images of the earth, in a four-minute broadcast.<ref> {{Cite AV media | date = 2003 | title = Apollo 8: Leaving the Cradle | url = http://www.collectspace.com/resources/reviews/dvd/apollo8_leaving_the_cradle.html | time = Chapter 6, Disk 2 | medium = DVD | publisher = Spacecraft Films/20th Century Fox Home Entertainment }} </ref> [[File:Ap8-S68-56310.jpg|thumb|Command Module on the deck of {{USS|Yorktown|CV-10|6}}]] After two uneventful days the crew prepared for re-entry. The computer would control the re-entry and all the crew had to do was put the spacecraft in the correct attitude, blunt end forward.<ref name="Chaikin 127-128">[[#Chaikin 1998|Chaikin 1998]], pp. 127–128</ref> If the computer broke down, Borman would take over.<ref name="Chaikin 127-128" /> Once the Command Module was separated from the Service Module, the astronauts were committed to re-entry.<ref name="Chaikin 127-128" /> Six&nbsp;minutes before they hit the top of the atmosphere, the crew saw the Moon rising above the Earth's horizon, just as had been predicted by the trajectory specialists.<ref name="splashdown1">{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/22day6_maroon_splash.htm |title=Day 6: The Maroon Team - Splashdown |last1=Woods |first1=W. David |last2=O'Brien |first2=Frank |date=April 22, 2006 |work=Apollo 8 Flight Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=February 4, 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080206092307/https://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/22day6_maroon_splash.htm |archivedate=February 6, 2008 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy-all }}</ref> As they hit the thin outer atmosphere they noticed it was becoming hazy outside as glowing [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] formed around the spacecraft. The spacecraft started slowing down and the deceleration peaked at 6&nbsp;g (59&nbsp;m/s²).<ref name="orloff1" /> With the computer controlling the descent by changing the [[Flight dynamics (fixed-wing aircraft)|attitude]] of the spacecraft, Apollo&nbsp;8 rose briefly like a skipping stone before descending to the ocean. At {{convert|30000|ft|km}} the drogue parachute stabilized the spacecraft and was followed at {{convert|10000|ft|km}} by the three main parachutes. The spacecraft splashdown position was officially reported as {{Coord|8|8|N|165|1|W|name=Apollo 8 estimated splashdown}} in the North Pacific Ocean south of Hawaii.<ref name="MissionReport" /> When it hit the water, the parachutes dragged the spacecraft over and left it upside down, in what was termed Stable&nbsp;2 position.<ref name="orloff1" /> About six minutes later the Command Module was righted into its normal apex-up splashdown orientation by the inflatable bag uprighting system.<ref name="orloff1" /> As they were buffeted by a {{convert|10|ft|m|adj=on}} swell, Borman was sick, waiting for the three flotation balloons to right the spacecraft.<ref name="chariots11-6" /> It was 43&nbsp;minutes after splashdown before the first [[frogman]] from {{USS|Yorktown|CV-10|6}} arrived, as the spacecraft had landed before sunrise.<ref name="orloff1" /> Forty-five&nbsp;minutes later, the crew was safe on the deck of the aircraft carrier.<ref name="orloff1" /><ref name="splashdown1" /> ==Historical importance== Apollo&nbsp;8 came at the end of 1968, a year that had seen much upheaval in the United States and most of the world.<ref name="Men of the Year">{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,900486,00.html |title=Nation: Men of the Year |date=January 3, 1969 |work=Time |location=New York |accessdate=February 13, 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080108120930/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C900486%2C00.html |archivedate=January 8, 2008 |deadurl=no |df= }}</ref> Even though the year saw political assassinations, political unrest in the streets of Europe and America, and the [[Prague Spring]], ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine chose the crew of Apollo&nbsp;8 as its [[Time Person of the Year|Men of the Year]] for 1968, recognizing them as the people who most influenced events in the preceding year.<ref name="Men of the Year"/> They had been the first people ever to leave the gravitational influence of the Earth and orbit another celestial body.<ref name="Apollo 8 Firsts">{{cite web |title=Apollo 8 Firsts |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/moon/peopleevents/e_firsts.html |work=American Experience: Race to the Moon |publisher=PBS |accessdate=December 15, 2011 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/63xszRXVh?url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/moon/peopleevents/e_firsts.html |archivedate=December 16, 2011 |location=Boston |date=September 22, 2005 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> They had survived a mission that even the crew themselves had rated as only having a fifty-fifty chance of fully succeeding. The effect of Apollo&nbsp;8 can be summed up by a telegram from a stranger, received by Borman after the mission, that simply stated, "Thank you Apollo&nbsp;8. You saved 1968."<ref>[[#Chaikin|Chaikin 1994]], p. 134</ref> {{external media| float = left| video1 = [https://www.c-span.org/video/?443506-1/qa-robert-kurson ''Q&A'' interview with Robert Kurson on ''Rocket Men: The Daring Odyssey of Apollo 8 and the Astronauts Who Made Man's First Journey to the Moon'', May 6, 2018], [[C-SPAN]]}} One of the most famous aspects of the flight was the [[Earthrise]] picture that was taken as they came around for their fourth orbit of the Moon.<ref name="Poole 2008, pp. 8, 32">[[#Poole|Poole 2008]], pp. 8, 32</ref> This was the first time that humans had taken such a picture while actually behind the camera, and it has been credited with a role in inspiring the first [[Earth Day]] in 1970.<ref>{{cite journal | journal=Technology Innovation | url=http://ipp.nasa.gov/innovation/Innovation_84/wnewview.html | title=New Views for A New Century | last=Peggy | first=Wilhide | date=July–August 2000 | volume=8 | issue=4 | publisher=NASA Innovative Partnerships Program |accessdate=November 8, 2007}}</ref> It was selected as the first of ''Life'' magazine's ''100 Photographs That Changed the World''.<ref name="Life100">{{cite book |editor-last=Sullivan |editor-first=Robert |title=[[100 Photographs that Changed the World|100 Photographs That Changed the World]] |year=2003 |publisher=Time, Inc. Home Entertainment |location=New York |isbn=1-931933-84-7 |lccn=2003104204}}</ref> Apollo 11 astronaut Michael Collins said, "Eight's momentous historic significance was foremost";<ref>[[#Murray & Cox|Murray & Cox 1990]], p. 333</ref> while space historian Robert K. Poole saw Apollo 8 as the most historically significant of all the Apollo missions.<ref name="Poole 2008, pp. 8, 32"/> The mission was the most widely covered by the media since the first American orbital flight, [[Mercury-Atlas 6]] by [[John Glenn]] in 1962. There were 1200 journalists covering the mission, with the [[BBC]] coverage being broadcast in 54 countries in 15 different languages. The Soviet newspaper ''[[Pravda]]'' featured a quote from Boris Nikolaevich Petrov, Chairman of the Soviet [[Interkosmos]] program, who described the flight as an "outstanding achievement of American space sciences and technology".<ref name="Pravda">{{cite news |first=Boris Nikolaevich |last=Petrov |title=O polete Apollona-8 |newspaper=[[Pravda]] |publisher=[[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] |location=Moscow, USSR |date=December 30, 1968 |language=ru |trans-title=On the flight of Apollo-8}}</ref> It is estimated that a quarter of the people alive at the time saw—either live or delayed—the Christmas Eve transmission during the ninth orbit of the Moon.<ref>[[#Chaikin|Chaikin 1994]], 120</ref> The Apollo 8 broadcasts won an [[Emmy Award]], the highest honor given by the [[Academy of Television Arts & Sciences]].<ref name="PBS Emmy Award">{{cite web |title=Telecasts from Apollo 8 |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/moon/peopleevents/e_telecasts.html |work=American Experience: Race to the Moon |publisher=PBS |accessdate=December 15, 2011 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/63xrogvaG?url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/moon/peopleevents/e_telecasts.html |archivedate=December 16, 2011 |location=Boston |date=September 22, 2005 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> [[File:Scott 1371, Apollo 8.jpg|thumb|right|120px|Apollo 8 commemorative stamp]][[Madalyn Murray O'Hair]], an [[Atheism|atheist]], later caused controversy by bringing a lawsuit against NASA over the reading from Genesis.<ref name="prayer">[[#Chaikin|Chaikin 1994]], p. 623</ref> O'Hair wished the courts to ban American astronauts—who were all government employees—from public prayer in space.<ref name="prayer" /> Though the case was rejected by the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] for lack of jurisdiction,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=397&invol=531&friend=nytimes|title=O'Hair v. Paine, 397 U.S. 531|year=1970|publisher=[[FindLaw]]|accessdate=February 13, 2008}}</ref> it caused NASA to be skittish about the issue of religion throughout the rest of the Apollo program. Buzz Aldrin, on Apollo 11, self-communicated [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] [[Eucharist|Communion]] on the surface of the Moon after landing;<ref name = "aldrin">[[#Chaikin|Chaikin 1994]], pp. 204, 623</ref> he refrained from mentioning this publicly for several years, and only obliquely referred to it at the time.<ref name = "aldrin"/> In 1969, the [[United States Postal Service]] issued a postage stamp ([[Scott catalogue]] #1371) commemorating the Apollo&nbsp;8 flight around the Moon. The stamp featured a detail of the famous photograph of the [[Earthrise]] over the Moon taken by Anders on Christmas Eve, and the words, "In the beginning God&nbsp;..."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.1847usa.com/ByYear/1969.htm |title=1969 U.S. Postage Stamp Issues |publisher=1847usa |accessdate=June 30, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121220060113/http://www.1847usa.com/ByYear/1969.htm |archivedate=December 20, 2012 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Just 18 days after the crew's return to Earth, they were featured during the [[Super Bowl III|1969 Super Bowl]] pre-game show reciting the [[Pledge of Allegiance]] prior to the [[The Star-Spangled Banner|national anthem]] being performed by [[Anita Bryant]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.nfl.com/superbowl/history/entertainment | title=Super Bowl Entertainment | publisher=[[National Football League]] | accessdate=February 21, 2012}}</ref> ==Spacecraft location== In January 1970, the spacecraft was delivered to [[Osaka]], Japan, for display in the U.S. pavilion at [[Expo '70]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Shanghai Expo: An International Forum on the Future of Cities |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hd75bRY2jvAC&pg=PA33&lpg=PA33 |year=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-52462-9 |oclc=778424843 |page=33 |editor=Winter, Tim |accessdate=February 21, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= Tareen |first=Sophia |date= December 23, 2013 |title=Apollo 8 astronaut marks 1968 Christmastime broadcast to Earth (12 photos) |url=http://www.deseretnews.com/article/765644112/Apollo-8-astronaut-marks-1968-broadcast-to-Earth.html |newspaper=Deseret News |agency=Associated Press |accessdate=December 9, 2015 }}</ref> It is now displayed at the Chicago [[Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago)|Museum of Science and Industry]], along with a collection of personal items from the flight donated by Lovell and the [[space suit]] worn by Frank Borman.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.msichicago.org/exhibit/apollo/index.html|title=The Apollo 8 Command Module|publisher=[[Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago)|Museum of Science and Industry]]|accessdate=February 4, 2008| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20071009200922/https://www.msichicago.org/exhibit/apollo/index.html| archivedate=October 9, 2007}}</ref> Jim Lovell's Apollo 8 space suit is on public display in the Visitor Center at NASA's [[Glenn Research Center]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ns.cuyahoga.lib.oh.us/researchinfo/specialists/family_fun.htm#NASA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070319212436/http://ns.cuyahoga.lib.oh.us/researchinfo/specialists/family_fun.htm |dead-url=yes |archive-date=March 19, 2007 |title=NASA Glenn Visitor Center |publisher=[[Cuyahoga County Public Library]] |accessdate=June 30, 2013 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |last=Keith |first=Sallie A. |title=Heroes in Space Honored at NASA |date=February 20, 2004 |publisher=[[Glenn Research Center|NASA Glenn Research Center]] |location=Cleveland, OH |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/news/pressrel/2004/04-012.html |accessdate=February 4, 2008}}</ref> Bill Anders's space suit is on display at the [[Science Museum (London)|Science Museum]] in London, United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wood |first=W.David |title=How Apollo Flew to the Moon |year=2011 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4419-7179-1 |oclc=747105616 |page=203 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x-taL4N0sjIC&pg=PA203&lpg=PA203}}</ref> ==In popular culture== Apollo&nbsp;8's historic mission has been shown and referred to in several forms, both documentary and fiction. The various television transmissions and [[16 mm film|16 mm]] footage shot by the crew of Apollo&nbsp;8 was compiled and released by NASA in the 1969 documentary, ''Debrief: Apollo 8'', which was hosted by [[Burgess Meredith]].<ref>{{Cite AV media |year=2008 |title=[[When We Left Earth: The NASA Missions]] |medium=DVD |publisher=[[Discovery, Inc.]] |location=Silver Spring, MD |oclc=232161899}} ''Debrief: Apollo 8'' was released as a bonus feature for the [[Discovery Channel]]'s miniseries DVD release.</ref> In addition, Spacecraft Films released, in 2003, a three-disc DVD set containing all of NASA's TV and 16&nbsp;mm film footage related to the mission including all TV transmissions from space, training and launch footage, and motion pictures taken in flight.<ref>{{cite AV media |year=2003 |title=Apollo 8: Leaving the Cradle |url=http://www.collectspace.com/resources/reviews/dvd/apollo8_leaving_the_cradle.html |medium=DVD |publisher=Spacecraft Films/20th Century Fox Home Entertainment |accessdate=June 23, 2010 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100703011003/http://www.collectspace.com/resources/reviews/dvd/apollo8_leaving_the_cradle.html |archivedate=July 3, 2010 |deadurl=no}}</ref> Portions of the Apollo&nbsp;8 mission can be seen in the 1989 documentary ''[[For All Mankind]]'', which won the [[List of Sundance Film Festival award winners|Grand Jury Prize Documentary]] at the [[Sundance Film Festival]]. The television series ''[[American Experience]]'' aired a documentary, "Race to the Moon", in 2005 during [[American Experience (season 18)|season 18]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/moon/ |title=American Experience &#124; Race to the Moon |publisher=PBS |date=October 31, 2005 |accessdate=August 18, 2016 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160803052046/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/moon/ |archivedate=August 3, 2016 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> The Apollo 8 mission was well covered in the 2007 British documentary ''[[In the Shadow of the Moon (film)|In the Shadow of the Moon]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://history.sundance.org/films/3669/in_the_shadow_of_the_moon |title=In the Shadow of the Moon |work=[[Sundance Institute]] |accessdate=June 30, 2013}}</ref> Portions of the mission are dramatized in the 1998 miniseries ''[[From the Earth to the Moon (miniseries)|From the Earth to the Moon]]'' episode [[From the Earth to the Moon (miniseries)#Episodes|"1968"]].<ref>{{cite episode |title=1968 |series=[[From the Earth to the Moon (miniseries)|From the Earth to the Moon]] |credits=[[Ron Howard]], [[Brian Grazer]], [[Tom Hanks]], and Michael Bostick&nbsp;– Producers |network=[[HBO]] |airdate=April 1998}}</ref> The S-IVB stage of Apollo&nbsp;8 was also portrayed as the location of an alien device in the 1970 ''[[UFO (TV series)|UFO]]'' episode "Conflict".<ref>{{cite episode |title=Conflict |series=[[UFO (TV series)|UFO]] |network=[[ITV (TV network)|ITV]] |number=1-05 |airdate=October 7, 1970}}</ref> Apollo 8's Lunar Orbit Insertion One was chronicled with actual recordings in the song "The Other Side" on the album [[The Race for Space (album)|The Race for Space]] by the band [[Public Service Broadcasting (band)|Public Service Broadcasting]]. <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/2015/02/15/385549238/first-listen-public-service-broadcasting-the-race-for-space|title=Review: Public Service Broadcasting, 'The Race For Space'|last=Katzif|first=Mike|date=February 15, 2015|work=NPR|access-date=June 10, 2018}}</ref> ==See also== <!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short description. Also, please do not add duplicates already wikilinked in the text [[WP:SEEALSO]] --> {{Div col|colwidth=20em|small=yes}} * [[List of Apollo astronauts]] * [[Space Race]] {{div col end}} <!-- please keep entries in alphabetical order --> ==Notes== {{reflist | group = n | colwidth = | refs = }} ==References== {{NASA}} {{Reflist}} ==Bibliography== {{Refbegin|2}} *{{cite book |last=Baker |first=David |title=The History of Manned Space Flight |edition=1st |year=1981 |publisher=Crown Publishers |location=New York |isbn=0-517-54377-X |lccn=81003101 |ref=Baker}} *{{cite book |last=Bilstein |first=Roger E. |title=Stages to Saturn: A Technological History of the Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles |url=http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/003130142 |accessdate=June 28, 2013 |series=The NASA History Series |origyear=First published 1980 |year=1996 |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0-16-048909-1 |lccn=97149850 |id=NASA SP-4206 |ref=Bilstein}} *{{cite book |last=Chaikin |first=Andrew |authorlink=Andrew Chaikin |title=[[A Man on the Moon]]: The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts |year=1994 |publisher=Viking |location=New York |isbn=978-0-670-81446-6 |lccn=93048680 |ref=Chaikin}} *{{cite book |last=Chaikin |first=Andrew |others=Foreword by [[Tom Hanks]] |title = A Man on the Moon |origyear=First published 1994 |year=1998 |publisher=Penguin Books |location=New York |isbn=978-0-14-027201-7 |ref=Chaikin 1998}} *{{cite book |last=Clarke |first=Arthur C. |authorlink=Arthur C. Clarke |others=New introduction by author |title=[[2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)|2001: A Space Odyssey]] |origyear=Originally published 1999; New York: [[New American Library]]. First edition published 1968. |year=2000 |publisher=[[Roc Books]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-451-45799-8 |ref=Clarke}} *{{cite book |last=Collins |first=Michael |authorlink=Michael Collins (astronaut) |others=Foreword by [[Charles Lindbergh]] |title=Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut's Journeys |origyear=Originally published 1974; New York: [[Farrar, Straus and Giroux]] |year=2001 |publisher=Cooper Square Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8154-1028-7 |lccn=2001017080 |ref=Collins}} *{{cite book |last=De Groot |first=Gerard J. |title=Dark Side of the Moon: The Magnificent Madness of the American Lunar Quest |year=2006 |publisher=[[New York University Press]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8147-1995-4 |lccn=2006016116 |ref=De Groot}} *{{cite book | last=Kluger | first= Jeffrey |authorlink = Jeffrey Kluger | title = Apollo 8: The Thrilling Story of the First Mission to the Moon | year = 2017 | publisher = Henry Holt | ISBN= 9781627798327}} *{{cite book |last=Lattimer |first=Dick |others=Foreword by [[James A. Michener]] |title=All We Did Was Fly to the Moon |edition=1st |series=History-alive series |volume=1 |year=1985 |publisher=Whispering Eagle Press |location=Alachua, FL |isbn=978-0-9611228-0-5 |lccn=85222271 |ref=Lattimer}} *{{cite book |last1=Lovell |first1=Jim |authorlink1=Jim Lovell |last2=Kluger |first2=Jeffery |authorlink2=Jeffrey Kluger |title=[[Lost Moon]]: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13 |year=1994 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|Houghton Mifflin]] |location=Boston |isbn=0-395-67029-2 |lccn=94028052 |ref=Lovell & Kluger}} *{{cite book |last1=Murray |first1=Charles |authorlink1=Charles Murray (political scientist) |last2=Cox |first2=Catherine Bly |title=Apollo: The Race to the Moon |year=1990 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |isbn=978-0-671-70625-8 |ref=Murray & Cox}} *{{cite book |last=Poole |first=Robert K. |authorlink=Robert Poole (historian) |title=Earthrise: How Man First Saw the Earth |year=2008 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |location=New Haven, CT |isbn=978-0-300-13766-8 |lccn=2008026764 |ref=Poole}} *{{cite book |last=Schefter |first=James |title=The Race: The Uncensored Story of How America Beat Russia to the Moon |year=1999 |publisher=Doubleday |location=New York |isbn=978-0-385-49253-9 |lccn=98054430 |ref=Schefter}} *{{cite book |last=Wilford |first=John Noble |authorlink=John Noble Wilford |title=We Reach the Moon |year=1973 |publisher=[[G. P. Putnam's Sons|Putnam Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-448-26152-2 |ref=Wilford}} *{{cite book |last=Woods |first=W. David |title=How Apollo Flew to the Moon |year= 2008 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |location=Brelin; New York |isbn=978-0-387-71675-6 |lccn=2007932412 |ref=Woods }} *{{cite book |last=Zimmerman |first=Robert |title=Genesis: The Story of Apollo 8: The First Manned Flight to Another World |year=1998 |publisher=[[Four Walls Eight Windows]] |location=New York |isbn=1-56858-118-1 |lccn=98029963 |ref=Zimmerman}} {{Refend}} ==External links== {{Commons|Apollo 8}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130531210211/http://astronautix.com/flights/apollo8.htm "Apollo 8"] at Encyclopedia Astronautica * {{cite journal |last=Jackson |first=Albert A. |date=Winter 2008–2009 |title=The Essence of the Human Spirit: Apollo 8 |journal=Horizons |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=24–28 |location=Reston, VA |publisher=[[American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics]] (AIAA) |format=PDF |type=Newsletter, AIAA Houston Section |accessdate=July 1, 2013 |url=http://www.aiaahouston.org/Horizons/december2008.pdf}} – Article about the 40th Anniversary of Apollo 8 ;NASA reports * [https://history.nasa.gov/alsj/a410/A08_PressKit.pdf Apollo 8 Press Kit] (PDF), NASA, Release No. 68-208, December 15, 1968 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130302223118/http://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/pdf/a08-missionreport.pdf "Apollo 8 Mission Report"] (PDF), NASA, MSC-PA-R-69-1, February 1969 ;Multimedia * [https://archive.org/details/Apollo_8_-_Go_For_TLI ''Apollo 8: Go for TLI''] – 1969 NASA film at the [[Internet Archive]] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo8_xmas.html "The Apollo 8 Christmas Eve Broadcast"] – NASA audio of Christmas Genesis transmission * [https://archive.org/details/debrief_apollo_8 ''Debrief: Apollo 8''] – 1969 NASA film at the Internet Archive * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aW5ozq4Tqew Apollo Atmospheric Entry Phase], 1968, NASA Mission Planning and Analysis Division, Project Apollo. video (25:14). * [https://archive.org/details/Apollo07And0816mmOnboardFilm "APOLLO 07 and 08 16MM ONBOARD FILM (1968)"] – raw footage taken from Apollos 7 and 8 at the Internet Archive * [http://www.apollotv.net Apollo launch and mission videos] at ApolloTV.net * [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=36019 "Earth Viewed by Apollo 8"] at NASA * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TBvYctZsuyw&list=PLNxwX7r4A557deayljDNLqVA7Pl9Y8K9Z&index=5 Recovery - 23min video] {{Apollo program}} {{Moon spacecraft}} {{Orbital launches in 1968}} {{NASA space program}} {{Time Persons of the Year}} {{NASA}} {{Featured article}} {{Use American English|date=January 2014}} {{Authority control}} {{portal bar|Moon|Space|Spaceflight}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Apollo 08}} [[Category:Apollo 8| ]] [[Category:Apollo program missions|Apollo 08]] [[Category:Manned missions to the Moon]] [[Category:Spacecraft launched in 1968]] [[Category:1968 in the United States]] [[Category:Spacecraft which reentered in 1968]] [[Category:December 1968 events]] [[Category:Events at Christmas]] [[Category:Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets]] lho3uq2lymgfyzvoz83fqvdyquo7r5i 0 664 859283903 858764702 2018-09-13T01:07:46Z JCW-CleanerBot 31737083 /* Health risks of space travel */[[User:JCW-CleanerBot#Logic|task]], replaced: Adv Space Res. → Adv. Space Res. wikitext text/x-wiki {{Other uses}} {{Redirect|Cosmonaut|other uses|Cosmonaut (disambiguation)}} {{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}} {{Use mdy dates|date=November 2014}} [[File:Astronaut-EVA.jpg|thumb|[[NASA]] Astronaut [[Bruce McCandless II]] using a [[Manned Maneuvering Unit]] outside {{OV|099}} on shuttle mission [[STS-41-B]] in 1984.]] An '''astronaut''' or '''cosmonaut''' is a person trained by a [[List of human spaceflight programs|human spaceflight program]] to command, pilot, or serve as a crew member of a [[spacecraft]]. Although generally reserved for professional space travelers, the terms are sometimes applied to anyone who travels into space, including scientists, politicians, journalists, and tourists.<ref name="fact">{{cite web|url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/spacenews/factsheets/pdfs/astro.pdf|title=Astronaut Fact Book|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=[[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration]]|year=2006|author=[[NASA]]|format=PDF| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926023336/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/spacenews/factsheets/pdfs/astro.pdf| archivedate= September 26, 2007 | deadurl=no}}</ref><ref name="utah">{{cite web|url=http://www.utahstatesman.com/campus_news/1.563784 |title=Former astronaut visits USU |accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=The Utah Statesman |year=2005 |author=Marie MacKay |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926175913/http://www.utahstatesman.com/campus_news/1.563784 |archivedate=September 26, 2008 |df=mdy }}</ref> Until 2002, astronauts were sponsored and trained exclusively by governments, either by the military or by civilian space agencies. With the suborbital flight of the privately funded [[SpaceShipOne]] in 2004, a new category of astronaut was created: the [[commercial astronaut]]. ==Definition== [[File:Alan Shepard in capsule aboard Freedom 7 before launch.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Alan Shepard]] aboard [[Mercury-Redstone 3|''Freedom&nbsp;7'']]]] The criteria for what constitutes [[human spaceflight]] vary. The [[Fédération Aéronautique Internationale]] (FAI) Sporting Code for astronautics recognizes only flights that exceed an [[Kármán line|altitude of {{convert|100|km|mi|sp=us}}]].<ref>[https://www.fai.org/sites/default/files/documents/sporting_code_section_8_edition_2009.pdf FAI Sporting Code, Section 8, Paragraph 2.18.1]</ref> In the United States, professional, military, and commercial astronauts who travel above an altitude of {{convert|50|mi|km}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/news/NewsReleases/2005/05-57.html|title=X-15 Space Pioneers Now Honored as Astronauts|first=Mary|last=Whelan|date=June 5, 2013|publisher=}}</ref> are awarded [[Astronaut Badge|astronaut wings]]. {{As of|2016|November|17}}, a total of 552 people from [[Timeline of space travel by nationality|36 countries]] have reached {{convert|100|km|0|abbr=on}} or more in altitude, of which 549 reached [[low Earth orbit]] or beyond.<ref name="stats1">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldspaceflight.com/bios/stats.php|title=Astronaut/Cosmonaut Statistics|accessdate=November 17, 2016|publisher=www.worldspaceflight.com}}</ref> Of these, [[List of Apollo astronauts|24 people]] have traveled beyond low Earth orbit, either to lunar orbit, the lunar surface, or, in one case, a loop around the Moon.<ref>[[Apollo 13]] had to abort an intended lunar landing, and looped around the Moon to return its three astronauts to Earth.</ref> Three of the 24–[[Jim Lovell]], [[John Watts Young|John Young]] and [[Eugene Cernan]]–did so twice.<ref name="hundred">{{cite web|url=http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/factoids/hundred.htm |title=NASA's First 100 Human Space Flights |accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=NASA |author=NASA |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070827140010/http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/factoids/hundred.htm |archivedate=August 27, 2007 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> The three current{{when|date=February 2018}} astronauts who have flown without reaching low Earth orbit are [[spaceplane]] pilots [[Joseph A. Walker|Joe Walker]], [[Mike Melvill]], and [[Brian Binnie]], who participated in suborbital missions. {{As of|2016|November|17}}, under the U.S. definition, 558 people qualify as having reached space, above {{convert|50|mi|km}} altitude. Of eight [[X-15]] pilots who exceeded {{convert|50|mi|km}} in altitude, only one exceeded 100 kilometers (about 62 miles).<ref name="stats1"/> Space travelers have spent over 41,790 [[Man hour|man-days]] (114.5 man-years) in space, including over 100 astronaut-days of [[extravehicular activity|spacewalks]].<ref name="stats">{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/articles/aststics.htm|title=Astronaut Statistics – as of 14 November 2008|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|year=2007|author=Encyclopedia Astronautica| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930195311/http://www.astronautix.com/articles/aststics.htm| archivedate= September 30, 2007 | deadurl=no}}</ref><ref name="void">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/vision/space/workinginspace/eva_stats.html|title=Walking in the Void|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=NASA|year=2004|author=NASA}}</ref> {{As of|2016}}, the man with the longest cumulative time in space is [[Gennady Padalka]], who has spent 879 days in space.<ref> {{cite news |last1 = Cheng |first1 = Kenneth |title = Breaking Space Records |url = https://www.nytimes.com/live/international-space-station-launch/breaking-space-records |accessdate = 28 June 2015 |work = New York Times |date = 27 March 2015 |archiveurl = https://www.webcitation.org/6Zc60ORrj?url=http://www.nytimes.com/live/international-space-station-launch/breaking-space-records/ |archivedate = June 28, 2015 |deadurl = no |df = mdy }}</ref> [[Peggy Whitson|Peggy A. Whitson]] holds the record for the most time in space by a woman, 377 days.<ref name="paw">{{cite web |url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/whitson.html | title = Peggy A. Whitson (Ph.D.) | work = Biographical Data | publisher = [[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] | author=NASA| accessdate = May 13, 2008| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509130749/http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/whitson.html| archivedate= May 9, 2008 | deadurl=no}}</ref> ==Terminology== {{See also|Astronaut ranks and positions}} In 1959, when both the United States and [[Soviet Union]] were planning, but had yet to launch humans into space, [[NASA]] Administrator [[T. Keith Glennan]] and his Deputy Administrator, Dr. [[Hugh Latimer Dryden|Hugh Dryden]], discussed whether spacecraft crew members should be called ''astronauts'' or ''cosmonauts''. Dryden preferred "cosmonaut", on the grounds that flights would occur in the ''cosmos'' (near space), while the "astro" prefix suggested flight to the stars. Most NASA [[Space Task Group]] members preferred "astronaut", which survived by common usage as the preferred American term.<ref>{{cite book | last=Dethloff | first=Henry C. | title=Suddenly Tomorrow Came... A History of the Johnson Space Center| publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration | year=1993 | authorlink= Henry C. Dethloff | pages=23–24| chapter=Chapter 2: The Commitment to Space| isbn=978-1502753588 | url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/suddenly_tomorrow/suddenly.htm | ref = harv}}</ref> When the Soviet Union launched the first man into space, [[Yuri Gagarin]] in 1961, they chose a term which [[Anglicization|anglicizes]] to "cosmonaut". ===English=== In English-speaking nations, a professional space traveler is called an ''astronaut''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thespacerace.com/glossary/index.php?term=54|title=TheSpaceRace.com - Glossary of Space Exploration Terminology|publisher=}}</ref> The term derives from the Greek words ''ástron'' (ἄστρον), meaning "star", and ''nautes'' (ναύτης), meaning "sailor". The first known use of the term "astronaut" in the modern sense was by [[Neil R. Jones]] in his 1930 short story "The Death's Head Meteor". The word itself had been known earlier; for example, in [[Percy Greg]]'s 1880 book ''Across the Zodiac'', "astronaut" referred to a spacecraft. In ''Les Navigateurs de l'Infini'' (1925) by [[J.-H. Rosny aîné]], the word ''astronautique'' (astronautic) was used. The word may have been inspired by "aeronaut", an older term for an air traveler first applied in 1784 to [[balloon (aircraft)|balloon]]ists. An early use of "astronaut" in a non-fiction publication is [[Eric Frank Russell]]'s poem "The Astronaut", appearing in the November 1934 ''Bulletin of the [[British Interplanetary Society]]''.<ref>Ingham, John L.: ''Into Your Tent'', Plantech (2010): page 82.</ref> The first known formal use of the term [[astronautics]] in the scientific community was the establishment of the annual [[International Astronautical Congress]] in 1950, and the subsequent founding of the [[International Astronautical Federation]] the following year.<ref name="IAFpage">{{cite web|title=IAF History |publisher=[[International Astronautical Federation]] |author=IAF |date=August 16, 2010 |url=http://www.iafastro.org/index.html?title=History |accessdate=August 16, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719102624/https://www.iafastro.org/index.html?title=History |archivedate=July 19, 2011 |df=mdy }}</ref> [[NASA]] applies the term astronaut to any crew member aboard NASA spacecraft bound for Earth orbit or beyond. NASA also uses the term as a title for those selected to join its [[NASA Astronaut Corps|Astronaut Corps]].<ref name="biopage">{{cite web | last = Dismukes |first = Kim – NASA Biography Page Curator | title = Astronaut Biographies | publisher = [[Johnson Space Center]], NASA |date = December 15, 2005|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/| accessdate = March 6, 2007 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070307132816/http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/| archivedate= March 7, 2007 | deadurl=no}}</ref> The European Space Agency similarly uses the term astronaut for members of its [[European Astronaut Corps|Astronaut Corps]].<ref name="ESApage">{{cite web | title = The European Astronaut Corps | publisher = [[ESA]] |author=ESA |date = April 10, 2008|url=http://www.esa.int/esaHS/ESA75G0VMOC_astronauts_0.html| accessdate = December 28, 2008 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220054618/http://www.esa.int/esaHS/ESA75G0VMOC_astronauts_0.html| archivedate= December 20, 2008 | deadurl=no}}</ref> ===Russian=== {{Main|Soviet space program}} {{see also|List of cosmonauts}} By convention, an astronaut employed by the [[Russian Federal Space Agency]] (or its [[Soviet space program|Soviet]] predecessor) is called a ''cosmonaut'' in English texts.<ref name="biopage"/> The word is an anglicisation of the Russian word ''kosmonavt'' ({{lang-ru|космонавт}}, {{IPA-ru|kəsmɐˈnaft}}), one who works in space outside the Earth's atmosphere, a space traveler,<ref name = "space traveller">{{cite book| last1 = Kotlyakov| first1 = Vladimir| last2 = Komarova| first2 = Anna| title = Elsevier's Dictionary of Geography: in English, Russian, French, Spanish and German|url=https://books.google.com/?id=6DhWw_cYLicC| year = 2006| publisher = Elsevier| isbn = 978-0-08-048878-3 | page = 49}}</ref> which derives from the Greek words ''kosmos'' (κόσμος), meaning "universe", and ''nautes'' (ναύτης), meaning "sailor". Other countries of the former [[Eastern Bloc]] use variations of the Russian word ''kosmonavt'', such as the [[Poland|Polish]] ''kosmonauta''. Coinage of the term ''kosmonavt'' has been credited to Soviet aeronautics pioneer [[Mikhail Tikhonravov]] (1900–1974).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brzezinski |first=Matthew |authorlink=Matthew Brzezinski |year=2007 |title=Red Moon Rising: Sputnik and the Hidden Rivalries That Ignited the Space Age |url= |location=New York |publisher=Henry Holt & Co. |page=108 |isbn=978-0-8050-8147-3 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gruntman |first=Mike |authorlink= |year=2004 |title=Blazing the Trail: The Early History of Spacecraft and Rocketry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2XY9KXxF8OEC&pg=PA326 |location=Reston, VA |publisher=[[AIAA]] |page=326 |isbn=9781563477058 }}</ref> The first cosmonaut was [[Soviet Air Force]] pilot [[Yuri Gagarin]], also the first person in space. [[Valentina Tereshkova]], a Russian factory worker, was the first woman in space, as well as the first civilian among the Soviet cosmonaut or NASA astronaut corps to make a spaceflight. On March 14, 1995, [[Norman Thagard]] became the first American to ride to space on board a Russian launch vehicle, and thus became the first "American cosmonaut". ===Chinese=== {{Main|Chinese space program}} {{see also|List of Chinese astronauts}} "Yǔ háng yuán" ({{lang|zh-cn|宇航员}}, "Space-universe navigating personnel") is used for astronauts and cosmonauts in general,<ref name="rus">{{cite web|url=http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ce/ceka/rus/xwdt/t216370.htm|trans-title= Yang Liwei, the first Chinese astronaut who has made China's first manned space flight|title=Ян Ливэй – первый китайский космонавт, совершивший первый в Китае пилотируемый космический полет|date=13 October 2005|accessdate=4 October 2007 |publisher=fmprc.gov.cn|author=реконмендовать другому|language=Russian| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929125754/http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ce/ceka/rus/xwdt/t216370.htm| archivedate=September 29, 2007}}</ref><ref name="rus2">{{cite web|url=http://ru.china-embassy.org/rus/xwdt/t73142.htm|title=Chinese embassy in Russia press-release|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=ru.china-embassy.org|author=ru.china-embassy.org|language=Russian| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927002145/http://ru.china-embassy.org/rus/xwdt/t73142.htm| archivedate= September 27, 2007 | deadurl=no}}</ref> while "Hángtiān yuán" ({{lang|zh-cn|航天员}}, "navigating [[outer space]] personnel") is used for Chinese astronauts. Here, "Hángtiān" ({{lang|zh-cn|航天}}) is strictly defined as the navigation of outer space within the local [[star system]], i.e. [[Solar system]]. The phrase "tài kōng rén" ({{lang|zh-tw|太空人}}, "spaceman") is often used in [[Hong Kong]] and [[Taiwan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://chinese.yabla.com/chinese-english-pinyin-dictionary.php?define=%E5%A4%AA%E7%A9%BA%E4%BA%BA|title=太空人 : astronaut... : tài kōng rén - Definition - Mandarin Chinese Pinyin English Dictionary - Yabla Chinese|publisher=}}</ref> The term ''taikonaut'' is used by some English-language news media organizations for professional [[Chinese space program|space travelers from China]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-01/26/content_7500262.htm|title=Chinese taikonaut dismisses environment worries about new space launch center|date=January 26, 2008|accessdate=September 25, 2008|publisher=[[China View]]| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081003201652/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-01/26/content_7500262.htm| archivedate= October 3, 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref> The word has featured in the [[Longman]] and [[Oxford English Dictionary|Oxford English]] dictionaries, the latter of which describes it as "a hybrid of the Chinese term ''taikong'' (space) and the Greek ''naut'' (sailor)"; the term became more common in 2003 when China sent its first astronaut [[Yang Liwei]] into space aboard the ''[[Shenzhou 5]]'' spacecraft.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-09/25/content_10111749.htm|title="Taikonauts" a sign of China's growing global influence|date=September 25, 2008|accessdate=September 25, 2008|publisher=[[China View]]| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080928044453/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-09/25/content_10111749.htm| archivedate= September 28, 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref> This is the term used by [[Xinhua News Agency]] in the English version of the Chinese ''[[People's Daily]]'' since the advent of the Chinese space program.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/90881/6507790.html|title=Chinese taikonaut debuts spacewalk|accessdate=September 28, 2008 |publisher=People's Daily Online|author=Xinhua|year=2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080930071226/http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/90881/6507790.html| archivedate= September 30, 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref> The origin of the term is unclear; as early as May 1998, Chiew Lee Yih ({{lang|zh|趙裡昱}}) from [[Malaysia]], used it in [[newsgroup]]s.<ref name="chiew">{{cite web | first=Lee Yih | last=Chiew |date=May 19, 1998| title=Google search of "taikonaut" sort by date |url= https://groups.google.com/groups/search?hl=en&safe=off&q=taikonaut&btnG=Search&as_mind=1&as_minm=1&as_miny=1981&as_maxd=24&as_maxm=5&as_maxy=1998&as_drrb=b&sitesearch= | work = Usenet posting | publisher = Chiew Lee Yih | accessdate = September 27, 2008}}</ref><ref name="chiew2">{{cite web | first=Lee Yih | last=Chiew |date=March 10, 1996| title=Chiew Lee Yih misspelled "taikonaut" 2 years before it first appear |url= https://groups.google.com/group/alt.chinese.text/browse_thread/thread/a7f02b9489c59c5b/dd9e7a1b78d7d5c7?hl=en&lnk=st&q=taikonout#dd9e7a1b78d7d5c7 | work = Usenet posting | publisher = Chiew Lee Yih | accessdate = September 27, 2008}}</ref> ===Other terms=== With the rise of [[space tourism]], [[NASA]] and the [[Russian Federal Space Agency]] agreed to use the term "[[spaceflight participant]]" to distinguish those space travelers from professional astronauts on missions coordinated by those two agencies. While no nation other than the Russian Federation (and previously the former Soviet Union), the United States, and China have launched a manned spacecraft, several other nations have sent people into space in cooperation with one of these countries. Inspired partly by these missions, other synonyms for astronaut have entered occasional English usage. For example, the term ''spationaut'' (French spelling: ''spationaute'') is sometimes used to describe French space travelers, from the [[Latin]] word ''spatium'' for "space", the [[Malay language|Malay]] term ''angkasawan'' was used to describe participants in the [[Angkasawan program]], and the [[Indian Space Research Organisation]] hope to launch a [[ISRO Orbital Vehicle|spacecraft]] in 2022 that would carry ''[[Indian human spaceflight programme#Terminology|vyomanauts]]'', coined from the [[Sanskrit]] word for space. In [[Finland]], the NASA astronaut [[Timothy Kopra]], a [[Finnish Americans|Finnish American]], has sometimes been referred to as ''sisunautti'', from the [[Finnish language|Finnish]] word ''[[sisu]]''.<ref>{{cite web | title = "Sisunautti" haaveilee uudesta Suomen-matkasta | publisher = [[MTV3]] |author=MTV Uutiset |date = November 1, 2009|url = https://www.mtv.fi/uutiset/ulkomaat/artikkeli/sisunautti-haaveilee-uudesta-suomen-matkasta/2174370#gs.XWGxvao| accessdate = April 10, 2018}}</ref> ==Space travel milestones== <!--First Man, First Woman, First on the Moon, in chronological order.--> [[File:Gagarin in Sweden.jpg|thumb|upright=0.667|[[Yuri Gagarin]], first human in space (1961)]] [[File:RIAN archive 612748 Valentina Tereshkova.jpg|thumb|upright=0.667|[[Valentina Tereshkova]], first woman in space (1963)]] [[File:Neil Armstrong pose.jpg|thumb|upright=0.667|[[Neil Armstrong]], first human to walk on the Moon (1969)]] [[File:Sally Ride in 1964.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.667|Dr. [[Sally Ride]], the first American female astronaut (1980s)]] [[File:Yang Liwei.jpg|thumb|upright=0.667|[[Yang Liwei]], first person sent into space by [[China]] (2003)]] {{See also|Spaceflight records|Timeline of space travel by nationality}} The first human in space was Soviet [[Yuri Gagarin]], who was launched on April 12, 1961, aboard [[Vostok 1]] and orbited around the Earth for 108 minutes. The first woman in space was Soviet [[Valentina Tereshkova]], who launched on June 16, 1963, aboard [[Vostok 6]] and orbited Earth for almost three days. [[Alan Shepard]] became the first American and second person in space on May 5, 1961, on a 15-minute sub-orbital flight. The first American to orbit the Earth was [[John Glenn]], aboard [[Friendship 7]] on February 20, 1962. The first American woman in space was [[Sally Ride]], during [[Space Shuttle Challenger]]'s mission [[STS-7]], on June 18, 1983.<ref name="ride1">{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/ride-sk.html|title=Sally K. Ride, Ph.D. Biography|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=NASA|year=2006|author=NASA| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20071016072450/http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/ride-sk.html| archivedate= October 16, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> In 1992 [[Mae Jemison]] became the first African American woman to travel in space aboard [[STS-47]]. Cosmonaut [[Alexei Leonov]] was the first person to conduct an [[extravehicular activity]] (EVA), (commonly called a "spacewalk"), on March 18, 1965, on the Soviet Union's Voskhod 2 mission. This was followed two and a half months later by astronaut [[Ed White (astronaut)|Ed White]] who made the first American EVA on NASA's Gemini 4 mission.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/k-4/features/F_Going_Out.html|title=Educator Features: Going Out for a Walk|work=NASA|accessdate=27 November 2015}}</ref> The first manned mission to orbit the Moon, ''[[Apollo 8]]'', included American [[William Anders]] who was born in Hong Kong, making him the first Asian-born astronaut in 1968. The Soviet Union, through its [[Intercosmos]] program, allowed people from other "[[socialism|socialist]]" (i.e. [[Warsaw Pact]] and other Soviet-allied) countries to fly on its missions, with the notable exception of [[France]] participating in [[Soyuz TM-7]]. An example is [[Czechoslovak]] [[Vladimír Remek]], the first cosmonaut from a country other than the [[Soviet space program|Soviet Union]] or the [[NASA|United States]], who flew to space in 1978 on a [[Soyuz-U]] rocket.<ref name="enc">{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/astros/remek.htm|title=Vladimir Remek Czech Pilot Cosmonaut|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|year=2007|author=Encyclopedia Astronautica| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20071013100622/http://astronautix.com/astros/remek.htm| archivedate= October 13, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> On July 23, 1980, [[Pham Tuan]] of [[Vietnam]] became the first [[Asian people|Asian]] in space when he flew aboard [[Soyuz 37]].<ref name="tuan">{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/flights/salt6ep7.htm|title=Salyut 6 EP-7|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|year=2007|author=Encyclopedia Astronautica| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070930195347/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/salt6ep7.htm| archivedate= September 30, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Also in 1980, [[Cubans|Cuban]] [[Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez]] became the first person of [[Hispanic]] and black African descent to fly in space, and in 1983, [[Guion Bluford]] became the first African American to fly into space. In April 1985, [[Taylor Wang]] became the first ethnic Chinese person in space.<ref name="taylorbio">{{cite web |url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/wang-t.html|title=Taylor G. Wang Biography| accessdate=October 4, 2007 | publisher=NASA| year=1985| author=NASA| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070919003409/http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/wang-t.html| archivedate= September 19, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref><ref name="taylor">{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/astros/wang.htm|title=Taylor Wang| accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|year=2007|author=Encyclopedia Astronautica| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070827132048/http://www.astronautix.com/astros/wang.htm| archivedate= August 27, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> The first person born in Africa to fly in space was [[Patrick Baudry]] (France), in 1985.<ref name="mendez">{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/astros/tamendez.htm|title=Tamayo-Mendez|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|year=2007|author=Encyclopedia Astronautica| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070930214432/http://www.astronautix.com/astros/tamendez.htm| archivedate= September 30, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref><ref name="baudry">{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/astros/baudry.htm|title=Baudry|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|year=2007|author=Encyclopedia Astronautica| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20071013100617/http://astronautix.com/astros/baudry.htm| archivedate= October 13, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> In 1985, [[Saudi arabia|Saudi Arabian]] [[Sultan Salman al-Saud|Prince Sultan Bin Salman Bin AbdulAziz Al-Saud]] became the first Arab Muslim astronaut in space.<ref name="MC">{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/al-saud.html|title=Sultan Bin Salman Al-Saud Biography|accessdate=May 1, 2011 |publisher=NASA|year=2006|author=NASA| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110525174947/http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/al-saud.html| archivedate= May 25, 2011 | deadurl= no}}</ref> In 1988, [[Abdul Ahad Mohmand]] became the first [[Afghanistan|Afghan]] to reach space, spending nine days aboard the [[Mir]] space station.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spacefacts.de/bios/international/english/mohmand_abdol.htm|title=Biographies of International Astronauts|accessdate=August 11, 2007 |publisher=Space Facts|year=2007|author=Joachim Wilhelm Josef Becker and Heinz Hermann Janssen| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070812133400/http://www.spacefacts.de/bios/international/english/mohmand_abdol.htm| archivedate= August 12, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> With the increase of seats on the Space Shuttle, the U.S. began taking international astronauts. In 1983, [[Ulf Merbold]] of West Germany became the first non-US citizen to fly in a US spacecraft. In 1984, [[Marc Garneau]] became the first of 8 [[Canadian astronauts]] to fly in space (through 2010).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/missions/default.asp|title=Space Missions|first=Government of Canada, Canadian Space Agency, Directions of communications, Information services and new|last=media|publisher=}}</ref> In 1985, [[Rodolfo Neri Vela]] became the first Mexican-born person in space.<ref name="vela">{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/nerivela-r.html|title=Rodolfo Neri Vela (Ph.D.) Biography|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=NASA|year=1985|author=NASA| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20071027235759/http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/nerivela-r.html| archivedate= October 27, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> In 1991, [[Helen Sharman]] became the first Briton to fly in space.<ref name="bbcsharmon">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/18/newsid_2380000/2380649.stm|title=1991: Sharman becomes first Briton in space|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=BBC News|author=BBC News | date=May 18, 1991| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070905072027/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/18/newsid_2380000/2380649.stm| archivedate= September 5, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> In 2002, [[Mark Shuttleworth]] became the first citizen of an African country to fly in space, as a paying spaceflight participant.<ref name="mark">{{cite web|url=http://www.africaninspace.com/home/mission/logs/1/20020610.shtml|title=First African in Space|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=HBD|year=2002|author=africaninspace.com| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20071013043906/http://africaninspace.com/home/mission/logs/1/20020610.shtml| archivedate= October 13, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> In 2003, [[Ilan Ramon]] became the first Israeli to fly in space, although he died during a [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|re-entry accident]]. On October 15, 2003, [[Yang Liwei]] became China's first astronaut on the [[Shenzhou 5]] spacecraft. ===Age milestones=== The youngest person to fly in space is [[Gherman Titov]], who was 25 years old when he flew [[Vostok 2]]. (Titov was also the first person to suffer [[space sickness]]).<ref name="age">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/6/newsid_2944000/2944638.stm |title=1961: Russian cosmonaut spends day in space |accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=BBC News |author=BBC News |date=August 6, 2007}}</ref><ref name="titov">{{cite web |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2000/sep/22/local/me-25219 |title=Obituaries—Gherman S. Titov; Cosmonaut Was Second Man to Orbit Earth |accessdate=February 4, 2015 |publisher=Los Angeles Times |date=September 22, 2000|author=Robyn Dixon}}</ref> The oldest person who has flown in space is [[John Glenn]], who was 77 when he flew on [[STS-95]].<ref name="glenn">{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/about/bios/glennbio.html |title=John Herschel Glenn, Jr. (Colonel, USMC, Ret.) NASA Astronaut |accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=NASA |year=2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014013832/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/about/bios/glennbio.html |archivedate=October 14, 2007 |deadurl=no}}</ref> ===Duration and distance milestones=== 438 days is the longest time spent in space, by Russian [[Valeri Polyakov]].<ref name="stats"/> As of 2006, the most spaceflights by an individual astronaut is seven, a record held by both [[Jerry L. Ross]] and [[Franklin Chang-Diaz]]. The farthest distance from Earth an astronaut has traveled was {{convert|401056|km|0|abbr=on}}, when [[Jim Lovell]], [[Jack Swigert]], and [[Fred Haise]] went around the Moon during the [[Apollo 13]] emergency.<ref name="stats"/> ===Civilian and non-government milestones=== The first civilian in space was [[Valentina Tereshkova]]<ref name="Valentina Vladimirovna TERESHKOVA">{{cite web|url=http://www.adm.yar.ru/english/section.aspx?section_id=74 |title=Valentina Vladimirovna TERESHKOVA |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110423074712/http://www.adm.yar.ru/english/section.aspx?section_id=74 |archivedate=April 23, 2011 |df=mdy }}</ref> aboard [[Vostok 6]] (she also became the first woman in space on that mission). Tereshkova was only honorarily inducted into the USSR's Air Force, which did not accept female pilots at that time. A month later, [[Joseph Albert Walker]] became the first American civilian in space when his [[X-15 Flight 90]] crossed the {{convert|100|km|nmi|sp=us|abbr=off}} line, qualifying him by the international definition of spaceflight.<ref name="Civilians in Space">{{cite web|url=http://www.fourmilab.ch/fourmilog/archives/2006-08/000736.html|title=Civilians in Space}}</ref><ref name="Space.com Joseph A Walker">{{cite web|url=http://www.space.com/adastra/adastra_joewalker_061127.html|title=Space.com Joseph A Walker}}</ref> Walker had joined the US Army Air Force but was not a member during his flight. The first people in space who had never been a member of any country's armed forces were both [[Konstantin Feoktistov]] and [[Boris Yegorov]] aboard [[Voskhod 1]]. The first non-governmental space traveler was [[Byron K. Lichtenberg]], a researcher from the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] who flew on [[STS-9]] in 1983.<ref name="lichten">{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/lichtenberg-bk.html|title=Byron K. Lichtenberg Biography|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=NASA|year=2002|author=NASA| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070919000449/http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/lichtenberg-bk.html| archivedate= September 19, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> In December 1990, [[Toyohiro Akiyama]] became the first paying space traveler as a reporter for [[Tokyo Broadcasting System]], a visit to [[Mir]] as part of an estimated $12 million ([[USD]]) deal with a Japanese TV station, although at the time, the term used to refer to Akiyama was "Research Cosmonaut".<ref name="smith">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/GAL114/SpaceRace/sec500/sec535.htm|title=Paying for a Ride|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum|year=2007|author=Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20071026073942/http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/gal114/SpaceRace/sec500/sec535.htm| archivedate= October 26, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref><ref name="bbc1">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/sci_tech/2001/mir/1990.stm|title=Mir Space Station 1986–2001|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=BBC News|year=1990|author=BBC News}}</ref><ref name="de">{{cite web|url=http://www.spacefacts.de/bios/international/english/akiyama_toyohiro.htm|title=Akiyama|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=Spacefacts|year=1990|author=Spacefacts| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070930033534/http://www.spacefacts.de/bios/international/english/akiyama_toyohiro.htm| archivedate= September 30, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Akiyama suffered severe [[space adaptation syndrome|space sickness]] during his mission, which affected his productivity.<ref name="bbc1"/> The first self-funded [[space tourist]] was [[Dennis Tito]] on board the Russian spacecraft Soyuz TM-3 on April 28, 2001. ===Self-funded travelers=== {{Main|Space tourism}} The first person to fly on an entirely privately funded mission was [[Mike Melvill]], piloting [[SpaceShipOne flight 15P]] on a suborbital journey, although he was a [[test pilot]] employed by [[Scaled Composites]] and not an actual paying space tourist.<ref name="eve">{{cite web|url=http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/SS1_pilot_040620.html |title=Pilot Announced on Eve of Private Space Mission |accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=Space.com |year=2004 |author=Leonard David |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060213031153/http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/SS1_pilot_040620.html |archivedate=February 13, 2006 }}</ref><ref name="rci">{{cite web|url=http://www.roycecarlton.com/speakers/melvill.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011134507/http://www.roycecarlton.com/speakers/melvill.html|archivedate=October 11, 2007|title=Michael Melvill, First Civilian Astronaut, SpaceShipOne|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=Royce Carlton Inc.|year=2007|author=Royce Carlton Inc}}</ref> Seven others have paid the [[Russian Space Agency]] to fly into space: # [[Dennis Tito]] (American): April 28 – May 6, 2001 ([[International Space Station|ISS]]) # [[Mark Shuttleworth]] (South African): April 25 – May 5, 2002 (ISS) # [[Gregory Olsen]] (American): October 1–11, 2005 (ISS) # [[Anousheh Ansari]] (Iranian / American): September 18–29, 2006 (ISS) # [[Charles Simonyi]] (Hungarian / American): April 7–21, 2007 (ISS), March 26 – April 8, 2009 (ISS) # [[Richard Garriott]] (British / American): October 12–24, 2008 (ISS) # [[Guy Laliberté]] (Canadian): September 30, 2009 – October 11, 2009 (ISS) ==Training== [[File:Gemini 5 Elliot See water egress training.jpg|right|thumb|upright|[[Elliot See]] during water egress training with NASA (1965)]] {{Main|Astronaut Training}} {{See also|Astronaut ranks and positions}} The first NASA astronauts were selected for training in 1959.<ref name="comet">{{cite web|url=http://aerospacescholars.jsc.nasa.gov/HAS/cirr/ss/3/3.cfm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070819111027/http://aerospacescholars.jsc.nasa.gov/HAS/cirr/ss/3/3.cfm|archivedate=August 19, 2007|title=Astronaut Candidate Training|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=NASA|year=2006|author=NASA}}</ref> Early in the space program, military jet test piloting and engineering training were often cited as prerequisites for selection as an astronaut at NASA, although neither John Glenn nor Scott Carpenter (of the [[Mercury Seven]]) had any university degree, in engineering or any other discipline at the time of their selection. Selection was initially limited to military pilots.<ref name="training">{{cite web|url=http://liftoff.msfc.nasa.gov/academy/astronauts/training.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970215192726/http://liftoff.msfc.nasa.gov/academy/astronauts/training.html |dead-url=yes |archive-date=February 15, 1997 |title=Selection and Training of Astronauts |accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=NASA |year=1995 |author=NASA }}</ref><ref name="nolen">{{cite book| last = Nolen| first = Stephanie| title = Promised The Moon: The Untold Story of the First Women in the Space Race| year = 2002| publisher = Penguin Canada| location = Toronto| isbn = 0-14-301347-5| page = 235 }}</ref> The earliest astronauts for both America and the USSR tended to be [[fighter aircraft|jet fighter]] pilots, and were often test pilots. Once selected, NASA astronauts go through twenty months of training in a variety of areas, including training for [[extravehicular activity]] in a facility such as NASA's [[Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory]].<ref name="fact"/><ref name="training"/> Astronauts-in-training (astronaut candidates) may also experience short periods of [[weightlessness]] ([[Micro-g environment|microgravity]]) in an aircraft called the "[[Vomit Comet]]," the nickname given to a pair of modified [[KC-135]]s (retired in 2000 and 2004, respectively, and replaced in 2005 with a [[McDonnell Douglas C-9|C-9]]) which perform [[Parabola|parabolic]] flights.<ref name="comet"/> Astronauts are also required to accumulate a number of flight hours in high-performance jet aircraft. This is mostly done in [[T-38 Talon|T-38 jet aircraft]] out of [[Ellington Field]], due to its proximity to the [[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|Johnson Space Center]]. Ellington Field is also where the [[Shuttle Training Aircraft]] is maintained and developed, although most flights of the aircraft are conducted from [[Edwards Air Force Base]]. Astronauts is training must learn how to control and fly the Space Shuttle and, it is vital that they are familiar with the International Space Station so they know what they must do when they get there.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/5-8/features/F_Astronauts_in_Training.html|title=NASA - Astronauts in Training|website=www.nasa.gov|language=en|others=Denise Miller: MSFC|access-date=2018-04-03}}</ref> ===NASA candidacy requirements=== * Be citizens of the United States.<ref name="comet"/><ref name="program">{{cite web|url=http://nasajobs.nasa.gov/astronauts/content/broch00.htm|title=Astronaut Candidate Program|accessdate=October 4, 2007|publisher=NASA|year=2007|author=NASA|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011074934/http://nasajobs.nasa.gov/astronauts/content/broch00.htm|archivedate=October 11, 2007|deadurl=yes|df=mdy-all}}</ref> * Pass a strict physical examination, and have a near and distant visual acuity correctable to 20/20 (6/6). Blood pressure, while sitting, must be no greater than 140 over 90. There are currently no age restrictions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://astronauts.nasa.gov/content/faq.htm|title=astronaut selection|publisher=NASA|author=NASA}}</ref> ====Commander and Pilot==== * A [[bachelor's degree]] in [[engineering]], [[biology|biological science]], [[physical science]] or [[mathematics]] is required. * At least 1,000 hours' flying time as pilot-in-command in jet aircraft. Experience as a test pilot is desirable. * Height must be 5&nbsp;ft 2 in to 6&nbsp;ft 2 in (1.58&nbsp;m to 1.88&nbsp;m). * Distant visual acuity must be correctable to 20/20 in each eye. * The refractive surgical procedures of the eye, PRK ([[Photorefractive keratectomy]]) and [[LASIK]], are now allowed, providing at least 1 year has passed since the date of the procedure with no permanent adverse after effects. For those applicants under final consideration, an operative report on the surgical procedure will be requested. ====Mission Specialist==== * A bachelor's degree in [[engineering]], [[biological science]], [[physical science]] or [[mathematics]], as well as at least three years of related professional experience (graduate work or studies) and an advanced degree, such as a master's degree (one to three years) or a doctoral degree (three years or more). * Applicant's height must be between 4&nbsp;ft 10.5 in and 6&nbsp;ft 4 in (1.49&nbsp;m and 1.93&nbsp;m). ====Mission Specialist Educator==== {{Main|Educator Astronaut Project}} * Applicants must have a bachelor's degree with teaching experience, including work at the kindergarten through twelfth grade level. An advanced degree, such as a master's degree or a doctoral degree, is not required, but is strongly desired.<ref name="announce">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2007/sep/HQ_07196_astronaut_recruitment.html|title=NASA Opens Applications for New Astronaut Class|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=NASA|year=2007|author=NASA| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070927081538/http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2007/sep/HQ_07196_astronaut_recruitment.html| archivedate= September 27, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> [[Educator Astronaut Project|Mission Specialist Educators]], or "Educator Astronauts", were first selected in 2004, and as of 2007, there are three NASA Educator astronauts: [[Joseph M. Acaba]], [[Richard R. Arnold]], and [[Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger]].<ref name="nexgen">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/vision/space/preparingtravel/ascan2004.html|title='Next Generation of Explorers' Named|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=NASA|year=2004|author=NASA}}</ref><ref name="ed">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2004/oct/HQ_n04160_new_ascans.html|title=NASA's New Astronauts Meet The Press|accessdate=October 4, 2007 | publisher=NASA| year=2004| author=NASA}}</ref> [[Barbara Morgan]], selected as back-up teacher to [[Christa McAuliffe]] in 1985, is considered to be the first Educator astronaut by the media, but she trained as a mission specialist.<ref name="morgan1">{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/morgan.html|title=Barbara Radding Morgan – NASA Astronaut biography|accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=NASA|year=2007|author=NASA| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20071002195136/http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/morgan.html| archivedate= October 2, 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> The Educator Astronaut program is a successor to the [[Teacher in Space]] program from the 1980s.<ref name="fly">{{cite web|url=http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/space_educator_030203.html |title=NASA Assures That Teachers Will Fly in Space |accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=Space.com |year=2007 |author=Tariq Malik |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061125035402/http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/space_educator_030203.html |archivedate=November 25, 2006 }}</ref><ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://wwwedu.ssc.nasa.gov/neap.asp |title=Educator Astronaut Program |accessdate=October 4, 2007 |publisher=NASA |year=2005 |author=NASA |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516050936/https://wwwedu.ssc.nasa.gov/neap.asp |archivedate=May 16, 2008 |df=mdy }}</ref> ==Health risks of space travel== [[File:Padalka Fincke ISS ultrasound.jpg|thumb|right|[[Gennady Padalka]] performing ultrasound on [[Michael Fincke]] during ISS [[Expedition 9]].]] {{See also|Effect of spaceflight on the human body|Space medicine}} Astronauts are susceptible to a variety of health risks including [[decompression sickness]], [[barotrauma]], immunodeficiencies, loss of bone and muscle, loss of eyesight, [[orthostatic intolerance]], sleep disturbances, and radiation injury.<ref name="NYT-20140127">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=Beings Not Made for Space |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/28/science/bodies-not-made-for-space.html |date=January 27, 2014 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=January 27, 2014 }}</ref><ref name="Wired-20120723">{{cite web |last=Mann |first=Adam |title=Blindness, Bone Loss, and Space Farts: Astronaut Medical Oddities|url=https://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2012/07/medicine-psychology-space/ |date=July 23, 2012|publisher=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |accessdate=July 23, 2012 }}</ref><ref name="Mader-2011">{{cite journal |author=Mader, T. H. |title=Optic Disc Edema, Globe Flattening, Choroidal Folds, and Hyperopic Shifts Observed in Astronauts after Long-duration Space Flight|url=http://www.ophsource.org/periodicals/ophtha/article/S0161-6420(11)00564-1/abstract|year=2011 |journal=[[Ophthalmology (journal)|Ophthalmology]] |volume=118 |issue=10 |pages=2058–2069|doi=10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.06.021 |pmid=21849212|display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref name="Puiu-20111109">{{cite web |last=Puiu|first=Tibi |title=Astronauts’ vision severely affected during long space missions|url=http://www.zmescience.com/medicine/astronaut-eyesight-damage-weightlessness-3214143/|date=November 9, 2011 |publisher=zmescience.com |accessdate=February 9, 2012 }}</ref><ref name="CNN-20120109">{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/us/2012/02/09/pkg-zarrella-astronaut-vision.cnn |title=Male Astronauts Return With Eye Problems (video) |date=February 9, 2012 |publisher=CNN News|accessdate=April 25, 2012 }}</ref><ref name="Space-20120313">{{cite web |author=Space Staff|title=Spaceflight Bad for Astronauts' Vision, Study Suggests|url=http://www.space.com/14876-astronaut-spaceflight-vision-problems.html |date=March 13, 2012|publisher=[[Space.com]] |accessdate=March 14, 2012 }}</ref><ref name="Radiology-20120313">{{cite journal |author=Kramer, Larry A. |title=Orbital and Intracranial Effects of Microgravity: Findings at 3-T MR Imaging|url=http://radiology.rsna.org/content/early/2012/03/07/radiol.12111986.abstract?sid=8682af1e-b07f-4ad9-8453-ee319bad639e |journal=[[Radiology (journal)|Radiology]]|doi=10.1148/radiol.12111986 |date=March 13, 2012 |accessdate=March 14, 2012 |volume=263 |issue=3 |pages=819 |display-authors=etal|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.pravda.ru/science/earth/17-12-2008/106841-soviet_cosmonaut-0/ |title=Soviet cosmonauts burnt their eyes in space for USSR’s glory |date=December 17, 2008 |publisher=Pravda.Ru|accessdate=April 25, 2012 }}</ref><ref name="WIRED-20140212">{{cite web |last=Fong, MD |first=Kevin |title=The Strange, Deadly Effects Mars Would Have on Your Body |url=https://www.wired.com/opinion/2014/02/happens-body-mars/ |date=February 12, 2014 |work=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |accessdate=February 12, 2014 }}</ref><ref name="SKR-20171103">{{cite news |last=Howell |first=Elizabeth |title=Brain Changes in Space Could Be Linked to Vision Problems in Astronauts |url=https://www.seeker.com/space/brain-changes-in-space-could-be-linked-to-vision-problems-in-astronauts |date=3 November 2017 |work=[[Seeker (media company)|Seeker]] |accessdate=3 November 2017 }}</ref> A variety of large scale medical studies are being conducted in space via the National Space and Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI) to address these issues. Prominent among these is the [[Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity]] Study in which astronauts (including former ISS commanders [[Leroy Chiao]] and [[Gennady Padalka]]) perform ultrasound scans under the guidance of remote experts to diagnose and potentially treat hundreds of medical conditions in space. This study's techniques are now being applied to cover professional and Olympic sports injuries as well as ultrasound performed by non-expert operators in medical and high school students. It is anticipated that remote guided ultrasound will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations, where access to a trained physician is often rare.<ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/science/experiments/ADUM.html NASA - Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091029061057/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/science/experiments/ADUM.html |date=October 29, 2009 }}</ref><ref>A Pilot Study of Comprehensive Ultrasound Education at the Wayne State University School of Medicine: {{cite web|url=http://www.jultrasoundmed.org/cgi/content/abstract/27/5/745 |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-08-03 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100713124805/http://www.jultrasoundmed.org/cgi/content/abstract/27/5/745 |archivedate=July 13, 2010 }}</ref><ref>Evaluation of Shoulder Integrity in Space: First Report of Musculoskeletal US on the International Space Station: http://radiology.rsna.org/content/234/2/319.abstract</ref> A 2006 Space Shuttle experiment found that ''[[Salmonella typhimurium]]'', a bacterium that can cause [[food poisoning]], became more virulent when cultivated in space.<ref name="ASU-20070923">{{cite web |last=Caspermeyer |first=Joe |title=Space flight shown to alter ability of bacteria to cause disease |url=https://biodesign.asu.edu/news/space-flight-shown-alter-ability-bacteria-cause-disease |date=23 September 2007 |work=[[Arizona State University]] |accessdate=14 September 2017 }}</ref> More recently, in 2017, [[bacteria]] were found to be more resistant to [[antibiotic]]s and to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space.<ref name="GZM-20170913">{{cite web |last=Dvorsky |first=George |title=Alarming Study Indicates Why Certain Bacteria Are More Resistant to Drugs in Space |url=https://gizmodo.com/alarming-study-indicates-why-certain-bacteria-are-more-1805666249 |date=13 September 2017 |work=[[Gizmodo]] |accessdate=14 September 2017 }}</ref> [[Microorganism]]s have been observed to survive the [[vacuum]] of outer space.<ref name=Dose>{{cite journal | title=ERA-experiment "space biochemistry" | journal=Advances in Space Research | volume=16 | issue=8 | year= 1995 |pages=119–129 |doi=10.1016/0273-1177(95)00280-R | pmid=11542696| author1=Dose | first1=K. | last2=Bieger-Dose | first2=A. | last3=Dillmann | first3=R. | last4=Gill | first4=M. | last5=Kerz | first5=O. | last6=Klein | first6=A. | last7=Meinert | first7=H. | last8=Nawroth | first8=T. | last9=Risi | first9=S. | last10=Stridde | first10=C. | bibcode=1995AdSpR..16..119D | url=http://publications.ub.uni-mainz.de/opus/volltexte/2008/11364/pdf/11364.pdf }}</ref><ref name='Horneck'>{{cite journal | title=Biological responses to space: results of the experiment "Exobiological Unit" of ERA on EURECA I | journal=Adv. Space Res. | year=1995 | first1=Horneck G. |last1=Vaisberg |author2=Eschweiler, U. |author3=Reitz, G. |author4=Wehner, J. |author5=Willimek, R. |author6=Strauch, K. | volume=16 | issue=8 | pages=105–18| pmid=11542695 | bibcode=1995AdSpR..16..105V |doi=10.1016/0273-1177(95)00279-N}}</ref> On December 31, 2012, a [[NASA]]-supported study reported that [[manned spaceflight]] may harm the brain and accelerate the onset of [[Alzheimer's disease]].<ref name="PLOS-20121231">{{cite journal |last=Cherry |first=Jonathan D. |last2=Frost |first2=Jeffrey L. |last3=Lemere |first3=Cynthia A. |last4=Williams |first4=Jacqueline P. |last5=Olschowka |first5=John A. |last6=O'Banion |first6=M. Kerry |last7=Liu |first7=Bin |title=Galactic Cosmic Radiation Leads to Cognitive Impairment and Increased Aβ Plaque Accumulation in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease |url=http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0053275 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0053275 |volume=7 |page=e53275 |journal=[[PLoS ONE]] |accessdate=January 7, 2013 |issue=12 |year=2012 |editor1-last=Feinstein |editor1-first=Douglas L |pmid=23300905 |pmc=3534034|bibcode = 2012PLoSO...753275C }}</ref><ref name="SpaceRef-20130101">{{cite web |author=Staff |title=Study Shows that Space Travel is Harmful to the Brain and Could Accelerate Onset of Alzheimer's |url=http://spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=39650 |date=January 1, 2013 |publisher=SpaceRef |accessdate=January 7, 2013 }}</ref><ref name="NasaWatch-20130103">{{cite web |last=Cowing |first=Keith |authorlink=Keith Cowing |title=Important Research Results NASA Is Not Talking About (Update) |url=http://nasawatch.com/archives/2013/01/important-resea.html |date=January 3, 2013 |publisher=NASA Watch |accessdate=January 7, 2013 }}</ref> In October 2015, the [[NASA Office of Inspector General]] issued a [[Effect of spaceflight on the human body|health hazards report]] related to [[human space exploration|space exploration]], including a [[human mission to Mars]].<ref name="AP-20151029">{{cite news |last=Dunn |first=Marcia |title=Report: NASA needs better handle on health hazards for Mars |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151029/us-sci-space-travel-health-6dfd5b2c76.html |date=October 29, 2015 |work=[[AP News]] |accessdate=October 30, 2015 }}</ref><ref name="NASA-20151029oig">{{cite web |author=Staff |title=NASA's Efforts to Manage Health and Human Performance Risks for Space Exploration (IG-16-003) |url=https://oig.nasa.gov/audits/reports/FY16/IG-16-003.pdf |format=[[PDF]] |date=October 29, 2015 |work=[[NASA]] |accessdate=October 29, 2015 }}</ref> Over the last decade, flight surgeons and scientists at NASA have seen a pattern of vision problems in astronauts on long-duration space missions. The syndrome, known as visual impairment intracranial pressure (VIIP), has been reported in nearly two-thirds of space explorers after long periods spent aboard the International Space Station (ISS). On November 2, 2017, scientists reported that significant changes in the position and structure of the [[brain]] have been found in astronauts who have taken [[Human spaceflight|trips in space]], based on [[Magnetic resonance imaging|MRI studies]]. Astronauts who took longer space trips were associated with greater brain changes.<ref name="NEJM-20171102">{{cite journal |author=Roberts, Donna R. et al. |title=Effects of Spaceflight on Astronaut Brain Structure as Indicated on MRI |url=http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1705129 |date=2 November 2017 |journal=[[New England Journal of Medicine]] |volume=377 |pages=1746–1753 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1705129 |accessdate=4 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107151313/http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1705129 |archive-date=November 7, 2017 |dead-url=yes |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref name="QTZ-20171103">{{cite web |last=Foley |first=Katherine Ellen |title=Astronauts who take long trips to space return with brains that have floated to the top of their skulls |url=https://qz.com/1119668/space-travel-changes-astronauts-brains/ |date=3 November 2017 |work=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]] |accessdate=3 November 2017 }}</ref> Being in space can be physiologically deconditioning on the body. It can affect the otolith organs and adaptive capabilities of the central nervous system. Zero gravity and cosmic rays can cause many implications for astronauts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=YOUNG|first=LAURENCE R.|date=1999-05-01|title=Artificial Gravity Considerations for a Mars Exploration Mission|url=https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb09198.x|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=871|issue=1 OTOLITH FUNCT|pages=367–378|doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb09198.x|issn=1749-6632|bibcode=1999NYASA.871..367Y}}</ref> ==Food and drink== {{main|Space food}} An astronaut on the International Space Station requires about 0.83 kilograms (1.83 pounds) weight of food inclusive of food packaging per meal each day. (The packaging for each meal weighs around 0.12 kilograms - 0.27 pounds) Longer-duration missions require more food. Shuttle astronauts worked with nutritionists to select menus that appeal to their individual tastes. Five months before flight, menus are selected and analyzed for nutritional content by the shuttle dietician. Foods are tested to see how they will react in a reduced gravity environment. Caloric requirements are determined using a basal energy expenditure (BEE) formula. On Earth, the average American uses about 35 gallons (132 liters) of water every day. On board the ISS astronauts limit water use to only about three gallons (11 liters) per day.<ref>{{cite web|title=Human Needs: Sustaining Life During Exploration|url=http://www.nasa.gov/vision/earth/everydaylife/jamestown-needs-fs.html|website=www.nasa.gov}}</ref> ==Insignia== In Russia, cosmonauts are awarded [[Pilot-Cosmonaut of the Russian Federation]] upon completion of their missions, often accompanied with the award of [[Hero of the Russian Federation]]. This follows the practice established in the USSR where cosmonauts were usually awarded the title [[Hero of the Soviet Union]]. At NASA, those who complete astronaut candidate training receive a silver [[Astronaut Badge#NASA Astronaut Pins|lapel pin]]. Once they have flown in space, they receive a gold pin. U.S. astronauts who also have active-duty military status receive a special qualification badge, known as the [[Astronaut Badge]], after participation on a spaceflight. The [[United States Air Force]] also presents an Astronaut Badge to its pilots who exceed {{convert|50|mi|km}} in altitude. [[File:amf space mirror.jpg|right|thumb|Space Mirror Memorial]] ==Deaths== {{Main|List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents#Astronaut fatalities}} Eighteen astronauts (fourteen men and four women) have lost their lives during four space flights. By nationality, thirteen were American (including one born in India), four were Russian ([[Soviet Union]]), and one was Israeli. Eleven people (all men) have lost their lives training for spaceflight: eight Americans and three Russians. Six of these were in crashes of training jet aircraft, one drowned during water recovery training, and four were due to fires in pure oxygen environments. The [[Space Mirror Memorial]], which stands on the grounds of the [[John F. Kennedy Space Center]] Visitor Complex, commemorates the lives of the men and women who have died during spaceflight and during training in the space programs of the United States. In addition to twenty NASA career astronauts, the memorial includes the names of a [[U.S. Air Force]] [[X-15]] test pilot, a U.S. Air Force officer who died while training for a then-classified military space program, and a civilian [[spaceflight participant]]. ==See also== {{Portal|Spaceflight}} {{Columns-list|colwidth=30em| * [[Airman]] * [[Outer space#Boundary|Boundary of Space]] * [[Commercial astronaut]] * [[Cosmonautics Day]] * [[Fallen Astronaut]] * [[J-Wear]] * [[List of astronauts by name]] * [[List of astronauts by year of selection]] * [[List of cosmonauts]] * [[Lists of fictional astronauts]] * [[List of human spaceflights]] * [[List of space travelers by name]] * [[List of space travelers by nationality]] * [[Lists of spacewalks and moonwalks]] * [[Mercury 13]] - 13 inactive women astronauts * [[North American X-15]] program * [[Shirley Thomas (USC professor)|Shirley Thomas]] - author, ''Men of Space'' (1960–1968) * [[List of spaceflight records]] * [[Space food]] * [[Space suit]] * [[Timeline of space travel by nationality]] * [[U.S. space exploration history on U.S. stamps]] * [[United States Astronaut Hall of Fame]] * [[Women in space]] * [[Yuri's Night]] }} ==References== {{reflist|30em}} ==External links== {{Wiktionary|cosmonaut|spationaut|astronaut|taikonaut}} {{Commons category|Astronauts}} * https://www.nasa.gov/hrp/bodyinspace * [http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/outreach/jobsinfo/astronaut101.html NASA: How to become an astronaut 101] * [http://astronauts.nasa.gov/content/InternationalSpaceAgencies.htm List of International partnership organizations] * [http://www.astronautix.com/fam/phaonaut.htm Encyclopedia Astronautica: Phantom cosmonauts] * [http://www.collectspace.com/sightings/ collectSPACE: Astronaut appearances calendar] * [http://www.spacefacts.de/ spacefacts Spacefacts.de] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070208224003/http://space.kursknet.ru/cosmos/english/other/stat_kk.sht Manned astronautics: facts and figures] * [http://astronauts.nasa.gov/content/broch00.htm Astronaut Candidate Brochure online] {{Spaceflight}} {{Portal bar|Spaceflight|Space|Solar System|Astronomy}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Astronauts| ]] [[Category:Science occupations]] [[Category:1959 introductions]] h5jvt3howvfwmjym2eqa8oxvxhbg90h 0 665 861469193 861416976 2018-09-27T17:16:54Z Willondon 7196877 Undid revision 861416976 by [[Special:Contributions/103.24.77.52|103.24.77.52]] ([[User talk:103.24.77.52|talk]]); changes quoted material wikitext text/x-wiki {{EngvarB|date=October 2017}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2017}} {{Infobox book | name = A Modest Proposal | image = File:A Modest Proposal 1729 Cover.jpg | author = [[Jonathan Swift]] | subject = | genre = [[Satire|Satirical essay]] | pub_date = 1729 }} '''''A Modest Proposal For preventing the Children of Poor People From being a Burthen to Their Parents or Country, and For making them Beneficial to the Publick<!-- NOTE: This is the original spelling. Please do not modify it. Thank you. -->''''',<ref name="gutenberg">{{cite web | url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/1080/1080-h/1080-h.htm | title=A Modest Proposal, by Dr. Jonathan Swift | publisher=[[Project Gutenberg]] | date=27 July 2008 | accessdate=10 January 2012}}</ref> commonly referred to as '''''A Modest Proposal''''', is a [[Satire#Juvenalian|Juvenalian satirical]] essay written and published anonymously by [[Jonathan Swift]] in 1729. The essay suggests that the impoverished Irish might ease their economic troubles by selling their children as food for rich gentlemen and ladies. This satirical [[hyperbole]] mocked heartless attitudes towards the poor, as well as [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] policy toward the Irish in general. The primary target of Swift's satire was the rationalism of modern economics, and the growth of rationalistic modes of thinking in modern life at the expense of more traditional human values. In English writing, the phrase "a [[wikt:modest proposal|modest proposal]]" is now conventionally an allusion to this style of straight-faced satire. ==Synopsis== This essay is widely held to be one of the greatest examples of sustained irony in the history of the English language. Much of its shock value derives from the fact that the first portion of the essay describes the plight of starving beggars in Ireland, so that the reader is unprepared for the surprise of Swift's solution when he states: "A young healthy child well nursed, is, at a year old, a most delicious nourishing and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a [[fricassee]], or a [[ragout]]."<ref name="gutenberg" /> Swift goes to great lengths to support his argument, including a list of possible preparation styles for the children, and calculations showing the financial benefits of his suggestion. He uses methods of argument throughout his essay which lampoon the then-influential [[William Petty]] and the [[Social engineering (political science)|social engineering]] popular among followers of [[Francis Bacon]]. These lampoons include [[appeal to authority|appealing to the authority]] of "a very knowing American of my acquaintance in London" and "the famous [[George Psalmanazar|Psalmanazar]], a native of the island [[Taiwan|Formosa]]" (who had already confessed to ''not'' being from Formosa in 1706). In the tradition of Roman satire, Swift introduces the reforms he is actually suggesting by [[paralipsis]]: {{quote|Therefore let no man talk to me of other expedients: Of taxing our absentees at five shillings a pound: Of using neither clothes, nor household furniture, except what is of our own growth and manufacture: Of utterly rejecting the materials and instruments that promote foreign luxury: Of curing the expensiveness of pride, vanity, idleness, and gaming in our women: Of introducing a vein of parsimony, prudence and temperance: Of learning to love our country, wherein we differ even from [[Sami people|Laplanders]], and the [[Tupi people|inhabitants of Topinamboo]]: Of quitting our animosities and factions, nor acting any longer like the Jews, who were [[Zealot Temple Siege|murdering one another]] at the very moment [[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|their city was taken]]: Of being a little cautious not to sell our country and consciences for nothing: Of teaching landlords to have at least one degree of mercy towards their tenants. Lastly, of putting a spirit of honesty, industry, and skill into our shop-keepers, who, if a resolution could now be taken to buy only our native goods, would immediately unite to cheat and exact upon us in the price, the measure, and the goodness, nor could ever yet be brought to make one fair proposal of just dealing, though often and earnestly invited to it. Therefore I repeat, let no man talk to me of these and the like expedients, 'till he hath at least some glympse of hope, that there will ever be some hearty and sincere attempt to put them into practice.}} ==Population solutions== George Wittkowsky argued that Swift’s main target in ''A Modest Proposal'' was not the conditions in Ireland, but rather the can-do spirit of the times that led people to devise a number of illogical schemes that would purportedly solve social and economic ills.<ref name="Wittkowsky_p76">Wittkowsky, ''Swift’s Modest Proposal'', p76</ref> Swift was especially attacking projects that tried to fix population and labour issues with a simple cure-all solution.<ref name="Wittkowsky_p85">Wittkowsky, ''Swift’s Modest Proposal'', p85</ref> A memorable example of these sorts of schemes "involved the idea of running the poor through a [[joint-stock company]]".<ref name="Wittkowsky_p85"/> In response, Swift's ''Modest Proposal'' was "a burlesque of projects concerning the poor"<ref name="Wittkowsk_p88">Wittkowsky, ''Swift's Modest Proposal'', p88</ref> that were in vogue during the early 18th century. ''A Modest Proposal'' also targets the calculating way people perceived the poor in designing their projects. The pamphlet targets reformers who "regard people as commodities".<ref name="Wittkowsky_p101">Wittkowsky, ''Swift's Modest Proposal'', p101</ref> In the piece, Swift adopts the "technique of a political arithmetician"<ref name="Wittkowsky_p95">Wittkowsky, ''Swift's Modest Proposal'', p95</ref> to show the utter ridiculousness of trying to prove any proposal with dispassionate statistics. Critics differ about Swift's intentions in using this faux-mathematical philosophy. Edmund Wilson argues that statistically "the logic of the 'Modest proposal' can be compared with defence of crime (arrogated to [[Karl Marx|Marx]]) in which he argues that crime takes care of the superfluous population".<ref name="Wittkowsky_p95"/> Wittkowsky counters that Swift's satiric use of statistical analysis is an effort to enhance his satire that "springs from a spirit of bitter mockery, not from the delight in calculations for their own sake".<ref name="Wittkowsky_p98">Wittkowsky, ''Swift's Modest Proposal'', p98</ref> ==Rhetoric== Charles K. Smith argues that Swift's rhetorical style persuades the reader to detest the speaker and pity the Irish. Swift's specific strategy is twofold, using a "trap"<ref name="Smith_p135">Smith, ''Toward a Participatory Rhetoric'', p. 135</ref> to create sympathy for the Irish and a dislike of the narrator who, in the span of one sentence, "details vividly and with rhetorical emphasis the grinding poverty" but feels emotion solely for members of his own class.<ref name="Smith_p136">Smith, ''Toward a Participatory Rhetoric'', p. 136</ref> Swift's use of gripping details of poverty and his narrator's cool approach towards them create "two opposing points of view" that "alienate the reader, perhaps unconsciously, from a narrator who can view with 'melancholy' detachment a subject that Swift has directed us, rhetorically, to see in a much less detached way."<ref name="Smith_p136"/> Swift has his proposer further degrade the Irish by using language ordinarily reserved for animals. Lewis argues that the speaker uses "the vocabulary of animal husbandry"<ref name="Smith_p138">Smith, ''Toward a Participatory Rhetoric'', p. 138</ref> to describe the Irish. Once the children have been commodified, Swift's rhetoric can easily turn "people into animals, then meat, and from meat, logically, into tonnage worth a price per pound".<ref name="Smith_p138"/> Swift uses the proposer's serious tone to highlight the absurdity of his proposal. In making his argument, the speaker uses the conventional, textbook-approved order of argument from Swift's time (which was derived from the Latin rhetorician [[Quintilian]]).<ref name="Smith_p139">Smith, ''Toward a Participatory Rhetoric'', p. 139</ref> The contrast between the "careful control against the almost inconceivable perversion of his scheme" and "the ridiculousness of the proposal" create a situation in which the reader has "to consider just what perverted values and assumptions would allow such a diligent, thoughtful, and conventional man to propose so perverse a plan".<ref name="Smith_p139"/> ==Influences== Scholars have speculated about which earlier works Swift may have had in mind when he wrote ''A Modest Proposal''. ===Tertullian's ''Apology''=== James Johnson argued that ''A Modest Proposal'' was largely influenced and inspired by [[Tertullian]]'s ''[[Apologeticus|Apology]]'': a satirical attack against early Roman persecution of Christianity. James William Johnson believes that Swift saw major similarities between the two situations.<ref name="Johnson_p563">Johnson, ''Tertullian and A Modest Proposal'', p563</ref> Johnson notes Swift's obvious affinity for Tertullian and the bold stylistic and structural similarities between the works ''A Modest Proposal'' and ''Apology''.<ref name="Johnson_p562">Johnson, ''Tertullian and A Modest Proposal'', p562</ref> In structure, Johnson points out the same central theme, that of cannibalism and the eating of babies as well as the same final argument, that "human depravity is such that men will attempt to justify their own cruelty by accusing their victims of being lower than human".<ref name="Johnson_p563"/> Stylistically, Swift and Tertullian share the same command of sarcasm and language.<ref name="Johnson_p563"/> In agreement with Johnson, Donald C. Baker points out the similarity between both authors' tones and use of irony. Baker notes the uncanny way that both authors imply an ironic "justification by ownership" over the subject of sacrificing children—Tertullian while attacking pagan parents, and Swift while attacking the English mistreatment of the Irish poor.<ref name="Baker_p219">Baker, ''Tertullian and Swift's A Modest Proposal'', p219</ref> ===Defoe's ''The Generous Projector''=== It has also been argued that ''A Modest Proposal'' was, at least in part, a response to the 1728 essay ''The Generous Projector or, A Friendly Proposal to Prevent Murder and Other Enormous Abuses, By Erecting an Hospital for Foundlings and Bastard Children'' by Swift's rival [[Daniel Defoe]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.montrealmirror.com/2009/021909/books1.html | title=A modest but failed proposal | work=[[Montreal Mirror]] | date=19 February 2009 | accessdate=10 January 2012 | last=Waters | first=Juliet}}</ref> === Mandeville's ''Modest Defence of Publick Stews'' === [[Bernard Mandeville]]'s ''Modest Defence of Publick Stews'' asked to introduce public and state controlled [[bordello]]s. The 1726 paper acknowledges women's interests and{{snd}}while not being a complete satirical text{{snd}}has also been discussed as an inspiration for Jonathan Swift's title.<ref name="hur">Eine Streitschrift…, Essay von Ursula Pia Jauch. Carl Hanser Verlag, München 2001.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2V_HAAAAQBAJ |title=Bernard Mandeville's "A Modest Defence of Publick Stews": Prostitution and Its Discontents in Early Georgian England |last=Primer |first=I. |date=15 March 2006 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9781403984609}}</ref> Mandeville had by 1705 already become famous for the [[The Fable of the Bees|Fable of The Bees]] and deliberations on private vices and public benefits. === John Locke's ''First Treatise of Government'' === [[John Locke|Locke]] commented: "Be it then as Sir Robert says, that Anciently, it was usual for Men to sell and Castrate their Children. Let it be, that they exposed them; Add to it, if you please, for this is still greater Power, ''that they begat them for their Tables to fat and eat them'': If this proves a right to do so, we may, by the same Argument, justifie Adultery, Incest and Sodomy, for there are examples of these too, both Ancient and Modern; Sins, which I suppose, have the Principle Aggravation from this, that they cross the main intention of Nature, which willeth the increase of Mankind, and the continuation of the Species in the highest perfection, and the distinction of Families, with the Security of the Marriage Bed, as necessary thereunto". (First Treatise, sec. 59). ==Economic themes== Robert Phiddian's article "Have you eaten yet? The Reader in A Modest Proposal" focuses on two aspects of ''A Modest Proposal'': the voice of Swift and the voice of the Proposer. Phiddian stresses that a reader of the pamphlet must learn to distinguish between the satirical voice of Jonathan Swift and the apparent economic projections of the Proposer. He reminds readers that "there is a gap between the narrator's meaning and the text's, and that a moral-political argument is being carried out by means of parody".<ref name="Phiddian_p6">Phiddian, ''Have You Eaten Yet?'', p6</ref> While Swift's proposal is obviously not a serious economic proposal, George Wittkowsky, author of "Swift's Modest Proposal: The Biography of an Early Georgian Pamphlet", argues that to understand the piece fully it is important to understand the economics of Swift’s time. Wittowsky argues that not enough critics have taken the time to focus directly on the mercantilism and theories of labour in 18th century England. "[I]f one regards the ''Modest Proposal'' simply as a criticism of condition, about all one can say is that conditions were bad and that Swift's irony brilliantly underscored this fact".<ref name="Phiddian_p3">Phiddian, ''Have You Eaten Yet?'', p3</ref> ==="People are the riches of a nation"=== At the start of a new industrial age in the 18th century, it was believed that "people are the riches of the nation", and there was a general faith in an economy that paid its workers low wages because high wages meant workers would work less.<ref name="Phiddian_p4">Phiddian, ''Have You Eaten Yet?'', p4</ref> Furthermore, "in the mercantilist view no child was too young to go into industry". In those times, the "somewhat more humane attitudes of an earlier day had all but disappeared and the laborer had come to be regarded as a commodity".<ref name="Phiddian_p6"/> Landa composed a conducive analysis when he noted that it would have been healthier for the Irish economy to more appropriately utilize their human assets by giving the people an opportunity to “become a source of wealth to the nation” or else they “must turn to begging and thievery” <ref name="Landa_p161" />. This opportunity may have included giving the farmers more coin to work for, diversifying their professions, or even consider enslaving their people to lower coin usage and build up financial stock in Ireland. Landa wrote that, "Swift is maintaining that the maxim—people are the riches of a nation—applies to Ireland only if Ireland is permitted slavery or cannibalism" <ref name="Landa_p165" /> Louis A. Landa presents Swift's ''A Modest Proposal'' as a critique of the popular and unjustified maxim of mercantilism in the 18th century that "people are the riches of a nation".<ref name="Landa_p161">Landa, ''A Modest Proposal and Populousness'', p161</ref> Swift presents the dire state of Ireland and shows that mere population itself, in Ireland's case, did not always mean greater wealth and economy.<ref name="Landa_p165">Landa, ''A Modest Proposal and Populousness'', p165</ref> The uncontrolled maxim fails to take into account that a person who does not produce in an economic or political way makes a country poorer, not richer.<ref name="Landa_p165" /> Swift also recognises the implications of this fact in making mercantilist philosophy a paradox: the wealth of a country is based on the poverty of the majority of its citizens.<ref name="Landa_p165" /> Swift however, Landa argues, is not merely criticising economic maxims but also addressing the fact that England was denying Irish citizens their natural rights and dehumanising them by viewing them as a mere commodity.<ref name="Landa_p165" /> == The public's reaction == Swift's writings created a backlash within the community after its publication. The work was aimed at the aristocracy, and they responded in turn. Several members of society wrote to Swift regarding the work. [[Allen Bathurst, 1st Earl Bathurst|Lord Bathurst]]'s letter intimated that he certainly understood the message, and interpreted it as a work of comedy: February 12, 1729-30:<blockquote>"I did immediately propose it to Lady Bathurst, as your advice, particularly for her last boy, which was born the plumpest, finest thing, that could be seen; but she fell in a passion, and bid me send you word, that she would not follow your direction, but that she would breed him up to be a parson, and he should live upon the fat of the land; or a lawyer, and then, instead of being eat himself, he should devour others. You know women in passion never mind what they say; but, as she is a very reasonable woman, I have almost brought her over now to your opinion; and having convinced her, that as matters stood, we could not possibly maintain all the nine, she does begin to think it reasonable the youngest should raise fortunes for the eldest: and upon that foot a man may perforin family duty with more courage and zeal; for, if he should happen to get twins, the selling of one might provide for the other. Or if, by any accident, while his wife lies in with one child, he should get a second upon the body of another woman, he might dispose of the fattest of the two, and that would help to breed up the other.</blockquote><blockquote>The more I think upon this scheme, the more reasonable it appears to me; and it ought by no means to be confined to Ireland; for, in all probability, we shall, in a very little time, be altogether as poor here as you are there. I believe, indeed, we shall carry it farther, and not confine our luxury only to the eating of children; for I happened to peep the other day into a large assembly [Parliament] not far from Westminster-hall, and I found them roasting a great fat fellow, [Walpole again] For my own part, I had not the least inclination to a slice of him; but, if I guessed right, four or five of the company had a devilish mind to be at him. Well, adieu, you begin now to wish I had ended, when I might have done it so conveniently".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=HkEUAAAAYAAJ&rdid=book-HkEUAAAAYAAJ&rdot=1|title=The Works of Jonathan Swift: Containing Additional Letters, Tracts, and Poems Not Hitherto Published; with Notes and a Life of the Author|last=Swift|first=Jonathan|last2=Scott|first2=Sir Walter|date=1814|publisher=A. Constable|language=en}}</ref></blockquote> ==Modern usage== ''A Modest Proposal'' is included in many literature courses as an example of [[Satire#Early modern western satire|early modern western satire]]. It also serves as an exceptional introduction to the concept and use of argumentative language, lending itself well to secondary and post-secondary essay courses. Outside of the realm of English studies, ''A Modest Proposal'' is included in many comparative and global literature and history courses, as well as those of numerous other disciplines in the arts, humanities, and even the social sciences. The essay's approach has been copied many times. In his book ''A Modest Proposal'' (1984), the evangelical author [[Frank Schaeffer]] emulated Swift's work in a social conservative polemic against abortion and [[euthanasia]], imagining a future [[dystopia]] that advocates [[recycling]] of aborted [[embryos]], [[fetuses]], and some disabled infants with compound intellectual, physical and physiological difficulties. (Such [[Baby Doe Rules]] cases were then a major concern of the US [[pro-life]] movement of the early 1980s, which viewed selective treatment of those infants as [[disability discrimination]]). In his book ''A Modest Proposal for America'' (2013), statistician [[Howard Friedman]] opens with a satirical reflection of the extreme drive to fiscal stability by ultra-conservatives. In the 1998 edition of [[The Handmaid's Tale|A Handmaid's Tale]] by [[Margaret Atwood]] there is a quote from ''A Modest Proposal'' before the introduction.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Handmaid's Tale|url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/38447.The_Handmaid_s_Tale|website=www.goodreads.com}}</ref> ''A Modest Video Game Proposal'' is the title of an open letter sent by activist/former attorney [[Jack Thompson (activist)|Jack Thompson]] on 10 October 2005. He proposed that someone should "create, manufacture, distribute, and sell a video game" that would allow players to act out a scenario in which the game character kills video game developers.^{[[A Modest Video Game Proposal#cite note-ModestProposal-1|[1]]]} [[Hunter S. Thompson]]'s ''[[Fear and Loathing in America|Fear and Loathing in America: The Brutal Odyssey of an Outlaw Journalist]] includes'' a letter in which he uses Swift's approach in connection with the [[Vietnam War]]. Thompson writes a letter to a local [[Aspen, Colorado|Aspen]] newspaper informing them that, on Christmas Eve, he was going to use [[napalm]] to burn a number of dogs and hopefully any humans they find. The letter protests against the burning of Vietnamese people occurring overseas.{{cn|date=October 2017}} The 2012 film ''Butcher Boys,'' written by [[Kim Henkel]], is said{{By whom|date=April 2018}} to be loosely based on Jonathan Swift's ''A Modest Proposal.'' The film's opening scene takes place in a restaurant named "J. Swift's". On November 30, 2017, Jonathan Swift's 350th birthday, [[The Washington Post]] published a column entitled 'Why Alabamians should consider eating Democrats' babies", by the humorous columnist [[Alexandra Petri]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/compost/wp/2017/11/30/why-alabamians-should-consider-eating-democrat-babies/|last=Petri|first=Alexandra|title=Why Alabamians should consider eating Democrats' babies|work=The Washington Post|date=November 30, 2017|accessdate=November 30, 2017}}</ref> ==Notes== {{Reflist}} ==References== * {{citation | last = Baker | first = Donald C | title = Tertullian and Swift's ''A Modest Proposal'' | journal = The Classical Journal | volume = 52 | year = 1957 | pages = 219–220}} * {{citation | last = Johnson | first = James William | title = Tertullian and ''A Modest Proposal'' | journal = Modern Language and Notes | volume = 73 | year = 1958 | pages = 561–563 | doi = 10.2307/3043246 | issue = 8 | jstor = 3043246 | publisher = The Johns Hopkins University Press }} (subscription needed) * {{citation | last = Landa | first = Louis A | title = ''A Modest Proposal'' and Populousness | journal = Modern Philology | volume = 40 | year = 1942 | issue = 2 | pages = 161–170 | doi = 10.1086/388567}} * {{citation | last = Phiddian | first = Robert | title = Have You Eaten Yet? The Reader in ''A Modest Proposal'' | journal = Studies in English Literature, 1500–1900 | pages = 603–621 | volume = 36 | issue = 3 | year = 1996 | doi = 10.2307/450801 | jstor = 450801 | publisher = Rice University| hdl = 2328/746 | hdl-access = free }} * {{citation | last = Smith | first = Charles Kay | title = Toward a Participatory Rhetoric: Teaching Swift's ''Modest Proposal'' | journal = College English | volume = 30 | issue = 2 | year = 1968 | pages = 135–149 | doi = 10.2307/374449 | jstor = 374449 | publisher = National Council of Teachers of English| url = https://www.academia.edu/12612028 }} * {{citation | last = Wittkowsky | first = George | title = Swift's ''Modest Proposal'': The Biography of an Early Georgian Pamphlet | journal = Journal of the History of Ideas | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | year = 1943 | pages = 75–104 | doi = 10.2307/2707237 | jstor = 2707237 | publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press}} ==External links== {{wikisource|A Modest Proposal}} * [http://www.ucc.ie/celt/online/E700001-022 ''A Modest Proposal'' (CELT)] * [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1080 ''A Modest Proposal'' (Gutenberg)] * ''[https://www.owleyes.org/text/modest-proposal A Modest Proposal] -'' Annotated text aligned to Common Core Standards * {{librivox book | title= A Modest Proposal | author=H. Jonathan Swift}} * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00h3650 ''A Modest Proposal''] BBC Radio 4 ''[[In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)|In Our Time]]'' with [[Melvyn Bragg]] * '[https://books.google.com/books?id=t1MJAAAAQAAJ ''A modest proposal For preventing the children of poor people From being a Burthen to their Parents or the Country, And for making them Beneficial to the publick'']. The Third Edition, Dublin, Printed: And Reprinted at London, for Weaver Bickerton, in Devereux-Court near the Middle-Temple, 1730. * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AdB_WqIB8ik ' Proposal to eat the children'] a short movie based upon Swift's novel. {{Jonathan Swift|state=expanded}} {{Population}} {{authoritycontrol}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Modest Proposal, A}} [[Category:Essays by Jonathan Swift]] [[Category:Satirical works]] [[Category:Pamphlets]] [[Category:18th-century essays]] [[Category:Works published anonymously]] [[Category:British satire]] [[Category:1729 in Great Britain]] [[Category:Cannibalism in fiction]] [[Category:1729 books]] aakzqayarqz86jw9003ajd5r52mgoiz 0 666 859111653 859111611 2018-09-11T20:00:19Z Thine Antique Pen 12529706 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contribs/2600:387:1:811:0:0:0:82|2600:387:1:811:0:0:0:82]] ([[User talk:2600:387:1:811:0:0:0:82|talk]]) to last version by Thine Antique Pen wikitext text/x-wiki {{Good article}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2012}} {{Periodic table (alkali metals)}} The '''alkali metals''' are a [[group (periodic table)|group]] (column) in the [[periodic table]] consisting of the [[chemical element]]s [[lithium]] (Li), [[sodium]] (Na), [[potassium]] (K),<ref group=note>The symbols '''Na''' and '''K''' for sodium and potassium are derived from their Latin names, ''natrium'' and ''kalium''; these are still the names for the elements in some languages, such as German and Russian.</ref> [[rubidium]] (Rb), [[caesium]] (Cs),{{refn|''Caesium'' is the spelling recommended by the [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]] (IUPAC).<ref>{{RedBook2005|pages=248–49}}.</ref> The [[American Chemical Society]] (ACS) has used the spelling ''cesium'' since 1921,<ref>{{cite book |editor1-first= Anne M. |editor1-last= Coghill |editor2-first= Lorrin R. |editor2-last= Garson |year= 2006 |title= The ACS Style Guide: Effective Communication of Scientific Information |edition= 3rd |publisher= American Chemical Society |location= Washington, D.C. |isbn= 0-8412-3999-1 |page= 127}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |journal=Pure Appl. Chem. |volume=70 |issue=1 |last1=Coplen |pages= 237–257 |year= 1998 |first1=T. B. |url= http://old.iupac.org/reports/1998/7001coplen/history.pdf |last2=Peiser |first2=H. S. |title= History of the recommended atomic-weight values from 1882 to 1997: a comparison of differences from current values to the estimated uncertainties of earlier values |doi= 10.1351/pac199870010237}}</ref> following ''Webster’s Third New International Dictionary''.|group=note}} and [[francium]] (Fr). This group lies in the [[s-block]] of the periodic table of elements as all alkali metals have their outermost electron in an [[atomic orbital|s-orbital]]: this shared electron configuration results in their having very similar characteristic properties. Indeed, the alkali metals provide the best example of [[periodic trends|group trends]] in properties in the periodic table, with elements exhibiting well-characterised [[homology (chemistry)|homologous]] behaviour. The alkali metals are all shiny, [[hardness|soft]], highly [[reactivity (chemistry)|reactive]] metals at [[standard temperature and pressure]] and readily lose their [[valence electron|outermost electron]] to form [[cation]]s with [[electric charge|charge]] +1. They can all be cut easily with a knife due to their softness, exposing a shiny surface that tarnishes rapidly in air due to [[redox|oxidation]] by atmospheric moisture and [[oxygen]] (and in the case of lithium, [[nitrogen]]). Because of their high reactivity, they must be stored under oil to prevent reaction with air, and are found naturally only in [[salt (chemistry)|salts]] and never as the free elements. Caesium, the fifth alkali metal, is the most reactive of all the metals.<!--YES, NOT FRANCIUM. SEE BELOW.--> In the modern [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry|IUPAC]] nomenclature, the alkali metals comprise the '''group 1 elements''',{{refn|In both the old IUPAC and the [[Chemical Abstracts Service|CAS]] systems for group numbering, this group is known as '''group IA''' (pronounced as "group one A", as the "I" is a [[Roman numeral]]).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fluck |first1=E. |year=1988 |title=New Notations in the Periodic Table |journal=[[Pure and Applied Chemistry|Pure Appl. Chem.]] |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=431–436 |publisher=[[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry|IUPAC]] |doi=10.1351/pac198860030431 |url=http://www.iupac.org/publications/pac/1988/pdf/6003x0431.pdf |accessdate=24 March 2012}}</ref>|name=group-numbering|group=note}} excluding [[hydrogen]] (H), which is nominally a group 1 element but not normally considered to be an alkali metal as it rarely exhibits behaviour comparable to that of the alkali metals. All the alkali metals react with water, with the heavier alkali metals reacting more vigorously than the lighter ones. All of the discovered alkali metals occur in nature as their compounds: in order of [[abundance of the chemical elements|abundance]], sodium is the most abundant, followed by potassium, lithium, rubidium, caesium, and finally francium, which is very rare due to its extremely high [[radioactivity]]; francium occurs only in the minutest [[trace radioisotope|traces]] in nature as an intermediate step in some obscure side branches of the natural [[decay chain]]s. Experiments have been conducted to attempt the synthesis of [[ununennium]] (Uue), which is likely to be the next member of the group, but they have all met with failure. However, ununennium may not be an alkali metal due to [[relativistic quantum chemistry|relativistic effects]], which are predicted to have a large influence on the chemical properties of [[superheavy element]]s; even if it does turn out to be an alkali metal, it is predicted to have some differences in physical and chemical properties from its lighter homologues. Most alkali metals have many different applications. One of the best-known applications of the pure elements is the use of rubidium and caesium in [[atomic clock]]s, of which caesium atomic clocks are the most accurate and precise representation of time. A common application of the compounds of sodium is the [[sodium-vapour lamp]], which emits light very efficiently. [[Salt|Table salt]], or sodium chloride, has been used since antiquity. Sodium and potassium are also [[essential element]]s, having major biological roles as [[electrolyte]]s, and although the other alkali metals are not essential, they also have various effects on the body, both beneficial and harmful. __TOC__ {{clear left}} == History == [[File:Petalite.jpg|thumb|alt=A sample of petalite|[[Petalite]], the lithium mineral from which lithium was first isolated]] Sodium compounds have been known since ancient times; salt ([[sodium chloride]]) has been an important commodity in human activities, as testified by the English word ''salary'', referring to ''salarium'', money paid to Roman soldiers for the purchase of salt.<ref>{{cite web |title=Salary|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=salary|accessdate=20 July 2015}}</ref> While [[potash]] has been used since ancient times, it was not understood for most of its history to be a fundamentally different substance from sodium mineral salts. [[Georg Ernst Stahl]] obtained experimental evidence which led him to suggest the fundamental difference of sodium and potassium salts in 1702,<ref name="1702Suspect">{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=b-ATAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA167|page= 167|title= Chymische Schriften|last1= Marggraf|first= Andreas Siegmund|year= 1761}}</ref> and [[Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau]] was able to prove this difference in 1736.<ref>{{cite journal |url= http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3533j/f73.image.r=Memoires%20de%20l%27Academie%20royale%20des%20Sciences.langEN|journal= Memoires de l'Academie royale des Sciences |title= Sur la Base de Sel Marine |last= du Monceau|first= H. L. D. |pages= 65–68 |language= French}}</ref> The exact chemical composition of potassium and sodium compounds, and the status as chemical element of potassium and sodium, was not known then, and thus [[Antoine Lavoisier]] did not include either alkali in his list of chemical elements in 1789.<ref name="weeks">{{cite journal |doi= 10.1021/ed009p1035|title= The discovery of the elements. IX. Three alkali metals: Potassium, sodium, and lithium|year= 1932|last1= Weeks|first1= Mary Elvira|authorlink1=Mary Elvira Weeks|journal= Journal of Chemical Education|volume= 9|issue= 6|page= 1035|bibcode= 1932JChEd...9.1035W}}</ref><ref name="disco">{{cite journal |jstor= 228541|pages= 247–258|last1= Siegfried|first1= R.|title= The Discovery of Potassium and Sodium, and the Problem of the Chemical Elements|volume= 54|issue= 2|journal= Isis|year= 1963|doi= 10.1086/349704}}</ref> Pure potassium was first isolated in 1807 in England by Sir [[Humphry Davy]], who derived it from [[Potassium hydroxide|caustic potash]] (KOH, potassium hydroxide) by the use of electrolysis of the molten salt with the newly invented [[voltaic pile]]. Previous attempts at electrolysis of the aqueous salt were unsuccessful due to potassium's extreme reactivity.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|68}} Potassium was the first metal that was isolated by electrolysis.<ref name=Enghag2004>{{cite book |last=Enghag|first=P.|year=2004|title=Encyclopedia of the elements|publisher=Wiley-VCH Weinheim|isbn=3-527-30666-8|chapter=11. Sodium and Potassium}}</ref> Later that same year, Davy reported extraction of sodium from the similar substance [[caustic soda]] (NaOH, lye) by a similar technique, demonstrating the elements, and thus the salts, to be different.<ref name="weeks" /><ref name="disco" /><ref name=Davy1807>{{cite journal |first=Humphry|last=Davy|title=On some new phenomena of chemical changes produced by electricity, in particular the decomposition of the fixed alkalies, and the exhibition of the new substances that constitute their bases; and on the general nature of alkaline bodies|pages=1–44|year=1808|volume=98|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London|url=https://books.google.com/?id=gpwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA57&q|doi=10.1098/rstl.1808.0001|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="200disco">{{cite journal |doi= 10.1134/S1061934807110160|title= History of the discovery of potassium and sodium (on the 200th anniversary of the discovery of potassium and sodium)|year= 2007|last1= Shaposhnik|first1= V. A.|journal= Journal of Analytical Chemistry|volume= 62|issue= 11|pages= 1100–1102}}</ref> [[File:Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner.jpg|thumb|150px|right|[[Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner]] was among the first to notice similarities between what are now known as the alkali metals.]] [[Petalite]] ([[Lithium|Li]] [[Aluminium|Al]] [[Silicon|Si]]₄[[Oxygen|O]]₁₀) was discovered in 1800 by the [[Brazil]]ian chemist [[José Bonifácio de Andrada]] in a mine on the island of [[Utö, Sweden]].<ref name=mindat>{{cite web |url=http://www.mindat.org/min-3171.html |title=Petalite: Petalite mineral information and data |last1=Ralph |first1=Jolyon |last2=Chau |first2=Ida |date=24 August 2011 |accessdate=27 November 2011}}</ref><ref name=webelementshistory>{{cite web |url=http://www.webelements.com/lithium/history.html|title=WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements {{pipe}} Lithium {{pipe}} historical information |last=Winter |first=Mark |accessdate=27 November 2011}}</ref><ref name=discovery>{{cite book |title=Discovery of the Elements |last=Weeks |first=Mary|year=2003 |page=124 |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |location=Whitefish, Montana, United States |isbn=0-7661-3872-0 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=SJIk9BPdNWcC|accessdate=10 August 2009}}</ref> However, it was not until 1817 that [[Johan August Arfwedson]], then working in the laboratory of the chemist [[Jöns Jacob Berzelius]], [[discovery of the chemical elements|detected]] the presence of a new element while analysing petalite [[ore]].<ref name=uwis>{{cite web |url=http://genchem.chem.wisc.edu/lab/PTL/PTL/BIOS/arfwdson.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080605152857/http://genchem.chem.wisc.edu/lab/PTL/PTL/BIOS/arfwdson.htm |archivedate=5 June 2008 |title=Johan Arfwedson |accessdate=10 August 2009}}</ref><ref name=vanderkrogt>{{cite web |publisher= Elementymology & Elements Multidict|title= Lithium |first= Peter|last= van der Krogt|url= http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=Li|accessdate= 5 October 2010}}</ref> This new element was noted by him to form compounds similar to those of sodium and potassium, though its [[lithium carbonate|carbonate]] and [[lithium hydroxide|hydroxide]] were less [[solubility|soluble in water]] and more [[Base (chemistry)|alkaline]] than the other alkali metals.<ref name=compounds>{{cite web |url=http://www.chemguide.co.uk/inorganic/group1/compounds.html|title=Compounds of the Group 1 Elements |accessdate=10 August 2009 |last=Clark |first=Jim |year=2005 |work=chemguide}}</ref> Berzelius gave the unknown material the name "''lithion''/''lithina''", from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word ''λιθoς'' (transliterated as ''lithos'', meaning "stone"), to reflect its discovery in a solid mineral, as opposed to potassium, which had been discovered in plant ashes, and sodium, which was known partly for its high abundance in animal blood. He named the metal inside the material "''lithium''".<ref name=krebs>{{cite book |last= Krebs|first= Robert E.|year= 2006|title= The History and Use of Our Earth's Chemical Elements: A Reference Guide|publisher= Greenwood Press|location= Westport, Conn.|isbn= 0-313-33438-2}}</ref><ref name=webelementshistory /><ref name=vanderkrogt /> Lithium, sodium, and potassium were part of the discovery of [[periodic table|periodicity]], as they are among a series of triads of elements in the same [[group (periodic table)|group]] that were noted by [[Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner]] in 1850 as having similar properties.<ref name="meta-synthesis2" /> [[File:Lepidolite-76774.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=A sample of lepidolite|[[Lepidolite]], the rubidium mineral from which rubidium was first isolated]] Rubidium and caesium were the first elements to be discovered using the [[spectroscope]], invented in 1859 by [[Robert Bunsen]] and [[Gustav Kirchhoff]].<ref name="caesium">{{cite web |url=http://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/print/cesium.html |title=C&EN: It's Elemental: The Periodic Table – Cesium |publisher=American Chemical Society|accessdate=25 February 2010|last=Kaner|first=Richard|year= 2003}}</ref> The next year, they discovered caesium in the [[mineral water]] from [[Bad Dürkheim]], Germany. Their discovery of rubidium came the following year in [[Heidelberg]], Germany, finding it in the mineral [[lepidolite]].<ref name="BuKi1861">{{cite journal |title= Chemische Analyse durch Spectralbeobachtungen |pages= 337–381 |first1= G.|last1= Kirchhoff |first2= R.|last2= Bunsen|authorlink1= Gustav Kirchhoff|authorlink2= Robert Bunsen|doi= 10.1002/andp.18611890702 |journal= [[Annalen der Physik]] und Chemie |volume= 189 |issue= 7|year= 1861 |bibcode=1861AnP...189..337K}}</ref> The names of rubidium and caesium come from the most prominent lines in their [[emission spectrum|emission spectra]]: a bright red line for rubidium (from the [[Latin]] word ''rubidus'', meaning dark red or bright red), and a sky-blue line for caesium (derived from the Latin word ''caesius'', meaning sky-blue).<ref name="Weeks">{{cite journal |title= The discovery of the elements. XIII. Some spectroscopic discoveries |pages= 1413–1434|last= Weeks|first= Mary Elvira |authorlink=Mary Elvira Weeks|doi=10.1021/ed009p1413|journal= [[Journal of Chemical Education]] |volume= 9 |issue= 8 |year= 1932 |bibcode=1932JChEd...9.1413W}}</ref><ref>[[Oxford English Dictionary]], 2nd Edition</ref> Around 1865 [[John Alexander Reina Newlands|John Newlands]] produced a series of papers where he listed the elements in order of increasing atomic weight and similar physical and chemical properties that recurred at intervals of eight; he likened such periodicity to the [[octave]]s of music, where notes an octave apart have similar musical functions.<ref>{{cite journal |title= On Relations Among the Equivalents |last=Newlands|first=John A. R. |journal= Chemical News |volume= 10 |pages= 94–95 |date= 20 August 1864 |url=http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/EA/NEWLANDSann.HTML |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110101073248/http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/EA/NEWLANDSann.HTML |archivedate=1 January 2011 |accessdate=November 25, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title= On the Law of Octaves |last=Newlands|first=John A. R. |journal= Chemical News |volume= 12 |page= 83 |date= 18 August 1865 |url=http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/EA/NEWLANDSann.HTML |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110101073248/http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/EA/NEWLANDSann.HTML |archivedate=1 January 2011 |accessdate=November 25, 2013}}</ref> His version put all the alkali metals then known (lithium to caesium), as well as [[copper]], [[silver]], and [[thallium]] (which show the +1 oxidation state characteristic of the alkali metals), together into a group. His table placed hydrogen with the [[Halogen|halogens]].<ref name="meta-synthesis2" /> [[File:Mendelejevs periodiska system 1871.png|thumb|500px|[[Dmitri Mendeleev]]'s periodic system proposed in 1871 showing hydrogen and the alkali metals as part of his group I, along with copper, silver, and gold]] After 1869, [[Dmitri Mendeleev]] proposed his periodic table placing lithium at the top of a group with sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, and thallium.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mendelejew |first=Dimitri |year=1869 |title=Über die Beziehungen der Eigenschaften zu den Atomgewichten der Elemente |journal=Zeitschrift für Chemie |pages=405–406 |language=German}}</ref> Two years later, Mendeleev revised his table, placing hydrogen in group 1 above lithium, and also moving thallium to the [[boron group]]. In this 1871 version, copper, silver, and [[gold]] were placed twice, once as part of [[group 11 element|group IB]], and once as part of a "group VIII" encompassing today's groups [[group 8 element|8]] to 11.<ref name="Jensen">{{cite journal |last1=Jensen |first1=William B. |year=2003 |title=The Place of Zinc, Cadmium, and Mercury in the Periodic Table |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |volume=80 |issue=8 |pages=952–961 |publisher=[[American Chemical Society]] |doi=10.1021/ed080p952 |bibcode=2003JChEd..80..952J |url=http://www.che.uc.edu/jensen/W.%20B.%20Jensen/Reprints/091.%20Zn-Cd-Hg.pdf |accessdate=2012-05-06 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611152417/http://www.che.uc.edu/jensen/W.%20B.%20Jensen/Reprints/091.%20Zn-Cd-Hg.pdf |archivedate=11 June 2010 |df=dmy}}</ref><ref group="note">In the 1869 version of Mendeleev's periodic table, copper and silver were placed in their own group, aligned with hydrogen and [[mercury (element)|mercury]], while gold was tentatively placed under [[uranium]] and the undiscovered [[gallium|eka-aluminium]] in the [[boron group]].</ref> After the introduction of the 18-column table, the group IB elements were moved to their current position in the [[d-block]], while alkali metals were left in ''group IA''. Later the group's name was changed to ''group 1'' in 1988.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fluck |first1=E.|year=1988 |title=New Notations in the Periodic Table |journal=[[Pure and Applied Chemistry|Pure Appl. Chem.]]|volume=60|pages=431–436|publisher=[[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry|IUPAC]]|doi=10.1351/pac198860030431|url=http://www.iupac.org/publications/pac/1988/pdf/6003x0431.pdf|issue=3 |accessdate=November 25, 2013}}</ref> The [[trivial name]] "alkali metals" comes from the fact that the hydroxides of the group 1 elements are all strong [[alkali]]s when dissolved in water.<ref name=rsc /> There were at least four erroneous and incomplete discoveries<ref name="fontani">{{cite conference |first= Marco |last= Fontani |title= The Twilight of the Naturally-Occurring Elements: Moldavium (Ml), Sequanium (Sq) and Dor (Do) |booktitle= International Conference on the History of Chemistry |pages= 1–8 |date= 10 September 2005 |location= Lisbon|url= http://5ichc-portugal.ulusofona.pt/uploads/PaperLong-MarcoFontani.doc |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20060224090117/http://5ichc-portugal.ulusofona.pt/uploads/PaperLong-MarcoFontani.doc|archivedate=24 February 2006|accessdate= 8 April 2007}}</ref><ref name="vanderkrogt-Fr" /><ref>{{cite news |title= Alabamine & Virginium|work=TIME |date= 15 February 1932|url= http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,743159,00.html |accessdate= 1 April 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last= MacPherson |first= H. G. |title= An Investigation of the Magneto-Optic Method of Chemical Analysis |journal= Physical Review |volume= 47 |issue= 4 |pages= 310–315 |publisher= American Physical Society|year=1934|doi= 10.1103/PhysRev.47.310|bibcode= 1935PhRv...47..310M}}</ref> before [[Marguerite Perey]] of the [[Curie Institute (Paris)|Curie Institute]] in Paris, France discovered francium in 1939 by purifying a sample of [[actinium-227]], which had been reported to have a decay energy of 220&nbsp;[[electronvolt|keV]]. However, Perey noticed decay particles with an energy level below 80&nbsp;keV. Perey thought this decay activity might have been caused by a previously unidentified decay product, one that was separated during purification, but emerged again out of the pure [[actinium]]-227. Various tests eliminated the possibility of the unknown element being [[thorium]], [[radium]], [[lead]], [[bismuth]], or [[thallium]]. The new product exhibited chemical properties of an alkali metal (such as coprecipitating with caesium salts), which led Perey to believe that it was element 87, caused by the [[alpha decay]] of actinium-227.<ref name="chemeducator">Adloff, Jean-Pierre; Kaufman, George B. (2005-09-25). [http://chemeducator.org/sbibs/s0010005/spapers/1050387gk.htm Francium (Atomic Number 87), the Last Discovered Natural Element] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130604212956/http://chemeducator.org/sbibs/s0010005/spapers/1050387gk.htm |date=4 June 2013 }}. ''The Chemical Educator'' '''10''' (5). Retrieved on 26 March 2007.</ref> Perey then attempted to determine the proportion of [[beta decay]] to alpha decay in actinium-227. Her first test put the alpha branching at 0.6%, a figure that she later revised to 1%.<ref name="mcgraw">{{cite book |contribution= Francium |year= 2002 |title= [[McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science & Technology]] |volume= 7 |pages= 493–494 |publisher= McGraw-Hill Professional|isbn= 0-07-913665-6}}</ref> :{{nuclide|actinium|227}} {{overunderset|→|α (1.38%)|21.77 y}} '''{{nuclide|francium|223}}''' {{overunderset|→|β⁻|22 min}} {{nuclide|radium|223}} {{overunderset|→|α|11.4 d}} The next element below francium ([[Mendeleev's predicted elements|eka]]-francium) in the periodic table would be [[ununennium]] (Uue), element 119.<ref name="Uue" />{{rp|1729–1730}} The synthesis of ununennium was first attempted in 1985 by bombarding a target of [[einsteinium]]-254 with [[calcium]]-48 ions at the superHILAC accelerator at Berkeley, California. No atoms were identified, leading to a limiting yield of 300 [[barn (unit)|nb]].<ref name="link">{{cite journal |title=Search for superheavy elements using ⁴⁸Ca + ²⁵⁴Es^g reaction|first1=R. W. |last1=Lougheed|first2=J. H.|last2=Landrum|first3=E. K.|last3=Hulet|first4=J. F.|last4=Wild|first5=R. J.|last5=Dougan|first6=A. D.|last6=Dougan|first7=H.|last7=Gäggeler|first8=M.|last8=Schädel|first9=K. J.|last9=Moody|first10=K. E.|last10=Gregorich|last11=Seaborg|journal=Physical Review C|year=1985|pages=1760–1763|volume=32|issue=5|bibcode= 1985PhRvC..32.1760L|doi=10.1103/PhysRevC.32.1760|first11=G.}}</ref><ref name="vanderkrogt-uue">{{cite web |publisher= Elementymology & Elements Multidict|title= Ununennium |first= Peter|last= van der Krogt|url= http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=Uue|accessdate= 14 February 2011}}</ref> :{{nuclide|einsteinium|254|link=y}} + {{nuclide|calcium|48|link=y}} → {{nuclide|ununennium|302}}* → ''no atoms''<ref group="note">The [[asterisk]] denotes an [[excited state]].</ref> It is highly unlikely<ref name="link" /> that this reaction will be able to create any atoms of ununennium in the near future, given the extremely difficult task of making sufficient amounts of einsteinium-254, which is favoured for production of [[superheavy element|ultraheavy elements]] because of its large mass, relatively long half-life of 270 days, and availability in significant amounts of several micrograms,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schadel|first1=M.|last2=Brüchle|first2=W.|last3=Brügger|first3=M.|last4=Gäggeler|first4=H.|last5=Moody|first5=K.|last6=Schardt|first6=D.|last7=Sümmerer|first7=K.|last8=Hulet|first8=E.|last9=Dougan|first9=A.|last10=Dougan|title=Heavy isotope production by multinucleon transfer reactions with ²⁵⁴Es|journal=Journal of the Less Common Metals|volume=122|pages=411–417|year=1986|doi=10.1016/0022-5088(86)90435-2|first10=R. J.|last11=Landrum|first11=J. H.|last12=Lougheed|first12=R. W.|last13=Wild|first13=J. F.|last14=O'Kelley|first14=G. D.|last15=Hahn|first15=R. L.|displayauthors=9}}</ref> to make a large enough target to increase the sensitivity of the experiment to the required level; einsteinium has not been found in nature and has only been produced in laboratories, and in quantities smaller than those needed for effective synthesis of superheavy elements. However, given that ununennium is only the first [[period 8 element]] on the [[extended periodic table]], it may well be discovered in the near future through other reactions, and indeed an attempt to synthesise it is currently ongoing in Japan.<ref name=Enyo>{{Cite news|url=https://www.chemistryworld.com/news/hunt-for-element-119-to-begin-this-year/3007977.article|title=Hunt for element 119 set to begin|newspaper=Chemistry World|date=12 September 2017|access-date=9 January 2018}}</ref> Currently, none of the period 8 elements have been discovered yet, and it is also possible, due to [[nucleon drip line|drip instabilities]], that only the lower period 8 elements, up to around element 128, are physically possible.<ref name=EB>{{cite web |last=Seaborg|first=G. T.|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/603220/transuranium-element|title=transuranium element (chemical element)|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=c. 2006|accessdate=16 March 2010}}</ref><ref name="emsley">{{cite book |last=Emsley|first=John|title=Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements|edition=New|year=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-19-960563-7|page=593}}</ref> No attempts at synthesis have been made for any heavier alkali metals: due to their extremely high atomic number, they would require new, more powerful methods and technology to make.<ref name="Uue" />{{rp|1737–1739}} == Occurrence == === In the Solar System === [[File:SolarSystemAbundances.png|thumb|right|800px|Estimated abundances of the chemical elements in the Solar system. Hydrogen and helium are most common, from the [[Big Bang]]. The next three elements (lithium, [[beryllium]], and [[boron]]) are rare because they are poorly synthesised in the Big Bang and also in stars. The two general trends in the remaining stellar-produced elements are: (1) an alternation of abundance in elements as they have even or odd atomic numbers, and (2) a general decrease in abundance, as elements become heavier. Iron is especially common because it represents the minimum energy nuclide that can be made by fusion of helium in supernovae.<ref name=lodders>{{cite journal |last1= Lodders |first1= Katharina |year= 2003 |title= Solar System Abundances and Condensation Temperatures of the Elements |journal= The Astrophysical Journal |volume= 591 |issue= 2 |pages= 1220–1247 |bibcode= 2003ApJ...591.1220L |doi= 10.1086/375492|doi-access= free }}</ref>]] The [[Oddo–Harkins rule]] holds that elements with even atomic numbers are more common that those with odd atomic numbers, with the exception of hydrogen. This rule argues that elements with odd atomic numbers have one unpaired proton and are more likely to capture another, thus increasing their atomic number. In elements with even atomic numbers, protons are paired, with each member of the pair offsetting the spin of the other, enhancing stability.<ref name=oddo>{{cite journal |doi= 10.1002/zaac.19140870118 |title= Die Molekularstruktur der radioaktiven Atome |year= 1914 |last1= Oddo |first1= Giuseppe |journal= Zeitschrift für anorganische Chemie |volume= 87 |pages= 253–268|url= https://www.academia.edu/11043300 }}</ref><ref name=harkins>{{cite journal |doi= 10.1021/ja02250a002 |year= 1917 |last1= Harkins |first1= William D. |journal= Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume= 39 |issue= 5 |pages= 856–879 |title= The Evolution of the Elements and the Stability of Complex Atoms. I. A New Periodic System Which Shows a Relation Between the Abundance of the Elements and the Structure of the Nuclei of Atoms}}</ref><ref name=north>{{cite book |last=North|first=John|title=Cosmos an illustrated history of astronomy and cosmology|year=2008|publisher=Univ. of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-59441-5|page=602|url=https://books.google.com/?id=qq8Luhs7rTUC&lpg=PA602&dq=%22william%20draper%20harkins%22%20oddo&pg=PA602#v=onepage&q=%22william%20draper%20harkins%22%20oddo&f=false|edition=Rev. and updated}}</ref> All the alkali metals have odd atomic numbers and they are not as common as the elements with even atomic numbers adjacent to them (the [[noble gas]]es and the [[alkaline earth metal]]s) in the Solar System. The heavier alkali metals are also less abundant than the lighter ones as the alkali metals from rubidium onward can only be synthesised in [[supernova]]e and not in [[stellar nucleosynthesis]]. Lithium is also much less abundant than sodium and potassium as it is poorly synthesised in both [[Big Bang nucleosynthesis]] and in stars: the Big Bang could only produce trace quantities of lithium, [[beryllium]] and [[boron]] due to the absence of a stable nucleus with 5 or 8 [[nucleon]]s, and stellar nucleosynthesis could only pass this bottleneck by the [[triple-alpha process]], fusing three helium nuclei to form [[carbon]], and skipping over those three elements.<ref name=lodders /> === On Earth === [[File:Spodumene-usa59abg.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Spodumene]], an important lithium mineral]] The [[Earth]] formed from the same cloud of matter that formed the Sun, but the planets acquired different compositions during the [[formation and evolution of the solar system]]. In turn, the [[history of Earth|natural history of the Earth]] caused parts of this planet to have differing concentrations of the elements. The mass of the Earth is approximately 5.98{{e|24}}&nbsp;kg. It is composed mostly of [[iron]] (32.1%), [[oxygen]] (30.1%), [[silicon]] (15.1%), [[magnesium]] (13.9%), [[sulfur]] (2.9%), [[nickel]] (1.8%), [[calcium]] (1.5%), and [[aluminium]] (1.4%); with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to [[planetary differentiation]], the core region is believed to be primarily composed of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulfur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.<ref name=pnas71_12_6973>{{cite journal |last1=Morgan|first1=J. W. |last2=Anders|first2=E. |title=Chemical composition of Earth, Venus, and Mercury |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |year=1980 |volume=77 |issue=12 |pages=6973–6977 |doi=10.1073/pnas.77.12.6973 |pmid=16592930 |pmc=350422 |bibcode= 1980PNAS...77.6973M}}</ref> The alkali metals, due to their high reactivity, do not occur naturally in pure form in nature. They are [[Goldschmidt classification|lithophiles]] and therefore remain close to the Earth's surface because they combine readily with [[oxygen]] and so associate strongly with [[silica]], forming relatively low-density minerals that do not sink down into the Earth's core. Potassium, rubidium and caesium are also [[incompatible element]]s due to their large [[ionic radius|ionic radii]].<ref name="albarede">{{cite book |title= Geochemistry: an introduction |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=doVGzreGq14C&pg=PA17 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |year= 2003 |isbn= 978-0-521-89148-6 |first= Francis |last= Albarède}}</ref> Sodium and potassium are very abundant in earth, both being among the ten [[abundance of elements in Earth's crust|most common elements in Earth's crust]];<ref name="webelements-occurrence">{{cite web |url= http://www.webelements.com/webelements/properties/text/image-flash/abund-crust.html|title= Abundance in Earth's Crust|publisher= WebElements.com|accessdate= 14 April 2007}}</ref><ref name="IsraelScience&Technology">{{cite web |url= http://www.science.co.il/PTelements.asp?s=Earth|title= List of Periodic Table Elements Sorted by Abundance in Earth's crust|publisher= Israel Science and Technology Homepage|accessdate= 15 April 2007}}</ref> sodium makes up approximately 2.6% of the [[Earth]]'s crust measured by weight, making it the [[Abundance of the chemical elements|sixth most abundant element]] overall<ref name="RubberBible86th">{{RubberBible86th}}</ref> and the most abundant alkali metal. Potassium makes up approximately 1.5% of the Earth's crust and is the seventh most abundant element.<ref name="RubberBible86th" /> Sodium is found in many different minerals, of which the most common is ordinary salt (sodium chloride), which occurs in vast quantities dissolved in seawater. Other solid deposits include [[halite]], [[amphibole]], [[cryolite]], [[nitratine]], and [[zeolite]].<ref name="RubberBible86th" /> Many of these solid deposits occur as a result of ancient seas evaporating, which still occurs now in places such as [[Utah]]'s [[Great Salt Lake]] and the [[Dead Sea]].<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|69}} Despite their near-equal abundance in Earth's crust, sodium is far more common than potassium in the ocean, both because potassium's larger size makes its salts less soluble, and because potassium is bound by silicates in soil and what potassium leaches is absorbed far more readily by plant life than sodium.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|69}} Despite its chemical similarity, lithium typically does not occur together with sodium or potassium due to its smaller size.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|69}} Due to its relatively low reactivity, it can be found in seawater in large amounts; it is estimated that seawater is approximately 0.14 to 0.25 parts per million (ppm)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ioes.saga-u.ac.jp/ioes-study/li/lithium/occurence.html |title=Lithium Occurrence |accessdate=13 March 2009 |publisher=Institute of Ocean Energy, Saga University, Japan |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090502142924/http://www.ioes.saga-u.ac.jp/ioes-study/li/lithium/occurence.html |archivedate=2 May 2009}}</ref><ref name=enc>{{cite web |url=http://www.enclabs.com/lithium.html|accessdate=15 October 2010|title=Some Facts about Lithium|publisher=ENC Labs}}</ref> or 25 [[micromolar]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/3-540-13534-0_3|title=Extraction of metals from sea water|volume= 124/1984|pages= 91–133|last=Schwochau|first=Klaus|journal=Topics in Current Chemistry|year=1984|series=Topics in Current Chemistry|isbn=978-3-540-13534-0}}</ref> Its diagonal relationship with magnesium often allows it to replace magnesium in [[ferromagnesium]] minerals, where its crustal concentration is about 18&nbsp;[[parts per million|ppm]], comparable to that of [[gallium]] and [[niobium]]. Commercially, the most important lithium mineral is [[spodumene]], which occurs in large deposits worldwide.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|69}} Rubidium is approximately as abundant as [[zinc]] and more abundant than copper. It occurs naturally in the minerals [[leucite]], [[pollucite]], [[carnallite]], [[zinnwaldite]], and [[lepidolite]],<ref>{{cite journal |title= Trace element chemistry of lithium-rich micas from rare-element granitic pegmatites |volume= 55 |issue= 13 |year= 1995 |doi= 10.1007/BF01162588 |pages= 203–215 |journal= Mineralogy and Petrology |first= M. A. |last= Wise |bibcode= 1995MinPe..55..203W}}</ref> although none of these contain only rubidium and no other alkali metals.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|70}} Caesium is more abundant than some commonly known elements, such as [[antimony]], [[cadmium]], [[tin]], and [[tungsten]], but is much less abundant than rubidium.<ref name="pubs.usgs" /> [[Francium-223]], the only naturally occurring isotope of francium,<ref name="atomicweights2007" /><ref name="atomicweights2009" /> is the [[decay product|product]] of the [[alpha decay]] of actinium-227 and can be found in trace amounts in [[uranium]] minerals.<ref name="CRC2006">{{cite book |year= 2006 |title= CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics |volume= 4|page= 12|publisher= CRC|isbn= 0-8493-0474-1}}</ref> In a given sample of uranium, there is estimated to be only one francium atom for every 10¹⁸ uranium atoms.<ref name="nbb">{{cite book |last= Emsley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yhi5X7OwuGkC&pg=PA151 |first= John |title= Nature's Building Blocks |publisher= Oxford University Press |year= 2001 |location= Oxford |pages= 151–153 |isbn= 0-19-850341-5}}</ref><ref name="elemental">{{cite web |last= Gagnon |first= Steve |title= Francium |publisher= Jefferson Science Associates, LLC |url= http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele087.html |accessdate= 1 April 2007 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070331235139/http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele087.html |archivedate= 31 March 2007 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl= no}}</ref> It has been calculated that there is at most 30&nbsp;g of francium in the [[crust (geology)|earth's crust]] at any time, due to its extremely short [[half-life]] of 22 minutes.<ref name="Winter" /><ref name="itselemental">{{cite web |url= http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/index.html|title= It's Elemental&nbsp;— The Periodic Table of Elements|publisher= Jefferson Lab|accessdate= 14 April 2007 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070429032414/http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/index.html |archivedate= 29 April 2007 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl= no}}</ref> == Properties == === Physical and chemical === The physical and chemical properties of the alkali metals can be readily explained by their having an ns¹ valence [[electron configuration]], which results in weak [[metallic bonding]]. Hence, all the alkali metals are soft and have low [[density|densities]],<ref name=rsc /> [[melting point|melting]]<ref name=rsc /> and [[boiling point]]s,<ref name=rsc /> as well as [[heat of sublimation|heats of sublimation]], [[heat of vaporization|vaporisation]], and [[dissociation (chemistry)|dissociation]].<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|74}} They all crystallise in the [[body-centered cubic]] crystal structure,<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|73}} and have distinctive [[flame test|flame colours]] because their outer s electron is very easily excited.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|75}} The ns¹ configuration also results in the alkali metals having very large [[atomic radius|atomic]] and [[ionic radius|ionic radii]], as well as very high [[thermal conductivity|thermal]] and [[electrical conductivity]].<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|75}} Their chemistry is dominated by the loss of their lone valence electron in the outermost s-orbital to form the +1 oxidation state, due to the ease of ionising this electron and the very high second ionisation energy.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|76}} Most of the chemistry has been observed only for the first five members of the group. The chemistry of francium is not well established due to its extreme [[radioactive decay|radioactivity]];<ref name=rsc /> thus, the presentation of its properties here is limited. What little is known about francium shows that it is very close in behaviour to caesium, as expected. The physical properties of francium are even sketchier because the bulk element has never been observed; hence any data that may be found in the literature are certainly speculative extrapolations.<ref name=RubberBible84th /> {| class="wikitable" |+ Properties of the alkali metals<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|75}}<ref name=generalchemistry /> ! Name ! [[Lithium]] ! [[Sodium]] ! [[Potassium]] ! [[Rubidium]] ! [[Caesium]] ! [[Francium]] |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Atomic number]] | 3 || 11 || 19 || 37 || 55 || 87 |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|Standard [[atomic weight]]&nbsp;([[unified atomic mass unit|u]]){{refn|The number given in [[bracket|parentheses]] refers to the [[standard uncertainty|measurement uncertainty]]. This uncertainty applies to the [[significant figure|least significant figure]](s) of the number prior to the parenthesised value (ie. counting from rightmost digit to left). For instance, {{val|1.00794|(7)}} stands for {{val|1.00794|0.00007}}, while {{val|1.00794|(72)}} stands for {{val|1.00794|0.00072}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Info/Constants/definitions.html|title=Standard Uncertainty and Relative Standard Uncertainty|work=[[CODATA]] reference|publisher=[[National Institute of Standards and Technology]]|accessdate=26 September 2011}}</ref>|group=note}}<ref name="atomicweights2007">{{cite journal |last1=Wieser |first1=Michael E. |last2=Berglund |first2=Michael |year=2009 |title=Atomic weights of the elements 2007 (IUPAC Technical Report) |journal=[[Pure and Applied Chemistry|Pure Appl. Chem.]] |volume=81 |issue=11 |pages= 2131–2156 |publisher=[[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry|IUPAC]] |doi=10.1351/PAC-REP-09-08-03 |url=http://iupac.org/publications/pac/pdf/2009/pdf/8111x2131.pdf |accessdate=7 February 2012}}</ref><ref name="atomicweights2009">{{cite journal |last1=Wieser |first1=Michael E. |last2=Coplen |first2=Tyler B. |year=2011 |title=Atomic weights of the elements 2009 (IUPAC Technical Report) |journal=[[Pure and Applied Chemistry|Pure Appl. Chem.]] |volume=83 |issue=2 |pages=359–396 |publisher=[[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry|IUPAC]] |doi=10.1351/PAC-REP-10-09-14 |url=http://iupac.org/publications/pac/pdf/2011/pdf/8302x0359.pdf |accessdate=11 February 2012}}</ref> | 6.94(1){{refn|The value listed is the conventional value suitable for trade and commerce; the actual value may range from 6.938 to 6.997 depending on the isotopic composition of the sample.<ref name="atomicweights2009" />|group=note}} || 22.98976928(2) || 39.0983(1) || 85.4678(3) || 132.9054519(2) || [223]{{refn|The element does not have any stable [[nuclide]]s, and a value in brackets indicates the [[mass number]] of the longest-lived [[isotope]] of the element.<ref name="atomicweights2007" /><ref name="atomicweights2009" />|group=note}} |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Electron configuration]] | &#91;[[Helium|He]]&#93; 2s¹ || &#91;[[Neon|Ne]]&#93; 3s¹ || &#91;[[Argon|Ar]]&#93; 4s¹ || &#91;[[Krypton|Kr]]&#93; 5s¹ || &#91;[[Xenon|Xe]]&#93; 6s¹ || &#91;[[Radon|Rn]]&#93; 7s¹ |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Melting point]] (°C) | 180.54 || 97.72|| 63.38 || 39.31 || 28.44 ||? |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Boiling point]] (°C) | 1342 || 883 || 759 || 688 || 671 ||? |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Density]]&nbsp;(g·cm⁻³) | 0.534 || 0.968 || 0.89 || 1.532 || 1.93 ||? |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Heat of fusion]]&nbsp;(kJ·mol⁻¹) | 3.00 || 2.60 || 2.321 || 2.19 || 2.09 ||? |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Heat of vaporization|Heat of vaporisation]]&nbsp;(kJ·mol⁻¹) | 136 || 97.42 || 79.1 || 69 || 66.1 ||? |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Heat of formation]]&nbsp;of&nbsp;monatomic&nbsp;gas&nbsp;(kJ·mol⁻¹) | 162 || 108 || 89.6 || 82.0 || 78.2 ||? |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Electrical resistivity]]&nbsp;at&nbsp;25&nbsp;°C&nbsp;(n[[ohm|Ω]]·[[centimeter|cm]]) | 94.7 || 48.8 || 73.9 || 131 || 208 ||? |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Atomic radius]]&nbsp;([[picometer|pm]]) | 152 || 186 || 227 || 248 || 265 ||? |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Ionic radius]] of hexacoordinate M⁺ ion&nbsp;(pm) | 76 || 102 || 138 || 152 || 167 ||? |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|First [[ionization energy|ionisation energy]]&nbsp;([[kilojoule per mole|kJ·mol⁻¹]]) | 520.2 || 495.8 || 418.8 || 403.0 || 375.7 || 392.8<ref name="andreev">{{cite journal |last1=Andreev|first1=S.V. |last2=Letokhov|first2=V.S. |last3=Mishin|first3=V.I. |title= Laser resonance photoionization spectroscopy of Rydberg levels in Fr |url= http://link.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v59/p1274 |journal= [[Physical Review Letters|Phys. Rev. Lett.]] |year= 1987 |volume= 59 |pages= 1274–76 |doi= 10.1103/PhysRevLett.59.1274 |pmid=10035190 |bibcode=1987PhRvL..59.1274A |issue= 12}}</ref> |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Electron affinity]]&nbsp;(kJ·mol⁻¹) | 59.62 || 52.87 || 48.38 || 46.89 || 45.51 ||? |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Enthalpy of dissociation]]&nbsp;of&nbsp;M₂&nbsp;(kJ·mol⁻¹) | 106.5 || 73.6 || 57.3 || 45.6 || 44.77 ||? |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|Pauling [[electronegativity]] | 0.98 || 0.93 || 0.82 || 0.82 || 0.79 ||?{{refn|[[Linus Pauling]] estimated the electronegativity of francium at 0.7 on the [[Pauling scale]], the same as caesium;<ref>{{cite book |last= Pauling |first= Linus |title= The Nature of the Chemical Bond|edition= Third |authorlink= Linus Pauling |publisher= Cornell University Press |year= 1960 |isbn= 978-0-8014-0333-0 |page= 93}}</ref> the value for caesium has since been refined to 0.79, although there are no experimental data to allow a refinement of the value for francium.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Allred|first=A. L. |year= 1961 |journal= J. Inorg. Nucl. Chem.|volume= 17 |issue= 3–4 |pages= 215–221 |title= Electronegativity values from thermochemical data |doi= 10.1016/0022-1902(61)80142-5}}</ref> Francium has a slightly higher ionisation energy than caesium,<ref name="andreev" /> 392.811(4)&nbsp;kJ/mol as opposed to 375.7041(2)&nbsp;kJ/mol for caesium, as would be expected from [[relativistic quantum chemistry|relativistic effects]], and this would imply that caesium is the less electronegative of the two.|name=Fr-electronegativity|group=note}} |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Standard electrode potential]] (''E''°(M⁺→M⁰); [[volt|V]])<ref name=van92>Vanýsek, Petr (2011). [http://www.hbcpnetbase.com/articles/05_22_92.pdf “Electrochemical Series”], in [http://www.hbcpnetbase.com/ ''Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 92nd Edition''] (Chemical Rubber Company).</ref> | −3.04 || −2.71 || −2.93 || −2.98 || −3.03 ||? |- | style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"|[[Flame test]] colour<br />Principal emission/absorption wavelength&nbsp;([[nanometer|nm]]) | Crimson<br />670.8 || Yellow<br />589.2 || Violet<br />766.5 || Red-violet<br />780.0 || Blue<br />455.5 ||? |} The alkali metals are more similar to each other than the elements in any other [[group (periodic table)|group]] are to each other.<ref name=rsc /> Indeed, the similarity is so great that it is quite difficult to separate potassium, rubidium, and caesium, due to their similar [[ionic radius|ionic radii]]; lithium and sodium are more distinct. For instance, when moving down the table, all known alkali metals show increasing [[atomic radius]],<ref name=chemguide /> decreasing [[electronegativity]],<ref name=chemguide>{{cite web |url=http://www.chemguide.co.uk/inorganic/group1/properties.html |title=Atomic and Physical Properties of the Group 1 Elements |last=Clark|first=Jim |year=2005 |work=chemguide |accessdate=30 January 2012}}</ref> increasing [[Reactivity (chemistry)|reactivity]],<ref name=rsc /> and decreasing melting and boiling points<ref name=chemguide /> as well as heats of fusion and vaporisation.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|75}} In general, their [[density|densities]] increase when moving down the table, with the exception that potassium is less dense than sodium.<ref name=chemguide /> One of the very few properties of the alkali metals that does not display a very smooth trend is their [[reduction potential]]s: lithium's value is anomalous, being more negative than the others.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|75}} This is because the Li⁺ ion has a very high [[hydration energy]] in the gas phase: though the lithium ion disrupts the structure of water significantly, causing a higher change in entropy, this high hydration energy is enough to make the reduction potentials indicate it as being the most electropositive alkali metal, despite the difficulty of ionising it in the gas phase.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|75}} The stable alkali metals are all silver-coloured metals except for caesium, which has a pale golden tint:<ref name="theodoregray-caesium">{{cite web |url=http://www.theodoregray.com/periodictable/Elements/055/index.s7.html |title=Facts, pictures, stories about the element Cesium in the Periodic Table |last=Gray|first=Theodore|author-link=Theodore Gray|work=The Wooden Periodic Table Table |accessdate=13 January 2012}}</ref> it is one of only three metals that are clearly coloured (the other two being copper and gold).<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|74}} Additionally, the heavy [[alkaline earth metal]]s [[calcium]], [[strontium]], and [[barium]], as well as the divalent [[lanthanide]]s [[europium]] and [[ytterbium]], are pale yellow, though the colour is much less prominent than it is for caesium.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|74}} Their lustre tarnishes rapidly in air due to oxidation.<ref name=rsc /> They all crystallise in the [[body-centered cubic]] crystal structure,<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|73}} and have distinctive [[flame test|flame colours]] because their outer s electron is very easily excited. Indeed, these flame test colours are the most common way of identifying them since all their salts with common ions are soluble.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|75}} [[File:Potassium water 20.theora.ogv|thumb|right|Potassium reacts violently with water at room temperature]] [[File:Cesium water.theora.ogv|thumb|right|Caesium reacts explosively with water even at low temperatures]] All the alkali metals are highly reactive and are never found in elemental forms in nature.<ref name="krebs" /> Because of this, they are usually stored in [[mineral oil]] or [[kerosene]] (paraffin oil).<ref name="OU">{{cite web |url=http://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-technology/science/chemistry/alkali-metals |title=Alkali metals |author=The OpenLearn team |year=2012 |work=OpenLearn |publisher=The Open University |accessdate=9 July 2012}}</ref> They react aggressively with the [[halogen]]s to form the [[alkali metal halide]]s, which are white [[ionic crystal]]line compounds that are all [[solubility|soluble]] in water except [[lithium fluoride]] ([[lithium|Li]] [[fluorine|F]]).<ref name=rsc /> The alkali metals also react with water to form strongly [[alkali]]ne [[hydroxide]]s and thus should be handled with great care. The heavier alkali metals react more vigorously than the lighter ones; for example, when dropped into water, caesium produces a larger explosion than potassium if the same number of moles of each metal is used.<ref name=rsc /><ref name="alkalibangs">{{cite web |last=Gray|first=Theodore|title=Alkali Metal Bangs|url=http://www.theodoregray.com/periodictable/AlkaliBangs/index.html|publisher=[[Theodore Gray]]|accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref><ref name="pubs.usgs" /> The alkali metals have the lowest first [[ionization energy|ionisation energies]] in their respective periods of the [[periodic table]]<ref name="RubberBible84th">{{cite book |editor= Lide, D. R. |title= CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics |edition= 84th |location= Boca Raton, FL |publisher= CRC Press |year= 2003}}</ref> because of their low [[effective nuclear charge]]<ref name=rsc /> and the ability to attain a [[noble gas]] configuration by losing just one [[electron]].<ref name=rsc /> Not only do the alkali metals react with water, but also with proton donors like [[alcohol]]s and [[phenols]], gaseous [[ammonia]], and [[alkyne]]s, the last demonstrating the phenomenal degree of their reactivity. Their great power as reducing agents makes them very useful in liberating other metals from their oxides or halides.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|76}} The second ionisation energy of all of the alkali metals is very high<ref name=rsc /><ref name="RubberBible84th" /><!--the second ionisation energy for francium is not given in [[ionization energies of the elements (data page)]]--> as it is in a full shell that is also closer to the nucleus;<ref name=rsc /> thus, they almost always lose a single electron, forming cations.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|28}} The [[alkalide]]s are an exception: they are unstable compounds which contain alkali metals in a −1 oxidation state, which is very unusual as before the discovery of the alkalides, the alkali metals were not expected to be able to form [[anion]]s and were thought to be able to appear in [[salt (chemistry)|salts]] only as cations. The alkalide anions have filled [[s-orbital|s-subshells]], which gives them enough stability to exist. All the stable alkali metals except lithium are known to be able to form alkalides,<ref>{{cite journal |journal= [[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]] |title= Crystalline salt of the sodium anion (Na⁻) |year= 1974 |volume= 96 |issue= 2 |pages= 608–609 |doi= 10.1021/ja00809a060|last1= Dye |first1= James L. |last2= Ceraso |first2= Joseph M. |last3= Lok |first3= Mei |last4= Barnett |first4= B. L. |last5= Tehan |first5= Frederick J. }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title= Alkali anions. Preparation and crystal structure of a compound which contains the cryptated sodium cation and the sodium anion |journal= [[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]] |year= 1974 |volume= 96 |issue= 23 |pages= 7203–7208 |doi= 10.1021/ja00830a005|last1= Tehan |first1= Frederick J. |last2= Barnett |first2= B. L. |last3= Dye |first3= James L. }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |journal= [[Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl.]] |year= 1979 |last=Dye|first=J. L. |title= Compounds of Alkali Metal Anions |volume= 18 |issue= 8 |pages= 587–598 |doi= 10.1002/anie.197905871}}</ref> and the alkalides have much theoretical interest due to their unusual [[stoichiometry]] and low [[ionization potential|ionisation potentials]]. Alkalides are chemically similar to the [[electride]]s, which are salts with trapped [[electron]]s acting as anions.<ref name="Redko">{{cite journal |year= 2003 |title= Barium azacryptand sodide, the first alkalide with an alkaline Earth cation, also contains a novel dimer, (Na₂)²⁻ |journal= [[Journal of the American Chemical Society|J. Am. Chem. Soc.]] |volume= 125 |issue= 8 |pages= 2259–2263 |doi= 10.1021/ja027241m |pmid= 12590555|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/10896204 |author1= Redko |first1= M. Y. |last2= Huang |first2= R. H. |last3= Jackson |first3= J. E. |last4= Harrison |first4= J. F. |last5= Dye |first5= J. L. }}</ref> A particularly striking example of an alkalide is "inverse [[sodium hydride]]", H⁺Na⁻ (both ions being [[coordination complex|complexed]]), as opposed to the usual sodium hydride, Na⁺H⁻:<ref name="HNa">{{cite journal |year= 2002 |title="Inverse sodium hydride": a crystalline salt that contains H⁺ and Na⁻ |journal= [[Journal of the American Chemical Society|J. Am. Chem. Soc.]] |volume= 124 |issue= 21 |pages= 5928–5929 |doi= 10.1021/ja025655}}</ref> it is unstable in isolation, due to its high energy resulting from the displacement of two electrons from hydrogen to sodium, although several derivatives are predicted to be [[metastability|metastable]] or stable.<ref name="HNa" /><ref name="HNa-theory">{{cite journal |url=http://simons.hec.utah.edu/papers/266.pdf|title=Inverse Sodium Hydride: A Theoretical Study|journal=J. Am. Chem. Soc.|year=2003|volume=125|pages=3954–3958|doi=10.1021/ja021136v|pmid=12656631|issue=13|author1=Sawicka|first1=A.|last2=Skurski|first2=P.|last3=Simons|first3=J.}}</ref> In aqueous solution, the alkali metal ions form [[metal ions in aqueous solution|aqua ions]] of the formula [M(H₂O)_''n'']⁺, where ''n'' is the solvation number. Their [[coordination number]]s and shapes agree well with those expected from their ionic radii. In aqueous solution the water molecules directly attached to the metal ion are said to belong to the [[first coordination sphere]], also known as the first, or primary, solvation shell. The bond between a water molecule and the metal ion is a [[dative covalent bond]], with the oxygen atom donating both electrons to the bond. Each coordinated water molecule may be attached by [[hydrogen bond]]s to other water molecules. The latter are said to reside in the second coordination sphere. However, for the alkali metal cations, the second coordination sphere is not well-defined as the +1 charge on the cation is not high enough to [[Polarizability|polarise]] the water molecules in the primary solvation shell enough for them to form strong hydrogen bonds with those in the second coordination sphere, producing a more stable entity.<ref>{{cite book |last=Burgess |first=John |title=Metal Ions in Solution |year=1978 |publisher=Ellis Horwood |location=Chichester |page=20 |isbn=0-85312-027-7}}</ref><ref name=Richens />{{rp|25}} The solvation number for Li⁺ has been experimentally determined to be 4, forming the [[tetrahedron|tetrahedral]] [Li(H₂O)₄]⁺: while solvation numbers of 3 to 6 have been found for lithium aqua ions, solvation numbers less than 4 may be the result of the formation of contact [[ion pair]]s, and the higher solvation numbers may be interpreted in terms of water molecules that approach [Li(H₂O)₄]⁺ through a face of the tetrahedron, though molecular dynamic simulations may indicate the existence of an [[octahedron|octahedral]] hexaaqua ion. There are also probably six water molecules in the primary solvation sphere of the sodium ion, forming the octahedral [Na(H₂O)₆]⁺ ion.<ref name=generalchemistry /><ref name=Richens>{{cite book |last=Richens |first=David. T. |title=The Chemistry of Aqua Ions |year=1997 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=0-471-97058-1}}</ref>{{rp|126–127}} While it was previously thought that the heavier alkali metals also formed octahedral hexaaqua ions, it has since been found that potassium and rubidium probably form the [K(H₂O)₈]⁺ and [Rb(H₂O)₈]⁺ ions, which have the [[square antiprism]]atic structure, and that caesium forms the 12-coordinate [Cs(H₂O)₁₂]⁺ ion.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Persson |first=Ingmar |date=2010 |title=Hydrated metal ions in aqueous solution: How regular are their structures? |url=http://pac.iupac.org/publications/pac/pdf/2010/pdf/8210x1901.pdf |journal=Pure Appl. Chem. |volume=82 |issue=10 |pages=1901–1917 |doi=10.1351/PAC-CON-09-10-22 |accessdate=23 August 2014}}</ref> {{clear left}} ==== Lithium ==== The chemistry of lithium shows several differences from that of the rest of the group as the small Li⁺ cation [[chemical polarity|polarises]] [[anion]]s and gives its compounds a more [[covalent bond|covalent]] character.<ref name=rsc /> Lithium and [[magnesium]] have a [[diagonal relationship]] due to their similar atomic radii,<ref name=rsc /> so that they show some similarities. For example, lithium forms a stable [[nitride]], a property common among all the [[alkaline earth metal]]s (magnesium's group) but unique among the alkali metals.<ref name="alkalireact" /> In addition, among their respective groups, only lithium and magnesium form [[organometallic compound]]s with significant covalent character (e.g. Li[[methyl group|Me]] and MgMe₂).<ref name="Shriver&Atkins">{{cite book |title=Inorganic Chemistry |first1=Duward |last1=Shriver |first2=Peter |last2=Atkins |publisher=W. H. Freeman |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7167-4878-6 |page=259 |accessdate=10 November 2012 |url=https://www.google.com/books?id=NwOTQAAACAAJ}}</ref> Lithium fluoride is the only alkali metal halide that is poorly soluble in water,<ref name=rsc /> and [[lithium hydroxide]] is the only alkali metal hydroxide that is not [[deliquescent]].<ref name=rsc /> Conversely, [[lithium perchlorate]] and other lithium salts with large anions that cannot be polarised are much more stable than the analogous compounds of the other alkali metals, probably because Li⁺ has a high [[solvation energy]].<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|76}} This effect also means that most simple lithium salts are commonly encountered in hydrated form, because the anhydrous forms are extremely [[hygroscopic]]: this allows salts like [[lithium chloride]] and [[lithium bromide]] to be used in [[dehumidifier]]s and [[air-conditioner]]s.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|76}} ==== Francium ==== Francium is also predicted to show some differences due to its high [[atomic weight]], causing its electrons to travel at considerable fractions of the speed of light and thus making [[relativistic quantum chemistry|relativistic effects]] more prominent. In contrast to the trend of decreasing [[electronegativity|electronegativities]] and [[ionisation energy|ionisation energies]] of the alkali metals, francium's electronegativity and ionisation energy are predicted to be higher than caesium's due to the relativistic stabilisation of the 7s electrons; also, its [[atomic radius]] is expected to be abnormally low.<!--Haire says this happens for Uue because of the analogous effect for 8s – seems likely for Fr too--> Thus, contrary to expectation, caesium is the most reactive of the alkali metals, not francium.<ref name="andreev" /><ref name="Uue">{{cite book |title= The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements |editor1-last= Morss|editor2-first= Norman M. |editor2-last= Edelstein |editor3-last= Fuger|editor3-first= Jean |last1= Hoffman|first1= Darleane C. |last2=Lee|first2=Diana M. |last3=Pershina|first3=Valeria |chapter= Transactinides and the future elements |publisher= Springer |year= 2006 |isbn= 1-4020-3555-1 |location= Dordrecht, The Netherlands |edition= 3rd }}</ref>{{rp|1729}}<ref name=Thayer /> All known physical properties of francium also deviate from the clear trends going from lithium to caesium, such as the first ionisation energy, electron affinity, and anion polarisability, though due to the paucity of known data about francium many sources give extrapolated values, ignoring that relativistic effects make the trend from lithium to caesium become inapplicable at francium.<ref name=Thayer /> Some of the few properties of francium that have been predicted taking relativity into account are the electron affinity (47.2 kJ/mol)<ref name=Landaualkalis>{{cite journal |last1= Landau |first1= A. |last2= Eliav |first2= E. |last3= Ishikawa |first3= Y. |last4= Kaldor |first4= U. |year= 2001 |title= Benchmark calculations of electron affinities of the alkali atoms sodium to eka-francium (element 119) |url= https://www.academia.edu/20466410|journal= J. Chem. Phys. |volume= 115 |issue= 6 |page= 2389 |doi= 10.1063/1.1386413|bibcode= 2001JChPh.115.2389L }}</ref> and the enthalpy of dissociation of the Fr₂ molecule (42.1 kJ/mol).<ref name=Liddle>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Cameron |last2=Mountford |first2=Philip |last3=Stasch |first3=Andreas |last4=Blake |first4=Matthew P. |editor-last=Liddle |editor-first=Stephen T. |title=Molecular Metal-Metal Bonds: Compounds, Synthesis, Properties |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |date=22 June 2015 |pages=23–24 |chapter=s-block Metal-Metal Bonds |isbn=978-3-527-33541-1}}</ref> The CsFr molecule is polarised as Cs⁺Fr⁻, showing that the 7s subshell of francium is much more strongly affected by relativistic effects than the 6s subshell of caesium.<ref name=Thayer /> Additionally, francium superoxide (FrO₂) is expected to have significant covalent character, unlike the other alkali metal superoxides, because of bonding contributions from the 6p electrons of francium.<ref name=Thayer /> === Nuclear === <div style="float: right; margin: 5px;"> {| class="sortable wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |+Primordial isotopes of the alkali metals |- ! Z<br /> ! Alkali metal<br /> ! <small>[[stable isotope|Stable]]</small><br /> ! <small>''[[primordial element|Decays]]''</small><br /> ! class="unsortable" colspan="3"|<small>''unstable: italics''<div style="background:pink">odd–odd isotopes coloured pink</div></small> |- | 3 ||[[lithium]] || [[isotopes of lithium|2]] || — || {{SimpleNuclide2|lithium|7}}|| style="background:pink;"|{{SimpleNuclide2|lithium|6}}||&nbsp; |- | 11 ||[[sodium]] || [[isotopes of sodium|1]] || — ||{{SimpleNuclide2|sodium|23}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | 19 ||[[potassium]] || [[isotopes of potassium|2]] || 1 ||{{SimpleNuclide2|potassium|39}}||{{SimpleNuclide2|potassium|41}}|| style="background:pink;"|''{{SimpleNuclide2|potassium|40}}'' |- | 37 ||[[rubidium]] || [[isotopes of rubidium|1]] || 1 ||{{SimpleNuclide2|rubidium|85}}|||''{{SimpleNuclide2|rubidium|87}}''||&nbsp; |- | 55 ||[[caesium]] || [[isotopes of caesium|1]] || — ||{{SimpleNuclide2|caesium|133}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | 87 ||[[francium]] || [[isotopes of francium|—]] || — ||colspan="3"|''No primordial isotopes''<br />(''{{SimpleNuclide2|francium|223}}'' is a [[radiogenic nuclide]]) |- | colspan="7"|<small>Radioactive: {{nowrap|⁴⁰K, [[half-life|t_1/2]] 1.25 × 10⁹ years;}} {{nowrap|⁸⁷Rb, t_1/2 4.9 × 10¹⁰ years;}} {{nowrap|²²³Fr, t_1/2 22.0 min.}}</small> |}</div> All the alkali metals have odd atomic numbers; hence, their isotopes must be either [[odd–odd nuclei|odd–odd]] (both proton and [[neutron number]] are odd) or [[odd–even nuclei|odd–even]] ([[proton number]] is odd, but neutron number is even). Odd–odd nuclei have even [[mass number]]s, whereas odd–even nuclei have odd mass numbers. Odd–odd [[primordial nuclide]]s are rare because most odd–odd nuclei are highly unstable with respect to [[beta decay]], because the decay products are even–even, and are therefore more strongly bound, due to [[Semi-empirical mass formula#Pairing term|nuclear pairing effects]].<ref name="Lide02">{{cite book |author=Various authors|editor-last=Lide |editor-first=David R. |year=2002 |title=Handbook of Chemistry & Physics |edition=88th |publisher=CRC |url=http://www.hbcpnetbase.com/ |accessdate=2008-05-23 |isbn=0-8493-0486-5 |oclc=179976746}}</ref> Due to the great rarity of odd–odd nuclei, almost all the primordial isotopes of the alkali metals are odd–even (the exceptions being the light stable isotope lithium-6 and the long-lived [[radioisotope]] potassium-40). For a given odd mass number, there can be only a single [[beta-decay stable isobars|beta-stable nuclide]], since there is not a difference in binding energy between even–odd and odd–even comparable to that between even–even and odd–odd, leaving other nuclides of the same mass number ([[isobar (nuclide)|isobars]]) free to [[beta decay]] toward the lowest-mass nuclide. An effect of the instability of an odd number of either type of nucleons is that odd-numbered elements, such as the alkali metals, tend to have fewer stable isotopes than even-numbered elements. Of the 26 [[monoisotopic element]]s that have only a single stable isotope, all but one have an odd atomic number and all but one also have an even number of neutrons. [[Beryllium]] is the single exception to both rules, due to its low atomic number.<ref name="Lide02" /> All of the alkali metals except lithium and caesium have at least one naturally occurring [[radioisotope]]: [[sodium-22]] and [[sodium-24]] are [[trace radioisotope]]s produced [[cosmogenic]]ally,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nucleonica.net/unc.aspx |title=Universal Nuclide Chart |date=2007–2012 |work=Nucleonica |publisher=Institute for Transuranium Elements |accessdate=2011-04-17}}</ref> potassium-40 and [[rubidium-87]] have very long [[half-life|half-lives]] and thus occur naturally,<ref name="nuclideschart" /> and all [[isotopes of francium]] are [[radioactive decay|radioactive]].<ref name="nuclideschart" /> Caesium was also thought to be radioactive in the early 20th century,<ref name="Patt1926">{{cite journal |doi= 10.1021/cr60009a003 |title= The Radioactivity of the Alkali Metals |year= 1926 |last1= Patton |first1= I. Jocelyn |last2= Waldbauer |first2= L. J. |journal= Chemical Reviews |volume= 3 |pages= 81–93}}</ref><ref name="Kenn1908">{{cite journal |doi= 10.1080/14786440908636519 |title= On the radioactivity of potassium and other alkali metals |year= 1908 |last1= McLennan |first1= J. C. |last2= Kennedy |first2= W. T. |journal= Philosophical Magazine |series= 6 |volume= 16 |issue= 93 |pages= 377–395}}</ref> although it has no naturally occurring radioisotopes.<ref name="nuclideschart">{{cite web |url=http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/chart/ |title=Interactive Chart of Nuclides|publisher=Brookhaven National Laboratory|last=Sonzogni|first=Alejandro|location=National Nuclear Data Center|accessdate=4 October 2012}}</ref> (Francium had not been discovered yet at that time.) The natural long-lived radioisotope of potassium, potassium-40, makes up about 0.012% of natural potassium,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ead.anl.gov/pub/doc/potassium.pdf |title=Potassium-40 |date=August 2005 |work=Human Health Fact Sheet |publisher=[[Argonne National Laboratory]], Environmental Science Division |accessdate=7 February 2012}}</ref> and thus natural potassium is weakly radioactive. This natural radioactivity became a basis for a mistaken claim of the discovery for element 87 (the next alkali metal after caesium) in 1925.<ref name="fontani" /><ref name="vanderkrogt-Fr">{{cite web |last= Van der Krogt |first= Peter |title= Francium |work= Elementymology & Elements Multidict |date= 10 January 2006 |url= http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=Fr |accessdate= 8 April 2007}}</ref> Natural rubidium is similarly slightly radioactive, with 27.83% being the long-lived radioisotope rubidium-87.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|74}} [[Caesium-137]], with a half-life of 30.17&nbsp;years, is one of the two principal [[medium-lived fission product]]s, along with [[strontium-90]], which are responsible for most of the [[radioactivity]] of [[spent nuclear fuel]] after several years of cooling, up to several hundred years after use. It constitutes most of the radioactivity still left from the [[Chernobyl accident]]. Caesium-137 undergoes high-energy beta decay and eventually becomes stable [[barium-137]]. It is a strong emitter of gamma radiation. Caesium-137 has a very low rate of neutron capture and cannot be feasibly disposed of in this way, but must be allowed to decay.<ref name="Cs-137">{{cite web |title=Radionuclide Half-Life Measurements|url=https://www.nist.gov/pml/data/halflife-html.cfm|author=National Institute of Standards and Technology|accessdate=2011-11-07}}</ref> Caesium-137 has been used as a [[Flow tracer|tracer]] in hydrologic studies, analogous to the use of [[tritium]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160329120038/http://www.bt.cdc.gov/radiation/isotopes/cesium.asp Radioisotope Brief: Cesium-137 (Cs-137)]. U.S. National Center for Environmental Health</ref> Small amounts of [[caesium-134]] and caesium-137 were released into the environment during nearly all [[nuclear weapon test]]s and some [[nuclear accident]]s, most notably the [[Goiânia accident]] and the [[Chernobyl disaster]]. As of 2005, caesium-137 is the principal source of radiation in the [[zone of alienation]] around the [[Chernobyl nuclear power plant]].<ref name="IAEA">{{cite book |title=The Radiological Accident in Goiânia |publisher=[[IAEA]] |year=1988 |url=http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PubDetAR.asp?pubId=3684}}</ref> Its chemical properties as one of the alkali metals make it one of most problematic of the short-to-medium-lifetime fission products because it easily moves and spreads in nature due to the high water solubility of its salts, and is taken up by the body, which mistakes it for its essential congeners sodium and potassium.<ref name="RPD">{{cite book |title=Radionuclide and Radiation Protection Data Handbook 2002 |isbn=1-870965-87-6 |year=2002 |first1=D. |last1=Delacroix |first2=J. P. |last2=Guerre |first3=P. |last3=Leblanc |first4=C. |last4=Hickman |publisher=Nuclear Technology Publishing |edition=2nd}}</ref>{{rp|114}} == Periodic trends == The alkali metals are more similar to each other than the elements in any other [[group (periodic table)|group]] are to each other.<ref name=rsc>{{cite web|url=http://www.rsc.org/chemsoc/visualelements/PAGES/data/intro_groupi_data.html |title=Visual Elements: Group 1 – The Alkali Metals |author=[[Royal Society of Chemistry]] |work=Visual Elements |publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry |accessdate=13 January 2012 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120805145647/http://www.rsc.org/chemsoc/visualelements/PAGES/data/intro_groupi_data.html |archivedate=5 August 2012 }}</ref> For instance, when moving down the table, all known alkali metals show increasing [[atomic radius]],<ref name=chemguide /> decreasing [[electronegativity]],<ref name=chemguide /> increasing [[reactivity (chemistry)|reactivity]],<ref name=rsc /> and decreasing melting and boiling points<ref name=chemguide /> as well as heats of fusion and vaporisation.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw">{{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd}}</ref>{{rp|75}} In general, their [[density|densities]] increase when moving down the table, with the exception that potassium is less dense than sodium.<ref name=chemguide /> === Atomic and ionic radii === {{Main|Atomic radius}} [[File:Effective Nuclear Charge.svg|thumb|250px|[[Effective nuclear charge]] on an atomic electron]] The atomic radii of the alkali metals increase going down the group.<ref name=chemguide /> Because of the [[shielding effect]], when an atom has more than one [[electron shell]], each electron feels electric repulsion from the other electrons as well as electric attraction from the nucleus.<ref name=shielding>{{cite book |first=Theodore |last=L. Brown |first2=H. Eugene |last2=LeMay, Jr. |first3=Bruce E. |last3=Bursten |first4=Julia R. |last4=Burdge |year=2003 |title=Chemistry: The Central Science |edition=8th |publisher=Pearson Education |location=US |isbn=0-13-061142-5 }}</ref> In the alkali metals, the [[valence electron|outermost electron]] only feels a net charge of +1, as some of the [[nuclear charge]] (which is equal to the [[atomic number]]) is cancelled by the inner electrons; the number of inner electrons of an alkali metal is always one less than the nuclear charge. Therefore, the only factor which affects the atomic radius of the alkali metals is the number of electron shells. Since this number increases down the group, the atomic radius must also increase down the group.<ref name=chemguide /> The [[ionic radius|ionic radii]] of the alkali metals are much smaller than their atomic radii. This is because the outermost electron of the alkali metals is in a different [[electron shell]] than the inner electrons, and thus when it is removed the resulting atom has one fewer electron shell and is smaller. Additionally, the [[effective nuclear charge]] has increased, and thus the electrons are attracted more strongly towards the nucleus and the ionic radius decreases.<ref name=rsc /> === First ionisation energy === {{Main|Ionisation energy}} [[File:First Ionization Energy.svg|thumb|350px|right|Periodic trend for ionisation energy: each period begins at a minimum for the alkali metals, and ends at a maximum for the [[noble gas]]es.]] The first ionisation energy of an [[chemical element|element]] or [[molecule]] is the energy required to move the most loosely held electron from one [[mole (unit)|mole]] of gaseous atoms of the element or molecules to form one mole of gaseous ions with [[electric charge]] +1. The factors affecting the first ionisation energy are the [[nuclear charge]], the amount of [[shielding effect|shielding]] by the inner electrons and the distance from the most loosely held electron from the nucleus, which is always an outer electron in [[main group element]]s. The first two factors change the effective nuclear charge the most loosely held electron feels. Since the outermost electron of alkali metals always feels the same effective nuclear charge (+1), the only factor which affects the first ionisation energy is the distance from the outermost electron to the nucleus. Since this distance increases down the group, the outermost electron feels less attraction from the nucleus and thus the first ionisation energy decreases.<ref name=chemguide /> (This trend is broken in francium due to the [[relativistic quantum chemistry|relativistic]] stabilisation and contraction of the 7s orbital, bringing francium's valence electron closer to the nucleus than would be expected from non-relativistic calculations. This makes francium's outermost electron feel more attraction from the nucleus, increasing its first ionisation energy slightly beyond that of caesium.)<ref name="Uue" />{{Rp|1729}}<!--Also explain why the alkali metals have the lowest ionization energies in their period.--> The second ionisation energy of the alkali metals is much higher than the first as the second-most loosely held electron is part of a fully filled [[electron shell]] and is thus difficult to remove.<ref name=rsc /> === Reactivity === {{Main|Reactivity (chemistry)}} The reactivities of the alkali metals increase going down the group. This is the result of a combination of two factors: the first ionisation energies and [[atomisation energy|atomisation energies]] of the alkali metals. Because the first ionisation energy of the alkali metals decreases down the group, it is easier for the outermost electron to be removed from the atom and participate in [[chemical reaction]]s, thus increasing reactivity down the group. The atomisation energy measures the strength of the [[metallic bond]] of an element, which falls down the group as the atoms increase in [[atomic radius|radius]] and thus the metallic bond must increase in length, making the delocalised electrons further away from the attraction of the nuclei of the heavier alkali metals. Adding the atomisation and first ionisation energies gives a quantity closely related to (but not equal to) the [[activation energy]] of the reaction of an alkali metal with another substance. This quantity decreases going down the group, and so does the activation energy; thus, chemical reactions can occur faster and the reactivity increases down the group.<ref name="alkaliwater">{{cite web |url=http://www.chemguide.co.uk/inorganic/group1/reacth2o.html#top |title=Reaction of the Group 1 Elements with Water |last=Clark|first=Jim |year=2005 |work=chemguide |accessdate=18 June 2012}}</ref> === Electronegativity === {{Main|Electronegativity}} [[File:Periodic variation of Pauling electronegativities.png|thumb|300px|right|The variation of Pauling electronegativity (y-axis) as one descends the [[main group element|main groups]] of the periodic table from the [[period 2 element|second]] to the [[period 6 element|sixth period]]]] Electronegativity is a [[chemical property]] that describes the tendency of an [[atom]] or a [[functional group]] to attract [[electron]]s (or [[electron density]]) towards itself.<ref name="definition">{{GoldBookRef|file=E01990|title=Electronegativity}}</ref> If the bond between [[sodium]] and [[chlorine]] in [[sodium chloride]] were [[covalent bond|covalent]], the pair of shared electrons would be attracted to the chlorine because the effective nuclear charge on the outer electrons is +7 in chlorine but is only +1 in sodium. The electron pair is attracted so close to the chlorine atom that they are practically transferred to the chlorine atom (an [[ionic bond]]). However, if the sodium atom was replaced by a lithium atom, the electrons will not be attracted as close to the chlorine atom as before because the lithium atom is smaller, making the electron pair more strongly attracted to the closer effective nuclear charge from lithium. Hence, the larger alkali metal atoms (further down the group) will be less electronegative as the bonding pair is less strongly attracted towards them. As mentioned previously, francium is expected to be an exception.<ref name=chemguide /> Because of the higher electronegativity of lithium, some of its compounds have a more covalent character. For example, [[lithium iodide]] ([[lithium|Li]] [[iodine|I]]) will dissolve in [[organic solvent]]s, a property of most covalent compounds.<ref name=chemguide /> [[Lithium fluoride]] (Li[[fluorine|F]]) is the only [[alkali halide]] that is not soluble in water,<ref name=rsc /> and [[lithium hydroxide]] (Li[[hydroxide|OH]]) is the only alkali metal hydroxide that is not [[deliquescent]].<ref name=rsc /> === Melting and boiling points === {{Main|Melting point|Boiling point}} The melting point of a substance is the point where it changes [[state of matter|state]] from [[solid]] to [[liquid]] while the boiling point of a substance (in liquid state) is the point where the [[vapor pressure|vapour pressure]] of the liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding the liquid<ref>{{cite book |last=Goldberg|first=David E. |title=3,000 Solved Problems in Chemistry|edition=1st|publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=1988|isbn=0-07-023684-4}} Section 17.43, page 321</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1=Theodore, Louis |editor2=Dupont, R. Ryan |editor3=Ganesan, Kumar |title=Pollution Prevention: The Waste Management Approach to the 21st Century|publisher=CRC Press|year=1999|isbn=1-56670-495-2|page=15 Section 27}}</ref> and all the liquid changes state to [[gas]]. As a metal is heated to its melting point, the [[metallic bond]]s keeping the atoms in place weaken so that the atoms can move around, and the metallic bonds eventually break completely at the metal's boiling point.<ref name=chemguide /><ref name="metallic-bonding">{{cite web |url=http://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/bonding/metallic.html |title=Metallic Bonding |last=Clark|first=Jim |year=2000 |work=chemguide |accessdate=23 March 2012}}</ref> Therefore, the falling melting and boiling points of the alkali metals indicate that the strength of the metallic bonds of the alkali metals decreases down the group.<ref name=chemguide /> This is because metal atoms are held together by the electromagnetic attraction from the positive ions to the delocalised electrons.<ref name=chemguide /><ref name="metallic-bonding" /> As the atoms increase in size going down the group (because their atomic radius increases), the nuclei of the ions move further away from the delocalised electrons and hence the metallic bond becomes weaker so that the metal can more easily melt and boil, thus lowering the melting and boiling points.<ref name=chemguide /> (The increased nuclear charge is not a relevant factor due to the shielding effect.)<ref name=chemguide /> === Density === {{Main|Density}} The alkali metals all have the same [[crystal structure]] ([[body-centered cubic|body-centred cubic]])<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" /> and thus the only relevant factors are the number of atoms that can fit into a certain volume and the mass of one of the atoms, since density is defined as mass per unit volume. The first factor depends on the volume of the atom and thus the atomic radius, which increases going down the group; thus, the volume of an alkali metal atom increases going down the group. The mass of an alkali metal atom also increases going down the group. Thus, the trend for the densities of the alkali metals depends on their atomic weights and atomic radii; if figures for these two factors are known, the ratios between the densities of the alkali metals can then be calculated. The resultant trend is that the densities of the alkali metals increase down the table, with an exception at potassium. Due to having the lowest atomic weight and the largest atomic radius of all the elements in their periods, the alkali metals are the least dense metals in the periodic table.<ref name=chemguide /> Lithium, sodium, and potassium are the only three metals in the periodic table that are less dense than water:<ref name=rsc /> in fact, lithium is the least dense known solid at [[room temperature]].<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|75}} == Compounds == The alkali metals form complete series of compounds with all usually encountered anions, which well illustrate group trends. These compounds can be described as involving the alkali metals losing electrons to acceptor species and forming monopositive ions.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|79}} This description is most accurate for alkali halides and becomes less and less accurate as cationic and anionic charge increase, and as the anion becomes larger and more polarisable. For instance, [[ionic bond]]ing gives way to [[metallic bond]]ing along the series NaCl, Na₂O, Na₂S, Na₃P, Na₃As, Na₃Sb, Na₃Bi, Na.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|81}} === Hydroxides === {{External media | align= left | video1= [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QSZ-3wScePM Reactions of the alkali metals with water], conducted by [[The Open University]] }} [[File:Large Sodium Explosion.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A large orange-yellow explosion|A reaction of 3 [[pound (mass)|pounds]] (≈ 1.4 kg) of sodium with water]] All the alkali metals react vigorously or explosively with cold water, producing an [[aqueous solution]] of a strongly [[base (chemistry)|basic]] alkali metal [[hydroxide]] and releasing hydrogen gas.<ref name="alkaliwater" /> This reaction becomes more vigorous going down the group: lithium reacts steadily with [[effervescence]], but sodium and potassium can ignite and rubidium and caesium sink in water and generate hydrogen gas so rapidly that shock waves form in the water that may shatter glass containers.<ref name=rsc /> When an alkali metal is dropped into water, it produces an explosion, of which there are two separate stages. The metal reacts with the water first, breaking the hydrogen bonds in the water and producing [[hydrogen]] gas; this takes place faster for the more reactive heavier alkali metals. Second, the heat generated by the first part of the reaction often ignites the hydrogen gas, causing it to burn explosively into the surrounding air. This secondary hydrogen gas explosion produces the visible flame above the bowl of water, lake or other body of water, not the initial reaction of the metal with water (which tends to happen mostly under water).<ref name="alkalibangs" /> The alkali metal hydroxides are the most basic known hydroxides.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|87}} Recent research has suggested that the explosive behavior of alkali metals in water is driven by a [[Coulomb explosion]] rather than solely by rapid generation of hydrogen itself.<ref name=coulomb>{{cite journal |url=http://www.nature.com/nchem/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nchem.2161.html|title=Coulomb explosion during the early stages of the reaction of alkali metals with water|work=Nature Chemistry|doi=10.1038/nchem.2161|date=26 Jan 2015|volume=7|issue=3|pages=250–254|bibcode=2015NatCh...7..250M | last1 = Mason | first1 = Philip E.}}</ref> All alkali metals melt as a part of the reaction with water. Water molecules ionise the bare metallic surface of the liquid metal, leaving a positively charged metal surface and negatively charged water ions. The attraction between the charged metal and water ions will rapidly increase the surface area, causing an exponential increase of ionisation. When the repulsive forces within the liquid metal surface exceeds the forces of the surface tension, it vigorously explodes.<ref name=coulomb /> The hydroxides themselves are the most basic hydroxides known, reacting with acids to give salts and with alcohols to give [[oligomer]]ic [[alkoxide]]s. They easily react with [[carbon dioxide]] to form [[carbonate]]s or [[bicarbonate]]s, or with [[hydrogen sulfide]] to form [[sulfide]]s or [[bisulfide]]s, and may be used to separate [[thiol]]s from petroleum. They react with amphoteric oxides: for example, the oxides of [[aluminium]], [[zinc]], [[tin]], and [[lead]] react with the alkali metal hydroxides to give aluminates, zincates, stannates, and plumbates. [[Silicon dioxide]] is acidic, and thus the alkali metal hydroxides can also attack [[silicate glass]].<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|87}} === Intermetallic compounds === [[File:NaK alloy.jpg|thumb|right|Liquid NaK alloy at room temperature]] The alkali metals form many [[intermetallic compound]]s with each other and the elements from groups [[alkaline earth metal|2]] to [[boron group|13]] in the periodic table of varying stoichiometries,<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|81}} such as the [[sodium amalgam]]s with [[mercury (element)|mercury]], including Na₅Hg₈ and Na₃Hg.<ref>Buszek, Keith R. (2001) "Sodium Amalgam" in ''Encyclopedia of Reagents for Organic Synthesis'', Wiley. {{DOI|10.1002/047084289X.rs040}}</ref> Some of these have ionic characteristics: taking the alloys with [[gold]], the most electronegative of metals, as an example, NaAu and KAu are metallic, but RbAu and [[caesium auride|CsAu]] are semiconductors.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|81}} [[NaK]] is an alloy of sodium and potassium that is very useful because it is liquid at room temperature, although precautions must be taken due to its extreme reactivity towards water and air. The [[eutectic mixture]] melts at −12.6&nbsp;°C.<ref name="basf-ds-NaK">{{cite web |publisher= [[BASF]] |title= Sodium-Potassium Alloy (NaK) |url= http://worldaccount.basf.com/wa/NAFTA~en_GB/Catalog/ChemicalsNAFTA/doc4/BASF/PRD/30230091/.pdf?urn=urn:documentum:eCommerce_sol_EU:09007bb280047733.pdf }}{{Dead link|date=August 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> An alloy of 41% caesium, 47% sodium, and 12% potassium has the lowest known melting point of any metal or alloy, −78&nbsp;°C.<ref name="CsNaK">{{cite journal |url=http://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/cesium.html|title=Cesium|journal=Chemical and Engineering News|year=2003|last=Kaner|first=Richard }}</ref> === Compounds with the group 13 elements === The intermetallic compounds of the alkali metals with the heavier group 13 elements ([[aluminium]], [[gallium]], [[indium]], and [[thallium]]), such as NaTl, are poor [[Electrical conductor|conductors]] or [[semiconductor]]s, unlike the normal alloys with the preceding elements, implying that the alkali metal involved has lost an electron to the [[Zintl phase|Zintl anions]] involved.<ref name="Sevov">Sevov, S.C. [http://www3.nd.edu/~sevovlab/articles/SlaviChapter.pdf "Zintl Phases"], pp. 113–132 in ''Intermetallic Compounds, Principles and Practice: Progress'', Vol. 3. Westbrook, J.H.; Freisher, R.L.: Eds.; John Wiley & Sons. Ltd., Chichester, England {{DOI|10.1002/0470845856}} {{ISBN|978-0-470-84585-1}}</ref> Nevertheless, while the elements in group 14 and beyond tend to form discrete anionic clusters, group 13 elements tend to form polymeric ions with the alkali metal cations located between the giant ionic lattice. For example, NaTl consists of a polymeric anion (—Tl⁻—)_n with a covalent [[diamond cubic]] structure with Na⁺ ions located between the anionic lattice. The larger alkali metals cannot fit similarly into an anionic lattice and tend to force the heavier group 13 elements to form anionic clusters.<ref name="Kauzlarich">S.M. Kauzlarich, Encyclopedia of Inorganic chemistry, 1994, John Wiley & Sons, {{ISBN|0-471-93620-0}}</ref> [[Boron]] is a special case, being the only nonmetal in group 13. The alkali metal [[boride]]s tend to be boron-rich, involving appreciable boron–boron bonding involving [[deltahedron|deltahedral]] structures,<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|147–8}} and are thermally unstable due to the alkali metals having a very high [[vapour pressure]] at elevated temperatures. This makes direct synthesis problematic because the alkali metals do not react with boron below 700&nbsp;°C, and thus this must be accomplished in sealed containers with the alkali metal in excess. Furthermore, exceptionally in this group, reactivity with boron decreases down the group: lithium reacts completely at 700&nbsp;°C, but sodium at 900&nbsp;°C and potassium not until 1200&nbsp;°C, and the reaction is instantaneous for lithium but takes hours for potassium. Rubidium and caesium borides have not even been characterised. Various phases are known, such as LiB₁₀, NaB₆, NaB₁₅, and KB₆.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hagen |first=A. P. |date=17 September 2009 |title=Inorganic Reactions and Methods, The Formation of Bonds to Group-I, -II, and -IIIB Elements |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |pages=204–5 |isbn=978-0-470-14549-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Matkovich |first=V. I. |date=6 December 2012 |title=Boron and Refractory Borides |publisher=Springer |pages=262–92 |isbn=978-3-642-66620-9}}</ref> Under high pressure the boron–boron bonding in the lithium borides changes from following [[polyhedral skeletal electron pair theory|Wade's rules]] to forming Zintl anions like the rest of group 13.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hermann |first=Andreas |last2=McSorley |first2=Alexandra |first3=Ashcroft |last3=N. W. |first4=Roald |last4=Hoffmann |date=2012 |title=From Wade–Mingos to Zintl–Klemm at 100 GPa: Binary Compounds of Boron and Lithium |url=http://www2.ph.ed.ac.uk/~aherman2/Andreas_Hermann,_Edinburgh/Research_files/JAmChemSoc_134_18606_2012.pdf |journal=[[Journal of the American Chemical Society]] |volume=2012 |issue=134 |pages=18606–18 |doi=10.1021/ja308492g |access-date=21 August 2016}}</ref> === Compounds with the group 14 elements === {{Double image|right|Potassium-graphite-xtal-3D-SF-A.png|150|Potassium-graphite-xtal-3D-SF-B.png|150|Side ''(left)'' and top ''(right)'' views of the [[graphite intercalation compound]] KC₈}} Lithium and sodium react with [[carbon]] to form [[acetylide]]s, Li₂C₂ and Na₂C₂, which can also be obtained by reaction of the metal with [[acetylene]]. Potassium, rubidium, and caesium react with [[graphite]]; their atoms are [[intercalation (chemistry)|intercalated]] between the hexagonal graphite layers, forming [[graphite intercalation compound]]s of formulae MC₆₀ (dark grey, almost black), MC₄₈ (dark grey, almost black), MC₃₆ (blue), MC₂₄ (steel blue), and MC₈ (bronze) (M = K, Rb, or Cs). These compounds are over 200 times more electrically conductive than pure graphite, suggesting that the valence electron of the alkali metal is transferred to the graphite layers (e.g. {{chem|M|+|C|8|-}}).<ref name=generalchemistry /> Upon heating of KC₈, the elimination of potassium atoms results in the conversion in sequence to KC₂₄, KC₃₆, KC₄₈ and finally KC₆₀. KC₈ is a very strong [[reducing agent]] and is pyrophoric and explodes on contact with water.<ref name="InorgChem">{{cite book |title= Inorganic Chemistry, 3rd Edition |chapter= Chapter 14: The group 14 elements |last1=Housecroft|first1=Catherine E.|last2=Sharpe|first2=Alan G.|publisher= Pearson |year= 2008 |isbn= 978-0-13-175553-6 |page= 386}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20141129035434/http://physics.nist.gov/TechAct.2001/Div846/div846h.html NIST Ionizing Radiation Division 2001 – Technical Highlights]. physics.nist.gov</ref> While the larger alkali metals (K, Rb, and Cs) initially form MC₈, the smaller ones initially form MC₆, and indeed they require reaction of the metals with graphite at high temperatures around 500&nbsp;°C to form.<ref name=cac6>{{cite journal |last=Emery|first=N. |displayauthors=1|title=Review: Synthesis and superconducting properties of CaC6|journal=Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater.|volume=9|year=2008|page=044102|doi=10.1088/1468-6996/9/4/044102|bibcode=2008STAdM...9d4102E|issue=4|first2=Claire|last2=Hérold|first3=Jean-François|last3=Marêché|first4=Philippe|last4=Lagrange|pmc=5099629|pmid=27878015}}</ref> Apart from this, the alkali metals are such strong reducing agents that they can even reduce [[buckminsterfullerene]] to produce solid [[fullerides]] M_''n''C₆₀; sodium, potassium, rubidium, and caesium can form fullerides where ''n'' = 2, 3, 4, or 6, and rubidium and caesium additionally can achieve ''n'' = 1.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|285}} When the alkali metals react with the heavier elements in the [[carbon group]] ([[silicon]], [[germanium]], [[tin]], and [[lead]]), ionic substances with cage-like structures are formed, such as the [[silicide]]s M₄[[silicon|Si]]₄ (M = K, Rb, or Cs), which contains M⁺ and tetrahedral {{chem|Si|4|4-}} ions.<ref name=generalchemistry /> The chemistry of alkali metal [[germanide]]s, involving the germanide ion [[germanium|Ge]]⁴⁻ and other cluster ([[Zintl ion|Zintl]]) ions such as {{chem|Ge|4|2-}}, {{chem|Ge|9|4-}}, {{chem|Ge|9|2-}}, and [(Ge₉)₂]⁶⁻, is largely analogous to that of the corresponding silicides.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|393}} Alkali metal [[stannide]]s are mostly ionic, sometimes with the stannide ion ([[tin|Sn]]⁴⁻),<ref name="Kauzlarich" /> and sometimes with more complex Zintl ions such as {{chem|Sn|9|4-}}, which appears in tetrapotassium nonastannide (K₄Sn₉).<ref name="Hoch">{{cite journal |doi=10.1107/S0108270102002032|title=Tetrapotassium nonastannide, K4Sn9|year=2002|last1=Hoch|first1=Constantin|last2=Wendorff|first2=Marco|last3=Röhr|first3=Caroline|journal=Acta Crystallographica Section C|volume=58|issue=4|pages=i45}}</ref> The monatomic [[plumbide]] ion ([[lead|Pb]]⁴⁻) is unknown, and indeed its formation is predicted to be energetically unfavourable; alkali metal plumbides have complex Zintl ions, such as {{chem|Pb|9|4-}}. These alkali metal germanides, stannides, and plumbides may be produced by reducing germanium, tin, and lead with sodium metal in liquid ammonia.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|394}} === Nitrides and pnictides === [[File:Lithium-nitride-xtal-CM-3D-polyhedra.png|thumb|right|[[Unit cell]] [[ball-and-stick model]] of [[lithium nitride]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Structure of Lithium Nitride and Transition-Metal-Doped Derivatives, Li_{3−''x''−''y''}M_''x''N (M= Ni, Cu): A Powder Neutron Diffraction Study|last1=Gregory|first1=Duncan H.|last2=O'Meara|first2=Paul M.|last3=Gordon|first3=Alexandra G.|last4=Hodges|first4=Jason P.|last5=Short|first5=Simine|last6=Jorgensen|first6=James D.|journal=Chem. Mater.|year=2002|volume=14|issue=5|pages=2063–2070|doi=10.1021/cm010718t}}</ref> On the basis of size a [[tetrahedron|tetrahedral]] structure would be expected, but that would be geometrically impossible: thus lithium nitride takes on this unique crystal structure.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|76}}]] Lithium, the lightest of the alkali metals, is the only alkali metal which reacts with [[nitrogen]] at [[standard conditions]], and its [[nitride]] is the only stable alkali metal nitride. Nitrogen is an [[reactivity (chemistry)|unreactive]] gas because breaking the strong [[triple bond]] in the [[dinitrogen]] molecule (N₂) requires a lot of energy. The formation of an alkali metal nitride would consume the ionisation energy of the alkali metal (forming M⁺ ions), the energy required to break the triple bond in N₂ and the formation of N³⁻ ions, and all the energy released from the formation of an alkali metal nitride is from the [[lattice energy]] of the alkali metal nitride. The lattice energy is maximised with small, highly charged ions; the alkali metals do not form highly charged ions, only forming ions with a charge of +1, so only lithium, the smallest alkali metal, can release enough lattice energy to make the reaction with nitrogen [[exothermic]], forming [[lithium nitride]]. The reactions of the other alkali metals with nitrogen would not release enough lattice energy and would thus be [[endothermic]], so they do not form nitrides at standard conditions.<ref name="alkalireact">{{cite web |url=http://www.chemguide.co.uk/inorganic/group1/reacto2.html#top |title=Reaction of the Group 1 Elements with Oxygen and Chlorine |last=Clark|first=Jim |year=2005 |work=chemguide |accessdate=27 June 2012}}</ref> [[Sodium nitride]] (Na₃N) and [[potassium nitride]] (K₃N), while existing, are extremely unstable, being prone to decomposing back into their constituent elements, and cannot be produced by reacting the elements with each other at standard conditions.<ref name=Jansen1>{{cite journal |title=Synthesis and structure of Na₃N|last=Fischer|first=D. |last2=Jansen|first2=M.|journal= Angew Chem|volume=41|issue=10|pages=1755–1756|year=2002|doi=10.1002/1521-3773(20020517)41:10<1755::AID-ANIE1755>3.0.CO;2-C}}</ref><ref name="Jansen2">{{cite journal |title=Synthesis and structure of K₃N|last1=Fischer|first1=D. |last2=Cancarevic|first2=Z. |last3=Schön|first3=J. C. |last4=Jansen|first4=M. Z. |journal=Z. Anorg. Allg. Chem.|volume= 630|issue=1|pages=156–160|doi=10.1002/zaac.200300280|year=2004}}. [http://pubs.acs.org/cen/topstory/8020/8020notw9.html 'Elusive Binary Compound Prepared'] ''Chemical & Engineering News'' '''80''' No. 20 (20 May 2002)</ref> Steric hindrance forbids the existence of rubidium or caesium nitride.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|417}} However, sodium and potassium form colourless [[azide]] salts involving the linear {{chem|N|3|-}} anion; due to the large size of the alkali metal cations, they are thermally stable enough to be able to melt before decomposing.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|417}} All the alkali metals react readily with [[phosphorus]] and [[arsenic]] to form phosphides and arsenides with the formula M₃Pn (where M represents an alkali metal and Pn represents a [[pnictogen]] – phosphorus, arsenic, [[antimony]], or [[bismuth]]). This is due to the greater size of the P³⁻ and As³⁻ ions, so that less lattice energy needs to be released for the salts to form.<ref name=generalchemistry /> These are not the only phosphides and arsenides of the alkali metals: for example, potassium has nine different known phosphides, with formulae K₃P, K₄P₃, K₅P₄, KP, K₄P₆, K₃P₇, K₃P₁₁, KP_10.3, and KP₁₅.<ref name="Schnering">H.G. Von Schnering, W. Hönle ''Phosphides – Solid-state Chemistry'' Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry Ed. R. Bruce King (1994) John Wiley & Sons {{ISBN|0-471-93620-0}}</ref> While most metals form arsenides, only the alkali and alkaline earth metals form mostly ionic arsenides. The structure of Na₃As is complex with unusually short Na–Na distances of 328–330 pm which are shorter than in sodium metal, and this indicates that even with these electropositive metals the bonding cannot be straightforwardly ionic.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" /> Other alkali metal arsenides not conforming to the formula M₃As are known, such as LiAs, which has a metallic lustre and electrical conductivity indicating the presence of some [[metallic bond]]ing.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" /> The [[antimonide]]s are unstable and reactive as the [[antimony|Sb]]³⁻ ion is a strong reducing agent; reaction of them with acids form the toxic and unstable gas [[stibine]] (SbH₃).<ref>{{cite book |title=Outlines of Chemistry&nbsp;– A Textbook for College Students|last=Kahlenberg|first=Louis|publisher=READ BOOKS|year=2008|isbn=1-4097-6995-X|pages=324–325}}</ref> Indeed, they have some metallic properties, and the alkali metal antimonides of stoichiometry MSb involve antimony atoms bonded in a spiral Zintl structure.<ref name=King>{{cite book |last=King |first=R. Bruce |date=1995 |title=Inorganic Chemistry of Main Group Elements |publisher=Wiley-VCH |isbn=0-471-18602-3}}</ref> [[Bismuth]]ides are not even wholly ionic; they are [[intermetallic compound]]s containing partially metallic and partially ionic bonds.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://xray.chem.ualberta.ca/mar/ |title=Welcome to Arthur Mar's Research Group |date=1999–2013 |work=University of Alberta |publisher=University of Alberta |accessdate=24 June 2013}}</ref> === Oxides and chalcogenides === {{See also|Alkali metal oxide}} {{Double image|right|Rb9O2 cluster.png|150|Cs11O3 cluster.png|150|{{chem|Rb|9|O|2}} cluster, composed of two regular [[octahedron|octahedra]] connected to each other by one face|{{chem|Cs|11|O|3}} cluster, composed of three regular octahedra where each octahedron is connected to both of the others by one face each. All three octahedra have one edge in common.|The ball-and-stick diagram shows two regular octahedra which are connected to each other by one face. All nine vertices of the structure are purple spheres representing rubidium, and at the centre of each octahedron is a small red sphere representing oxygen.|The ball-and-stick diagram shows three regular octahedra where each octahedron is connected to both of the others by one face each. All three octahedra have one edge in common. All eleven vertices of the structure are violet spheres representing caesium, and at the centre of each octahedron is a small red sphere representing oxygen.}} All the alkali metals react vigorously with [[oxygen]] at standard conditions. They form various types of oxides, such as simple [[oxide]]s (containing the O²⁻ ion), [[peroxide]]s (containing the {{chem|O|2|2-}} ion, where there is a [[single bond]] between the two oxygen atoms), [[superoxide]]s (containing the {{chem|O|2|-}} ion), and many others. Lithium burns in air to form [[lithium oxide]], but sodium reacts with oxygen to form a mixture of [[sodium oxide]] and [[sodium peroxide]]. Potassium forms a mixture of [[potassium peroxide]] and [[potassium superoxide]], while rubidium and caesium form the superoxide exclusively. Their reactivity increases going down the group: while lithium, sodium and potassium merely burn in air, rubidium and caesium are [[pyrophoric]] (spontaneously catch fire in air).<ref name="alkalireact" /> The smaller alkali metals tend to polarise the larger anions (the peroxide and superoxide) due to their small size. This attracts the electrons in the more complex anions towards one of its constituent oxygen atoms, forming an oxide ion and an oxygen atom. This causes lithium to form the oxide exclusively on reaction with oxygen at room temperature. This effect becomes drastically weaker for the larger sodium and potassium, allowing them to form the less stable peroxides. Rubidium and caesium, at the bottom of the group, are so large that even the least stable superoxides can form. Because the superoxide releases the most energy when formed, the superoxide is preferentially formed for the larger alkali metals where the more complex anions are not polarised. (The oxides and peroxides for these alkali metals do exist, but do not form upon direct reaction of the metal with oxygen at standard conditions.)<ref name="alkalireact" /> In addition, the small size of the Li⁺ and O²⁻ ions contributes to their forming a stable ionic lattice structure. Under controlled conditions, however, all the alkali metals, with the exception of francium, are known to form their oxides, peroxides, and superoxides. The alkali metal peroxides and superoxides are powerful [[oxidising agent]]s. [[Sodium peroxide]] and [[potassium superoxide]] react with [[carbon dioxide]] to form the alkali metal carbonate and oxygen gas, which allows them to be used in [[submarine]] air purifiers; the presence of [[water vapour]], naturally present in breath, makes the removal of carbon dioxide by potassium superoxide even more efficient.<ref name=generalchemistry /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lindsay |first1=D. M. |last2=Garland |first2=D. A. |year=1987 |title=ESR spectra of matrix-isolated lithium superoxide |journal=The Journal of Physical Chemistry |volume=91 |issue=24 |pages=6158–61 |doi=10.1021/j100308a020}}</ref> All the stable alkali metals except lithium can form red [[ozonide]]s (MO₃) through low-temperature reaction of the powdered anhydrous hydroxide with [[ozone]]: the ozonides may be then extracted using liquid [[ammonia]]. They slowly decompose at standard conditions to the superoxides and oxygen, and hydrolyse immediately to the hydroxides when in contact with water.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|85}} Potassium, rubidium, and caesium also form sesquioxides M₂O₃, which may be better considered peroxide disuperoxides, {{chem|[(M|+|)|4|(O|2|2-|)(O|2|-|)|2|]}}.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|85}} Rubidium and caesium can form a great variety of suboxides with the metals in formal oxidation states below +1.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|85}} Rubidium can form Rb₆O and Rb₉O₂ (copper-coloured) upon oxidation in air, while caesium forms an immense variety of oxides, such as the ozonide CsO₃<ref>{{cite journal |doi= 10.1007/BF00845494|title= Synthesis of cesium ozonide through cesium superoxide|year= 1963|last1= Vol'nov|first1= I. I.|last2= Matveev|first2= V. V.|journal= Bulletin of the Academy of Sciences, USSR Division of Chemical Science|volume= 12|pages= 1040–1043|issue= 6}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi= 10.1070/RC1971v040n02ABEH001903|title= Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metal Ozonides|year= 1971|last1= Tokareva|first1= S. A.|journal= Russian Chemical Reviews|volume= 40|pages= 165–174|bibcode= 1971RuCRv..40..165T|issue= 2}}</ref> and several brightly coloured [[suboxide]]s,<ref name=Simon>{{cite journal |last= Simon|first= A.|title= Group 1 and 2 Suboxides and Subnitrides — Metals with Atomic Size Holes and Tunnels|journal= Coordination Chemistry Reviews |year= 1997|volume= 163|pages= 253–270|doi= 10.1016/S0010-8545(97)00013-1}}</ref> such as Cs₇O (bronze), Cs₄O (red-violet), Cs₁₁O₃ (violet), Cs₃O (dark green),<ref>{{cite journal |doi= 10.1021/j150537a023|year= 1956|last1= Tsai|first1= Khi-Ruey|last2= Harris|first2= P. M.|last3= Lassettre|first3= E. N.|journal= Journal of Physical Chemistry|volume= 60|pages= 345–347|title=The Crystal Structure of Tricesium Monoxide|issue= 3}}</ref> CsO, Cs₃O₂,<ref>{{cite journal |doi= 10.1007/s11669-009-9636-5|title= Cs-O (Cesium-Oxygen)|year= 2009|last1= Okamoto|first1= H.|journal= Journal of Phase Equilibria and Diffusion|volume= 31|pages= 86–87}}</ref> as well as Cs₇O₂.<ref>{{cite journal |doi= 10.1021/jp036432o|title= Characterization of Oxides of Cesium|year= 2004|last1= Band|first1= A.|last2= Albu-Yaron|first2= A.|last3= Livneh|first3= T.|last4= Cohen|first4= H.|last5= Feldman|first5= Y.|last6= Shimon|first6= L.|last7= Popovitz-Biro|first7= R.|last8= Lyahovitskaya|first8= V.|last9= Tenne|first9= R.|journal= The Journal of Physical Chemistry B|volume= 108|pages= 12360–12367|issue= 33}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi= 10.1002/zaac.19472550110|title= Untersuchungen über das System Cäsium-Sauerstoff|year= 1947|last1= Brauer|first1= G.|journal= Zeitschrift für anorganische Chemie|volume= 255|pages= 101–124}}</ref> The last of these may be heated under vacuum to generate Cs₂O.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2004/1432/2004-1432.pdf |format=PDF |publisher=United States Geological Survey |accessdate=27 December 2009 |title=Mineral Commodity Profile: Cesium |first1=William C. |last1=Butterman |first2=William E. |last2=Brooks |first3=Robert G. |last3=Reese, Jr. |year=2004 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070207015229/http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2004/1432/2004-1432.pdf |archivedate=7 February 2007}}</ref> The alkali metals can also react analogously with the heavier chalcogens ([[sulfur]], [[selenium]], [[tellurium]], and [[polonium]]), and all the alkali metal chalcogenides are known (with the exception of francium's). Reaction with an excess of the chalcogen can similarly result in lower chalcogenides, with chalcogen ions containing chains of the chalcogen atoms in question. For example, sodium can react with sulfur to form the [[sulfide]] ([[sodium sulfide|Na₂S]]) and various [[polysulfide]]s with the formula Na₂S_''x'' (''x'' from 2 to 6), containing the {{chem|S|''x''|2-}} ions.<ref name=generalchemistry /> Due to the basicity of the Se²⁻ and Te²⁻ ions, the alkali metal [[selenide]]s and [[telluride (chemistry)|tellurides]] are alkaline in solution; when reacted directly with selenium and tellurium, alkali metal polyselenides and polytellurides are formed along with the selenides and tellurides with the {{chem|Se|''x''|2-}} and {{chem|Te|''x''|2-}} ions.<ref name="house2008">{{cite book |title= Inorganic chemistry |first= James E.|last= House |publisher= Academic Press |year= 2008 |isbn= 0-12-356786-6 |page= 524}}</ref> They may be obtained directly from the elements in liquid ammonia or when air is not present, and are colourless, water-soluble compounds that air oxidises quickly back to selenium or tellurium.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|766}} The alkali metal [[polonide]]s are all ionic compounds containing the Po²⁻ ion; they are very chemically stable and can be produced by direct reaction of the elements at around 300–400&nbsp;°C.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|766}}<ref name="AEC-chem">{{cite book |last= Moyer |first= Harvey V. |contribution= Chemical Properties of Polonium |pages= 33–96 |title= Polonium |url= http://www.osti.gov/bridge/servlets/purl/4367751-nEJIbm/ |editor-last= Moyer |editor-first= Harvey V. |id= TID-5221 |doi= 10.2172/4367751 |year= 1956 |location= Oak Ridge, Tenn. |publisher= United States Atomic Energy Commission |postscript=}}</ref><ref name="Bagnall">{{cite journal |first= K. W. |last= Bagnall |title= The Chemistry of Polonium |journal= Adv. Inorg. Chem. Radiochem. |year= 1962 |volume= 4 |pages= 197–229 |url= https://books.google.com/?id=8qePsa3V8GQC&pg=PA197#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn= 978-0-12-023604-6 |doi= 10.1016/S0065-2792(08)60268-X |series= Advances in Inorganic Chemistry and Radiochemistry |postscript=}}</ref> === Halides, hydrides, and pseudohalides === {{Main|Alkali metal halide}} The alkali metals are among the most [[electropositive]] elements on the periodic table and thus tend to [[ionic bond|bond ionically]] to the most [[electronegative]] elements on the periodic table, the [[halogen]]s ([[fluorine]], [[chlorine]], [[bromine]], [[iodine]], and [[astatine]]), forming [[salt (chemistry)|salts]] known as the alkali metal halides. The reaction is very vigorous and can sometimes result in explosions.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|76}} All twenty stable alkali metal halides are known; the unstable ones are not known, with the exception of sodium astatide, because of the great instability and rarity of astatine and francium. The most well-known of the twenty is certainly [[sodium chloride]], otherwise known as common salt. All of the stable alkali metal halides have the formula MX where M is an alkali metal and X is a halogen. They are all white ionic crystalline solids that have high melting points.<ref name=rsc /><ref name="alkalireact" /> All the alkali metal halides are [[solubility|soluble]] in water except for [[lithium fluoride]] (LiF), which is insoluble in water due to its very high [[lattice enthalpy]]. The high lattice enthalpy of lithium fluoride is due to the small sizes of the Li⁺ and F⁻ ions, causing the [[electrostatic interaction]]s between them to be strong:<ref name=rsc /> a similar effect occurs for [[magnesium fluoride]], consistent with the diagonal relationship between lithium and magnesium.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|76}} The alkali metals also react similarly with hydrogen to form ionic alkali metal hydrides, where the [[hydride]] anion acts as a [[pseudohalogen|pseudohalide]]: these are often used as reducing agents, producing hydrides, complex metal hydrides, or hydrogen gas.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|83}}<ref name="generalchemistry">{{cite book |last1=Averill |first1=Bruce A. |last2=Eldredge |first2=Patricia |title=Chemistry: Principles, Patterns, and Applications with Student Access Kit for Mastering General Chemistry |url=http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/general-chemistry-principles-patterns-and-applications-v1.0/section_25_03.html |accessdate=24 June 2013 |year=2007 |publisher=Prentice Hall |edition=1st |isbn=978-0-8053-3799-0 |chapter=21.3: The Alkali Metals}}</ref> Other pseudohalides are also known, notably the [[cyanide]]s. These are isostructural to the respective halides except for [[lithium cyanide]], indicating that the cyanide ions may rotate freely.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|322}} Ternary alkali metal halide oxides, such as Na₃ClO, K₃BrO (yellow), Na₄Br₂O, Na₄I₂O, and K₄Br₂O, are also known.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|83}} The polyhalides are rather unstable, although those of rubidium and caesium are greatly stabilised by the feeble polarising power of these extremely large cations.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|835}} === Coordination complexes === {{Double image|right|18-crown-6-potassium-3D-balls-A.png|150|Cryptate of potassium cation.jpg|150|[[18-crown-6]] coordinating a potassium ion|Structure of [[2.2.2-Cryptand]] encapsulating a potassium cation (purple). At crystalline state, obtained with an X-ray diffraction.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Alberto|first1=R. |last2=Ortner|first2=K. |last3=Wheatley|first3=N. |last4=Schibli|first4=R. |last5=Schubiger|first5=A. P. |title= Synthesis and properties of boranocarbonate: a convenient in situ CO source for the aqueous preparation of [^99mTc(OH₂)₃(CO)₃]⁺ |journal= [[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]] |year= 2001 |volume= 121 |pages= 3135–3136 |doi= 10.1021/ja003932b |issue= 13}}</ref>}} Alkali metal cations do not usually form [[coordination complex]]es with simple [[Lewis base]]s due to their low charge of just +1 and their relatively large size; thus the Li⁺ ion forms most complexes and the heavier alkali metal ions form less and less (though exceptions occur for weak complexes).<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|90}} Lithium in particular has a very rich coordination chemistry in which it exhibits [[coordination number]]s from 1 to 12, although octahedral hexacoordination is its preferred mode.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|90–1}} In [[aqueous solution]], the alkali metal ions exist as octahedral hexahydrate complexes ([M(H₂O)₆)]⁺), with the exception of the lithium ion, which due to its small size forms tetrahedral tetrahydrate complexes ([Li(H₂O)₄)]⁺); the alkali metals form these complexes because their ions are attracted by electrostatic forces of attraction to the polar water molecules. Because of this, [[anhydrous]] salts containing alkali metal cations are often used as [[desiccant]]s.<ref name=generalchemistry /> Alkali metals also readily form complexes with [[crown ether]]s (e.g. [[12-crown-4]] for Li⁺, [[15-crown-5]] for Na⁺, [[18-crown-6]] for K⁺, and [[21-crown-7]] for Rb⁺) and [[cryptand]]s due to electrostatic attraction.<ref name=generalchemistry /> === Ammonia solutions === The alkali metals dissolve slowly in liquid [[ammonia]], forming ammoniacal solutions of solvated M⁺ and e⁻, which react to form hydrogen gas and the [[metal amide#Alkali metal amides|alkali metal amide]] (MNH₂, where M represents an alkali metal): this was first noted by [[Humphry Davy]] in 1809 and rediscovered by W. Weyl in 1864. The process may be speeded up by a [[catalyst]]. Similar solutions are formed by the heavy divalent [[alkaline earth metal]]s [[calcium]], [[strontium]], [[barium]], as well as the divalent [[lanthanide]]s, [[europium]] and [[ytterbium]]. The amide salt is quite insoluble and readily precipitates out of solution, leaving intensely coloured ammonia solutions of the alkali metals. In 1907, Charles Krause<!--don't link; the one being referred to has no article on WP yet--> identified the colour as being due to the presence of [[solvated electron]]s, which contribute to the high electrical conductivity of these solutions. At low concentrations (below 3 M), the solution is dark blue and has ten times the conductivity of aqueous [[sodium chloride]]; at higher concentrations (above 3 M), the solution is copper-coloured and has approximately the conductivity of liquid metals like [[mercury (element)|mercury]].<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" /><ref name=generalchemistry /><ref name="c&w">{{cite book |last=Cotton |first=F. A. |first2=G.|last2=Wilkinson |title=Advanced Inorganic Chemistry |year=1972 |publisher=John Wiley and Sons Inc |isbn=0-471-17560-9}}</ref> In addition to the alkali metal amide salt and solvated electrons, such ammonia solutions also contain the alkali metal cation (M⁺), the neutral alkali metal atom (M), [[diatomic molecule|diatomic]] alkali metal molecules (M₂) and alkali metal anions (M⁻). These are unstable and eventually become the more thermodynamically stable alkali metal amide and hydrogen gas. Solvated electrons are powerful [[reducing agent]]s and are often used in chemical synthesis.<ref name=generalchemistry /> === Organometallic === ==== Organolithium ==== {{Main|Organolithium reagent}} [[File:Butyllithium-hexamer-from-xtal-3D-balls-A.png|thumb|right|200px|Structure of the octahedral [[n-butyllithium|''n''-butyllithium]] hexamer, (C₄H₉Li)₆.<ref>{{cite journal |title= Structures of Classical Reagents in Chemical Synthesis: (nBuLi)₆, (tBuLi)₄, and the Metastable (tBuLi · Et₂O)₂ |last=T. Kottke|first=D. Stalke |journal= Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. |date= September 1993 |volume= 32 |issue= 4 |pages= 580–582 |doi= 10.1002/anie.199305801 }}</ref> The aggregates are held together by delocalised covalent bonds between lithium and the terminal carbon of the butyl chain.<ref>Elschenbroich, C. "Organometallics" (2006) Wiley-VCH: Weinheim. {{ISBN|3-527-29390-6}}.</ref> There is no direct lithium–lithium bonding in any organolithium compound.<ref name=King />{{rp|264}}]] [[File:Phenyllithium-chain-from-xtal-Mercury-3D-balls.png|thumb|right|Solid [[phenyllithium]] forms monoclinic crystals can be described as consisting of dimeric Li₂([[phenyl group|C₆H₅]])₂ subunits. The lithium atoms and the ''[[arene substitution pattern|ipso]]'' carbons of the phenyl rings form a planar four-membered ring. The plane of the phenyl groups are perpendicular to the plane of this Li₂C₂ ring. Additional strong intermolecular bonding occurs between these phenyllithium dimers and the π electrons of the phenyl groups in the adjacent dimers, resulting in an infinite polymeric ladder structure.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1= Dinnebier |first1= R. E. |last2= Behrens |first2= U. |last3= Olbrich |first3= F. |title= Lewis Base-Free Phenyllithium: Determination of the Solid-State Structure by Synchrotron Powder Diffraction |journal= [[Journal of the American Chemical Society]] |year= 1998 |volume= 120 |issue= 7 |pages= 1430–1433 |doi= 10.1021/ja972816e}}</ref>]] Being the smallest alkali metal, lithium forms the widest variety of and most stable [[organometallic compound]]s, which are bonded covalently. [[Organolithium reagent|Organolithium]] compounds are electrically non-conducting volatile solids or liquids that melt at low temperatures, and tend to form [[oligomer]]s with the structure (RLi)_''x'' where R is the organic group. As the electropositive nature of lithium puts most of the [[charge density]] of the bond on the carbon atom, effectively creating a [[carbanion]], organolithium compounds are extremely powerful [[base (chemistry)|bases]] and [[carbon nucleophile|nucleophiles]]. For use as bases, [[butyllithium]]s are often used and are commercially available. An example of an organolithium compound is [[methyllithium]] ((CH₃Li)_''x''), which exists in tetrameric (''x'' = 4, tetrahedral) and hexameric (''x'' = 6, octahedral) forms.<ref name=generalchemistry /><ref name=Brown1957>{{cite journal |last1=Brown|first1=T. L. |last2=Rogers|first2=M. T. |title= The Preparation and Properties of Crystalline Lithium Alkyls |journal= Journal of the American Chemical Society |year= 1957 |volume= 79 |issue= 8 |pages= 1859–1861 |doi= 10.1021/ja01565a024}}</ref> Organolithium compounds, especially ''n''-butyllithium, are useful reagents in organic synthesis, as might be expected given lithium's diagonal relationship with magnesium, which plays an important role in the [[Grignard reaction]].<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|102}} For example, alkyllithiums and aryllithiums may be used to synthesise [[aldehyde]]s and [[ketone]]s by reaction with metal [[carbonyl]]s. The reaction with [[nickel tetracarbonyl]], for example, proceeds through an unstable acyl nickel carbonyl complex which then undergoes [[electrophilic substitution]] to give the desired aldehyde (using H⁺ as the electrophile) or ketone (using an alkyl halide) product.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|105}} :LiR + [Ni(CO)₄] {{overunderset|→|−CO|&nbsp;}} Li⁺[RCONi(CO)₃]⁻ :Li⁺[RCONi(CO)₃]⁻ {{overunderset|→|H⁺|solvent}} Li⁺ + RCHO + [(solvent)Ni(CO)₃] :Li⁺[RCONi(CO)₃]⁻ {{overunderset|→|R'Br|solvent}} Li⁺ + R'COR + [(solvent)Ni(CO)₃] Alkyllithiums and aryllithiums may also react with ''N'',''N''-disubstituted [[amide]]s to give aldehydes and ketones, and symmetrical ketones by reacting with [[carbon monoxide]]. They thermally decompose to eliminate a β-hydrogen, producing [[alkene]]s and [[lithium hydride]]: another route is the reaction of [[ether]]s with alkyl- and aryllithiums that act as strong bases.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|105}} In non-polar solvents, aryllithiums react as the carbanions they effectively are, turning carbon dioxide to aromatic [[carboxylic acid]]s (ArCO₂H) and aryl ketones to tertiary carbinols (Ar'₂C(Ar)OH). Finally, they may be used to synthesise other organometallic compounds through metal-halogen exchange.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|106}} ==== Heavier alkali metals ==== Unlike the organolithium compounds, the organometallic compounds of the heavier alkali metals are predominantly ionic. The application of [[organosodium chemistry|organosodium]] compounds in chemistry is limited in part due to competition from [[organolithium compound]]s, which are commercially available and exhibit more convenient reactivity. The principal organosodium compound of commercial importance is [[sodium cyclopentadienide]]. [[Sodium tetraphenylborate]] can also be classified as an organosodium compound since in the solid state sodium is bound to the aryl groups. Organometallic compounds of the higher alkali metals are even more reactive than organosodium compounds and of limited utility. A notable reagent is [[Schlosser's base]], a mixture of [[n-Butyllithium|''n''-butyllithium]] and [[potassium tert-butoxide|potassium ''tert''-butoxide]]. This reagent reacts with [[propene]] to form the compound [[allylpotassium]] (KCH₂CHCH₂). [[cis-2-butene|''cis''-2-Butene]] and [[trans-2-butene|''trans''-2-butene]] equilibrate when in contact with alkali metals. Whereas [[isomerisation]] is fast with lithium and sodium, it is slow with the heavier alkali metals. The heavier alkali metals also favour the [[steric hindrance|sterically]] congested conformation.<ref>{{cite journal |title= Superbases for organic synthesis |last=Schlosser|first=Manfred|journal= Pure Appl. Chem. |volume= 60 |issue= 11 |pages= 1627–1634 |year= 1988 |doi= 10.1351/pac198860111627|url= http://old.iupac.org/publications/pac/1988/pdf/6011x1627.pdf}}</ref> Several crystal structures of organopotassium compounds have been reported, establishing that they, like the sodium compounds, are polymeric.<ref name=Klett>{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/ejic.201000983|title=Synthesis and Structures of \(Trimethylsilyl)methyl]sodium and -potassium with Bi- and Tridentate N-Donor Ligands|year=2011|last1=Clegg|first1=William|last2=Conway|first2=Ben|last3=Kennedy|first3=Alan R.|last4=Klett|first4=Jan|last5=Mulvey|first5=Robert E.|last6=Russo|first6=Luca|journal=European Journal of Inorganic Chemistry|volume=2011|issue=5|pages=721–726|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/210286264}}</ref> Organosodium, organopotassium, organorubidium and organocaesium compounds are all mostly ionic and are insoluble (or nearly so) in nonpolar solvents.<ref name=generalchemistry /> Alkyl and aryl derivatives of sodium and potassium tend to react with air. They cause the cleavage of [[ether]]s, generating alkoxides. Unlike alkyllithium compounds, alkylsodiums and alkylpotassiums cannot be made by reacting the metals with alkyl halides because [[Wurtz coupling]] occurs:<ref name=King />{{rp|265}} :RM + R'X → R–R' + MX As such, they have to be made by reacting [[organomercury compound|alkylmercury]] compounds with sodium or potassium metal in inert hydrocarbon solvents. While methylsodium forms tetramers like methyllithium, methylpotassium is more ionic and has the [[nickel arsenide]] structure with discrete methyl anions and potassium cations.<ref name=King />{{rp|265}} The alkali metals and their hydrides react with acidic hydrocarbons, for example [[cyclopentadiene]]s and terminal alkynes, to give salts. Liquid ammonia, ether, or hydrocarbon solvents are used, the most common of which being [[tetrahydrofuran]]. The most important of these compounds is [[sodium cyclopentadienide]], NaC₅H₅, an important precursor to many transition metal cyclopentadienyl derivatives.<ref name=King />{{rp|265}} Similarly, the alkali metals react with [[cyclooctatetraene]] in tetrahydrofuran to give alkali metal [[cyclooctatetraenide]]s; for example, [[dipotassium cyclooctatetraenide]] (K₂C₈H₈) is an important precursor to many metal cyclooctatetraenyl derivatives, such as [[uranocene]].<ref name=King />{{rp|266}} The large and very weakly polarising alkali metal cations can stabilise large, aromatic, polarisable radical anions, such as the dark-green [[sodium naphthalenide]], Na⁺[C₁₀H₈•]⁻, a strong reducing agent.<ref name=King />{{rp|266}} == Extensions == [[File:Atomic radius of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals.svg|thumb|right|250px|[[Empirical evidence|Empirical]] (Na–Cs, Mg–Ra) and predicted (Fr–Uhp, Ubn–Uhh) atomic radius of the alkali and alkaline earth metals from the [[period 3 element|third]] to the [[period 9 element|ninth period]], measured in [[angstrom]]s<ref name="Uue" />{{rp|1730}}<ref name="pyykko" />]] Although francium is the heaviest alkali metal that has been discovered, there has been some theoretical work predicting the physical and chemical characteristics of the hypothetical heavier alkali metals. Being the first [[period 8 element]], the undiscovered element [[ununennium]] (element 119) is predicted to be the next alkali metal after francium and behave much like their lighter [[Congener (chemistry)|congeners]]; however, it is also predicted to differ from the lighter alkali metals in some properties.<ref name="Uue" />{{rp|1729–1730}} Its chemistry is predicted to be closer to that of potassium<ref name=EB /> or rubidium<ref name="Uue" />{{rp|1729–1730}} instead of caesium or francium. This is unusual as [[periodic trends]], ignoring relativistic effects would predict ununennium to be even more reactive than caesium and francium. This lowered [[reactivity (chemistry)|reactivity]] is due to the relativistic stabilisation of ununennium's valence electron, increasing ununennium's first ionisation energy and decreasing the [[metallic radius|metallic]] and [[ionic radius|ionic radii]];<ref name="EB" /> this effect is already seen for francium.<ref name="Uue" />{{rp|1729–1730}} This assumes that ununennium will behave chemically as an alkali metal, which, although likely, may not be true due to relativistic effects.<ref name="tanm">{{cite web|url=http://lch.web.psi.ch/files/lectures/TexasA&M/TexasA&M.pdf |title=Gas Phase Chemistry of Superheavy Elements |last=Gäggeler |first=Heinz W. |date=5–7 November 2007 |work=Lecture Course Texas A&M |accessdate=26 February 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220090755/http://lch.web.psi.ch/files/lectures/TexasA%26M/TexasA%26M.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2012 }}</ref> The relativistic stabilisation of the 8s orbital also increases ununennium's [[electron affinity]] far beyond that of caesium and francium; indeed, ununennium is expected to have an electron affinity higher than all the alkali metals lighter than it. Relativistic effects also cause a very large drop in the [[polarisability]] of ununennium.<ref name="Uue" />{{rp|1729–1730}} On the other hand, ununennium is predicted to continue the trend of melting points decreasing going down the group, being expected to have a melting point between 0&nbsp;°C and 30&nbsp;°C.<ref name="Uue" />{{rp|1724}} [[File:Electron affinity of alkali metals.svg|thumb|left|200px|Empirical (Na–Fr) and predicted (Uue) electron affinity of the alkali metals from the third to the [[period 8 element|eighth period]], measured in [[electron volt]]s<ref name="Uue" />{{rp|1730}}<ref name="pyykko" />]] The stabilisation of ununennium's valence electron and thus the contraction of the 8s orbital cause its atomic radius to be lowered to 240&nbsp;[[picometer|pm]],<ref name="Uue" />{{rp|1729–1730}} very close to that of rubidium (247&nbsp;pm),<ref name=rsc /> so that the chemistry of ununennium in the +1 oxidation state should be more similar to the chemistry of rubidium than to that of francium. On the other hand, the ionic radius of the Uue⁺ ion is predicted to be larger than that of Rb⁺, because the 7p orbitals are destabilised and are thus larger than the p-orbitals of the lower shells. Ununennium may also show the +3 [[oxidation state]],<ref name="Uue" />{{rp|1729–1730}} which is not seen in any other alkali metal,<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|28}} in addition to the +1 oxidation state that is characteristic of the other alkali metals and is also the main oxidation state of all the known alkali metals: this is because of the destabilisation and expansion of the 7p_3/2 spinor, causing its outermost electrons to have a lower ionisation energy than what would otherwise be expected.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|28}}<ref name="Uue" />{{rp|1729–1730}} Indeed, many ununennium compounds are expected to have a large [[covalent]] character, due to the involvement of the 7p_3/2 electrons in the bonding.<ref name="Thayer">{{cite journal |last1=Thayer |first1=John S. |title=Relativistic Effects and the Chemistry of the Heavier Main Group Elements |year=2010 |pages=81, 84 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-9975-5_2 |journal=Relativistic Methods for Chemists|isbn=978-1-4020-9974-8 }}</ref> [[File:Ionization energy of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals.svg|thumb|right|250px|Empirical (Na–Fr, Mg–Ra) and predicted (Uue–Uhp, Ubn–Uhh) ionisation energy of the alkali and alkaline earth metals from the third to the ninth period, measured in electron volts<ref name="Uue" />{{rp|1730}}<ref name="pyykko" />]] Not as much work has been done predicting the properties of the alkali metals beyond ununennium. Although a simple extrapolation of the periodic table would put element 169, unhexennium, under ununennium, Dirac-Fock calculations predict that the next alkali metal after ununennium may actually be element 165, unhexpentium, which is predicted to have the electron configuration [Og] 5g¹⁸ 6f¹⁴ 7d¹⁰ 8s² 8p_1/2² 9s¹.<ref name="Uue" />{{rp|1729–1730}}<ref name="pyykko">{{cite journal |last1=Pyykkö|first1=Pekka|title=A suggested periodic table up to Z ≤ 172, based on Dirac–Fock calculations on atoms and ions|journal=Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics|volume=13|issue=1|pages=161–8|year=2011|pmid=20967377|doi=10.1039/c0cp01575j|bibcode= 2011PCCP...13..161P|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/47521056}}</ref> Furthermore, this element would be intermediate in properties between an alkali metal and a [[group 11 element]], and while its physical and atomic properties would be closer to the former, its chemistry may be closer to that of the latter. Further calculations show that unhexpentium would follow the trend of increasing ionisation energy beyond caesium, having an ionisation energy comparable to that of sodium, and that it should also continue the trend of decreasing atomic radii beyond caesium, having an atomic radius comparable to that of potassium.<ref name="Uue" />{{rp|1729–1730}} However, the 7d electrons of unhexpentium may also be able to participate in chemical reactions along with the 9s electron, possibly allowing oxidation states beyond +1, whence the likely transition metal behaviour of unhexpentium.<ref name="Uue" />{{rp|1732–1733}}<ref name=BFricke>{{cite journal |last1=Fricke |first1=Burkhard |year=1975 |title=Superheavy elements: a prediction of their chemical and physical properties |journal=Recent Impact of Physics on Inorganic Chemistry |volume=21 |pages=89–144 |doi=10.1007/BFb0116498 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225672062_Superheavy_elements_a_prediction_of_their_chemical_and_physical_properties |accessdate=4 October 2013|series=Structure and Bonding |isbn=978-3-540-07109-9 }}</ref> Due to the alkali and [[alkaline earth metal]]s both being [[s-block]] elements, these predictions for the trends and properties of ununennium and unhexpentium also mostly hold quite similarly for the corresponding alkaline earth metals [[unbinilium]] (Ubn) and unhexhexium (Uhh).<ref name="Uue" />{{rp|1729–1733}} The probable properties of further alkali metals beyond unhexpentium have not been explored yet as of 2015; in fact, it is suspected that they may not be able to exist.<ref name=pyykko /> In periods 8 and above of the periodic table, relativistic and shell-structure effects become so strong that extrapolations from lighter congeners become completely inaccurate. In addition, the relativistic and shell-structure effects (which stabilise the s-orbitals and destabilise and expand the d-, f-, and g-orbitals of higher shells) have opposite effects, causing even larger difference between relativistic and non-relativistic calculations of the properties of elements with such high atomic numbers.<ref name="Uue" />{{rp|1732–1733}} Interest in the chemical properties of ununennium and unhexpentium stems from the fact that both elements are located close to the expected locations of [[island of stability|islands of stabilities]], centered at elements 122 (³⁰⁶Ubb) and 164 (⁴⁸²Uhq).<ref name=Kratz>{{cite conference |last1=Kratz |first1=J. V. |date=5 September 2011 |title=The Impact of Superheavy Elements on the Chemical and Physical Sciences |url=http://tan11.jinr.ru/pdf/06_Sep/S_1/02_Kratz.pdf |conference=4th International Conference on the Chemistry and Physics of the Transactinide Elements |accessdate=27 August 2013}}</ref><ref>[http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-04/acs-nse031108.php Nuclear scientists eye future landfall on a second 'island of stability']. EurekAlert! (2008-04-06). Retrieved on 2016-11-25.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/BF01406719 |volume=228 |issue=5 |title=Investigation of the stability of superheavy nuclei around Z=114 and Z=164 |journal=Zeitschrift für Physik |pages=371–386|year=1969 |last1=Grumann |first1=Jens |last2=Mosel |first2=Ulrich |last3=Fink |first3=Bernd |last4=Greiner |first4=Walter |bibcode=1969ZPhy..228..371G }}</ref> == Pseudo-alkali metals == Many other substances are similar to the alkali metals in their tendency to form monopositive cations. Analogously to the [[pseudohalogen]]s, they have sometimes been called "pseudo-alkali metals". These substances include some elements and many more [[polyatomic ion]]s; the polyatomic ions are especially similar to the alkali metals in their large size and weak polarising power.<ref name=pseudo /> === Hydrogen === The element [[hydrogen]], with one electron per neutral atom, is usually placed at the top of Group 1 of the periodic table for convenience, but hydrogen is not normally considered to be an alkali metal;<ref name="iupac" /> when it is considered to be an alkali metal, it is because of its atomic properties and not its chemical properties.<ref name="Folden">{{cite web |url=http://cyclotron.tamu.edu/smp/The%20Heaviest%20Elements%20in%20the%20Universe.pdf |title=The Heaviest Elements in the Universe |last=Folden|first=Cody |date=31 January 2009 |work=Saturday Morning Physics at Texas A&M |accessdate=9 March 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810213232/http://cyclotron.tamu.edu/smp/The%20Heaviest%20Elements%20in%20the%20Universe.pdf |archivedate=10 August 2014}}</ref> Under typical conditions, pure hydrogen exists as a [[diatomic]] gas consisting of two atoms per [[molecule]] (H₂);<ref>{{cite book |last=Emsley|first=J. |title= The Elements |publisher= Oxford: Clarendon Press |year= 1989 |pages= 22–23 |id=}}</ref><!--It is uncertain if this reference (from [[diatomic molecule]]) refers to astatine usually not being considered with the other halogens or the list of elements that form diatomic molecules.--> however, the alkali metals only form diatomic molecules (such as [[dilithium]], Li₂) at high temperatures, when they are in the [[gas]]eous state.<ref>Winter, Mark J. (1994) ''Chemical Bonding'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|0-19-855694-2}}</ref> Hydrogen, like the alkali metals, has one [[valence electron]]<ref name=King/> and reacts easily with the [[halogen]]s,<ref name=King/> but the similarities end there because of the small size of a bare proton H⁺ compared to the alkali metal cations.<ref name=King/> Its placement above lithium is primarily due to its [[electron configuration]].<ref name="iupac">{{cite web |url=http://old.iupac.org/reports/periodic_table/ |title=International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry > Periodic Table of the Elements |publisher=IUPAC |accessdate=1 May 2011}}</ref><ref name="hydrogen-halogen" /> It is sometimes placed above [[carbon]] due to their similar electronegativities<ref name="hydrogen" /> or [[fluorine]] due to their similar chemical properties.<ref name="hydrogen-halogen" /><ref name="hydrogen">{{cite journal |last=Cronyn |first=Marshall W. |title=The Proper Place for Hydrogen in the Periodic Table |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |volume=80 |issue=8 |date=August 2003 |pages=947–951 |doi=10.1021/ed080p947 |url=http://www.reed.edu/reed_magazine/summer2009/columns/noaa/downloads/CronynHydrogen.pdf |bibcode=2003JChEd..80..947C}}</ref> The first ionisation energy of hydrogen (1312.0 [[kilojoule per mole|kJ/mol]]) is much higher than that of the alkali metals.<ref name="huheey">Huheey, J.E.; Keiter, E.A. and Keiter, R.L. (1993) ''Inorganic Chemistry: Principles of Structure and Reactivity'', 4th edition, HarperCollins, New York, USA.</ref><ref name="macmillan">James, A.M. and Lord, M.P. (1992) ''Macmillan's Chemical and Physical Data'', Macmillan, London, UK.</ref> As only one additional electron is required to fill in the outermost shell of the hydrogen atom, hydrogen often behaves like a halogen, forming the negative [[hydride]] ion, and is very occasionally considered to be a halogen on that basis.<ref name="hydrogen-halogen">{{cite web|url=http://hydrogentwo.com/hydrogen-halogen.html |title=Hydrogen is a Halogen |last=Vinson |first=Greg |year=2008 |work=HydrogenTwo.com |accessdate=14 January 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120110195815/http://hydrogentwo.com/hydrogen-halogen.html |archivedate=10 January 2012 |df=dmy }}</ref> (The alkali metals can also form negative ions, known as [[alkalide]]s, but these are little more than laboratory curiosities, being unstable.)<ref name="HNa" /><ref name="HNa-theory" /> An argument against this placement is that formation of hydride from hydrogen is endothermic, unlike the exothermic formation of halides from halogens. The radius of the H⁻ anion also does not fit the trend of increasing size going down the halogens: indeed, H⁻ is very diffuse because its single proton cannot easily control both electrons.<ref name=King />{{rp|15–6}} It was expected for some time that liquid hydrogen would show metallic properties;<ref name=hydrogen /> while this has been shown to not be the case, under extremely high [[pressure]]s, such as those found at the cores of [[Jupiter]] and [[Saturn]], hydrogen does become metallic and behaves like an alkali metal; in this phase, it is known as [[metallic hydrogen]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wigner|first1=E.|last2=Huntington|first2=H. B.|year=1935|title=On the possibility of a metallic modification of hydrogen|journal=[[Journal of Chemical Physics]]|volume=3 |page=764|doi=10.1063/1.1749590|bibcode= 1935JChPh...3..764W|issue=12}}</ref> The [[resistivity|electrical resistivity]] of liquid [[metallic hydrogen]] at 3000 K is approximately equal to that of liquid [[rubidium]] and [[caesium]] at 2000 K at the respective pressures when they undergo a nonmetal-to-metal transition.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nellis |first1=W. J. |last2=Weir |first2=S. T. |last3=Mitchell |first3=A. C. |year=1999 |title=Metallization of fluid hydrogen at 140 GPa (1.4 Mbar) by shock compression |journal=Shock Waves |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=301–305 |doi= 10.1007/s001930050189|bibcode= 1999ShWav...9..301N}}</ref> The 1s¹ electron configuration of hydrogen, while superficially similar to that of the alkali metals (ns¹), is unique because there is no 1p subshell. Hence it can lose an electron to form the [[hydron (chemistry)|hydron]] H⁺, or gain one to form the [[hydride]] ion H⁻.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|43}} In the former case it resembles superficially the alkali metals; in the latter case, the halogens, but the differences due to the lack of a 1p subshell are important enough that neither group fits the properties of hydrogen well.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|43}} Group 14 is also a good fit in terms of thermodynamic properties such as [[ionisation energy]] and [[electron affinity]], but makes chemical nonsense because hydrogen cannot be tetravalent. Thus none of the three placements are entirely satisfactory, although group 1 is the most common placement (if one is chosen) because the hydron is by far the most important of all monatomic hydrogen species, being the foundation of acid-base chemistry.<ref name=hydrogen /> As an example of hydrogen's unorthodox properties stemming from its unusual electron configuration and small size, the hydrogen ion is very small (radius around 150&nbsp;[[femtometre|fm]] compared to the 50–220&nbsp;pm size of most other atoms and ions) and so is nonexistent in condensed systems other than in association with other atoms or molecules. Indeed, transferring of protons between chemicals is the basis of [[acid-base chemistry]].<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|43}} Also unique is hydrogen's ability to form [[hydrogen bond]]s, which are an effect of charge-transfer, [[electrostatic]], and electron correlative contributing phenomena.<ref name=hydrogen /> While analogous lithium bonds are also known, they are mostly electrostatic.<ref name=hydrogen /> Nevertheless, hydrogen can take on the same structural role as the alkali metals in some molecular crystals, and has a close relationship with the lightest alkali metals (especially lithium).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cousins |first=David M. |last2=Davidson |first2=Matthew G. |last3=García-Vivó |first3=Daniel |date=2013 |title=Unprecedented participation of a four-coordinate hydrogen atom in the cubane core of lithium and sodium phenolates |url=http://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlepdf/2013/cc/c3cc47393g |journal=Chem. Commun. |volume=49 |issue=100 |pages=11809–11811 |doi=10.1039/c3cc47393g |accessdate=7 August 2014}}</ref> === Ammonium and derivatives === [[File:Hydrochloric acid ammonia.jpg|thumb|right|Similarly to the alkali metals, [[ammonia]] reacts with [[hydrochloric acid]] to form the salt [[ammonium chloride]].]] The [[ammonium]] ion ({{chem|NH|4|+}}) has very similar properties to the heavier alkali metals, acting as an alkali metal intermediate between potassium and rubidium,<ref name=pseudo>{{cite journal |last=Dietzel |first=P. D. |last2=Kremer |first2=R. K. |last3=Jansen |first3=M. |date=8 January 2007 |title=Superoxide compounds of the large pseudo-alkali-metal ions tetramethylammonium, -phosphonium, and -arsonium. |journal=Chem Asian J. |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=66–75 |doi=10.1002/asia.200600306 |pmid=17441140}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.meta-synthesis.com/webbook/35_pt/pt_database.php?PT_id=429|title=2002 Inorganic Chemist's Periodic Table|last=Leach|first=Mark R. |accessdate=16 October 2012}}</ref> and is often considered a close relative.<ref name="Holleman&Wiberg">{{Holleman&Wiberg}}</ref><ref name="Stevenson" /><ref name="Bernal&Massey" /> For example, most alkali metal [[salt (chemistry)|salts]] are [[solubility|soluble]] in water, a property which ammonium salts share.<ref>{{cite web |title=Solubility Rules!|url=http://www.chem.sc.edu/faculty/morgan/resources/solubility/|work=chem.sc.edu}}</ref> Ammonium is expected to behave stably as a metal ({{chem|NH|4|+}} ions in a sea of delocalised electrons) at very high pressures (though less than the typical pressure where transitions from insulating to metallic behaviour occur around, 100&nbsp;[[pascal (unit)|GPa]]), and could possibly occur inside the [[Gas giant#Uranus and Neptune|ice giants]] [[Uranus]] and [[Neptune]], which may have significant impacts on their interior magnetic fields.<ref name="Stevenson">{{cite journal |last1=Stevenson |first1=D. J. |date=20 November 1975 |title=Does metallic ammonium exist? |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=258 |issue= 5532 |pages=222–223 |publisher=[[Nature Publishing Group]] |doi=10.1038/258222a0 |bibcode= 1975Natur.258..222S}}</ref><ref name="Bernal&Massey">{{cite journal |last1=Bernal |first1=M. J. M. |last2=Massey |first2=H. S. W. |date=3 February 1954 |title=Metallic Ammonium |journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]] |volume=114 |issue=2 |pages=172–179 |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] for the [[Royal Astronomical Society]] |bibcode=1954MNRAS.114..172B |doi=10.1093/mnras/114.2.172}}</ref> It has been estimated that the transition from a mixture of [[ammonia]] and dihydrogen molecules to metallic ammonium may occur at pressures just below 25&nbsp;GPa.<ref name="Stevenson" /> Under standard conditions, ammonium can form a metallic amalgam with mercury.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reedy |first1=J. H.|date=October 1, 1929|title=Lecture demonstration of ammonium amalgam |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |volume=6 |issue=10 |page=1767|doi=10.1021/ed006p1767|bibcode=1929JChEd...6.1767R}}</ref> Other "pseudo-alkali metals" include the [[alkylammonium]] cations, in which some of the hydrogen atoms in the ammonium cation are replaced by alkyl or aryl groups. In particular, the [[quaternary ammonium cation]]s ({{chem|NR|4|+}}) are very useful since they are permanently charged, and they are often used as an alternative to the expensive Cs⁺ to stabilise very large and very easily polarisable anions such as {{chem|HI|2|-}}.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|812–9}} Tetraalkylammonium hydroxides, like alkali metal hydroxides, are very strong bases that react with atmospheric carbon dioxide to form carbonates.<ref name=King />{{rp|256}} Furthermore, the nitrogen atom may be replaced by a phosphorus, arsenic, or antimony atom (the heavier nonmetallic [[pnictogen]]s), creating a [[phosphonium]] ({{chem|PH|4|+}}) or [[arsonium]] ({{chem|AsH|4|+}}) cation that can itself be substituted similarly; while [[stibonium]] ({{chem|SbH|4|+}}) itself is not known, some of its organic derivatives are characterised.<ref name=pseudo /> === Cobaltocene and derivatives === [[Cobaltocene]], Co(C₅H₅)₂, is a [[metallocene]], the [[cobalt]] analogue of [[ferrocene]]. It is a dark purple solid. Cobaltocene has 19 valence electrons, one more than usually found in organotransition metal complexes, such as its very stable relative, ferrocene, in accordance with the [[18-electron rule]]. This additional electron occupies an orbital that is antibonding with respect to the Co–C bonds. Consequently, many chemical reactions of Co(C₅H₅)₂ are characterized by its tendency to lose this "extra" electron, yielding a very stable 18-electron cation known as cobaltocenium. Many cobaltocenium salts coprecipitate with caesium salts, and cobaltocenium hydroxide is a strong base that absorbs atmospheric carbon dioxide to form cobaltocenium carbonate.<ref name=King />{{rp|256}} Like the alkali metals, cobaltocene is a strong reducing agent, and [[decamethylcobaltocene]] is stronger still due to the combined [[inductive effect]] of the ten methyl groups.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1021/cr940053x|pmid=11848774|title=Chemical Redox Agents for Organometallic Chemistry|journal=Chemical Reviews|volume=96|issue=2|pages=877–910|year=1996|last1=Connelly|first1=Neil G.|last2=Geiger|first2=William E.}}</ref> Cobalt may be substituted by its heavier congener [[rhodium]] to give [[rhodocene]], an even stronger reducing agent.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= El Murr |first1= N. |last2= Sheats |first2= J. E. |last3= Geiger |first3= W. E. |last4= Holloway |first4= J. D. L. |year= 1979 |title= Electrochemical Reduction Pathways of the Rhodocenium Ion. Dimerization and Reduction of Rhodocene |journal= [[Inorganic Chemistry (journal)|Inorg. Chem.]] |volume= 18 |issue= 6 |pages= 1443–1446 |doi= 10.1021/ic50196a007}}</ref> [[Iridocene]] (involving [[iridium]]) would presumably be still more potent, but is not very well-studied due to its instability.<ref name="Keller_1967">{{cite journal |last1= Keller |first1= H. J. |last2= Wawersik |first2= H. |year= 1967 |title= Spektroskopische Untersuchungen an Komplexverbindungen. VI. EPR-spektren von (C₅H₅)₂Rh und (C₅H₅)₂Ir |journal= [[Journal of Organometallic Chemistry|J. Organomet. Chem.]] |volume= 8 |issue= 1 |pages= 185–188 |language= German |doi= 10.1016/S0022-328X(00)84718-X}}</ref> === Thallium === [[File:Thallium pieces in ampoule.jpg|thumb|right|Very pure thallium pieces in a glass [[ampoule]], stored under [[argon]] gas]] [[Thallium]] is the heaviest stable element in group 13 of the periodic table. At the bottom of the periodic table, the [[inert pair effect]] is quite strong, because of the [[relativistic effects|relativistic]] stabilisation of the 6s orbital and the decreasing bond energy as the atoms increase in size so that the amount of energy released in forming two more bonds is not worth the high ionisation energies of the 6s electrons.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|226–7}} It displays the +1 [[oxidation state]]<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|28}} that all the known alkali metals display,<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|28}} and thallium compounds with thallium in its +1 [[oxidation state]] closely resemble the corresponding potassium or [[silver]] compounds stoichiometrically due to the similar ionic radii of the Tl⁺ (164&nbsp;[[picometer|pm]]), K⁺ (152&nbsp;pm) and Ag⁺ (129&nbsp;pm) ions.<ref name=Shannon>{{cite journal |doi=10.1107/S0567739476001551|title=Revised effective ionic radii and systematic studies of interatomic distances in halides and chalcogenides|last=Shannon|first=R. D. |journal=Acta Crystallogr A|volume=32|year=1976|pages=751–767|bibcode= 1976AcCrA..32..751S|issue=5}}</ref><ref name=Crookes /> It was sometimes considered an alkali metal in [[continental Europe]] (but not in England) in the years immediately following its discovery,<ref name=Crookes>{{cite journal |last1=Crookes |first1=William |authorlink=William Crookes |year=1864 |title=On Thallium |journal=Journal of the Chemical Society |volume=17 |pages=112–152 |publisher=Harrison & Sons |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H58wAAAAYAAJ |accessdate=13 January 2012 |doi=10.1039/js8641700112}}</ref>{{rp|126}} and was placed just after caesium as the sixth alkali metal in [[Dmitri Mendeleev]]'s 1869 [[periodic table]] and [[Julius Lothar Meyer]]'s 1868 periodic table.<ref name="meta-synthesis2">{{cite web |url=http://www.meta-synthesis.com/webbook/35_pt/pt_database.php?Button=pre-1900+Formulations |title=The Internet Database of Periodic Tables |last=Leach|first=Mark R. |date=1999–2012 |work=meta-synthesis.com |accessdate=6 April 2012}}</ref> (Mendeleev's 1871 periodic table and Meyer's 1870 periodic table put thallium in its current position in the [[boron group]] and left the space below caesium blank.)<ref name="meta-synthesis2" /> However, thallium also displays the oxidation state +3,<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|28}} which no known alkali metal displays<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|28}} (although ununennium, the undiscovered seventh alkali metal, is predicted to possibly display the +3 oxidation state).<ref name="Uue" />{{rp|1729–1730}} The sixth alkali metal is now considered to be francium.<ref name="redbook">{{RedBook2005|pages=51}}.</ref> While Tl⁺ is stabilised by the inert pair effect, this inert pair of 6s electrons is still able to participate chemically, so that these electrons are [[stereochemistry|stereochemically]] active in aqueous solution. Additionally, the thallium halides (except [[thallium(I) fluoride|TlF]]) are quite insoluble in water, and [[thallium(I) iodide|TlI]] has an unusual structure because of the presence of the stereochemically active inert pair in thallium.<ref>{{cite journal |title= Thallium Halides – New Aspects of the Stereochemical Activity of Electron Lone Pairs of Heavier Main-Group Elements |last=Mudring|first=Anja-Verena |journal= [[European Journal of Inorganic Chemistry]] |volume= 2007 |issue= 6 |pages= 882–890 |doi= 10.1002/ejic.200600975 |year= 2007}}</ref> === Copper, silver, and gold === {{multiple image |align= right |direction= horizontal |header= |image1= NatCopper.jpg |width1= 110 |alt1= A crystal of a coppery-colored metal mineral of standing on a white surface |caption1= Copper |image2= Silver crystal.jpg |width2= 132 |alt2= A crystal of a silvery metal crystal lying on a grey surface |caption2= Silver |image3= Gold-crystals.jpg |width3= 160 |alt3= A crystal of a yellow metal lying on a white surface |caption3= Gold }} The [[group 11 element|group 11 metals]] (or coinage metals), [[copper]], [[silver]], and [[gold]], are typically categorised as transition metals given they can form ions with incomplete d-shells. Physically, they have the relatively low melting points and high electronegativity values associated with [[post-transition metal]]s. "The filled ''d'' subshell and free ''s'' electron of Cu, Ag, and Au contribute to their high electrical and thermal conductivity. Transition metals to the left of group 11 experience interactions between ''s'' electrons and the partially filled ''d'' subshell that lower electron mobility."<ref>Russell AM & Lee KL (2005) [https://books.google.com/books?id=fIu58uZTE-gC ''Structure-property relations in nonferrous metals'']. Wiley-Interscience, New York. p.&nbsp;302. {{ISBN|0-471-64952-X}}</ref> Chemically, the group 11 metals behave like main-group metals in their +1 valence states, and are hence somewhat related to the alkali metals: this is one reason for their previously being labelled as "group IB", paralleling the alkali metals' "group IA". They are occasionally classified as post-transition metals.<ref>Deming HG (1940) ''Fundamental Chemistry,'' John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp.&nbsp;705–7</ref> Their spectra are analogous to those of the alkali metals.<ref name=Jensen /> Their monopositive ions are [[paramagnetic]] and contribute no colour to their salts, like those of the alkali metals.<ref>Bailar, J. C. (1973) ''Comprehensive inorganic chemistry'', vol. 3, p. 16. {{ISBN|1-57215-291-5}}</ref> In Mendeleev's 1871 periodic table, copper, silver, and gold are listed twice, once under group VIII (with the [[iron triad]] and [[platinum group metal]]s), and once under group IB. Group IB was nonetheless parenthesised to note that it was tentative. Mendeleev's main criterion for group assignment was the maximum oxidation state of an element: on that basis, the group 11 elements could not be classified in group IB, due to the existence of copper(II) and gold(III) compounds being known at that time.<ref name=Jensen /> However, eliminating group IB would make group I the only main group (group VIII was labelled a transition group) to lack an A–B bifurcation.<ref name=Jensen /> Soon afterward, a majority of chemists chose to classify these elements in group IB and remove them from group VIII for the resulting symmetry: this was the predominant classification until the rise of the modern medium-long 18-column periodic table, which separated the alkali metals and group 11 metals.<ref name=Jensen /> The coinage metals were traditionally regarded as a subdivision of the alkali metal group, due to them sharing the characteristic s¹ electron configuration of the alkali metals (group 1: p⁶s¹; group 11: d¹⁰s¹). However, the similarities are largely confined to the [[stochiometry|stoichiometries]] of the +1 compounds of both groups, and not their chemical properties.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|1177}} This stems from the filled d subshell providing a much weaker shielding effect on the outermost s electron than the filled p subshell, so that the coinage metals have much higher first ionisation energies and smaller ionic radii than do the corresponding alkali metals.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|1177}} Furthermore, they have higher melting points, hardnesses, and densities, and lower reactivities and solubilities in liquid [[ammonia]], as well as having more covalent character in their compounds.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|1177}} Finally, the alkali metals are at the top of the [[electrochemical series]], whereas the coinage metals are almost at the very bottom.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|1177}} The coinage metals' filled d shell is much more easily disrupted than the alkali metals' filled p shell, so that the second and third ionisation energies are lower, enabling higher oxidation states than +1 and a richer coordination chemistry, thus giving the group 11 metals clear [[transition metal]] character.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|1177}} Particularly noteworthy is gold forming ionic compounds with rubidium and caesium, in which it forms the auride ion (Au⁻) which also occurs in solvated form in liquid ammonia solution: here gold behaves as a [[pseudohalogen]] because its 5d¹⁰6s¹ configuration has one electron less than the quasi-closed shell 5d¹⁰6s² configuration of [[mercury (element)|mercury]].<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|1177}} == Production and isolation == {{multiple image |footer= [[Salt pan (geology)|Salt flats]] are rich in lithium, such as these in Salar del Hombre Muerto, Argentina (left) and [[Salar de Uyuni|Uyuni]], Bolivia (right). The lithium-rich brine is concentrated by pumping it into [[salt evaporation pond|solar evaporation ponds]] (visible in Argentina image). |align= right |width1= 160 |width2= 105 |image1= Lithium mine, Salar del Hombre Muerto, Argentina.jpg |alt1= alt1 |image2= Uyuni landsat.JPG |alt2= alt2 }} The production of pure alkali metals is somewhat complicated due to their extreme reactivity with commonly used substances, such as water.<ref name=rsc /><ref name=generalchemistry /> From their [[silicate]] ores, all the stable alkali metals may be obtained the same way: [[sulfuric acid]] is first used to dissolve the desired alkali metal ion and [[aluminium]](III) ions from the ore (leaching), whereupon basic precipitation removes aluminium ions from the mixture by precipitating it as the [[aluminium hydroxide|hydroxide]]. The remaining insoluble alkali metal [[carbonate]] is then precipitated selectively; the salt is then dissolved in [[hydrochloric acid]] to produce the chloride. The result is then left to evaporate and the alkali metal can then be isolated.<ref name=generalchemistry /> Lithium and sodium are typically isolated through electrolysis from their liquid chlorides, with [[calcium chloride]] typically added to lower the melting point of the mixture. The heavier alkali metals, however, is more typically isolated in a different way, where a reducing agent (typically sodium for potassium and [[magnesium]] or [[calcium]] for the heaviest alkali metals) is used to reduce the alkali metal chloride. The liquid or gaseous product (the alkali metal) then undergoes [[fractional distillation]] for purification.<ref name=generalchemistry /> Most routes to the pure alkali metals require the use of electrolysis due to their high reactivity; one of the few which does not is the [[pyrolysis]] of the corresponding alkali metal [[azide]], which yields the metal for sodium, potassium, rubidium, and caesium and the nitride for lithium.<ref name=King/>{{rp|77}} Lithium salts have to be extracted from the water of [[mineral spring]]s, [[brine]] pools, and brine deposits. The metal is produced electrolytically from a mixture of fused [[lithium chloride]] and [[potassium chloride]].<ref name="ober">{{cite web |url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/lithium/450798.pdf |title=Lithium|accessdate= 19 August 2007|last=Ober |first=Joyce A. |format=PDF |pages= 77–78 |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]] |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070711062102/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/lithium/450798.pdf |archivedate= 11 July 2007 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl= no}}</ref> Sodium occurs mostly in seawater and dried [[seabed]],<ref name=rsc /> but is now produced through [[electrolysis]] of [[sodium chloride]] by lowering the melting point of the substance to below 700&nbsp;°C through the use of a [[Downs cell]].<ref name="pauling">{{cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |title= General Chemistry |edition=1970 |publisher=Dover Publications}}</ref><ref name="losal">{{cite web |url=http://periodic.lanl.gov/11.shtml|title=Los Alamos National Laboratory – Sodium|accessdate=8 June 2007}}</ref> Extremely pure sodium can be produced through the thermal decomposition of [[sodium azide]].<ref>Merck Index, 9th ed., monograph 8325</ref> Potassium occurs in many minerals, such as [[sylvite]] ([[potassium chloride]]).<ref name=rsc /> Previously, potassium was generally made from the electrolysis of [[potassium chloride]] or [[potassium hydroxide]],<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Webelements|title=WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements {{pipe}} Potassium {{pipe}} Essential information |url=http://www.webelements.com/potassium/ |last=Winter|first=Mark|accessdate=27 November 2011}}</ref> found extensively in places such as Canada, Russia, Belarus, Germany, Israel, United States, and Jordan, in a method similar to how sodium was produced in the late 1800s and early 1900s.<ref name=kirk>{{cite encyclopedia|doi=10.1002/0471238961.1915040912051311.a01.pub2|chapter=Sodium and Sodium Alloys|title=Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology|year=2001|last1=Lemke|first1=Charles H.|last2=Markant|first2=Vernon H.|isbn=0-471-23896-1}}</ref> It can also be produced from [[seawater]].<ref name=rsc /> However, these methods are problematic because the potassium metal tends to dissolve in its molten chloride and vaporises significantly at the operating temperatures, potentially forming the explosive superoxide. As a result, pure potassium metal is now produced by reducing molten potassium chloride with sodium metal at 850&nbsp;°C.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|74}} :Na (g) + KCl (l) {{eqm}} NaCl (l) + K (g) Although sodium is less reactive than potassium, this process works because at such high temperatures potassium is more volatile than sodium and can easily be distilled off, so that the equilibrium shifts towards the right to produce more potassium gas and proceeds almost to completion.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|74}} [[File:Pichblende.jpg|thumb|This sample of [[uraninite]] contains about 100,000 atoms (3.3{{e|-20}}&nbsp;g) of francium-223 at any given time.<ref name="nbb" />|alt=A shiny gray 5-centimeter piece of matter with a rough surface.]] For several years in the 1950s and 1960s, a by-product of the potassium production called Alkarb was a main source for rubidium. Alkarb contained 21% rubidium while the rest was potassium and a small fraction of caesium.<ref>{{cite journal |title= Cesium and Rubidium Hit Market|journal= Chemical & Engineering News |volume= 37|issue= 22|pages= 50–56|year= 1959|doi= 10.1021/cen-v037n022.p050}}</ref> Today the largest producers of caesium, for example the [[Tanco Mine]] in Manitoba, Canada, produce rubidium as by-product from [[pollucite]].<ref name=USGS /> Today, a common method for separating rubidium from potassium and caesium is the [[fractional crystallization (chemistry)|fractional crystallisation]] of a rubidium and caesium [[alum]] ([[Caesium|Cs]],[[Rubidium|Rb]])[[Aluminium|Al]]([[Sulfate|SO₄]])₂·12[[Water|H₂O]], which yields pure rubidium alum after approximately 30 recrystallisations.<ref name=USGS /><ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/?id=1ikjAQAAIAAJ&q=ferrocyanide+rubidium&dq=ferrocyanide+rubidium|publisher= United States. Bureau of Mines|title= bulletin 585|year= 1995}}</ref> The limited applications and the lack of a mineral rich in rubidium limit the production of rubidium compounds to 2 to 4 [[tonne]]s per year.<ref name=USGS>{{cite web |url= http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2003/of03-045/of03-045.pdf |format= PDF|publisher= United States Geological Survey|accessdate= 4 December 2010|title= Mineral Commodity Profile: Rubidium|first1= William C.|last1= Butterman|first2= William E.|last2= Brooks|first3= Robert G.|last3= Reese, Jr.|year=2003}}</ref> Caesium, however, is not produced from the above reaction. Instead, the mining of [[pollucite]] ore is the main method of obtaining pure caesium, extracted from the ore mainly by three methods: acid digestion, alkaline decomposition, and direct reduction.<ref name=USGS /><ref name=Burt>{{cite book |last= Burt|first= R. O.|year= 1993|chapter= Caesium and cesium compounds|title= Kirk-Othmer encyclopedia of chemical technology|edition= 4th|place= New York|publisher= John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|volume= 5|pages= 749–764|isbn= 978-0-471-48494-3}}</ref> Both metals are produced as by-products of lithium production: after 1958, when interest in lithium's thermonuclear properties increased sharply, the production of rubidium and caesium also increased correspondingly.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|71}} Pure rubidium and caesium metals are produced by reducing their chlorides with [[calcium]] metal at 750&nbsp;°C and low pressure.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|74}} As a result of its extreme rarity in nature,<ref name="Winter">{{cite web |last= Winter|first= Mark |title= Geological information |work= Francium|publisher= The University of Sheffield |url= http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Fr/geol.html |accessdate= 26 March 2007}}</ref> most francium is synthesised in the nuclear reaction ¹⁹⁷[[Gold|Au]] + ¹⁸[[Oxygen|O]] → ²¹⁰[[Francium|Fr]] + 5 [[neutron|n]], yielding [[francium-209]], [[francium-210]], and [[francium-211]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stancari |first1=G. |last2=Veronesi |first2=S. |last3=Corradi |first3=L. |last4=Atutov |first4=S. N. |last5=Calabrese |first5=R. |last6=Dainelli |first6=A. |last7=Mariotti |first7=E. |last8=Moi |first8=L. |last9=Sanguinetti |first9=S. |first10=L.|last10=Tomassetti|year=2006 |title=Production of Radioactive Beams of Francium |journal=Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment |volume=557 |issue=2 |pages=390–396 |doi=10.1016/j.nima.2005.11.193 |bibcode= 2006NIMPA.557..390S}}</ref> The greatest quantity of francium ever assembled to date is about 300,000 neutral atoms,<ref name="chemnews">{{cite journal |url=http://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/francium.html|title=Francium|journal=Chemical and Engineering News|year=2003|last=Orozco|first=Luis A. }}</ref> which were synthesised using the nuclear reaction given above.<ref name="chemnews" /> When the only natural isotope francium-223 is specifically required, it is produced as the alpha daughter of actinium-227, itself produced synthetically from the neutron irradiation of natural radium-226, one of the daughters of natural uranium-238.<ref name="andyscouse">{{cite web |last= Price |first= Andy |title= Francium |date= December 20, 2004 |url= http://www.andyscouse.com/pages/francium.htm |accessdate= February 19, 2012}}</ref> == Applications == [[File:FOCS-1.jpg|thumb|right|alt=FOCS 1, a caesium atomic clock in Switzerland|FOCS 1, a caesium atomic clock in Switzerland]] Lithium, sodium, and potassium have many applications, while rubidium and caesium are very useful in academic contexts but do not have many applications yet.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|68}} Lithium is often used in [[lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion batteries]], and [[lithium oxide]] can help process silica. [[Lithium stearate]] is a thickener and can be used to make lubricating greases; it is produced from lithium hydroxide, which is also used to absorb [[carbon dioxide]] in space capsules and submarines.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|70}} [[Lithium chloride]] is used as a brazing alloy for aluminium parts.<ref>{{cite news|author=USGS |year=2011|title=Lithium|url= http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/lithium/mcs-2011-lithi.pdf|accessdate=4 December 2011|format=PDF}}</ref> Metallic lithium is used in alloys with magnesium and aluminium to give very tough and light alloys.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|70}} Sodium compounds have many applications, the most well-known being sodium chloride as [[table salt]]. Sodium salts of [[fatty acid]]s are used as soap.<ref>{{cite web |title=Soaps & Detergents: Chemistry|url=http://www.cleaninginstitute.org/clean_living/soaps__detergents_chemistry.aspx|accessdate=20 July 2015}}</ref> Pure sodium metal also has many applications, including use in [[sodium-vapor lamp|sodium-vapour lamps]], which produce very efficient light compared to other types of lighting,<ref name="lamp1">{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=0d7u9Nr33zIC&pg=PA112 |page= 112 |title= Applied illumination engineering |isbn= 978-0-88173-212-2 |last1=Lindsey|first1=Jack L |year= 1997}}</ref><ref name="lamp2">{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=AFNwNAFYtCAC&pg=PA241 |page= 241 |title= Revolution in lamps: A chronicle of 50 years of progress |isbn= 978-0-88173-351-8 |last1=Kane|first1=Raymond |last2= Sell |first2= Heinz |year= 2001}}</ref> and can help smooth the surface of other metals.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/?id=kyVWAAAAYAAJ&dq=sodium+descale+metal&q=METALLIC+SODIUM+++DESCALING+SEVERAL#search_anchor |title= Metal treatment and drop forging |last1=Stampers|first1=National Association of Drop Forgers and|year= 1957}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=LI4KmKqca78C&pg=PA76 |page= 76 |title= Metal cleaning bibliographical abstracts |last1=Harris|first1=Jay C |year= 1949}}</ref> Being a strong reducing agent, it is often used to reduce many other metals, such as [[titanium]] and [[zirconium]], from their chlorides. Furthermore, it is very useful as a heat-exchange liquid in [[fast breeder nuclear reactor]]s due to its low melting point, viscosity, and [[cross-section (physics)|cross-section]] towards neutron absorption.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|74}} Potassium compounds are often used as [[fertiliser]]s<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|73}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Cordel|first=Oskar |title=Die Stassfurter Kalisalze in der Landwirthschalt: Eine Besprechung ...|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EYpIAAAAYAAJ|accessdate=29 May 2011|year=1868|publisher=L. Schnock |language= German}}</ref> as potassium is an important element for plant nutrition. [[Potassium hydroxide]] is a very strong base, and is used to control the [[pH]] of various substances.<ref>{{cite book |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=UnjD4aBm9ZcC&pg=PA4|chapter= Personal Cleansing Products: Bar Soap|title= Chemical composition of everyday products|isbn= 978-0-313-32579-3|last1=Toedt|first1=John|last2=Koza|first2=Darrell|last3=Cleef-Toedt|first3=Kathleen Van|year= 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi= 10.1002/14356007.a22_031.pub2|title= Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry|year= 2006|last=Schultz|first=H.|chapter= Potassium compounds|isbn= 3-527-30673-0|volume=A22|page=95|display-authors=etal}}</ref> [[Potassium nitrate]] and [[potassium permanganate]] are often used as powerful oxidising agents.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|73}} [[Potassium superoxide]] is used in breathing masks, as it reacts with carbon dioxide to give potassium carbonate and oxygen gas. Pure potassium metal is not often used, but its alloys with sodium may substitute for pure sodium in fast breeder nuclear reactors.<ref name="Greenwood&Earnshaw" />{{rp|74}} Rubidium and caesium are often used in [[atomic clock]]s.<ref name="atomic-clocks">{{cite web |title=Cesium Atoms at Work |publisher=Time Service Department—U.S. Naval Observatory—Department of the Navy |url=http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/cesium.html |accessdate=20 December 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150223231150/http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/cesium.html |archivedate=23 February 2015}}</ref> Caesium atomic clocks are extraordinarily accurate; if a clock had been made at the time of the dinosaurs, it would be off by less than four seconds (after 80 million years).<ref name="pubs.usgs">{{cite web |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2004/1432/2004-1432.pdf |format=PDF |publisher=United States Geological Survey |accessdate=27 December 2009 |title=Mineral Commodity Profile: Cesium |first1=William C. |last1=Butterman |first2=William E. |last2=Brooks |first3=Robert G. |last3=Reese, Jr. |year=2004 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091122210358/http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2004/1432/2004-1432.pdf |archivedate=22 November 2009 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy}}</ref> For that reason, caesium atoms are used as the definition of the second.<ref name="nist-second">{{cite web |title= The NIST reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty|publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology|url=http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/second.html}}</ref> Rubidium ions are often used in purple [[firework]]s,<ref>{{cite journal |first= E.-C. |last= Koch |title= Special Materials in Pyrotechnics, Part II: Application of Caesium and Rubidium Compounds in Pyrotechnics |journal= Journal Pyrotechnics |year= 2002 |volume= 15 |pages= 9–24 |url=http://www.jpyro.com/wp/?p=179}}</ref> and caesium is often used in drilling fluids in the petroleum industry.<ref name="pubs.usgs" /><ref>{{cite book |title= Exploring Chemical Elements and their Compounds|last=Heiserman|first=David L.|publisher= McGraw-Hill|year= 1992|isbn= 0-8306-3015-5|pages= 201–203}}</ref> Francium has no commercial applications,<ref name="nbb" /><ref name="elemental" /><ref>{{cite web |last= Winter |first= Mark |title= Uses |work= Francium |publisher= The University of Sheffield|url= http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Fr/uses.html |accessdate= 25 March 2007 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070331031655/http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Fr/uses.html |archivedate= 31 March 2007 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl= no}}</ref> but because of francium's relatively simple [[atomic structure]], among other things, it has been used in [[spectroscopy]] experiments, leading to more information regarding [[energy level]]s and the [[coupling constant]]s between [[subatomic particle]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Gomez |first= E. |last2= Orozco|first2=L. A.|last3=Sprouse|first3=G. D. |title= Spectroscopy with trapped francium: advances and perspectives for weak interaction studies |journal= Rep. Prog. Phys. |volume= 69 |issue= 1 |pages= 79–118 |date= 7 November 2005|doi= 10.1088/0034-4885/69/1/R02|bibcode= 2006RPPh...69...79G|url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228616649}}</ref> Studies on the light emitted by laser-trapped francium-210 ions have provided accurate data on transitions between atomic energy levels, similar to those predicted by [[quantum mechanics|quantum theory]].<ref>{{cite journal |last= Peterson|first= I.|title= Creating, cooling, trapping francium atoms|page= 294|journal= Science News|date= 11 May 1996|url= http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/pdfs/data/1996/149-19/14919-06.pdf|accessdate= 11 September 2009|volume=149|issue=19|doi= 10.2307/3979560|jstor= 3979560}}</ref> == Biological role and precautions == === Metals === Pure alkali metals are dangerously reactive with air and water and must be kept away from heat, fire, oxidising agents, acids, most organic compounds, [[halocarbon]]s, [[plastic]]s, and moisture. They also react with carbon dioxide and carbon tetrachloride, so that normal fire extinguishers are counterproductive when used on alkali metal fires.<ref name=osu /> Some Class D dry powder [[fire extinguisher|extinguishers]] designed for metal fires are effective, depriving the fire of oxygen and cooling the alkali metal.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=2fHsoobsCNwC&pg=PA459|page= 459 |title= Fire and Life Safety Inspection Manual |isbn= 978-0-87765-472-8|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning |last= Solomon |first=Robert E. |date= 2002}}</ref> Experiments are usually conducted using only small quantities of a few grams in a [[fume hood]]. Small quantities of lithium may be disposed of by reaction with cool water, but the heavier alkali metals should be dissolved in the less reactive [[isopropanol]].<ref name=osu /><ref>{{cite book |last=Angelici|first=R. J.|title= Synthesis and Technique in Inorganic Chemistry |publisher= University Science Books |place= Mill Valley, CA |date= 1999 |isbn= 0-935702-48-2}}</ref> The alkali metals must be stored under [[mineral oil]] or an inert atmosphere. The inert atmosphere used may be [[argon]] or nitrogen gas, except for lithium, which reacts with nitrogen.<ref name=osu>{{cite web |url=http://chemsafety.chem.oregonstate.edu/content/sop-alkali-metals |title=Standard Operating Procedure: Storage and Handling of Alkali Metals |last1=Lerner |first1=Michael M. |date=2013 |publisher=[[Oregon State University]] |access-date=26 August 2016}}</ref> Rubidium and caesium must be kept away from air, even under oil, because even a small amount of air diffused into the oil may trigger formation of the dangerously explosive peroxide; for the same reason, potassium should not be stored under oil in an oxygen-containing atmosphere for longer than 6 months.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=vKBqqiCTB7MC&pg=PA215 |page= 215 |chapter= Rubidium |title= Chemical risk analysis: a practical handbook |isbn= 978-1-903996-65-2 |last1=Martel|first1=Bernard |last2=Cassidy|first2=Keith |date= 2004-07-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncsu.edu/ehs/www99/right/handsMan/lab/Peroxide.pdf|title=Danger: peroxidazable chemicals|last=Wray|first=Thomas K.|publisher=Environmental Health & Public Safety ([[North Carolina State University]])|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608024458/http://www.ncsu.edu/ehs/www99/right/handsMan/lab/Peroxide.pdf|archivedate=8 June 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref> === Ions === [[File:Lithium carbonate.jpg|thumb|right|[[Lithium carbonate]]]] The bioinorganic chemistry of the alkali metal ions has been extensively reviewed.<ref>{{cite book |publisher= Springer|publication-date= 2016|series= Metal Ions in Life Sciences|volume=16|title= The Alkali Metal Ions: Their Role in Life|editor1-last=Astrid|editor1-first= Sigel|editor2-last=Helmut|editor2-first=Sigel|editor3-last=Roland K.O. |editor3-first= Sigel|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-21756-7}}</ref> Solid state crystal structures have been determined for many complexes of alkali metal ions in small peptides, nucleic acid constituents, carbohydrates and ionophore complexes.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Katsuyuki |first1= Aoki|last2= Kazutaka |first2= Murayama |last3=Hu|first3= Ning-Hai|publisher= Springer|publication-date= 2016 |series= Metal Ions in Life Sciences|volume=16|title= The Alkali Metal Ions: Their Role in Life|editor1-last=Astrid|editor1-first= Sigel|editor2-last=Helmut|editor2-first=Sigel|editor3-last=Roland K.O.|editor3-first= Sigel|chapter= Chapter 3. Solid State Structures of Alkali Metal Ion Complexes Formed by Low-Molecular-Weight Ligands of Biological Relevance|pages= 27–101|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-21756-7_3}}</ref> Lithium naturally only occurs in traces in biological systems and has no known biological role, but does have effects on the body when ingested.<ref name="webelements-lithium" /> [[Lithium carbonate]] is used as a [[mood stabiliser]] in [[psychiatry]] to treat [[bipolar disorder]] ([[manic-depression]]) in daily doses of about 0.5 to 2&nbsp;grams, although there are side-effects.<ref name="webelements-lithium" /> Excessive ingestion of lithium causes drowsiness, slurred speech and vomiting, among other symptoms,<ref name="webelements-lithium" /> and [[poison]]s the [[central nervous system]],<ref name="webelements-lithium" /> which is dangerous as the required dosage of lithium to treat bipolar disorder is only slightly lower than the toxic dosage.<ref name="webelements-lithium">{{cite web |publisher=Webelements|title=WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements {{pipe}} Lithium {{pipe}} biological information |url=http://www.webelements.com/lithium/biology.html |last=Winter|first=Mark |accessdate=15 February 2011}}</ref><ref name="theodoregray-lithium">{{cite web |url=http://www.theodoregray.com/periodictable/Elements/003/index.s7.html |title=Facts, pictures, stories about the element Lithium in the Periodic Table |last=Gray|first=Theodore |publisher=theodoregray.com |accessdate=9 January 2012}}</ref> Its biochemistry, the way it is handled by the human body and studies using rats and goats suggest that it is an [[essential element|essential]] [[trace element]], although the natural biological function of lithium in humans has yet to be identified.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Howland |first1=Robert H. |date=September 2007 |title=Lithium: Underappreciated and Underused? |journal=Psychiatric Annals |volume=37 |issue=9 |url=http://www.healio.com/journals/psycann/%7B19970467-072d-409e-8cda-9323edb2f73d%7D/lithium-underappreciated-and-underused |accessdate=6 November 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zarse |first1=Kim |last2=Terao |first2=Takeshi |last3=Tian |first3=Jing |last4=Iwata |first4=Noboru |last5=Ishii |first5=Nobuyoshi |last6=Ristow |first6=Michael |date=August 2011 |title=Low-dose lithium uptake promotes longevity in humans and metazoans |journal=European Journal of Nutrition |volume=50 |issue=5 |pages=387–9 |doi=10.1007/s00394-011-0171-x |pmc=3151375 |pmid=21301855}}</ref> Sodium and potassium occur in all known biological systems, generally functioning as [[electrolytes]] inside and outside [[cell (biology)|cells]].<ref name="webelements-potassium" /><ref name="webelements-sodium" /> Sodium is an essential nutrient that regulates blood volume, blood pressure, osmotic equilibrium and [[pH]]; the minimum physiological requirement for sodium is 500&nbsp;milligrams per day.<ref name=r31>{{cite web |url=http://nuinfo-proto4.northwestern.edu/nutrition/factsheets/sodium.pdf |title=Sodium |publisher=Northwestern University |accessdate=21 November 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110823114818/http://nuinfo-proto4.northwestern.edu/nutrition/factsheets/sodium.pdf |archivedate=23 August 2011}}</ref> [[Sodium chloride]] (also known as common salt) is the principal source of sodium in the diet, and is used as seasoning and preservative, such as for [[pickling]] and [[jerky (food)|jerky]]; most of it comes from processed foods.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://health.ltgovernors.com/sodium-and-potassium-health-facts.html|title=Sodium and Potassium Quick Health Facts|accessdate=7 November 2011}}</ref> The [[Dietary Reference Intake]] for sodium is 1.5&nbsp;grams per day,<ref>{{cite web|title=Dietary Reference Intakes: Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate|url=http://www.iom.edu/Reports/2004/Dietary-Reference-Intakes-Water-Potassium-Sodium-Chloride-and-Sulfate.aspx|publisher=Food and Nutrition Board, [[Institute of Medicine]], [[United States National Academies]]|date=11 February 2004|accessdate=23 November 2011|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006174858/http://www.iom.edu/Reports/2004/Dietary-Reference-Intakes-Water-Potassium-Sodium-Chloride-and-Sulfate.aspx|archivedate=6 October 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref> but most people in the United States consume more than 2.3&nbsp;grams per day,<ref>{{cite book|author1=U.S. Department of Agriculture |author2=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services |authorlink1=United States Department of Agriculture |authorlink2=United States Department of Health and Human Services |title=Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010 |page=22 |edition=7th |date=December 2010 |url=http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/Publications/DietaryGuidelines/2010/PolicyDoc/PolicyDoc.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=23 November 2011 |isbn=978-0-16-087941-8 |oclc=738512922 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111027053444/http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/Publications/DietaryGuidelines/2010/PolicyDoc/PolicyDoc.pdf |archivedate=27 October 2011 }}</ref> the minimum amount that promotes hypertension;<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=15369026|year=2004|last1=Geleijnse|first1=J. M.|last2=Kok|first2=F. J.|last3=Grobbee|first3=D. E.|title=Impact of dietary and lifestyle factors on the prevalence of hypertension in Western populations|volume=14|issue=3|pages=235–239|journal=European Journal of Public Health|doi=10.1093/eurpub/14.3.235|doi-access=free|url=http://dspace.library.uu.nl:8080/handle/1874/12616}}</ref> this in turn causes 7.6 million premature deaths worldwide.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=18456100 |url=http://www.worldactiononsalt.com/evidence/docs/thelancet_hypertension_05.08.pdf |year=2008 |last1=Lawes |first1=C. M. |last2=Vander Hoorn |first2=S. |last3=Rodgers |first3=A. |author4=International Society of Hypertension |title=Global burden of blood-pressure-related disease, 2001 |volume=371 |issue=9623 |pages=1513–1518 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60655-8 |journal=Lancet |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120128072727/http://www.worldactiononsalt.com/evidence/docs/thelancet_hypertension_05.08.pdf |archivedate=28 January 2012}}</ref> Potassium is the major [[cation]] (positive ion) inside [[cell (biology)|animal cells]],<ref name="webelements-potassium">{{cite web |url=http://www.webelements.com/potassium/biology.html|title=WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements {{pipe}} Potassium {{pipe}} biological information |publisher=WebElements |last=Winter|first=Mark |accessdate=13 January 2012}}</ref> while sodium is the major cation outside animal cells.<ref name="webelements-potassium" /><ref name="webelements-sodium">{{cite web |url=http://www.webelements.com/sodium/biology.html|title=WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements {{pipe}} Sodium {{pipe}} biological information |publisher=WebElements |last=Winter|first=Mark |accessdate=13 January 2012}}</ref> The [[concentration]] differences of these charged particles causes a difference in [[electric potential]] between the inside and outside of cells, known as the [[membrane potential]]. The balance between potassium and sodium is maintained by [[ion transporter]] proteins in the [[cell membrane]].<ref name="pmid16253415">{{cite journal |last1=Hellgren|first1=Mikko|last2=Sandberg|first2=Lars|last3=Edholm|first3=Olle|title=A comparison between two prokaryotic potassium channels (K_irBac1.1 and KcsA) in a molecular dynamics (MD) simulation study |journal=Biophys. Chem. |volume=120 |issue=1 |pages=1–9 |year=2006 |pmid=16253415 |doi=10.1016/j.bpc.2005.10.002}}</ref> The cell membrane potential created by potassium and sodium ions allows the cell to generate an [[action potential]]—a "spike" of electrical discharge. The ability of cells to produce electrical discharge is critical for body functions such as [[neurotransmission]], muscle contraction, and heart function.<ref name="pmid16253415" /> Disruption of this balance may thus be fatal: for example, ingestion of large amounts of potassium compounds can lead to [[hyperkalemia]] strongly influencing the cardiovascular system.<ref name="hyper">{{cite book |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=BfdighlyGiwC&pg=PA903 |chapter= Potassium Chloride and Potassium Permanganate|pages= 903–5|title= Medical toxicology|isbn= 978-0-7817-2845-4|last= Schonwald|first= Seth|date= 2004}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=l8RkPU1-M5wC&pg=PA223|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|page= 223|title= Emergency medicine secrets|isbn= 978-1-56053-503-4|last= Markovchick |first=Vincent J.|last2= Pons |first2=Peter T.|last-author-amp= yes|date= 2003}}</ref> Potassium chloride is used in the [[United States]] for [[lethal injection]] executions.<ref name="hyper" /> [[File:GoiâniaRadiationsource.gif|thumb|400px|right|A wheel type radiotherapy device which has a long [[collimator]] to focus the radiation into a narrow beam. The caesium-137 chloride radioactive source is the blue square, and gamma rays are represented by the beam emerging from the aperture. This was the radiation source involved in the Goiânia accident, containing about 93&nbsp;grams of caesium-137 chloride.]] Due to their similar atomic radii, rubidium and caesium in the body mimic potassium and are taken up similarly. Rubidium has no known biological role, but may help stimulate [[metabolism]],<ref name="webelements-rubidium">{{cite web |publisher=Webelements|title=WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements {{pipe}} Rubidium {{pipe}} biological information |url=http://www.webelements.com/rubidium/biology.html |last=Winter|first=Mark |accessdate=15 February 2011}}</ref><ref name=yale>{{cite journal |last1= Relman |first1= A. S. |title= The Physiological Behavior of Rubidium and Cesium in Relation to That of Potassium |journal= The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine |volume= 29 |issue= 3 |pages= 248–62 |year= 1956 |pmid= 13409924|pmc= 2603856}}</ref><ref name="jcp.sagepub.com">{{cite journal |last1= Meltzer |first1= H. L. |title= A pharmacokinetic analysis of long-term administration of rubidium chloride |url= http://jcp.sagepub.com/content/31/2/179 |journal= Journal of clinical pharmacology |volume= 31 |issue= 2 |pages= 179–84 |year= 1991 |pmid= 2010564 |doi= 10.1002/j.1552-4604.1991.tb03704.x |deadurl= yes |archiveurl= https://archive.is/20120709223213/http://jcp.sagepub.com/content/31/2/179 |archivedate= 9 July 2012 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> and, similarly to caesium,<ref name="webelements-rubidium" /><ref name="webelements-caesium" /> replace potassium in the body causing [[hypokalemia|potassium deficiency]].<ref name="webelements-rubidium" /><ref name="jcp.sagepub.com" /> Partial substitution is quite possible and rather non-toxic: a 70&nbsp;kg person contains on average 0.36&nbsp;g of rubidium, and an increase in this value by 50 to 100 times did not show negative effects in test persons.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Fieve |first1= Ronald R. |last2= Meltzer |first2= Herbert L. |last3= Taylor |first3= Reginald M. |title= Rubidium chloride ingestion by volunteer subjects: Initial experience |journal= Psychopharmacologia |volume= 20 |issue= 4 |pages= 307–14 |date= 1971 |pmid= 5561654 |doi= 10.1007/BF00403562}}</ref> Rats can survive up to 50% substitution of potassium by rubidium.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Meltzer |first1= H. L. |title= A pharmacokinetic analysis of long-term administration of rubidium chloride |url= http://jcp.sagepub.com/content/31/2/179 |journal= Journal of clinical pharmacology |volume= 31 |issue= 2 |pages= 179–84 |date= 1991 |pmid= 2010564 |doi= 10.1002/j.1552-4604.1991.tb03704.x |deadurl= yes |archiveurl= https://archive.is/20120709223213/http://jcp.sagepub.com/content/31/2/179 |archivedate= 9 July 2012 |df= dmy-all }}</ref><!--diet died after a few weeks.ref only gives several weeks--><ref>{{cite journal |author= Follis, Richard H., Jr. |title= Histological Effects in rats resulting from adding Rubidium or Cesium to a diet deficient in potassium |url= http://ajplegacy.physiology.org/cgi/pdf_extract/138/2/246 |journal= AJP: Legacy |volume= 138 |issue= 2 |page= 246 |date= 1943 |deadurl= yes |archiveurl= https://archive.is/20120711191640/http://ajplegacy.physiology.org/cgi/pdf_extract/138/2/246 |archivedate= 11 July 2012 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> Rubidium (and to a much lesser extent caesium) can function as temporary cures for hypokalemia; while rubidium can adequately physiologically substitute potassium in some systems, caesium is never able to do so.<ref name=yale /> There is only very limited evidence in the form of deficiency symptoms for rubidium being possibly essential in goats; even if this is true, the trace amounts usually present in food are more than enough.<ref name="Gottschlich2001">{{cite book |last=Gottschlich|first=Michele M.|title=The Science and Practice of Nutrition Support: A Case-based Core Curriculum|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a5LjQ4POQswC&pg=PA98|accessdate=9 July 2016|year=2001|publisher=Kendall Hunt|isbn=978-0-7872-7680-5|page=98}}</ref><ref name="InselTurner2004">{{cite book |last1=Insel|first1=Paul M.|last2=Turner|first2=R. Elaine|last3=Ross|first3=Don|title=Nutrition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=46o0PzPI07YC&pg=PA499|accessdate=10 July 2016|year=2004|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning|isbn=978-0-7637-0765-1|page=499}}</ref> Caesium compounds are rarely encountered by most people, but most caesium compounds are mildly toxic. Like rubidium, caesium tends to substitute potassium in the body, but is significantly larger and is therefore a poorer substitute.<ref name="webelements-caesium">{{cite web |url=http://www.webelements.com/caesium/biology.html|title=WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements {{pipe}} Caesium {{pipe}} biological information |publisher=WebElements |last=Winter|first=Mark |accessdate=13 January 2012}}</ref> Excess caesium can lead to [[hypokalemia]], [[arrythmia]], and acute [[cardiac arrest]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Melnikov|first1=P.|last2=Zanoni|first2=L. Z.|title=Clinical effects of cesium intake|journal=Biological trace element research|date=June 2010|volume=135|issue=1–3|pages=1–9|pmid=19655100|doi=10.1007/s12011-009-8486-7|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26717303}}</ref> but such amounts would not ordinarily be encountered in natural sources.<ref>{{cite journal |doi= 10.1080/10934528109375003|title= Cesium in mammals: Acute toxicity, organ changes and tissue accumulation|date= 1981|last1= Pinsky|first1= Carl|first2= Ranjan|first3= J. R.|first4= Jasper|first5= Claude|first6= James|journal= Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A|volume= 16|pages= 549–567 |last2= Bose|last3= Taylor|last4= McKee|last5= Lapointe|last6= Birchall|issue= 5}}</ref> As such, caesium is not a major chemical environmental pollutant.<ref>{{cite journal |doi= 10.1080/10934528109375003|title= Cesium in mammals: Acute toxicity, organ changes and tissue accumulation|year= 1981|last1= Pinsky|first1= Carl|first2= Ranjan|first3= J. R.|first4= Jasper|first5= Claude|first6= James|journal= Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A|volume= 16|pages= 549–567 |last2= Bose|last3= Taylor|last4= McKee|last5= Lapointe|last6= Birchall|issue= 5}}</ref> The [[median lethal dose]] (LD₅₀) value for [[caesium chloride]] in mice is 2.3&nbsp;g per kilogram, which is comparable to the LD₅₀ values of [[potassium chloride]] and [[sodium chloride]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi= 10.1016/0041-008X(75)90216-1|title= Acute toxicity of cesium and rubidium compounds|year= 1975|last1= Johnson|first1= Garland T.|journal= [[Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology]]|volume= 32|pages= 239–245|pmid= 1154391|first2= Trent R.|first3= D. Wagner|issue= 2|last2= Lewis|last3= Wagner}}</ref> Caesium chloride has been promoted as an alternative cancer therapy,<ref>{{cite journal |last= Sartori|first=H. E. |year= 1984 |title= Cesium therapy in cancer patients |journal= Pharmacol Biochem Behav |volume= 21 |issue= Suppl 1 |pages= 11–13 |pmid= 6522427 |doi= 10.1016/0091-3057(84)90154-0}}</ref> but has been linked to the deaths of over 50 patients, on whom it was used as part of a scientifically unvalidated cancer treatment.<ref>Wood, Leonie. {{cite web |url=http://www.smh.com.au/lifestyle/lifematters/cured-cancer-patients-died-court-told-20101119-180z9.html |title='Cured' cancer patients died, court told |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |date=20 November 2010}}</ref> [[Radioisotope]]s of caesium require special precautions: the improper handling of caesium-137 [[gamma ray]] sources can lead to release of this radioisotope and radiation injuries. Perhaps the best-known case is the Goiânia accident of 1987, in which an improperly-disposed-of radiation therapy system from an abandoned clinic in the city of [[Goiânia]], [[Brazil]], was scavenged from a junkyard, and the glowing [[caesium chloride|caesium salt]] sold to curious, uneducated buyers. This led to four deaths and serious injuries from radiation exposure. Together with [[caesium-134]], [[iodine-131]], and [[strontium-90]], caesium-137 was among the isotopes distributed by the [[Chernobyl disaster]] which constitute the greatest risk to health.<ref name="IAEA" /> Radioisotopes of francium would presumably be dangerous as well due to their high decay energy and short half-life, but none have been produced in large enough amounts to pose any serious risk.<ref name=andyscouse /> == Notes == {{reflist|group="note"|30em}} == References == {{reflist|30em}} {{PeriodicTablesFooter}} {{Compact periodic table}} {{Alkali metals}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Alkali metals| ]] [[Category:Groups (periodic table)]] [[Category:Periodic table]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] iv19mxn2sahv97ovdahpi8ffbm8dotl 0 668 601305580 522627918 2014-03-26T05:06:22Z DavidLeighEllis 18632153 [[Wikipedia:Categories for discussion/Log/2014 February 24#Category:Philosophy redirects|cfd]], category will be deleted wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Logical form]] aiyybe37p81wt9v601exwhw2ywqmgw2 0 669 783824737 626281849 2017-06-04T22:07:04Z Tom.Reding 9784415 +{{R category shell}} using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Allotropy]] {{Redirect category shell|1= {{r from modification}} }} r0prc67ozw9tyv4nnsmewssyhcdpvv6 0 670 860973196 860973006 2018-09-24T09:28:41Z Mirzali 798152 /* Types */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|A standard set of letters that represent phonemes of a spoken language}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{about|sets of letters used in written languages|other uses|Alphabet (disambiguation)|and|Alphabetical (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} [[File:Orbis eruditi literatura à charactere Samaritico deducta 1689.jpg|thumb|[[Edward Bernard]]'s "Orbis eruditi", comparing all known alphabets as of 1689]] {{Writing systems sidebar}} An '''alphabet''' is a standard set of [[letter (alphabet)|letters]] (basic written [[symbols]] or [[graphemes]]) that represent the [[phoneme]]s (basic significant sounds) of any [[spoken language]] it is used to write. This is in contrast to other types of [[writing system]]s, such as [[syllabary|syllabaries]] (in which each character represents a [[syllable]]) and [[logograph]]ies (in which each character represents a word, [[morpheme]], or semantic unit). The first fully phonemic script, the [[Proto-Canaanite]] script, later known as the [[Phoenician alphabet]], is considered to be the first alphabet, and is the ancestor of most modern alphabets, including [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]], [[Greek alphabet|Greek]], [[Latin alphabet|Latin]], [[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]], [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]], and possibly [[Brahmic scripts|Brahmic]].<ref name="Coulmas 140"/><ref name="Daniels 9296">{{harvnb|Daniels|Bright|1996|pp=92–96}}</ref> [[Peter T. Daniels]], however, distinguishes an [[abugida]] or alphasyllabary, a set of graphemes that represent consonantal base letters which [[diacritic]]s modify to represent vowels (as in [[Devanagari]] and other South Asian scripts), an [[abjad]], in which letters predominantly or exclusively represent consonants (as in the original Phoenician, [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] or [[Arabic script|Arabic]]), and an "alphabet," a set of graphemes that represent both [[vowel]]s and [[consonant]]s. In this narrow sense of the word the first "true" alphabet was the [[Greek alphabet]],<ref name="Blackwell">{{cite book|last=Coulmas|first=Florian|title=The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems|year=1996|publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] |location=Oxford|isbn=0-631-21481-X}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Millard|1986|p=396}}</ref> which was developed on the basis of the earlier [[Phoenician alphabet]]. Of the dozens of alphabets in use today, the most popular is the [[Latin alphabet]]<ref>{{harvnb|Haarmann|2004|p=96}}</ref>, which was derived from the [[Greek alphabet|Greek]], and which many languages modify by adding letters formed using diacritical marks. While most alphabets have letters composed of lines ([[linear writing]]), there are also [[non-linear writing|exceptions]] such as the alphabets used in [[Braille]]. The [[Khmer alphabet]] (for [[Cambodian language|Cambodian]]) is the longest, with 74 letters.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.angmohdan.com/language-largest-alphabet/ |title=What Language Has the Largest Alphabet? |quote=Languages like Chinese, technically, do not use an alphabet but have an ideographic writing system. There are thousands of symbols (pictographs) in Chinese representing different words, syllables and concepts. [..] The language with the most letters is Khmer (Cambodian), with 74 (including some without any current use). According to Guinness Book of World Records, 1995, the Khmer alphabet is the largest alphabet in the world. It consists of 33 consonants, 23 vowels and 12 independent vowels.}}</ref> Alphabets are usually associated with a standard ordering of letters. This makes them useful for purposes of [[collation]], specifically by allowing words to be sorted in [[alphabetical order]]. It also means that their letters can be used as an alternative method of "numbering" ordered items, in such contexts as [[numbered list]]s and number placements. ==Etymology== The English word ''alphabet'' came into [[Middle English]] from the [[Late Latin]] word ''alphabetum'', which in turn originated in the [[Greek language|Greek]] ἀλφάβητος (''alphabētos''). The Greek word was made from the first two letters, ''[[alpha (letter)|alpha]]'' and ''[[beta (letter)|beta]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/alphabet|title=alphabet|publisher=[[Merriam-Webster.com]]}}</ref> The names for the Greek letters came from the first two letters of the [[Phoenician alphabet]]; ''[[aleph]]'', which also meant ''ox'', and ''[[bet (letter)|bet]]'', which also meant ''house''. Sometimes, like in the [[alphabet song]] in English, the term "ABCs" is used instead of the word "alphabet" (''Now I know my ABCs''...). "Knowing one's ABCs", in general, can be used as a metaphor for knowing the basics about anything. ==History== {{Main article|History of the alphabet}} [[File:A Specimen by William Caslon.jpg|thumb|300px|''A Specimen'' of [[typeset]] [[font]]s and [[language]]s, by [[William Caslon]], letter founder; from the 1728 ''[[Cyclopaedia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences|Cyclopaedia]]'']] ===Ancient Northeast African and Middle Eastern scripts=== The history of the alphabet started in [[ancient Egypt]]. Egyptian writing had a set of some [[Egyptian uniliteral signs|24 hieroglyphs]] that are called uniliterals,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A2451890 |title=The Development of the Western Alphabet |accessdate=2008-08-04 |author =Lynn, Bernadette |date=2004-04-08 |work=h2g2 |publisher=BBC}}</ref> to represent syllables that begin with a single [[consonant]] of their language, plus a vowel (or no vowel) to be supplied by the native speaker. These glyphs were used as pronunciation guides for [[logogram]]s, to write grammatical inflections, and, later, to transcribe loan words and foreign names.<ref name=Daniels>{{harvnb|Daniels|Bright|1996|pp=74–75}}</ref> [[File:Ba`alat.png|thumb|left|A specimen of [[Proto-Sinaitic script]], one of the earliest (if not the very first) phonemic scripts]] In the [[Middle Bronze Age]], an apparently "alphabetic" system known as the [[Proto-Sinaitic script]] appears in Egyptian turquoise mines in the [[Sinai peninsula]] dated to circa the 15th century BC, apparently left by Canaanite workers. In 1999, John and Deborah Darnell discovered an even earlier version of this first alphabet at Wadi el-Hol dated to circa 1800 BC and showing evidence of having been adapted from specific forms of Egyptian hieroglyphs that could be dated to circa 2000 BC, strongly suggesting that the first alphabet had been developed about that time.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=J. C. |last1=Darnell |first2=F. W. |last2=Dobbs-Allsopp |authorlink2=F. W. Dobbs-Allsopp |first3=Marilyn J. |last3=Lundberg |first4=P. Kyle |last4=McCarter |authorlink4=P. Kyle McCarter |first5=Bruce |last5=Zuckerman |first6=Colleen |last6=Manassa |title=Two Early Alphabetic Inscriptions from the Wadi el-Ḥôl: New Evidence for the Origin of the Alphabet from the Western Desert of Egypt |journal=The Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research |volume=59 |year=2005 |pages=63, 65, 67–71, 73–113, 115–124 |ref=harv |jstor=3768583}}</ref> Based on letter appearances and names, it is believed to be based on Egyptian hieroglyphs.<ref name="Coulmas 140">{{harvnb|Coulmas|1989|pp=140–141}}</ref> This script had no characters representing vowels, although originally it probably was a syllabary, but unneeded symbols were discarded. An alphabetic [[cuneiform]] script with 30 signs including three that indicate the following vowel was invented in [[Ugarit]] before the 15th century BC. This script was not used after the destruction of Ugarit.<ref>''Ugaritic Writing'' [http://www.mazzaroth.com/ChapterThree/UgariticWriting.htm online]</ref> The Proto-Sinaitic script eventually developed into the [[Phoenician alphabet]], which is conventionally called "Proto-Canaanite" before ca. 1050 BC.<ref name="Daniels 9296"/> The oldest text in Phoenician script is an inscription on the sarcophagus of King [[Ahiram]]. This script is the parent script of all western alphabets. By the tenth century, two other forms can be distinguished, namely [[Canaanite language|Canaanite]] and [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic]]. The Aramaic gave rise to the [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] script.<ref>{{harvnb|Coulmas|1989|p=142}}</ref> The [[South Arabian alphabet]], a sister script to the Phoenician alphabet, is the script from which the [[Ge'ez alphabet]] (an [[abugida]]) is descended. Vowelless alphabets, which are not true alphabets, are called [[abjad]]s, currently exemplified in scripts including [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]], [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]], and [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac]]. The omission of vowels was not always a satisfactory solution and some "weak" consonants are sometimes used to indicate the vowel quality of a syllable ([[Mater lectionis|matres lectionis]]). These letters have a dual function since they are also used as pure consonants.<ref>{{harvnb|Coulmas|1989|p=147}}</ref> The Proto-Sinaitic or Proto-Canaanite script and the [[Ugaritic script]] were the first scripts with a limited number of signs, in contrast to the other widely used writing systems at the time, [[Cuneiform]], [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]], and [[Linear B]]. The Phoenician script was probably the first phonemic script<ref name="Coulmas 140"/><ref name="Daniels 9296"/> and it contained only about two dozen distinct letters, making it a script simple enough for common traders to learn. Another advantage of Phoenician was that it could be used to write down many different languages, since it recorded words phonemically. [[File:Acta Eruditorum - I alfabeti, 1743 – BEIC 13408919.jpg|thumb|Illustration from [[Acta Eruditorum]], 1741]] The script was spread by the Phoenicians across the Mediterranean.<ref name="Daniels 9296" /> In Greece, the script was modified to add vowels, giving rise to the ancestor of all alphabets in the West. The vowels have independent letter forms separate from those of consonants; therefore it was the first true alphabet. The Greeks chose letters representing sounds that did not exist in Greek to represent vowels. Vowels are significant in the Greek language, and the syllabical [[Linear B]] script that was used by the [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] Greeks from the 16th century BC had 87 symbols, including 5 vowels. In its early years, there were many variants of the Greek alphabet, a situation that caused many different alphabets to evolve from it. ===European alphabets=== [[File:ZographensisColour.jpg|thumb|[[Codex Zographensis]] in the [[Glagolitic alphabet]] from Medieval [[Bulgaria]]]] The [[Greek alphabet]], in its [[Euboean alphabet|Euboean form]], was carried over by Greek colonists to the Italian peninsula, where it gave rise to a variety of alphabets used to write the [[Italic languages]]. One of these became the [[Latin alphabet]], which was spread across Europe as the Romans expanded their empire. Even after the fall of the Roman state, the alphabet survived in intellectual and religious works. It eventually became used for the descendant languages of Latin (the [[Romance languages]]) and then for most of the other languages of Europe. Some adaptations of the Latin alphabet are augmented with [[ligature (typography)|ligatures]], such as [[æ]] in [[Danish language|Danish]] and [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] and [[Ou (letter)|Ȣ]] in [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian]]; by borrowings from other alphabets, such as the [[thorn (letter)|thorn]] þ in [[Old English language|Old English]] and [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], which came from the [[Runic alphabet|Futhark]] runes; and by modifying existing letters, such as the [[Eth (letter)|eth]] ð of Old English and Icelandic, which is a modified ''d''. Other alphabets only use a subset of the Latin alphabet, such as Hawaiian, and [[Italian language|Italian]], which uses the letters ''j, k, x, y'' and ''w'' only in foreign words. Another notable script is [[Elder Futhark]], which is believed to have evolved out of one of the [[Old Italic alphabet]]s. Elder Futhark gave rise to a variety of alphabets known collectively as the [[Runic alphabet]]s. The Runic alphabets were used for Germanic languages from AD 100 to the late Middle Ages. Its usage is mostly restricted to engravings on stone and jewelry, although inscriptions have also been found on bone and wood. These alphabets have since been replaced with the Latin alphabet, except for decorative usage for which the runes remained in use until the 20th century. The [[Old Hungarian script]] is a contemporary writing system of the Hungarians. It was in use during the entire history of Hungary, albeit not as an official writing system. From the 19th century it once again became more and more popular. The [[Glagolitic alphabet]] was the initial script of the liturgical language [[Old Church Slavonic]] and became, together with the Greek uncial script, the basis of the [[Cyrillic script]]. Cyrillic is one of the most widely used modern alphabetic scripts, and is notable for its use in Slavic languages and also for other languages within the former [[Soviet Union]]. [[Cyrillic alphabets]] include the [[Serbian Cyrillic alphabet|Serbian]], [[Macedonian alphabet|Macedonian]], [[Bulgarian alphabet|Bulgarian]], [[Russian alphabet|Russian]], [[Belarusian alphabet|Belarusian]] and [[Ukrainian alphabet|Ukrainian]]. The Glagolitic alphabet is believed to have been created by [[Saints Cyril and Methodius]], while the Cyrillic alphabet was invented by [[Clement of Ohrid]], who was their disciple. They feature many letters that appear to have been borrowed from or influenced by the [[Greek alphabet]] and the [[Hebrew alphabet]]. The longest European alphabet is the Latin-derived [[Slovak alphabet]] which has 46 letters. ===Asian alphabets=== Beyond the logographic [[Written Chinese|Chinese writing]], many phonetic scripts are in existence in Asia. The [[Arabic alphabet]], [[Hebrew alphabet]], [[Syriac alphabet]], and other [[abjad]]s of the Middle East are developments of the [[Aramaic alphabet]], but because these writing systems are largely [[consonant]]-based they are often not considered true alphabets. Most alphabetic scripts of India and Eastern Asia are descended from the [[Brahmi script]], which is often believed to be a descendant of Aramaic. [[File:Zhuyin on cell phone detail.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|[[Bopomofo|Zhuyin]] on a cell phone]] In [[Korea]], the [[Hangul]] alphabet was created by [[Sejong the Great]].<ref>"上親制諺文二十八字…是謂訓民正音(His majesty created 28 characters himself... It is [[Hunminjeongeum]] (original name for [[Hangul]]))", 《세종실록 (The Annals of the Choson Dynasty : Sejong)》 25년 12월.</ref> Hangul is a unique alphabet: it is a [[featural alphabet]], where many of the letters are designed from a sound's place of articulation (P to look like the widened mouth, L to look like the tongue pulled in, etc.); its design was planned by the government of the day; and it places individual letters in syllable clusters with equal dimensions, in the same way as [[Chinese characters]], to allow for mixed-script writing<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kuiwon.wordpress.com/2013/10/16/on-hangul-supremacy-exclusivity-mixed-script-predates-the-japanese-colonial-period/|title=On Hangul Supremacy & Exclusivity—Mixed Script Predates the Japanese Colonial Period|date=October 16, 2013|author=Kuiwon|website=kuiwon.wordpress.com}}</ref> (one syllable always takes up one type-space no matter how many letters get stacked into building that one sound-block). [[Zhuyin]] (sometimes called ''Bopomofo'') is a [[semi-syllabary]] used to phonetically transcribe [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin Chinese]] in the [[Taiwan|Republic of China]]. After the later establishment of the [[China|People's Republic of China]] and its adoption of [[Pinyin|Hanyu Pinyin]], the use of Zhuyin today is limited, but it is still widely used in [[Taiwan]] where the Republic of China still governs. Zhuyin developed out of a form of Chinese shorthand based on Chinese characters in the early 1900s and has elements of both an alphabet and a syllabary. Like an alphabet the phonemes of [[syllable onset|syllable initials]] are represented by individual symbols, but like a syllabary the phonemes of the [[syllable rime|syllable finals]] are not; rather, each possible final (excluding the [[Syllable medial|medial glide]]) is represented by its own symbol. For example, ''luan'' is represented as ㄌㄨㄢ (''l-u-an''), where the last symbol ㄢ represents the entire final ''-an''. While Zhuyin is not used as a mainstream writing system, it is still often used in ways similar to a [[romanization]] system—that is, for aiding in pronunciation and as an input method for Chinese characters on computers and cellphones. European alphabets, especially Latin and Cyrillic, have been adapted for many languages of Asia. Arabic is also widely used, sometimes as an abjad (as with [[Urdu alphabet|Urdu]] and [[Persian alphabet|Persian]]) and sometimes as a complete alphabet (as with [[Kurdish alphabet|Kurdish]] and [[Uyghur alphabet|Uyghur]]). ==Types== [[File:Writing systems worldwide.png|460px|thumb| {{aligned table|cols=4|style=font-size:90%; |titlestyle = font-weight:bold; font-size:105%; padding-bottom:5px |title = Predominant national and selected regional or minority scripts |row1header=y|row1style=background:lavender;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;border-right:1px #fefefe solid; |row2style=white-space:nowrap|fullwidth=y | Alphabetic | {{longitem|[[Logogram|[L]ogographic]]<br />and [[Syllabary|[S]yllabic]]}} | [[Abjad]] | [[Abugida]] | {{legend|#aaa|[[Latin script|Latin]]}} {{legend|#008080|[[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]]}} {{legend|blue|[[Greek alphabet|Greek]]}} {{legend|#1E90FF|[[Armenian alphabet|Armenian]]}} {{legend|#00FFFF|[[Georgian scripts|Georgian]]}} {{legend|#FF00FF|[[Hangul]]}} | {{legend|#8B0000|[[Hanzi]] {{smaller|[L]}}}} {{legend|#FF0000|[[Kana]] {{smaller|[S]}}{{\}}[[Kanji]] {{smaller|[L]}}{{nbsp|2}}}} | {{legend|green|[[Arabic script|Arabic]]}} {{legend|#00ff7f|[[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]]}} | {{legend| #FFA500|[[Brahmic scripts|North Indic]]}} {{legend|#D2691E|[[Brahmic scripts|South Indic]]}} {{legend|#8B4513 |[[Ge'ez script|Ethiopic]]}} {{legend|#808000|[[Thaana]]}} {{legend|#FFFF80|[[Canadian Aboriginal syllabics|Canadian syllabic]]}} }}]] {{alphabet}} The term "alphabet" is used by [[Linguistics|linguists]] and [[paleographer]]s in both a wide and a narrow sense. In the wider sense, an alphabet is a script that is ''segmental'' at the [[phoneme]] level—that is, it has separate glyphs for individual sounds and not for larger units such as syllables or words. In the narrower sense, some scholars distinguish "true" alphabets from two other types of segmental script, [[abjad]]s and [[abugida]]s. These three differ from each other in the way they treat vowels: abjads have letters for consonants and leave most vowels unexpressed; abugidas are also consonant-based, but indicate vowels with [[diacritic]]s to or a systematic graphic modification of the consonants. In alphabets in the narrow sense, on the other hand, consonants and vowels are written as independent letters.<ref>For critics of the abjad-abugida-alphabet distinction, see Reinhard G. Lehmann: "27-30-22-26. How Many Letters Needs an Alphabet? The Case of Semitic", in: The idea of writing: Writing across borders / edited by Alex de Voogt and Joachim Friedrich Quack, Leiden: Brill 2012, p. 11-52, esp p. 22-27</ref> The earliest known alphabet in the wider sense is the [[Middle Bronze Age alphabets|Wadi el-Hol script]], believed to be an abjad, which through its successor [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]] is the ancestor of modern alphabets, including [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]], [[Greek alphabet|Greek]], [[Latin alphabet|Latin]] (via the [[Old Italic alphabet]]), [[Cyrillic]] (via the Greek alphabet) and [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] (via [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic]]). Examples of present-day abjads are the [[Arabic script|Arabic]] and [[Hebrew script]]s; true alphabets include [[Latin script|Latin]], Cyrillic, and Korean [[hangul]]; and abugidas are used to write [[tigrinya language|Tigrinya]], [[Amharic language|Amharic]], [[Hindi]], and [[Thai language|Thai]]. The [[Canadian Aboriginal syllabics]] are also an abugida rather than a syllabary as their name would imply, since each glyph stands for a consonant that is modified by rotation to represent the following vowel. (In a true syllabary, each consonant-vowel combination would be represented by a separate glyph.) All three types may be augmented with syllabic glyphs. [[Ugaritic script|Ugaritic]], for example, is basically an abjad, but has syllabic letters for {{IPA|/ʔa, ʔi, ʔu/}}. (These are the only time vowels are indicated.) Cyrillic is basically a true alphabet, but has syllabic letters for {{IPA|/ja, je, ju/}} (я, е, ю); [[Coptic alphabet|Coptic]] has a letter for {{IPA|/ti/}}. [[Devanagari]] is typically an abugida augmented with dedicated letters for initial vowels, though some traditions use अ as a [[zero consonant]] as the graphic base for such vowels. The boundaries between the three types of segmental scripts are not always clear-cut. For example, [[Sorani]] [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] is written in the [[Arabic script]], which is normally an abjad. However, in Kurdish, writing the vowels is mandatory, and full letters are used, so the script is a true alphabet. Other languages may use a Semitic abjad with mandatory vowel diacritics, effectively making them abugidas. On the other hand, the [[Phagspa script]] of the [[Mongol Empire]] was based closely on the [[Tibetan script|Tibetan abugida]], but all vowel marks were written after the preceding consonant rather than as diacritic marks. Although short ''a'' was not written, as in the Indic abugidas, one could argue that the linear arrangement made this a true alphabet. Conversely, the vowel marks of the [[Ge'ez alphabet|Tigrinya abugida]] and the [[Ge'ez alphabet|Amharic abugida]] (ironically, the original source of the term "abugida") have been so completely assimilated into their consonants that the modifications are no longer systematic and have to be learned as a syllabary rather than as a segmental script. Even more extreme, the Pahlavi abjad eventually became [[logogram|logographic]]. (See below.) [[File:Ethiopic genesis.jpg|thumbnail|left|[[Ge'ez Script]] of [[Ethiopia]] and [[Eritrea]]]] Thus the primary [[Categorisation|classification]] of alphabets reflects how they treat vowels. For [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal languages]], further classification can be based on their treatment of tone, though names do not yet exist to distinguish the various types. Some alphabets disregard tone entirely, especially when it does not carry a heavy functional load, as in [[Somali language|Somali]] and many other languages of Africa and the Americas. Such scripts are to tone what abjads are to vowels. Most commonly, tones are indicated with diacritics, the way vowels are treated in abugidas. This is the case for [[Vietnamese alphabet|Vietnamese]] (a true alphabet) and [[Thai alphabet|Thai]] (an abugida). In Thai, tone is determined primarily by the choice of consonant, with diacritics for disambiguation. In the [[Pollard script]], an abugida, vowels are indicated by diacritics, but the placement of the diacritic relative to the consonant is modified to indicate the tone. More rarely, a script may have separate letters for tones, as is the case for [[Hmong alphabet|Hmong]] and [[Zhuang alphabet|Zhuang]]. For most of these scripts, regardless of whether letters or diacritics are used, the most common tone is not marked, just as the most common vowel is not marked in Indic abugidas; in [[Zhuyin]] not only is one of the tones unmarked, but there is a diacritic to indicate lack of tone, like the [[virama]] of Indic. The number of letters in an alphabet can be quite small. The Book [[Pahlavi scripts|Pahlavi]] script, an abjad, had only twelve letters at one point, and may have had even fewer later on. Today the [[Rotokas alphabet]] has only twelve letters. (The [[Hawaiian alphabet]] is sometimes claimed to be as small, but it actually consists of 18 letters, including the [[ʻOkina|ʻokina]] and five long vowels. However, [[Hawaiian Braille]] has only 13 letters.) While Rotokas has a small alphabet because it has few phonemes to represent (just eleven), Book Pahlavi was small because many letters had been ''conflated''—that is, the graphic distinctions had been lost over time, and diacritics were not developed to compensate for this as they were in [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]], another script that lost many of its distinct letter shapes. For example, a comma-shaped letter represented ''g'', ''d'', ''y'', ''k'', or ''j''. However, such apparent simplifications can perversely make a script more complicated. In later Pahlavi [[papyrus|papyri]], up to half of the remaining graphic distinctions of these twelve letters were lost, and the script could no longer be read as a sequence of letters at all, but instead each word had to be learned as a whole—that is, they had become [[logogram]]s as in Egyptian [[Demotic Egyptian|Demotic]]. [[File:Greek cyrillic latin.png|left|thumb|263x263px|Circles containing the [[Greek alphabet|Greek]], [[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]] and [[Latin alphabet|Latin]] alphabets, which share many of the same [[Letter (alphabet)|letters]], although they have different pronunciations]] The largest segmental script is probably an abugida, [[Devanagari]]. When written in Devanagari, Vedic [[Sanskrit]] has an alphabet of 53 letters, including the ''visarga'' mark for final aspiration and special letters for ''kš'' and ''jñ,'' though one of the letters is theoretical and not actually used. The Hindi alphabet must represent both Sanskrit and modern vocabulary, and so has been expanded to 58 with the ''khutma'' letters (letters with a dot added) to represent sounds from Persian and English. Thai has a total of 59 symbols, consisting of 44 consonants, 13 vowels and 2 syllabics, not including 4 diacritics for tone marks and one for vowel length. The largest known abjad is [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], with 51 letters. The largest alphabets in the narrow sense include [[Kabardian language|Kabardian]] and [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]] (for [[Cyrillic]]), with 58 and 56 letters, respectively, and [[Slovak language|Slovak]] (for the [[Latin script]]), with 46. However, these scripts either count [[digraph (orthography)|di- and tri-graphs]] as separate letters, as Spanish did with ''ch'' and ''ll'' until recently, or uses [[diacritic]]s like Slovak ''č''. The Georgian alphabet ({{lang-ka|ანბანი}} ''{{transl|ka|Anbani}}'') is alphabetical writing system. It is the largest true alphabet where each letter is graphically independent with 33 letters.{{citation needed|reason=It is unclear why having 33 (or 34? this one conflicts with the next sentence) graphically independent letters makes the Georgian alphabet the largest true one? For example, the Armenian alphabet has 39 graphically independent letters. See 'Armenian alphabet' and 'Georgian scripts' pages for more information.|date=August 2016}} Original Georgian alphabet had 38 letters but 5 letters were removed in 19th century by [[Ilia Chavchavadze]]. The Georgian alphabet is much closer to Greek than the other Caucasian alphabets. The numeric value runs parallel to the Greek one, the consonants without a Greek equivalent are organized at the end of the alphabet. Origins of the alphabet are still unknown, some Armenian and Western scholars believe it was created by Mesrop Mashtots (Armenian: Մեսրոպ Մաշտոց Mesrop Maštoc') also known as Mesrob the Vartabed, who was an early medieval Armenian linguist, theologian, statesman and hymnologist, best known for inventing the Armenian alphabet c. 405 AD,<ref name="Donald Rayfield">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VstdAgAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&vq=unlikely%20pre-Christian&pg=PT18#v=onepage&q=pre-Christian&f=false |first=Donald |last=Rayfield |authorlink=Donald Rayfield |title=The Literature of Georgia: A History |series=Caucasus World |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-700-71163-5 |page=19 |quote=The Georgian alphabet seems unlikely to have a pre-Christian origin, for the major archaeological monument of the first century first century AD, the bilingual Armazi gravestone commemorating Serafita, daughter of the Georgian viceroy of Mtskheta, is inscribed in Greek and Aramaic only. It has been believed, and not only in Armenia, that all the Caucasian alphabets—Armenian, Georgian and Caucaso-Albanian—were invented in the fourth century by the Armenian scholar Mesrop Mashtots.... The Georgian chronicles ''The Life of Kartli'' (ქართლის ცხოვრება) assert that a Georgian script was invented two centuries before Christ, an assertion unsupported by archaeology. There is a possibility that the Georgians, like many minor nations of the area, wrote in a foreign language—Persian, Aramaic, or Greek—and translated back as they read.}}</ref><ref>[[Glen Warren Bowersock]], [[Peter Robert Lamont Brown]], [[Oleg Grabar]]. ''Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World''. Harvard University Press, 1999. {{ISBN|0-674-51173-5}}. P. 289. [[James R. Russell]]. Alphabets. "Mastoc' was a charismatic visionary who accomplished his task at a time when Armenia stood in danger of losing both its national identity, through partition, and its newly acquired Christian faith, through Sassanian pressure and reversion to paganism. By preaching in Armenian, he was able to undermine and co-opt the discourse founded in native tradition, and to create a counterweight against both Byzantine and Syriac cultural hegemony in the church. Mastoc' also created the Georgian and Caucasian-Albanian alphabets, based on the Armenian model."</ref> other Georgian<ref name="Javakhishvili">Georgian: ივ. ჯავახიშვილი, ქართული პალეოგრაფია, გვ. 205–208, 240–245</ref> and Western,<ref name="Lig1">{{cite web |url=https://www.academia.edu/1355678/Werner_Seibt_The_Creation_of_the_Caucasian_Alphabets_as_Phenomenon_of_Cultural_History |title=The Creation of the Caucasian Alphabets as Phenomenon of Cultural History |first= Werner |last= Seibt}}</ref> scholars are against this theory. Syllabaries typically contain 50 to 400 glyphs, and the glyphs of logographic systems typically number from the many hundreds into the thousands. Thus a simple count of the number of distinct symbols is an important clue to the nature of an unknown script. The Armenian alphabet ({{lang-hy|Հայոց գրեր}} ''{{transl|hy|Hayots grer}}'' or {{lang|hy|Հայոց այբուբեն}} ''{{transl|hy|Hayots aybuben}}'') is a graphically unique alphabetical writing system that has been used to write the Armenian language. It was introduced by Mesrob Mashdots around 405&nbsp;AD, an Armenian linguist and ecclesiastical leader, and originally contained 36 letters. Two more letters, օ (o) and ֆ (f), were added in the Middle Ages. During the 1920s orthography reform, a new letter և (capital ԵՎ) was added, which was a ligature before ե+ւ, while the letter Ւ ւ was discarded and reintroduced as part of a new letter ՈՒ ու (which was a digraph before). [[File:Ishkhani inscription.jpg|thumb|Old Georgian alphabet inscription on Monastery gate]] The Armenian word for "alphabet" is {{lang|hy|այբուբեն}} ''{{transl|hy|aybuben}}'' ({{IPA-hy|ɑjbubɛn}}), named after the first two letters of the Armenian alphabet Ա այբ ayb and Բ բեն ben. The Armenian script's directionality is horizontal left-to-right, like the Latin and Greek alphabets.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/armenian.htm|title=Armenian alphabet|first=Simon|last=Ager|year=2010|website=Omniglot|accessdate=2010-01-02|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100102062010/http://omniglot.com/writing/armenian.htm| archivedate= 2 January 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> ==Alphabetical order== {{main article|Alphabetical order}} Alphabets often come to be associated with a standard ordering of their letters, which can then be used for purposes of [[collation]]—namely for the listing of words and other items in what is called ''[[alphabetical order]]''. The basic ordering of the [[Latin alphabet]] (A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z), which is derived from the Northwest Semitic "Abgad" order,<ref>Reinhard G. Lehmann: "27-30-22-26. How Many Letters Needs an Alphabet? The Case of Semitic", in: The idea of writing: Writing across borders / edited by Alex de Voogt and Joachim Friedrich Quack, Leiden: Brill 2012, p. 11-52</ref> is well established, although languages using this alphabet have different conventions for their treatment of modified letters (such as the [[French language|French]] ''é'', ''à'', and ''ô'') and of certain combinations of letters ([[Multigraph (orthography)|multigraphs]]). In French, these are not considered to be additional letters for the purposes of collation. However, in [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], the accented letters such as ''á'', ''í'', and ''ö'' are considered distinct letters representing different vowel sounds from the sounds represented by their unaccented counterparts. In Spanish, ''ñ'' is considered a separate letter, but accented vowels such as ''á'' and ''é'' are not. The ''ll'' and ''ch'' were also considered single letters, but in 1994 the [[Real Academia Española]] changed the collating order so that ''ll'' is between ''lk'' and ''lm'' in the dictionary and ''ch'' is between ''cg'' and ''ci'', and in 2010 the tenth congress of the [[Association of Spanish Language Academies]] changed it so they were no longer letters at all.<ref>Real Academia Española. "Spanish Pronto!: Spanish Alphabet." Spanish Pronto! 22 April 2007. January 2009 [http://www.spanishpronto.com/spanishpronto/spanishalphabet.html#english Spanish Pronto: Spanish ↔ English Medical Translators.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070906105503/https://www.spanishpronto.com/spanishpronto/spanishalphabet.html |date=6 September 2007 }}</ref><ref>"La 'i griega' se llamará 'ye'". Cuba Debate. 2010-11-05. Retrieved 12 December 2010. [http://www.cubadebate.cu/noticias/2010/11/05/la-i-griega-se-llamara-ye-y-la-ch-y-la-ll-desaparecen-por-decreto-de-la-academia-espanola/ Cubadebate.cu]</ref> In German, words starting with ''sch-'' (which spells the German phoneme {{IPAslink|ʃ}}) are inserted between words with initial ''sca-'' and ''sci-'' (all incidentally loanwords) instead of appearing after initial ''sz'', as though it were a single letter—in contrast to several languages such as [[Albanian alphabet|Albanian]], in which ''dh-'', ''ë-'', ''gj-'', ''ll-'', ''rr-'', ''th-'', ''xh-'' and ''zh-'' (all representing phonemes and considered separate single letters) would follow the letters ''d'', ''e'', ''g'', ''l'', ''n'', ''r'', ''t'', ''x'' and ''z'' respectively, as well as Hungarian and Welsh. Further, German words with [[umlaut (diacritic)|umlaut]] are collated ignoring the umlaut—contrary to [[Turkish alphabet|Turkish]] that adopted the [[grapheme]]s '''ö''' and '''ü''', and where a word like ''tüfek'', would come after ''tuz'', in the dictionary. An exception is the German telephone directory where umlauts are sorted like ''ä'' = ''ae'' since names as ''Jäger'' appear also with the spelling ''Jaeger'', and are not distinguished in the spoken language. The [[Danish orthography|Danish]] and [[Norwegian orthography|Norwegian]] alphabets end with ''æ''—''ø''—''å'', whereas the Swedish and [[Finnish orthography|Finnish]] ones conventionally put ''å''—''ä''—''ö'' at the end. It is unknown whether the earliest alphabets had a defined sequence. Some alphabets today, such as the [[Hanuno'o script]], are learned one letter at a time, in no particular order, and are not used for [[collation]] where a definite order is required. However, a dozen [[Ugaritic alphabet|Ugaritic]] tablets from the fourteenth century BC preserve the alphabet in two sequences. One, the ''ABCDE'' order later used in Phoenician, has continued with minor changes in [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]], [[Greek alphabet|Greek]], [[Armenian alphabet|Armenian]], [[Gothic alphabet|Gothic]], [[Cyrillic]], and [[Latin alphabet|Latin]]; the other, ''HMĦLQ,'' was used in southern Arabia and is preserved today in [[Ge'ez alphabet|Ethiopic]].<ref>{{harvnb|Millard|1986|p=395}}</ref> Both orders have therefore been stable for at least 3000 years. [[Runic alphabet|Runic]] used an unrelated [[Elder Futhark|Futhark]] sequence, which was later [[Younger Futhark|simplified]]. [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]] uses its own sequence, although Arabic retains the traditional [[abjadi order]] for numbering. The [[Brahmic family]] of alphabets used in India use a unique order based on [[phonology]]: The letters are arranged according to how and where they are produced in the mouth. This organization is used in Southeast Asia, Tibet, Korean [[hangul]], and even Japanese [[kana]], which is not an alphabet. ==Names of letters== The Phoenician letter names, in which each letter was associated with a word that begins with that sound ([[acrophony]]), continue to be used to varying degrees in [[Samaritan alphabet|Samaritan]], [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic]], [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac]], [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]], [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] and [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]]. The names were abandoned in [[Latin alphabet|Latin]], which instead referred to the letters by adding a vowel (usually e) before or after the consonant; the two exceptions were [[Y]] and [[Z]], which were borrowed from the Greek alphabet rather than Etruscan, and were known as ''Y Graeca'' "Greek Y" (pronounced ''I Graeca'' "Greek I") and ''zeta'' (from Greek)—this discrepancy was inherited by many European languages, as in the term ''zed'' for Z in all forms of English other than American English. Over time names sometimes shifted or were added, as in ''double U'' for [[W]] ("double V" in French), the English name for Y, and American ''zee'' for Z. Comparing names in English and French gives a clear reflection of the [[Great Vowel Shift]]: A, B, C and D are pronounced /eɪ, biː, siː, diː/ in today's English, but in contemporary French they are /a, be, se, de/. The French names (from which the English names are derived) preserve the qualities of the English vowels from before the Great Vowel Shift. By contrast, the names of F, L, M, N and S (/ɛf, ɛl, ɛm, ɛn, ɛs/) remain the same in both languages, because "short" vowels were largely unaffected by the Shift. In Cyrillic originally the letters were given names based on Slavic words; this was later abandoned as well in favor of a system similar to that used in Latin. ==Orthography and pronunciation== {{main article|Phonemic orthography}} When an alphabet is adopted or developed to represent a given language, an [[orthography]] generally comes into being, providing rules for the [[spelling]] of words in that language. In accordance with the principle on which alphabets are based, these rules will generally map letters of the alphabet to the [[phoneme]]s (significant sounds) of the spoken language. In a perfectly [[phonemic orthography]] there would be a consistent one-to-one correspondence between the letters and the phonemes, so that a writer could predict the spelling of a word given its pronunciation, and a speaker would always know the pronunciation of a word given its spelling, and vice versa. However this ideal is not usually achieved in practice; some languages (such as [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Finnish language|Finnish]]) come close to it, while others (such as English) deviate from it to a much larger degree. The pronunciation of a language often evolves independently of its writing system, and writing systems have been borrowed for languages they were not designed for, so the degree to which letters of an alphabet correspond to phonemes of a language varies greatly from one language to another and even within a single language. Languages may fail to achieve a one-to-one correspondence between letters and sounds in any of several ways: * A language may represent a given phoneme by a combination of letters rather than just a single letter. Two-letter combinations are called [[digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] and three-letter groups are called [[trigraph (orthography)|trigraphs]]. [[German language|German]] uses the [[tetragraph]]s (four letters) "tsch" for the phoneme {{IPA-de|tʃ|}} and (in a few borrowed words) "dsch" for {{IPA|[dʒ]}}. [[Kabardian language|Kabardian]] also uses a tetragraph for one of its phonemes, namely "кхъу". Two letters representing one sound occur in several instances in Hungarian as well (where, for instance, ''cs'' stands for [tʃ], ''sz'' for [s], ''zs'' for [ʒ], ''dzs'' for [dʒ]). * A language may represent the same phoneme with two or more different letters or combinations of letters. An example is [[modern Greek]] which may write the phoneme {{IPA-el|i|}} in six different ways: {{angbr|ι}}, {{angbr|η}}, {{angbr|υ}}, {{angbr|ει}}, {{angbr|οι}}, and {{angbr|υι}} (though the last is rare). * A language may spell some words with unpronounced letters that exist for historical or other reasons. For example, the spelling of the Thai word for "beer" [เบียร์] retains a letter for the final consonant "r" present in the English word it was borrowed from, but silences it. * Pronunciation of individual words may change according to the presence of surrounding words in a sentence ([[sandhi]]). * Different dialects of a language may use different phonemes for the same word. * A language may use different sets of symbols or different rules for distinct sets of vocabulary items, such as the Japanese [[hiragana]] and [[katakana]] syllabaries, or the various rules in English for spelling words from Latin and Greek, or the original [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] vocabulary. National languages sometimes elect to address the problem of dialects by simply associating the alphabet with the national standard. Some national languages like [[Finnish language|Finnish]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]] ([[Serbian language|Serbian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]] and [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]]) and [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] have a very regular spelling system with a nearly one-to-one correspondence between letters and phonemes. Strictly speaking, these national languages lack a word corresponding to the verb "to spell" (meaning to split a word into its letters), the closest match being a verb meaning to split a word into its syllables. Similarly, the [[Italian language|Italian]] verb corresponding to 'spell (out)', ''compitare'', is unknown to many Italians because spelling is usually trivial, as Italian spelling is highly phonemic. In standard [[Spanish language|Spanish]], one can tell the pronunciation of a word from its spelling, but not vice versa, as certain phonemes can be represented in more than one way, but a given letter is consistently pronounced. [[French language|French]], with its [[silent letter]]s and its heavy use of [[nasal vowel]]s and [[elision]], may seem to lack much correspondence between spelling and pronunciation, but its rules on pronunciation, though complex, are actually consistent and predictable with a fair degree of accuracy. At the other extreme are languages such as English, where the pronunciations of many words simply have to be memorized as they do not correspond to the spelling in a consistent way. For English, this is partly because the [[Great Vowel Shift]] occurred after the orthography was established, and because English has acquired a large number of loanwords at different times, retaining their original spelling at varying levels. Even English has general, albeit complex, rules that predict pronunciation from spelling, and these rules are successful most of the time; rules to predict spelling from the pronunciation have a higher failure rate. Sometimes, countries have the written language undergo a [[spelling reform]] to realign the writing with the contemporary spoken language. These can range from simple spelling changes and word forms to switching the entire writing system itself, as when [[Turkey]] switched from the Arabic alphabet to a Latin-based [[Turkish alphabet]]. The standard system of symbols used by [[linguist]]s to represent sounds in any language, independently of orthography, is called the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]]. == See also == {{Portal|Alphabets}} {{div col|colwidth=22em}} * ''[[A Is For Aardvark]]'' * [[Abecedarium]] * [[Acrophony]] * [[Akshara]] * [[Alphabet book]] * [[Alphabet effect]] * [[Alphabet song]] * [[Alphabetical order]] * ''[[Butterfly Alphabet]]'' * [[Character encoding]] * [[Constructed script]] * [[Cyrillic]] * [[English alphabet]] * [[Hangul]] * [[NATO phonetic alphabet|ICAO (NATO) spelling alphabet]] * [[Lipogram]] * [[List of alphabets]] * [[Pangram]] * [[Thai script#Alphabet listing|Thai script]] * [[Thoth]] * [[Transliteration]] * [[Unicode]] {{div col end}} == References == {{Reflist|30em}} == Bibliography == * {{cite book |last =Coulmas |first=Florian |title=The Writing Systems of the World |publisher=Blackwell Publishers Ltd. |year=1989 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=VOywmavmZ3UC|isbn=0-631-18028-1|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last1=Daniels |first1=Peter T. |last2=Bright |first2=William |title=The World's Writing Systems |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1996 |isbn=0-19-507993-0 |ref=harv}} Overview of modern and some ancient writing systems. * {{cite book |author =Driver, G. R. |authorlink=Godfrey Rolles Driver |title=Semitic Writing ([[Schweich Lectures on Biblical Archaeology]] S.) 3Rev Ed |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1976 |isbn=0-19-725917-0 }} * {{Cite book | last = Haarmann | first = Harald | title = Geschichte der Schrift |trans-title=History of Writing | language=German | publisher = C. H. Beck | location = München | edition = 2nd | year = 2004 | isbn = 3-406-47998-7 | ref = harv | postscript = <!--None--> }} * {{cite book |author =Hoffman, Joel M. |title=In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=momIk7nVNdkC |publisher=NYU Press |year=2004 |isbn=0-8147-3654-8 }} Chapter 3 traces and summarizes the invention of alphabetic writing. * {{cite book |author =Logan, Robert K. |title=The Alphabet Effect: A Media Ecology Understanding of the Making of Western Civilization |publisher=Hampton Press |year=2004 |isbn=1-57273-523-6 }} * {{cite journal |last1=McLuhan |first1=Marshall |last2=Logan |first2=Robert K. |year=1977 |title=Alphabet, Mother of Invention |journal=ETC: A Review of General Semantics |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=373–383 |jstor=42575278}} * {{Cite journal | doi = 10.1080/00438243.1986.9979978 | jstor = 124703 | last = Millard | first = A. R. | year = 1986 | title = The Infancy of the Alphabet | journal = World Archaeology | volume = 17 | issue = 3 | pages = 390–398 | ref = harv | postscript = <!--None--> }} * {{cite book |author1=Ouaknin, Marc-Alain |author2=Bacon, Josephine |title=Mysteries of the Alphabet: The Origins of Writing |publisher=Abbeville Press |year=1999 |isbn=0-7892-0521-1 }} * {{cite book |author =Powell, Barry |title=Homer and the Origin of the Greek Alphabet |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1991 |isbn=0-521-58907-X }} * {{cite book |last=Powell |first=Barry B. |year=2009 |title=Writing: Theory and History of the Technology of Civilization|location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-6256-2}} * {{cite book |author =Sacks, David |title=Letter Perfect: The Marvelous History of Our Alphabet from A to Z |publisher=Broadway Books |url=http://www.uca.edu.ar/esp/sec-ffilosofia/esp/docs-institutos/s-cehao/boletin/damqatum3_eng2007.pdf |format=PDF |year=2004 |isbn=0-7679-1173-3}} * {{cite book|author =Saggs, H. W. F. |title=Civilization Before Greece and Rome|publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=1991 |isbn=0-300-05031-3}} Chapter 4 traces the invention of writing == External links == {{Wiktionary|alphabet}} {{commons category|Alphabets}} * [http://ilovetypography.com/2010/08/07/where-does-the-alphabet-come-from/ The Origins of abc] * [http://www.uca.edu.ar/esp/sec-ffilosofia/esp/docs-institutos/s-cehao/boletin/damqatum3_eng2007.pdf "Language, Writing and Alphabet: An Interview with Christophe Rico"], ''Damqātum 3'' (2007) * [[Michael Everson]]'s [http://www.evertype.com/alphabets/index.html Alphabets of Europe] * [http://www.wam.umd.edu/~rfradkin/alphapage.html Evolution of alphabets], animation by Prof. Robert Fradkin at the [[University of Maryland]] * [http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=36&Issue=2&ArticleID=6 How the Alphabet Was Born from Hieroglyphs]—Biblical Archaeology Review * [https://onedrive.live.com/view.aspx?cid=E39B50D7D9EA3235&resid=E39B50D7D9EA3235!126&app=WordPdf An Early Hellenic Alphabet] * Museum of the Alphabet [https://web.archive.org/web/20160128234751/http://www.jaars.org/museum/alphabet/index.htm] * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p0054950 The Alphabet], BBC Radio 4 discussion with Eleanor Robson, Alan Millard and Rosalind Thomas (''In Our Time'', Dec. 18, 2003) {{Writing systems |expanded=Alphabets}} {{list of writing systems}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Alphabets| ]] [[Category:Orthography]] m1360y7bmdpfcyum2bia0q0gtyjs485 0 673 860293610 860293509 2018-09-19T17:39:11Z SD5 8872750 ([[WP:HG|HG]]) (3.4.4) wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2015}} [[File:Atomic number depiction.jpg|thumb|Atomic Number Depiction|300px|right|An explanation of the superscripts and subscripts seen in atomic number notation. Atomic number is the number of protons, and therefore also the total positive charge, in the atomic nucleus.]] [[Image:Bohr-atom-PAR.svg|thumb|right|300px|The '''Rutherford–Bohr model''' of the [[hydrogen atom]] ({{nowrap|''Z'' {{=}} 1}}) or a hydrogen-like ion ({{nowrap|1=''Z'' > 1}}). In this model it is an essential feature that the photon energy (or frequency) of the electromagnetic radiation emitted (shown) when an electron jumps from one orbital to another, be proportional to the mathematical square of atomic charge ({{nowrap|''Z²''}}). Experimental measurement by [[Henry Moseley]] of this radiation for many elements (from {{nowrap|''Z'' {{=}} 13 to 92}}) showed the results as predicted by Bohr. Both the concept of atomic number and the Bohr model were thereby given scientific credence.]] The '''atomic number''' or '''proton number''' (symbol ''Z'') of a [[chemical element]] is the number of [[proton]]s found in the [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] of an [[atom]]. It is identical to the [[charge number]] of the nucleus. The atomic number uniquely identifies a chemical element. In an [[electric charge|uncharged]] atom, the atomic number is also equal to the number of [[electron]]s. The sum of the atomic number ''Z'' and the [[neutron number|number of neutrons]], ''N'', gives the [[mass number]] ''A'' of an atom. Since protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass (and the mass of the electrons is negligible for many purposes) and the [[Binding energy#Mass change|mass defect]] of nucleon binding is always small compared to the nucleon mass, the [[atomic mass]] of any atom, when expressed in [[Atomic mass unit|unified atomic mass units]] (making a quantity called the "[[atomic mass|relative isotopic mass]]"), is within 1% of the whole number ''A''. Atoms with the same atomic number ''Z'' but different neutron numbers ''N'', and hence different atomic masses, are known as [[isotope]]s. A little more than three-quarters of naturally occurring elements exist as a mixture of isotopes (see [[monoisotopic element]]s), and the average isotopic mass of an isotopic mixture for an element (called the relative atomic mass) in a defined environment on Earth, determines the element's standard [[atomic weight]]. Historically, it was these atomic weights of elements (in comparison to hydrogen) that were the quantities measurable by chemists in the 19th century. The conventional symbol ''Z'' comes from the [[German language|German]] word {{lang|de|'''Z'''ahl}} meaning ''number'', which, before the modern synthesis of ideas from chemistry and physics, merely denoted an element's numerical place in the [[periodic table]], whose order is approximately, but not completely, consistent with the order of the elements by atomic weights. Only after 1915, with the suggestion and evidence that this ''Z'' number was also the nuclear charge and a physical characteristic of atoms, did the word {{lang|de|Atom'''z'''ahl}} (and its English equivalent ''atomic number'') come into common use in this context. ==History== ===The periodic table and a natural number for each element=== [[File:DIMendeleevCab.jpg|thumb|upright|Russian chemist [[Dmitri Mendeleev]], creator of the periodic table.]] Loosely speaking, the existence or construction of a [[periodic table]] of elements creates an ordering of the elements, and so they can be numbered in order. [[Dmitri Mendeleev]] claimed that he arranged his first periodic tables (first published on March 6th, 1869) in order of [[atomic weight]] ("Atomgewicht").<ref name="dm1869">[https://history.aip.org/exhibits/curie/periodic.htm The Periodic Table of Elements], American Institute of Physics</ref> However, in consideration of the elements' observed chemical properties, he changed the order slightly and placed [[tellurium]] (atomic weight 127.6) ahead of [[iodine]] (atomic weight 126.9).<ref name="dm1869"/><ref>[http://www.rsc.org/chemsoc/visualelements/pages/history_ii.html The Development of the Periodic Table], Royal Society of Chemistry</ref> This placement is consistent with the modern practice of ordering the elements by proton number, ''Z'', but that number was not known or suspected at the time. A simple numbering based on periodic table position was never entirely satisfactory, however. Besides the case of iodine and tellurium, later several other pairs of elements (such as argon and potassium, cobalt and nickel) were known to have nearly identical or reversed atomic weights, thus requiring their placement in the periodic table to be determined by their chemical properties. However the gradual identification of more and more chemically similar [[lanthanide]] elements, whose atomic number was not obvious, led to inconsistency and uncertainty in the periodic numbering of elements at least from [[lutetium]] (element 71) onwards ([[hafnium]] was not known at this time). [[File:Niels Bohr.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Niels Bohr]], creator of the [[Bohr model]].]] ===The Rutherford-Bohr model and van den Broek=== In 1911, [[Ernest Rutherford]] gave a [[Rutherford model|model]] of the atom in which a central core held most of the atom's mass and a positive charge which, in units of the electron's charge, was to be approximately equal to half of the atom's atomic weight, expressed in numbers of hydrogen atoms. This central charge would thus be approximately half the atomic weight (though it was almost 25% different from the atomic number of gold {{nowrap|1=(''Z'' = 79}}, {{nowrap|1=''A'' = 197}}), the single element from which Rutherford made his guess). Nevertheless, in spite of Rutherford's estimation that gold had a central charge of about 100 (but was element {{nowrap|1=''Z'' = 79}} on the periodic table), a month after Rutherford's paper appeared, [[Antonius van den Broek]] first formally suggested that the central charge and number of electrons in an atom was ''exactly'' equal to its place in the periodic table (also known as element number, atomic number, and symbolized ''Z''). This proved eventually to be the case. === Moseley's 1913 experiment === [[File:Henry Moseley.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Henry Moseley]] in his lab.]] The experimental position improved dramatically after research by [[Henry Moseley]] in 1913.<ref>[http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teachers/Resources/periodictable/pre16/order.doc Ordering the Elements in the Periodic Table], Royal Chemical Society</ref> Moseley, after discussions with Bohr who was at the same lab (and who had used Van den Broek's hypothesis in his [[Bohr model]] of the atom), decided to test Van den Broek's and Bohr's hypothesis directly, by seeing if [[spectral line]]s emitted from excited atoms fitted the Bohr theory's postulation that the frequency of the spectral lines be proportional to the square of ''Z''. To do this, Moseley measured the wavelengths of the innermost photon transitions (K and L lines) produced by the elements from aluminum (''Z''&nbsp;=&nbsp;13) to gold (''Z''&nbsp;=&nbsp;79) used as a series of movable anodic targets inside an [[x-ray tube]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.chemistry.co.nz/henry_moseley_article.htm |doi=10.1080/14786441308635052 |title=XCIII.The high-frequency spectra of the elements |journal=Philosophical Magazine |series=Series 6 |volume=26 |issue=156 |pages=1024 |year=1913 |last1=Moseley |first1=H.G.J. |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100122022821/http://www.materials.manchester.ac.uk/research/facilities/moseley/biography/ |archivedate=22 January 2010 |df=dmy }}</ref> The square root of the frequency of these photons {{nowrap|(x-rays)}} increased from one target to the next in an arithmetic progression. This led to the conclusion ([[Moseley's law]]) that the atomic number does closely correspond (with an offset of one unit for K-lines, in Moseley's work) to the calculated [[electric charge]] of the nucleus, i.e. the element number ''Z''. Among other things, Moseley demonstrated that the [[lanthanide]] series (from [[lanthanum]] to [[lutetium]] inclusive) must have 15 members—no fewer and no more—which was far from obvious from the chemistry at that time. ===Missing elements=== After Moseley's death in 1915, the atomic numbers of all known elements from hydrogen to uranium (''Z'' = 92) were examined by his method. There were seven elements (with ''Z'' < 92) which were not found and therefore identified as still undiscovered, corresponding to atomic numbers 43, 61, 72, 75, 85, 87 and 91.<ref>[[Eric Scerri]], ''A tale of seven elements,'' (Oxford University Press 2013) {{ISBN|978-0-19-539131-2}}, p.47</ref> From 1918 to 1947, all seven of these missing elements were discovered.<ref>Scerri chaps. 3–9 (one chapter per element)</ref> By this time the first four transuranium elements had also been discovered, so that the periodic table was complete with no gaps as far as curium (''Z'' = 96). ===The proton and the idea of nuclear electrons=== In 1915 the reason for nuclear charge being quantized in units of ''Z'', which were now recognized to be the same as the element number, was not understood. An old idea called [[Prout's hypothesis]] had postulated that the elements were all made of residues (or "protyles") of the lightest element hydrogen, which in the Bohr-Rutherford model had a single electron and a nuclear charge of one. However, as early as 1907 Rutherford and [[Thomas Royds]] had shown that alpha particles, which had a charge of +2, were the nuclei of helium atoms, which had a mass four times that of hydrogen, not two times. If Prout's hypothesis were true, something had to be neutralizing some of the charge of the hydrogen nuclei present in the nuclei of heavier atoms. In 1917 Rutherford succeeded in generating hydrogen nuclei from a [[nuclear reaction]] between alpha particles and nitrogen gas,<ref>[http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/people/ernest-rutherford Ernest Rutherford | NZHistory.net.nz, New Zealand history online]. Nzhistory.net.nz (19 October 1937). Retrieved on 2011-01-26.</ref> and believed he had proven Prout's law. He called the new heavy nuclear particles protons in 1920 (alternate names being proutons and protyles). It had been immediately apparent from the work of Moseley that the nuclei of heavy atoms have more than twice as much mass as would be expected from their being made of [[hydrogen]] nuclei, and thus there was required a hypothesis for the neutralization of the extra [[protons]] presumed present in all heavy nuclei. A helium nucleus was presumed to be composed of four protons plus two "nuclear electrons" (electrons bound inside the nucleus) to cancel two of the charges. At the other end of the periodic table, a nucleus of gold with a mass 197 times that of hydrogen, was thought to contain 118 nuclear electrons in the nucleus to give it a residual charge of + 79, consistent with its atomic number. ===The discovery of the neutron makes ''Z'' the proton number=== All consideration of nuclear electrons ended with [[James Chadwick]]'s [[discovery of the neutron]] in 1932. An atom of gold now was seen as containing 118 neutrons rather than 118 nuclear electrons, and its positive charge now was realized to come entirely from a content of 79 protons. After 1932, therefore, an element's atomic number ''Z'' was also realized to be identical to the [[proton number]] of its nuclei. ==The symbol of ''Z''== The conventional symbol ''Z'' possibly comes from the [[German language|German]] word {{lang|de|Atom'''z'''ahl}} (atomic number).<ref name=":0">[http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/atoms/faq/why-is-atomic-number-Z.shtml Origin of symbol Z]. frostburg.edu</ref> However, prior to 1915, the word ''Zahl'' (simply ''number'') was used for an element's assigned number in the periodic table. ==Chemical properties== Each element has a specific set of chemical properties as a consequence of the number of electrons present in the neutral atom, which is ''Z'' (the atomic number). The [[electron configuration|configuration]] of these electrons follows from the principles of [[quantum mechanics]]. The number of electrons in each element's [[electron shell]]s, particularly the outermost [[valence shell]], is the primary factor in determining its [[chemical bonding]] behavior. Hence, it is the atomic number alone that determines the chemical properties of an element; and it is for this reason that an element can be defined as consisting of ''any'' mixture of atoms with a given atomic number. ==New elements== The quest for new elements is usually described using atomic numbers. As of 2010, all elements with atomic numbers 1 to 118 have been observed. Synthesis of new elements is accomplished by bombarding target atoms of heavy elements with ions, such that the sum of the atomic numbers of the target and ion elements equals the atomic number of the element being created. In general, the [[half-life]] becomes shorter as atomic number increases, though an "[[island of stability]]" may exist for undiscovered isotopes with certain numbers of protons and neutrons. ==See also== {{wiktionary|atomic number}} *[[Atomic theory]] *[[Chemical element]] *[[Effective atomic number]] *[[History of the periodic table]] *[[List of elements by atomic number]] *[[Prout's hypothesis]] ==References== {{Reflist}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Atomic Number}} <!--Categories--> [[Category:Chemical properties]] [[Category:Nuclear physics]] [[Category:Atoms]] [[Category:Dimensionless numbers of chemistry]] nq6mq4s00nonyjdizel5tmpg0xq441y 0 674 861081095 861080051 2018-09-24T23:50:15Z CLCStudent 26398660 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contribs/94.158.152.121|94.158.152.121]] ([[User talk:94.158.152.121|talk]]) to last version by CV9933 wikitext text/x-wiki {{about||the anatomy of plants|Plant anatomy|other uses}} {{good article}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2013}}{{Use British (Oxford) English|date=September 2016}} [[File:Vesalius-copy.jpg|thumb|One of the large, detailed illustrations in [[Andreas Vesalius]]'s ''[[De humani corporis fabrica]]'' 16th century, marking the rebirth of anatomy|245x245px]] [[File:An écorché figure (life-size), lying prone on a table Wellcome L0020561.jpg|thumb|upright=.5|A dissected body, lying prone on a table - from a series of anatomical drawings made by the 19th Century English artist [[Charles Landseer]].|312x312px]] '''Anatomy''' (Greek anatomē, “dissection”) is the branch of [[biology]] concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts.<ref>Merriam Webster Dictionary</ref> Anatomy is a branch of natural science which deals with the structural organization of living things. It is an old science, having its beginnings in prehistoric times.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.booktionary.com.ng/index_files/Page1935.htm|title=Anatomy|last=Rotimi|first=Booktionary|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref> Anatomy is inherently tied to [[embryology]], [[comparative anatomy]], [[evolutionary biology]], and [[phylogeny]],<ref name="intro HGray">{{cite web | url=http://www.bartleby.com/107/1.html| title= Introduction page, "Anatomy of the Human Body". Henry Gray. 20th edition. 1918| accessdate =19 March 2007| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070316005206/http://www.bartleby.com/107/1.html| archivedate= 16 March 2007}}</ref> as these are the processes by which anatomy is generated over immediate (embryology) and long (evolution) timescales. [[Human anatomy]] is one of the basic essential sciences of [[medicine]].<ref>Arráez-Aybar et al. (2010). Relevance of human anatomy in daily clinical practice. Annals of Anatomy-Anatomischer Anzeiger, 192(6), 341–348.</ref> Anatomy and [[physiology]], which study (respectively) the structure and [[function (biology)|function]] of organisms and their parts, make a natural pair of [[multidisciplinary approach|related disciplines]], and they are often studied together. The discipline of anatomy is divided into [[macroscopic scale|macroscopic]] and [[microscopic scale|microscopic anatomy]]. Macroscopic anatomy, or [[gross anatomy]], is the examination of an animal's body parts using unaided [[eyesight]]. Gross anatomy also includes the branch of [[superficial anatomy]]. Microscopic anatomy involves the use of optical instruments in the study of the [[tissue (biology)|tissues]] of various structures, known as [[histology]], and also in the study of [[cell biology|cells]]. The [[history of anatomy]] is characterized by a progressive understanding of the functions of the [[organ (anatomy)|organs]] and structures of the [[human body]]. Methods have also improved dramatically, advancing from the examination of animals by dissection of carcasses and [[cadaver]]s (corpses) to 20th century [[medical imaging]] techniques including [[Radiography|X-ray]], [[Ultrasound imaging|ultrasound]], and [[MRI|magnetic resonance imaging]]. == Definition == Derived from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{lang|grc|ἀνατομή}} ''anatomē'' "dissection" (from {{lang|grc|ἀνατέμνω}} ''anatémnō'' "I cut up, cut open" from ἀνά ''aná'' "up", and τέμνω ''témnō'' "I cut"),<ref>O.D.E. 2nd edition 2005</ref> anatomy is the scientific study of the structure of [[organism]]s including their systems, organs and [[tissue (biology)|tissues]]. It includes the appearance and position of the various parts, the materials from which they are composed, their locations and their relationships with other parts. Anatomy is quite distinct from [[physiology]] and [[biochemistry]], which deal respectively with the functions of those parts and the chemical processes involved. For example, an anatomist is concerned with the shape, size, position, structure, blood supply and innervation of an organ such as the liver; while a physiologist is interested in the production of [[bile]], the role of the liver in nutrition and the regulation of bodily functions.<ref name=Everyman>{{cite book |title=Everyman's Encyclopedia: Anatomy |editor-last=Bozman |editor-first=E. F.|year=1967 |publisher=J. M. Dent & Sons |asin=B0066E44EC |page=272 }}</ref> The discipline of anatomy can be subdivided into a number of branches including gross or [[Macroscopic scale|macroscopic]] anatomy and [[Microscopic scale|microscopic]] anatomy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/microscopic+anatomy |title=Anatomy |year=2007 |work=The Free Dictionary |publisher=Farlex |accessdate=8 July 2013}}</ref> [[Gross anatomy]] is the study of structures large enough to be seen with the naked eye, and also includes [[superficial anatomy]] or surface anatomy, the study by sight of the external body features. [[Microscopic anatomy]] is the study of structures on a microscopic scale, along with [[histology]] (the study of tissues), and [[embryology]] (the study of an organism in its immature condition).<ref name="intro HGray" /> Anatomy can be studied using both invasive and non-invasive methods with the goal of obtaining information about the structure and organization of organs and systems.<ref name="intro HGray" /> Methods used include [[dissection]], in which a body is opened and its organs studied, and [[endoscopy]], in which a [[video camera]]-equipped instrument is inserted through a small incision in the body wall and used to explore the internal organs and other structures. [[Angiography]] using [[X-ray]]s or [[magnetic resonance angiography]] are methods to visualize blood vessels.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Use of Angiography to Outline the Cardiovascular Anatomy of the Sand Crab Portunus pelagicus Linnaeus |vauthors=Gribble N, Reynolds K | journal=Journal of Crustacean Biology | year=1993 | volume=13 | issue=4 | pages=627–637 | doi=10.1163/193724093x00192 | jstor=1549093}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title=Characterization of the Renal Portal System of the Common Green Iguana (Iguana iguana) by Digital Subtraction Imaging |vauthors=Benson KG, Forrest L | journal=Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine | year=1999 | volume=30 | issue=2 | pages=235–241|pmid=10484138 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/healthlibrary/test_procedures/cardiovascular/magnetic_resonance_angiography_mra_135,14/ |title=Magnetic Resonance Angiography (MRA) |publisher=Johns Hopkins Medicine}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/angiography/Pages/Introduction.aspx | title=Angiography | publisher=National Health Service | accessdate=29 April 2014}}</ref> The term "anatomy" is commonly taken to refer to [[human anatomy]]. However, substantially the same structures and tissues are found throughout the rest of the animal kingdom and the term also includes the anatomy of other animals. The term ''zootomy'' is also sometimes used to specifically refer to animals. The structure and tissues of plants are of a dissimilar nature and they are studied in [[plant anatomy]].<ref name=Everyman/> == Animal tissues == [[File:Anima cell notext.svg|right|thumb|Stylized cutaway diagram of an animal cell (with flagella)]] The [[Kingdom (biology)|kingdom]] [[Animalia]] contains [[multicellular organism]]s that are [[heterotroph]]ic and [[Motility|motile]] (although some have secondarily adopted a [[Sessility (zoology)|sessile]] lifestyle). Most animals have bodies differentiated into separate [[Tissue (biology)|tissues]] and these animals are also known as [[eumetazoa]]ns. They have an internal [[digestion|digestive]] chamber, with one or two openings; the [[gamete]]s are produced in multicellular sex organs, and the [[zygote]]s include a [[blastula]] stage in their [[Embryogenesis|embryonic development]]. Metazoans do not include the [[sponge]]s, which have undifferentiated cells.<ref name=Dorit549>{{cite book |title=Zoology |last1=Dorit |first1=R. L. |last2=Walker |first2=W. F. |last3=Barnes |first3=R. D. |year=1991 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |isbn=978-0-03-030504-7 |pages=547–549 }}</ref> Unlike [[plant cell]]s, [[animal cells]] have neither a cell wall nor [[chloroplast]]s. Vacuoles, when present, are more in number and much smaller than those in the plant cell. The body tissues are composed of numerous types of cell, including those found in [[muscle]]s, [[nerve]]s and [[skin]]. Each typically has a cell membrane formed of [[phospholipid]]s, [[cytoplasm]] and a [[Cell nucleus|nucleus]]. All of the different cells of an animal are derived from the embryonic [[germ layer]]s. Those simpler invertebrates which are formed from two germ layers of ectoderm and endoderm are called [[diploblasty|diploblastic]] and the more developed animals whose structures and organs are formed from three germ layers are called [[triploblasty|triploblastic]].<ref name=Ruppert60>{{cite book |title=Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition |last1=Ruppert |first1=Edward E. |last2=Fox |first2=Richard, S. |last3=Barnes |first3=Robert D. |year=2004 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=81-315-0104-3 |pages=59–60 }}</ref> All of a triploblastic animal's tissues and organs are derived from the three germ layers of the embryo, the [[ectoderm]], [[mesoderm]] and [[endoderm]]. Animal tissues can be grouped into four basic types: [[connective tissue|connective]], [[epithelium|epithelial]], [[muscle tissue|muscle]] and [[nervous tissue]]. [[File:Cartilage polarised.jpg|thumb|Hyaline cartilage at high magnification ([[H&E stain]])]] ===Connective tissue=== [[Connective tissue]]s are fibrous and made up of cells scattered among inorganic material called the [[extracellular matrix]]. Connective tissue gives shape to organs and holds them in place. The main types are loose connective tissue, [[adipose tissue]], fibrous connective tissue, [[cartilage]] and [[bone]]. The extracellular matrix contains [[protein]]s, the chief and most abundant of which is [[collagen]]. Collagen plays a major part in organizing and maintaining tissues. The matrix can be modified to form a [[skeleton]] to support or protect the body. An [[exoskeleton]] is a thickened, rigid [[cuticle]] which is stiffened by [[mineralisation (biology)|mineralization]], as in [[crustacean]]s or by the cross-linking of its proteins as in [[insect]]s. An [[endoskeleton]] is internal and present in all developed animals, as well as in many of those less developed.<ref name="Ruppert60" /> ===Epithelium=== [[File:Normal gastric mucosa low mag.jpg|thumb|right|Gastric mucosa at low magnification ([[H&E stain]])]] [[Epithelial tissue]] is composed of closely packed cells, bound to each other by [[cell adhesion molecule]]s, with little intercellular space. Epithelial cells can be [[Squamous epithelial cell|squamous]] (flat), [[Simple cuboidal epithelium|cuboidal]] or [[Columnar epithelial cell|columnar]] and rest on a [[basal lamina]], the upper layer of the [[basement membrane]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Dorland's|title=Illustrated Medical Dictionary|date=2012|publisher=Elsevier Saunders|isbn=978-1-4160-6257-8|page=203}}</ref> the lower layer is the reticular lamina lying next to the connective tissue in the extracellular matrix secreted by the epithelial cells.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dorland's|title=Illustrated Medical Dictionary|date=2012|publisher=Elsevier Saunders|isbn=978-1-4160-6257-8|page=1002}}</ref> There are many different types of epithelium, modified to suit a particular function. In the [[respiratory tract]] there is a type of [[pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium|ciliated]] epithelial lining; in the small intestine there are [[Microvillus|microvilli]] on the epithelial lining and in the large intestine there are [[Intestinal villus|intestinal villi]]. [[Skin]] consists of an outer layer of [[keratin]]ized stratified squamous epithelium that covers the exterior of the vertebrate body. [[Keratinocyte]]s make up to 95% of the cells in the [[epidermis (skin)|skin]].<ref>McGrath, J.A.; Eady, R.A.; Pope, F.M. (2004). Rook's Textbook of Dermatology (7th ed.). Blackwell Publishing. pp. 3.1–3.6. {{ISBN|978-0-632-06429-8}}.</ref> The epithelial cells on the external surface of the body typically secrete an extracellular matrix in the form of a [[cuticle]]. In simple animals this may just be a coat of [[glycoproteins]].<ref name="Ruppert60" /> In more advanced animals, many [[gland]]s are formed of epithelial cells.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/kabernd/BerndCV/Lab/EpithelialInfoWeb/Glandular%20Epithelium.html |title=Glandular epithelium |author=Bernt, Karen |year=2010 |work=Epithelial Cells |publisher=Davidson College |accessdate=25 June 2013}}</ref> ===Muscle tissue=== [[File:Skeletal muscle - cross section, nerve bundle.jpg|right|thumb|Cross section through [[skeletal muscle]] and a small [[nerve]] at high magnification ([[H&E stain]])]] [[Myocyte|Muscle cells]] (myocytes) form the active contractile tissue of the body. [[Muscle tissue]] functions to produce force and cause motion, either locomotion or movement within internal organs. Muscle is formed of contractile [[Myofibril|filaments]] and is separated into three main types; [[Smooth muscle tissue|smooth muscle]], [[Skeletal striated muscle|skeletal muscle]] and [[cardiac muscle]]. Smooth muscle has no [[Striated muscle tissue|striations]] when examined microscopically. It contracts slowly but maintains contractibility over a wide range of stretch lengths. It is found in such organs as [[sea anemone]] tentacles and the body wall of [[sea cucumber]]s. Skeletal muscle contracts rapidly but has a limited range of extension. It is found in the movement of appendages and jaws. Obliquely striated muscle is intermediate between the other two. The filaments are staggered and this is the type of muscle found in [[earthworm]]s that can extend slowly or make rapid contractions.<ref name=Ruppert103>{{cite book |title=Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition |last1=Ruppert |first1=Edward E. |last2=Fox |first2=Richard, S. |last3=Barnes |first3=Robert D. |year=2004 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=81-315-0104-3 |page=103 }}</ref> In higher animals striated muscles occur in bundles attached to bone to provide movement and are often arranged in antagonistic sets. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of the [[uterus]], [[bladder]], [[intestines]], [[stomach]], o[[esophagus]], [[respiratory airways]], and [[blood vessel]]s. [[Cardiac muscle]] is found only in the [[heart]], allowing it to contract and pump blood round the body. ===Nervous tissue=== [[Nervous tissue]] is composed of many nerve cells known as [[neuron]]s which transmit information. In some slow-moving [[Symmetry in biology#Radial symmetry|radially symmetrical]] marine animals such as [[ctenophore]]s and [[cnidarian]]s (including [[sea anemone]]s and [[jellyfish]]), the nerves form a [[nerve net]], but in most animals they are organized longitudinally into bundles. In simple animals, receptor neurons in the body wall cause a local reaction to a stimulus. In more complex animals, specialized receptor cells such as [[chemoreceptor]]s and [[photoreceptor cell|photoreceptors]] are found in groups and send messages along [[biological neural network|neural networks]] to other parts of the organism. Neurons can be connected together in [[Ganglion|ganglia]].<ref name=Ruppert104>{{cite book |title=Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition |last1=Ruppert |first1=Edward E. |last2=Fox |first2=Richard, S. |last3=Barnes |first3=Robert D. |year=2004 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=81-315-0104-3 |page=104 }}</ref> In higher animals, specialized receptors are the basis of sense organs and there is a [[central nervous system]] (brain and spinal cord) and a [[peripheral nervous system]]. The latter consists of [[Sensory neuron|sensory nerves]] that transmit information from sense organs and [[Motor neuron|motor nerves]] that influence target organs.<ref>{{cite book|title=Grey's Anatomy: Descriptive and Applied |year=1944 |edition=28 |page=1038 |publisher=Langmans |editor1-last=Johnston | editor1-first= T.B |editor2-last=Whillis | editor2-first=J }}</ref><ref name=Ruppert107>{{cite book |title=Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition |last1=Ruppert |first1=Edward E. |last2=Fox |first2=Richard, S. |last3=Barnes |first3=Robert D. |year=2004 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=81-315-0104-3 |pages=105–107 }}</ref> The peripheral nervous system is divided into the [[somatic nervous system]] which conveys sensation and controls [[voluntary muscle]], and the [[autonomic nervous system]] which involuntarily controls [[smooth muscle]], certain glands and internal organs, including the [[stomach]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.inkling.com/read/essential-clinical-anatomy-keith-moore-4th/introduction-to-clinical-anatomy/nervous-system | title=Essesntial Clinical Anatomy | publisher=Inkling | work=Nervous System | date=2010 |edition=4th | accessdate=30 April 2014 |author1=Moore, K. |author2=Agur, A. |author3=Dalley, A. F. }}</ref> == Vertebrate anatomy == {{see also|Comparative anatomy}} [[File:VolRenderShearWarp.gif|thumb|upright|[[Mouse]] skull]] All [[vertebrate]]s have a similar basic [[body plan]] and at some point in their lives, mostly in the [[embryogenesis|embryonic]] stage, share the major [[chordate]] characteristics; a stiffening rod, the [[notochord]]; a dorsal hollow tube of nervous material, the [[neural tube]]; [[pharyngeal arch]]es; and a tail posterior to the anus. The [[spinal cord]] is protected by the [[vertebral column]] and is above the notochord and the [[Gut (anatomy)|gastrointestinal tract]] is below it.<ref>{{cite web |last=Waggoner |first=Ben |title=Vertebrates: More on Morphology |url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/vertmm.html |publisher=UCMP |accessdate=13 July 2011}}</ref> Nervous tissue is derived from the [[ectoderm]], connective tissues are derived from [[mesoderm]], and gut is derived from the [[endoderm]]. At the posterior end is a [[tail]] which continues the spinal cord and vertebrae but not the gut. The mouth is found at the anterior end of the animal, and the [[anus]] at the base of the tail.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Vertebrate Body |last=Romer |first=Alfred Sherwood |year=1985 |publisher=Holt Rinehart & Winston |isbn=978-0-03-058446-6 |page= }}</ref> The defining characteristic of a vertebrate is the [[vertebral column]], formed in the development of the segmented series of [[vertebra]]e. In most vertebrates the notochord becomes the [[nucleus pulposus]] of the [[intervertebral disc]]s. However, a few vertebrates, such as the [[sturgeon]] and the [[coelacanth]] retain the notochord into adulthood.<ref>{{cite book|title=Functional anatomy of the vertebrates: an evolutionary perspective|year=2001|publisher=Harcourt College Publishers|isbn=978-0-03-022369-3|author=Liem, Karel F.|author2=Warren Franklin Walker|page=277}}</ref> [[Gnathostomata|Jawed vertebrates]] are typified by paired appendages, fins or legs, which may be secondarily lost. The limbs of vertebrates are considered to be [[Homology (biology)|homologous]] because the same underlying skeletal structure was inherited from their last common ancestor. This is one of the arguments put forward by [[Charles Darwin]] to support his theory of [[evolution]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ncse.com/evolution/science/what-is-homology |title=What is Homology? |date=17 October 2008 |publisher=National Center for Science Education |accessdate=28 June 2013}}</ref> === Fish anatomy === {{main article|Fish anatomy}} [[File:Internal anatomy of a fish (cutaway diagram).jpg|thumb|left|Cutaway diagram showing various organs of a fish]] The body of a fish is divided into a head, trunk and tail, although the divisions between the three are not always externally visible. The skeleton, which forms the support structure inside the fish, is either made of cartilage, in [[cartilaginous fish]], or bone in [[bony fish]]. The main skeletal element is the vertebral column, composed of articulating [[vertebra]]e which are lightweight yet strong. The ribs attach to the spine and there are no [[Limb (anatomy)|limbs]] or limb girdles. The main external features of the fish, the [[fish fin|fins]], are composed of either bony or soft spines called rays, which with the exception of the [[caudal fin]]s, have no direct connection with the spine. They are supported by the muscles which compose the main part of the trunk.<ref name=Dorit818/> The heart has two chambers and pumps the blood through the respiratory surfaces of the [[gill]]s and on round the body in a single circulatory loop.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://library.thinkquest.org/C003758/Development/fish.htm |title=The fish heart |work=ThinkQuest |publisher=Oracle |accessdate=27 June 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120428001536/http://library.thinkquest.org/C003758/Development/fish.htm |archivedate=28 April 2012 |df= }}</ref> The eyes are adapted for seeing underwater and have only local vision. There is an inner ear but no external or [[middle ear]]. Low frequency vibrations are detected by the [[lateral line]] system of sense organs that run along the length of the sides of fish, and these respond to nearby movements and to changes in water pressure.<ref name=Dorit818>{{cite book |title=Zoology |last1=Dorit |first1=R. L. |last2=Walker |first2=W. F. |last3=Barnes |first3=R. D. |year=1991 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |isbn=978-0-03-030504-7 |pages=816–818 }}</ref> Sharks and rays are [[Basal (phylogenetics)|basal]] fish with numerous [[Primitive (phylogenetics)|primitive]] anatomical features similar to those of ancient fish, including skeletons composed of cartilage. Their bodies tend to be dorso-ventrally flattened, they usually have five pairs of gill slits and a large mouth set on the underside of the head. The dermis is covered with separate dermal [[Fish scale#Placoid scales|placoid scales]]. They have a [[cloaca]] into which the urinary and genital passages open, but not a [[swim bladder]]. Cartilaginous fish produce a small number of large, [[Egg yolk|yolky]] eggs. Some species are [[ovoviviparous]] and the young develop internally but others are [[oviparous]] and the larvae develop externally in egg cases.<ref name=Kotpal>{{cite book |title=Modern Text Book of Zoology: Vertebrates |last=Kotpal |first=R. L. |year=2010 |publisher=Rastogi Publications |isbn=978-81-7133-891-7 |page=193 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U7N1j-8LMsEC&pg=PA199 }}</ref> The bony fish lineage shows more [[Derived trait|derived]] anatomical traits, often with major evolutionary changes from the features of ancient fish. They have a bony skeleton, are generally laterally flattened, have five pairs of gills protected by an [[operculum (fish)|operculum]], and a mouth at or near the tip of the snout. The dermis is covered with overlapping [[Fish scale|scales]]. Bony fish have a swim bladder which helps them maintain a constant depth in the water column, but not a cloaca. They mostly [[Spawn (biology)|spawn]] a large number of small eggs with little yolk which they broadcast into the water column.<ref name=Kotpal/> === Amphibian anatomy === {{main article|Amphibian anatomy}} [[File:Ceratophrys cornuta skeleton front.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Frog skeleton|Skeleton of [[Surinam horned frog]] (''Ceratophrys cornuta'')]] [[File:Frog anatomy tags.PNG|thumb|upright|Plastic model of a frog]] [[Amphibian]]s are a [[Class (biology)|class]] of animals comprising [[frog]]s, [[salamander]]s and [[caecilian]]s. They are [[tetrapod]]s, but the caecilians and a few species of salamander have either no limbs or their limbs are much reduced in size. Their main bones are hollow and lightweight and are fully ossified and the vertebrae interlock with each other and have [[articular processes]]. Their ribs are usually short and may be fused to the vertebrae. Their skulls are mostly broad and short, and are often incompletely ossified. Their skin contains little [[keratin]] and lacks scales, but contains many [[mucous gland]]s and in some species, poison glands. The hearts of amphibians have three chambers, two [[atrium (heart)|atria]] and one [[ventricle (heart)|ventricle]]. They have a [[urinary bladder]] and [[metabolic waste#nitrogen wastes|nitrogenous waste products]] are excreted primarily as [[urea]]. Amphibians breathe by means of [[buccal pumping]], a pump action in which air is first drawn into the [[Buccopharyngeal membrane|buccopharyngeal]] region through the nostrils. These are then closed and the air is forced into the lungs by contraction of the throat.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Natural History of Amphibians |last1=Stebbins |first1=Robert C. |authorlink1=Robert C. Stebbins|last2=Cohen |first2=Nathan W. |year=1995 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=0-691-03281-5 |pages=24–25 }}</ref> They supplement this with [[gas exchange]] through the skin which needs to be kept moist.<ref name=Dorit859>{{cite book |title=Zoology |last1=Dorit |first1=R. L. |last2=Walker |first2=W. F. |last3=Barnes |first3=R. D. |year=1991 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |isbn=978-0-03-030504-7 |pages=843–859 }}</ref> In frogs the pelvic girdle is robust and the hind legs are much longer and stronger than the forelimbs. The feet have four or five digits and the toes are often webbed for swimming or have suction pads for climbing. Frogs have large eyes and no tail. Salamanders resemble lizards in appearance; their short legs project sideways, the belly is close to or in contact with the ground and they have a long tail. Caecilians superficially resemble [[earthworm]]s and are limbless. They burrow by means of zones of muscle contractions which move along the body and they swim by undulating their body from side to side.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Natural History of Amphibians |last1=Stebbins |first1=Robert C. |authorlink1=Robert C. Stebbins|last2=Cohen |first2=Nathan W. |year=1995 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=0-691-03281-5 |pages=26–35 }}</ref> === Reptile anatomy === {{main article|Reptile anatomy}} [[File:Crotalus atrox -Museum of Osteology, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA-29Aug2012.jpg|thumb|left|Skeleton of a [[diamondback rattlesnake]]]] '''[[Reptile]]s''' are a class of animals comprising [[turtle]]s, [[tuatara]]s, [[lizard]]s, [[snake]]s and [[crocodile]]s. They are [[tetrapod]]s, but the snakes and a few species of [[lizard]] either have no limbs or their limbs are much reduced in size. Their bones are better ossified and their skeletons stronger than those of amphibians. The teeth are conical and mostly uniform in size. The surface cells of the epidermis are modified into horny scales which create a waterproof layer. Reptiles are unable to use their skin for respiration as do amphibians and have a more efficient respiratory system drawing air into their [[lung]]s by expanding their chest walls. The heart resembles that of the amphibian but there is a septum which more completely separates the oxygenated and deoxygenated bloodstreams. The reproductive system has evolved for internal fertilization, with a [[Sex organ|copulatory organ]] present in most species. The eggs are surrounded by [[Amniote|amniotic membranes]] which prevents them from drying out and are laid on land, or [[Ovoviviparity|develop internally]] in some species. The bladder is small as nitrogenous waste is excreted as [[uric acid]].<ref name=Dorit865>{{cite book |title=Zoology |last1=Dorit |first1=R. L. |last2=Walker |first2=W. F. |last3=Barnes |first3=R. D. |year=1991 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |isbn=978-0-03-030504-7 |pages=861–865 }}</ref> '''Turtles''' are notable for their protective shells. They have an inflexible trunk encased in a horny [[carapace]] above and a [[plastron]] below. These are formed from bony plates embedded in the dermis which are overlain by horny ones and are partially fused with the ribs and spine. The neck is long and flexible and the head and the legs can be drawn back inside the shell. Turtles are vegetarians and the typical reptile teeth have been replaced by sharp, horny plates. In aquatic species, the front legs are modified into flippers.<ref name=Dorit868>{{cite book |title=Zoology |last1=Dorit |first1=R. L. |last2=Walker |first2=W. F. |last3=Barnes |first3=R. D. |year=1991 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |isbn=978-0-03-030504-7 |pages=865–868 }}</ref> '''Tuataras''' superficially resemble lizards but the lineages diverged in the [[Triassic]] period. There is one living species, ''[[Sphenodon punctatus]]''. The skull has two openings (fenestrae) on either side and the jaw is rigidly attached to the skull. There is one row of teeth in the lower jaw and this fits between the two rows in the upper jaw when the animal chews. The teeth are merely projections of bony material from the jaw and eventually wear down. The brain and heart are more primitive than those of other reptiles, and the lungs have a single chamber and lack [[Bronchus|bronchi]]. The tuatara has a well-developed [[parietal eye]] on its forehead.<ref name=Dorit868/> '''Lizards''' have skulls with only one [[Skull#Fenestrae|fenestra]] on each side, the lower bar of bone below the second fenestra having been lost. This results in the jaws being less rigidly attached which allows the mouth to open wider. Lizards are mostly quadrupeds, with the trunk held off the ground by short, sideways-facing legs, but a few species have no limbs and resemble snakes. Lizards have moveable eyelids, eardrums are present and some species have a central parietal eye.<ref name=Dorit868/> '''Snakes''' are closely related to lizards, having branched off from a common ancestral lineage during the [[Cretaceous]] period, and they share many of the same features. The skeleton consists of a skull, a hyoid bone, spine and ribs though a few species retain a vestige of the pelvis and rear limbs in the form of [[pelvic spur]]s. The bar under the second fenestra has also been lost and the jaws have extreme flexibility allowing the snake to swallow its prey whole. Snakes lack moveable eyelids, the eyes being covered by transparent "spectacle" scales. They do not have eardrums but can detect ground vibrations through the bones of their skull. Their forked tongues are used as organs of taste and smell and some species have sensory pits on their heads enabling them to locate warm-blooded prey.<ref name=Dorit870>{{cite book |title=Zoology |last1=Dorit |first1=R. L. |last2=Walker |first2=W. F. |last3=Barnes |first3=R. D. |year=1991 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |isbn=978-0-03-030504-7 |page=870 }}</ref> '''Crocodilians''' are large, low-slung aquatic reptiles with long snouts and large numbers of teeth. The head and trunk are dorso-ventrally flattened and the tail is laterally compressed. It undulates from side to side to force the animal through the water when swimming. The tough keratinized scales provide body armour and some are fused to the skull. The nostrils, eyes and ears are elevated above the top of the flat head enabling them to remain above the surface of the water when the animal is floating. Valves seal the nostrils and ears when it is submerged. Unlike other reptiles, crocodilians have hearts with four chambers allowing complete separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.<ref name=Dorit874>{{cite book |title=Zoology |last1=Dorit |first1=R. L. |last2=Walker |first2=W. F. |last3=Barnes |first3=R. D. |year=1991 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |isbn=978-0-03-030504-7 |page=874 }}</ref> === Bird anatomy === {{main article|Bird anatomy}} [[File:Duerer wing of a blue roller.jpg|thumb|Part of a wing. [[Albrecht Dürer]], c.&nbsp;1500–1512]] Birds are [[tetrapod]]s but though their hind limbs are used for walking or hopping, their front limbs are [[wing]]s covered with [[feather]]s and adapted for flight. Birds are [[endotherm]]ic, have a high [[metabolic rate]], a light [[Skeleton|skeletal system]] and powerful [[muscle]]s. The long bones are thin, hollow and very light. Air sac extensions from the lungs occupy the centre of some bones. The sternum is wide and usually has a keel and the caudal vertebrae are fused. There are no teeth and the narrow jaws are adapted into a horn-covered beak. The eyes are relatively large, particularly in nocturnal species such as owls. They face forwards in predators and sideways in ducks.<ref name=Dorit895>{{cite book |title=Zoology |last1=Dorit |first1=R. L. |last2=Walker |first2=W. F. |last3=Barnes |first3=R. D. |year=1991 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |isbn=978-0-03-030504-7 |pages=881–895 }}</ref> The feathers are outgrowths of the [[epidermis (zoology)|epidermis]] and are found in localized bands from where they fan out over the skin. Large flight feathers are found on the wings and tail, contour feathers cover the bird's surface and fine down occurs on young birds and under the contour feathers of water birds. The only cutaneous gland is the single [[uropygial gland]] near the base of the tail. This produces an oily secretion that waterproofs the feathers when the bird [[personal grooming|preens]]. There are scales on the legs, feet and claws on the tips of the toes.<ref name=Dorit895/> === Mammal anatomy === {{Main article|Mammal anatomy}} [[Mammal]]s are a diverse class of animals, mostly terrestrial but some are aquatic and others have evolved flapping or gliding flight. They mostly have four limbs but some aquatic mammals have no limbs or limbs modified into fins and the forelimbs of bats are modified into wings. The legs of most mammals are situated below the trunk, which is held well clear of the ground. The bones of mammals are well ossified and their teeth, which are usually differentiated, are coated in a layer of [[Tooth enamel|prismatic enamel]]. The teeth are shed once ([[Deciduous teeth|milk teeth]]) during the animal's lifetime or not at all, as is the case in [[cetacea]]ns. Mammals have three bones in the middle ear and a [[cochlea]] in the [[inner ear]]. They are clothed in hair and their skin contains glands which secrete [[sweat gland|sweat]]. Some of these glands are specialized as [[mammary gland]]s, producing milk to feed the young. Mammals breathe with [[lung]]s and have a muscular [[Thoracic diaphragm|diaphragm]] separating the thorax from the abdomen which helps them draw air into the lungs. The mammalian heart has four chambers and oxygenated and deoxygenated blood are kept entirely separate. Nitrogenous waste is excreted primarily as urea.<ref name=Dorit914>{{cite book |title=Zoology |last1=Dorit |first1=R. L. |last2=Walker |first2=W. F. |last3=Barnes |first3=R. D. |year=1991 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |isbn=978-0-03-030504-7 |pages=909–914 }}</ref> Mammals are [[amniote]]s, and most are [[Viviparity|viviparous]], giving birth to live young. The exception to this are the egg-laying [[monotreme]]s, the [[platypus]] and the [[echidna]]s of Australia. Most other mammals have a [[placenta]] through which the developing [[foetus]] obtains nourishment, but in [[marsupial]]s, the foetal stage is very short and the immature young is born and finds its way to its mother's [[Pouch (marsupial)|pouch]] where it latches on to a [[nipple]] and completes its development.<ref name=Dorit914/> ====Human anatomy==== {{Further information|Human body#Human anatomy|Outline of human anatomy}} [[File:Parasagittal MRI of human head in patient with benign familial macrocephaly prior to brain injury (ANIMATED).gif|thumb|left|Modern anatomic technique showing sagittal sections of the head as seen by a [[Magnetic resonance imaging|MRI]] scan]] [[File:Violin Scroll (2769099541).jpg|upright|thumb|In the human, the development of skilled hand movements and increased brain size is likely to have evolved simultaneously.<ref name="BritBrit-Hand">{{cite encyclopedia |chapterurl=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/254068/hand |title=Encyclopædia Britannica 2006 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD |chapter=Hand }}</ref>]] Humans have the overall body plan of a mammal. Humans have a [[human head|head]], [[neck]], [[Trunk (anatomy)|trunk]] (which includes the [[thorax]] and [[abdomen]]), two [[arm]]s and [[hand]]s, and two [[human leg|legs]] and [[foot|feet]]. Generally, students of certain [[biology|biological sciences]], [[paramedic]]s, prosthetists and orthotists, [[physical therapy|physiotherapists]], [[occupational therapy|occupational therapists]], [[nursing|nurses]], [[podiatry|podiatrists]], and [[medical school|medical students]] learn gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy from anatomical models, skeletons, textbooks, diagrams, photographs, lectures and tutorials, and in addition, medical students generally also learn gross anatomy through practical experience of [[dissection]] and inspection of [[cadaver]]s. The study of microscopic anatomy (or [[histology]]) can be aided by practical experience examining histological preparations (or slides) under a [[microscope]]. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.medschoolsonline.co.uk/index.php?pageid=135 |title=Studying medicine |publisher=Medschools Online |accessdate=27 June 2013}}</ref> Human anatomy, physiology and biochemistry are complementary basic medical sciences, which are generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical school. Human anatomy can be taught regionally or systemically; that is, respectively, studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the head and chest, or studying by specific systems, such as the nervous or respiratory systems.<ref name="intro HGray" /> The major anatomy textbook, [[Gray's Anatomy]], has been reorganized from a systems format to a regional format, in line with modern teaching methods.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.intl.elsevierhealth.com/catalogue/title.cfm?ISBN=0443071683 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041205184205/http://intl.elsevierhealth.com/catalogue/title.cfm?ISBN=0443071683 |dead-url=yes |archive-date=5 December 2004 |title=Publisher's page for Gray's Anatomy. 39th edition (UK). 2004 |isbn=0-443-07168-3 |accessdate=19 March 2007 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.us.elsevierhealth.com/product.jsp?isbn=0443071683 |title=Publisher's page for Gray's Anatomy. 39th edition (US). 2004 |isbn=0-443-07168-3 |accessdate=19 March 2007 |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20070209134753/http://www.us.elsevierhealth.com/product.jsp?isbn=0443071683 |archivedate=9 February 2007 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref> A thorough working knowledge of anatomy is required by physicians, especially [[surgery|surgeons]] and doctors working in some diagnostic specialties, such as [[histopathology]] and [[radiology]]. <ref name=AAA>{{cite web |url=http://www.anatomy.org/ |title=American Association of Anatomists |accessdate=27 June 2013}}</ref> Academic anatomists are usually employed by universities, medical schools or teaching hospitals. They are often involved in teaching anatomy, and research into certain systems, organs, tissues or cells.<ref name=AAA/> == Invertebrate anatomy == [[File:Chirocephalus diaphanus male head.png|thumb|Head of a male ''[[Daphnia]]'', a [[planktonic]] crustacean]] [[Invertebrate]]s constitute a vast array of living organisms ranging from the simplest unicellular [[eukaryote]]s such as ''[[Paramecium]]'' to such complex multicellular animals as the [[octopus]], [[lobster]] and [[dragonfly]]. They constitute about 95% of the animal species. By definition, none of these creatures has a backbone. The cells of single-cell [[protozoa]]ns have the same basic structure as those of multicellular animals but some parts are specialized into the equivalent of tissues and organs. Locomotion is often provided by [[Cilium|cilia]] or [[Flagellum|flagella]] or may proceed via the advance of [[pseudopodia]], food may be gathered by [[phagocytosis]], energy needs may be supplied by [[photosynthesis]] and the cell may be supported by an [[endoskeleton]] or an [[exoskeleton]]. Some protozoans can form multicellular colonies.<ref>{{cite book |title=Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition |last1=Ruppert |first1=Edward E. |last2=Fox |first2=Richard, S. |last3=Barnes |first3=Robert D. |year=2004 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=81-315-0104-3 |pages=23–24 }}</ref> [[Metazoa]]ns are multicellular organism, different groups of cells of which have separate functions. The most basic types of metazoan tissues are epithelium and connective tissue, both of which are present in nearly all invertebrates. The outer surface of the epidermis is normally formed of epithelial cells and secretes an [[extracellular matrix]] which provides support to the organism. An endoskeleton derived from the [[mesoderm]] is present in [[echinoderm]]s, [[sponge]]s and some [[cephalopod]]s. [[Exoskeleton]]s are derived from the epidermis and is composed of [[chitin]] in [[arthropod]]s (insects, spiders, ticks, shrimps, crabs, lobsters). [[Calcium carbonate]] constitutes the shells of [[Mollusca|molluscs]], [[brachiopod]]s and some tube-building [[Polychaete|polychaete worms]] and [[silica]] forms the exoskeleton of the microscopic [[diatom]]s and [[radiolaria]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/198292/exoskeleton |title=Exoskeleton |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=2 July 2013}}</ref> Other invertebrates may have no rigid structures but the epidermis may secrete a variety of surface coatings such as the [[pinacoderm]] of sponges, the gelatinous cuticle of cnidarians ([[polyp]]s, [[sea anemone]]s, [[jellyfish]]) and the [[collagen]]ous cuticle of [[annelid]]s. The outer epithelial layer may include cells of several types including sensory cells, gland cells and stinging cells. There may also be protrusions such as [[Microvillus|microvilli]], cilia, bristles, [[Spine (zoology)|spines]] and [[tubercle]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/289723/integument |title=Integument |author= Ebling, F. J. G. |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=2 July 2013}}</ref> [[Marcello Malpighi]], the father of microscopical anatomy, discovered that plants had tubules similar to those he saw in insects like the silk worm. He observed that when a ring-like portion of bark was removed on a trunk a swelling occurred in the tissues above the ring, and he unmistakably interpreted this as growth stimulated by food coming down from the leaves, and being captured above the ring.<ref name="ArberAgnes">{{cite journal|author=Arber, Agnes|title= Nehemiah Grew (1641–1712) and Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694): an essay in comparison|journal= Isis |volume =34|issue=1| pages =7–16|jstor=225992|doi=10.1086/347742|year= 1942}}</ref> === Arthropod anatomy === {{main article|Arthropod|Insect morphology|Spider anatomy}} [[Arthropod]]s comprise the largest phylum in the animal kingdom with over a million known invertebrate species.<ref>Britannica Concise Encyclopaedia 2007</ref> [[Insect]]s possess [[segmentation (biology)|segmented]] bodies supported by a hard-jointed outer covering, the [[exoskeleton]], made mostly of chitin. The segments of the body are organized into three distinct parts, a head, a [[Thorax (insect anatomy)|thorax]] and an [[abdomen]].<ref>{{cite web|title=O. Orkin Insect zoo |url=http://insectzoo.msstate.edu/Students/basic.structure.html |year=1997 |publisher=Mississippi State University |accessdate=23 June 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090602045832/http://www.insectzoo.msstate.edu/Students/basic.structure.html |archivedate=2 June 2009 |df= }}</ref> The head typically bears a pair of sensory [[Antenna (biology)|antennae]], a pair of [[compound eye]]s, one to three simple eyes ([[ocelli]]) and three sets of modified appendages that form the [[insect mouthparts|mouthparts]]. The thorax has three pairs of segmented [[arthropod leg|legs]], one pair each for the three segments that compose the thorax and one or two pairs of [[insect wing|wings]]. The abdomen is composed of eleven segments, some of which may be fused and houses the [[digestion|digestive]], [[Respiration (physiology)|respiratory]], [[Excretion|excretory]] and reproductive systems.<ref name="Gullan and Cranston">{{cite book |last=Gullan |first=P.J. |last2=Cranston |first2=P. S. |title=The Insects: An Outline of Entomology |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Oxford |year=2005 |edition=3 |pages=22–48 |isbn=1-4051-1113-5}}</ref> There is considerable variation between species and many adaptations to the body parts, especially wings, legs, antennae and mouthparts.<ref>{{cite book |title=Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition |last1=Ruppert |first1=Edward E. |last2=Fox |first2=Richard, S. |last3=Barnes |first3=Robert D. |year=2004 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=81-315-0104-3 |pages=218–225 }}</ref> [[Spider]]s a class of [[arachnid]]s have four pairs of legs; a body of two segments—a [[cephalothorax]] and an [[abdomen]]. Spiders have no wings and no antennae. They have mouthparts called [[chelicerae]] which are often connected to venom glands as most spiders are venomous. They have a second pair of appendages called [[pedipalp]]s attached to the cephalothorax. These have similar segmentation to the legs and function as taste and smell organs. At the end of each male pedipalp is a spoon-shaped cymbium that acts to support the [[palpal bulb|copulatory organ]]. == Other branches of anatomy == * [[Superficial anatomy|Superficial or surface anatomy]] is important as the study of anatomical landmarks that can be readily seen from the exterior contours of the body.<ref name="intro HGray"/> It enables physicians or [[veterinary surgeon]]s to gauge the position and anatomy of the associated deeper structures. Superficial is a directional term that indicates that structures are located relatively close to the surface of the body.<ref>{{cite book |last=Marieb |first=Elaine |title=Human Anatomy & Physiology |year=2010 |publisher=Pearson |location=San Francisco |page=12}}</ref> * [[Comparative anatomy]] relates to the comparison of anatomical structures (both gross and microscopic) in different animals.<ref name="intro HGray" /> * Artistic anatomy relates to anatomic studies for artistic reasons. == History == {{main article|History of anatomy}} === Ancient === [[File:Foetal positions in uterus, pregnant female Wellcome L0000845.jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|Image of early rendition of anatomy findings]] In 1600 BCE, the [[Edwin Smith Papyrus]], an [[Ancient Egyptian medicine|Ancient Egyptian]] [[Medical manual|medical text]], described the [[heart]], its vessels, [[liver]], [[spleen]], [[kidneys]], [[hypothalamus]], [[uterus]] and [[Urinary bladder|bladder]], and showed the [[blood vessel]]s diverging from the heart. The [[Ebers Papyrus]] (c. 1550 BCE) features a "treatise on the heart", with vessels carrying all the body's fluids to or from every member of the body.<ref>{{cite book | title = The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present | last = Porter | first = R. | year = 1997 | publisher = Harper Collins | isbn = 0-00-215173-1 | pages=49–50}}</ref> Ancient Greek anatomy and physiology underwent great changes and advances throughout the early medieval world. Over time, this medical practice expanded by a continually developing understanding of the functions of organs and structures in the body. Phenomenal anatomical observations of the human body were made, which have contributed towards the understanding of the brain, eye, liver, reproductive organs and the nervous system. The [[Hellenistic Egypt]]ian city of [[Alexandria]] was the stepping-stone for Greek anatomy and physiology. Alexandria not only housed the biggest library for medical records and books of the liberal arts in the world during the time of the Greeks, but was also home to many medical practitioners and philosophers. Great patronage of the arts and sciences from the [[Ptolemy]] rulers helped raise Alexandria up, further rivalling the cultural and scientific achievements of other Greek states.<ref name=Longrigg>{{cite journal|last1=Longrigg|first1=James|title=Anatomy in Alexandria in the Third Century B.C|journal=The British Journal for the History of Science|date=December 1988|volume=21|issue=4|pages=455–488|jstor=4026964|doi=10.1017/s000708740002536x}}</ref> [[File:The Blue Beryl-Anatomy.jpg|thumb|An anatomy [[thangka]], part of [[Desi Sangye Gyatso]]'s The Blue Beryl, 17th century]] Some of the most striking advances in early anatomy and physiology took place in Hellenistic Alexandria.<ref name=Longrigg /> Two of the most famous anatomists and physiologists of the third century were [[Herophilus]] and [[Erasistratus]]. These two physicians helped pioneer human [[dissection]] for medical research. They also conducted [[vivisection]]s on the cadavers of condemned criminals, which was considered taboo until the Renaissance – Herophilus was recognized as the first person to perform systematic dissections.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bay|first1=Noel Si Yang|last2=Bay|first2=Boon-Huat|title=Greek Anatomists Herophilus: The Father of Anatomy|journal=Anatomy and Cell Biology|date=2010|volume=43|issue=3|pages=280–283|doi=10.5115/acb.2010.43.4.280|pmc=3026179|pmid=21267401}}</ref> Herophilus became known for his anatomical works making impressing contributions to many branches of anatomy and many other aspects of medicine.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Von Staden|first1=H|title=The Discovery of the Body: Human Dissection and Its Cultural Contexts in Ancient Greece|journal=The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine|date=1992|volume=65|issue=3|pages=223–241|pmid=1285450|pmc=2589595}}</ref> Some of the works included classifying the system of the pulse, the discovery that human arteries had thicker walls then veins, and that the atria were parts of the heart. Herophilus’s knowledge of the human body has provided vital input towards understanding the brain, eye, liver, reproductive organs and nervous system, and characterizing the course of disease.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bay|first1=Noel Si Yang|last2=Bay|first2=Boon- Huat|title=Greek Anatomist Herophilus: The Father of Anatomy|journal=Anatomy & Cell Biology|date=2010|volume=43|issue=3|pages=280–283|doi=10.5115/acb.2010.43.4.280|pmc=3026179|pmid=21267401}}</ref> Erasistratus accurately described the structure of the brain, including the cavities and membranes, and made a distinction between its cerebrum and cerebellum <ref>{{cite web|last1=Eccles|first1=John|title=Erasistratus Biography (304B.C-250B.C)|url=http://www.faqs.org/health/bios/12/Erasistratus.html|website=faqs.org|publisher=faqs.org|accessdate=25 November 2015}}</ref> During his study in Alexandria, Erasistratus was particularly concerned with studies of the circulatory and nervous systems. He was able to distinguish the sensory and the motor nerves in the human body and believed that air entered the lungs and heart, which was then carried throughout the body. His distinction between the arteries and veins – the arteries carrying the air through the body, while the veins carried the blood from the heart was a great anatomical discovery. Erasistratus was also responsible for naming and describing the function of the epiglottis and the valves of the heart, including the tricuspid.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Britannica|title=Erasistratus of Ceos: Greek Physician|url=http://www.britannica.com/biography/Erasistratus-of-Ceos|website=britannica.com|publisher=The Encyclopedia of Britannica|accessdate=25 November 2015}}</ref> During the third century, Greek physicians were able to differentiate nerves from blood vessels and tendons <ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wiltse|first1=LL|last2=Pait|first2=TG|title=Herophilus of Alexandria (325-255 B.C.) The Father of Anatomy|journal=Spine|date=1 September 1998|volume=23|issue=17|pages=1904–1914|pmid=9762750|doi=10.1097/00007632-199809010-00022}}</ref> and to realize that the nerves convey neural impulses.<ref name="Longrigg"/> It was Herophilus who made the point that damage to motor nerves induced paralysis.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bay|first1=Noel Si Yang|last2=Bay|first2=Boon-Huat|title=Greek Anatomist Herophilus: The Father of Anatomy|journal=Anatomy & Cell Biology|date=2010|volume=43|issue=3|pages=280–283|doi=10.5115/acb.2010.43.4.280|pmc=3026179|pmid=21267401}}</ref> Herophilus named the meninges and ventricles in the brain, appreciated the division between cerebellum and cerebrum and recognized that the brain was the "seat of intellect" and not a "cooling chamber" as propounded by Aristotle <ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wills|first1=Adrian|title=Herophilus, Ersasistratus, and the birth of neuroscience|journal=The Lancet|date=1999|volume=354|issue=9191|pages=1719–1720|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(99)02081-4|url=http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(99)02081-4/references|accessdate=November 25, 2015}}</ref> Herophilus is also credited with describing the optic, oculomotor, motor division of the trigeminal, facial, vestibulocochlear and hypoglossal nerves.<ref name="Cambridge University Press">{{cite book|last1=Von Staden|first1=Heinrich|title=Herophilus: The Art of Medicine in Early Alexandria|date=October 2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521041782|url=http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/classical-studies/ancient-philosophy/herophilus-art-medicine-early-alexandria-edition-translation-and-essays|accessdate=25 November 2015}}</ref> [[File:13th century anatomical illustration.jpg|thumb|13th century anatomical illustration]] Great feats were made during the third century in both the digestive and reproductive systems. Herophilus was able to discover and describe not only the salivary glands, but the small intestine and liver.<ref name="Cambridge University Press"/> He showed that the uterus is a hollow organ and described the ovaries and uterine tubes. He recognized that spermatozoa were produced by the testes and was the first to identify the prostate gland.<ref name="Cambridge University Press"/> The anatomy of the muscles and skeleton is described in the ''[[Hippocratic Corpus]]'', an Ancient Greek medical work written by unknown authors.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gillispie |first=Charles Coulston | authorlink=Charles Coulston Gillispie |title=Dictionary of Scientific Biography | volume=VI | pages=419–427 |year=1972 | publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons | location=New York}}</ref> [[Aristotle]] described [[vertebrate]] anatomy based on animal [[dissection]]. [[Praxagoras]] identified the difference between [[artery|arteries]] and [[vein]]s. Also in the 4th century BCE, [[Herophilos]] and [[Erasistratus]] produced more accurate anatomical descriptions based on [[vivisection]] of criminals in [[Alexandria]] during the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemaic dynasty]].<ref name=Bodies>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/?id=5Xb9e3SLAZwC&pg=PA256&lpg=PA256&dq=Ptolemaic+vivisection#v=onepage&q=Ptolemaic%20vivisection&f=false | title=Medicine and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt |author=Lang, Philippa | publisher=Brill NV | year=2013 | page=256 | isbn=9004218580 }}</ref><ref>[http://exhibits.hsl.virginia.edu/antiqua/alexandrian/ "Alexandrian Medicine"]. ''Antiqua Medicina – from Homer to Vesalius''. University of Virginia.</ref> In the 2nd century, [[Galen of Pergamum]], an [[anatomist]], [[clinician]], writer and [[Philosophy|philosopher]],<ref name="BritBrit-Galen"/> wrote the final and highly influential anatomy treatise of ancient times.<ref name="pmid1081972">{{cite journal |vauthors=Charon NW, Johnson RC, Muschel LH | title = Antileptospiral activity in lower-vertebrate sera | journal = Infect. Immun. | volume = 12 | issue = 6 | pages = 1386–91 | year = 1975 | pmid = 1081972 | pmc = 415446 | doi = }}</ref> He compiled existing knowledge and studied anatomy through dissection of animals.<ref name="BritBrit-Galen">{{cite encyclopedia |chapterurl=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/223895/Galen-of-Pergamum |title=Encyclopædia Britannica 2006 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD|chapter=Galen of Pergamum |first=Vivien | last=Hutton }}</ref> He was one of the first experimental physiologists through his [[vivisection]] experiments on animals.<ref>Brock, Arthur John (translator) ''[https://archive.org/stream/galenonnaturalfa00galeuoft#page/xxxii/mode/2up Galen. On the Natural Faculties]''. Edinburgh, 1916. Introduction, page xxxiii.</ref> Galen's drawings, based mostly on dog anatomy, became effectively the only anatomical textbook for the next thousand years.<ref name=Boas/> His work was known to [[Renaissance]] doctors only through [[Islamic Golden Age]] medicine until it was translated from the Greek some time in the 15th century.<ref name=Boas/> === Medieval to early modern === [[File:Mondino - Anathomia, 1541 - 3022668.tif|thumb|[[Mondino de Luzzi]], ''Anathomia'', 1541]] [[File:Studies of the Arm showing the Movements made by the Biceps.jpg|left|thumb|Anatomical study of the arm, by [[Leonardo da Vinci]], (about 1510)]] [[File:Charta ex qva figvram parare convenit, illi qvae nervorvm seriem exprimit appendendam, 1543..JPG|thumb|upright|Anatomical chart in [[Vesalius]]'s ''Epitome'', 1543]] [[File:Michiel Jansz van Mierevelt - Anatomy lesson of Dr. Willem van der Meer.jpg|thumb|right|[[Michiel Jansz van Mierevelt]] – ''Anatomy lesson of Dr. Willem van der Meer'', 1617]] Anatomy developed little from classical times until the sixteenth century; as the historian Marie Boas writes, "Progress in anatomy before the sixteenth century is as mysteriously slow as its development after 1500 is startlingly rapid".<ref name=Boas>{{cite book | title=The Scientific Renaissance 1450–1630 | publisher=Fontana | author=Boas, Marie | year=1970 |origyear=first published by Collins, 1962 | pages=120–143}}</ref>{{rp|120–121}} Between 1275 and 1326, the anatomists [[Mondino de Luzzi]], [[Alessandro Achillini]] and [[Antonio Benivieni]] at [[Bologna]] carried out the first systematic human dissections since ancient times.<ref name="ZimmermanVeith1993">{{cite book | last1=Zimmerman | first1=Leo M. | last2=Veith | first2=Ilza | title=Great Ideas in the History of Surgery |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ABbCI7z4UwMC | date=1 August 1993 | publisher=Norman | isbn=978-0-930405-53-3}}</ref><ref name="Crombie1959">{{cite book | last=Crombie | first=Alistair Cameron | title=The History of Science From Augustine to Galileo | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bGDScHy1clsC&pg=PA4 | year=1959 | publisher=Courier Dover Publications | isbn=978-0-486-28850-5}}</ref><ref name="Thorndike1958">{{cite book | last=Thorndike | first=Lynn | title=A History of Magic and Experimental Science: Fourteenth and fifteenth centuries| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IbvlQFj4YfUC&pg=PA586 | year=1958 | publisher=Columbia University Press | isbn=978-0-231-08797-1}}</ref> Mondino's ''Anatomy'' of 1316 was the first textbook in the medieval rediscovery of human anatomy. It describes the body in the order followed in Mondino's dissections, starting with the abdomen, then the thorax, then the head and limbs. It was the standard anatomy textbook for the next century.<ref name=Boas/> [[Leonardo da Vinci]] (1452–1519) was trained in anatomy by [[Andrea del Verrocchio]].<ref name=Boas/> He made use of his anatomical knowledge in his artwork, making many sketches of skeletal structures, muscles and organs of humans and other vertebrates that he dissected.<ref name=Boas/><ref>{{cite book | last=Mason | first=Stephen F. | title=A History of the Sciences | publisher=Collier | year=1962 | location = New York | page=550}}</ref> [[Andreas Vesalius]] (1514–1564) (Latinized from Andries van Wezel), professor of anatomy at the [[University of Padua]], is considered the founder of modern human anatomy.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/newsandevents/pressreleases/new_material_from/ | title=Warwick honorary professor explores new material from founder of modern human anatomy | work=Press release | publisher= University of Warwick | accessdate=8 July 2013}}</ref> Originally from [[Duchy of Brabant|Brabant]], Vesalius published the influential book ''[[De humani corporis fabrica]]'' ("the structure of the human body"), a large format book in seven volumes, in 1543.<ref>Vesalius, Andreas. ''De humani corporis fabrica libri septem''. Basileae [Basel]: ''Ex officina'' Joannis Oporini, 1543.</ref> The accurate and intricately detailed illustrations, often in [[allegory|allegorical]] poses against Italianate landscapes, are thought to have been made by the artist [[Jan van Calcar]], a pupil of [[Titian]].<ref>O'Malley, C.D. ''Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514–1564''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1964.</ref> In England, anatomy was the subject of the first public lectures given in any science; these were given by the [[Barber surgeon|Company of Barbers and Surgeons]] in the 16th century, joined in 1583 by the Lumleian lectures in surgery at the [[Royal College of Physicians]].<ref name=Boas229>{{cite book | title=The Scientific Renaissance 1450–1630 | publisher=Fontana | author=Boas, Marie | year=1970 |origyear=first published by Collins, 1962 | page=229}}</ref> === Late modern === {{further information|History of anatomy in the 19th century}} In the United States, medical schools began to be set up towards the end of the 18th century. Classes in anatomy needed a continual stream of cadavers for dissection and these were difficult to obtain. Philadelphia, Baltimore and New York were all renowned for [[body snatching]] activity as criminals raided graveyards at night, removing newly buried corpses from their coffins.<ref name=trafficdead>{{cite book |author=Sappol, Michael |title=A traffic of dead bodies: anatomy and embodied social identity in nineteenth-century America |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, N.J. |year=2002 |isbn=0-691-05925-X |url=https://books.google.com/books/princeton?id=-9cKRzEx6ywC&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Traffic+of+Dead+Bodies}}</ref> A similar problem existed in Britain where demand for bodies became so great that grave-raiding and even [[anatomy murder]] were practised to obtain cadavers.<ref name="Rosner, Lisa. 2010">Rosner, Lisa. 2010. The Anatomy Murders. Being the True and Spectacular History of Edinburgh's Notorious Burke and Hare and of the Man of Science Who Abetted Them in the Commission of Their Most Heinous Crimes. University of Pennsylvania Press</ref> Some graveyards were in consequence protected with watchtowers. The practice was halted in Britain by the [[Anatomy Act]] of 1832,<ref>{{cite book | title=Death, Dissection, and the Destitute | publisher=Penguin | author=Richardson, Ruth | year=1989 | isbn=978-0-14-022862-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.leeds.ac.uk/chb/lectures/anatomy1.html | title=Introductory Anatomy | publisher=University of Leeds | accessdate=25 June 2013 | author=Johnson, D.R.}}</ref> while in the United States, similar legislation was enacted after the physician [[William S. Forbes]] of [[Jefferson Medical College]] was found guilty in 1882 of "complicity with resurrectionists in the despoliation of graves in Lebanon Cemetery".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jefferson.edu/about/eakins/forbes.html |title=Reproduction of Portrait of Professor William S. Forbes |publisher=Jefferson: Eakins Gallery |accessdate=14 October 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016064638/http://www.jefferson.edu/about/eakins/forbes.html |archivedate=16 October 2013 |df=dmy }}</ref> The teaching of anatomy in Britain was transformed by Sir [[John Struthers (anatomist)|John Struthers]], [[Regius Professor of Anatomy (Aberdeen)|Regius Professor of Anatomy]] at the [[University of Aberdeen]] from 1863 to 1889. He was responsible for setting up the system of three years of "pre-clinical" academic teaching in the sciences underlying medicine, including especially anatomy. This system lasted until the reform of medical training in 1993 and 2003. As well as teaching, he collected many vertebrate skeletons for his museum of [[comparative anatomy]], published over 70 research papers, and became famous for his public dissection of the [[Tay Whale]].<ref name=pmid1717373426>{{cite journal |vauthors=Waterston SW, Laing MR, Hutchison JD | title = Nineteenth century medical education for tomorrow's doctors | journal = Scottish Medical Journal | volume = 52 | issue = 1 | pages = 45–49 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17373426 | doi=10.1258/rsmsmj.52.1.45}}</ref><ref name="pmid15712576">{{cite journal |vauthors=Waterston SW, Hutchison JD | title = Sir John Struthers MD FRCS Edin LLD Glasg: Anatomist, zoologist and pioneer in medical education | journal = The Surgeon : Journal of the Royal Colleges of Surgeons of Edinburgh and Ireland | volume = 2 | issue = 6 | pages = 347–351 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15712576 | doi=10.1016/s1479-666x(04)80035-0}}</ref> From 1822 the Royal College of Surgeons regulated the teaching of anatomy in medical schools.<ref name="McLachlan, J. 2006. p.243-53">McLachlan, J. & Patten, D. 2006. Anatomy teaching: ghosts of the past, present and future. Medical Education, 40(3), p.&nbsp;243–53.</ref> Medical museums provided examples in comparative anatomy, and were often used in teaching.<ref>Reinarz, J. 2005. The age of museum medicine: The rise and fall of the medical museum at Birmingham's School of Medicine. Social History of Medicine, 18(3), p.&nbsp;419–37.</ref> [[Ignaz Semmelweis]] investigated [[puerperal fever]] and he discovered how it was caused. He noticed that the frequently fatal fever occurred more often in mothers examined by medical students than by midwives. The students went from the dissecting room to the hospital ward and examined women in childbirth. Semmelweis showed that when the trainees washed their hands in chlorinated lime before each clinical examination, the incidence of puerperal fever among the mothers could be reduced dramatically.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/534198/Ignaz-Philipp-Semmelweis |title=Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis |work=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=15 October 2013}}</ref> [[File:Siemens-electron-microscope.jpg|upright|right|thumb|An electron microscope from 1973]] Before the modern medical era, the main means for studying the internal structures of the body were [[dissection]] of the dead and [[inspection]], [[palpation]] and [[auscultation]] of the living. It was the advent of [[microscopy]] that opened up an understanding of the building blocks that constituted living tissues. Technical advances in the development of [[achromatic lens]]es increased the [[Angular resolution|resolving power]] of the microscope and around 1839, [[Matthias Jakob Schleiden]] and [[Theodor Schwann]] identified that cells were the fundamental unit of organization of all living things. Study of small structures involved passing light through them and the [[microtome]] was invented to provide sufficiently thin slices of tissue to examine. Staining techniques using artificial dyes were established to help distinguish between different types of tissue. Advances in the fields of [[histology]] and [[Cell biology|cytology]] began in the late 19th century<ref name=BritMicro>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/22980/anatomy/283/Microscopic-anatomy |title=Microscopic anatomy |work=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=14 October 2013}}</ref> along with advances in surgical techniques allowing for the painless and safe removal of [[biopsy]] specimens. The invention of the [[electron microscope]] brought a great advance in resolution power and allowed research into the [[ultrastructure]] of cells and the [[organelle]]s and other structures within them. About the same time, in the 1950s, the use of [[X-ray diffraction]] for studying the crystal structures of proteins, nucleic acids and other biological molecules gave rise to a new field of [[molecular anatomy]].<ref name=BritMicro/> [[File:Acta Eruditorum - III medicina, 1691 – BEIC 13350590.jpg|thumb|Illustration from [[Acta Eruditorum]], 1691]] Equally important advances have occurred in ''non-invasive'' techniques for examining the interior structures of the body. [[X-ray]]s can be passed through the body and used in medical [[radiography]] and [[fluoroscopy]] to differentiate interior structures that have varying degrees of opaqueness. [[Magnetic resonance imaging]], [[X-ray computed tomography|computed tomography]], and [[Medical ultrasonography|ultrasound imaging]] have all enabled examination of internal structures in unprecedented detail to a degree far beyond the imagination of earlier generations.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/ap/foxhumphys/student/olc/h-reading1.html | title=Anatomical Imaging | publisher=McGraw Hill Higher Education | year=1998 | accessdate=25 June 2013}}</ref> == See also == {{Portal|Anatomy}} * [[Outline of human anatomy]] == Notes == {{reflist|26em}} == Bibliography == {{Library resources box}} {{main article|Bibliography of biology#Anatomy}} * [http://www.bartleby.com/107/ "Anatomy of the Human Body". 20th edition. 1918. Henry Gray] == External links == {{Sister project links | wikt=anatomy | commons=Category:Anatomy | b=Category:Anatomy | n=no | q=Category:Anatomy | s=Category:Anatomy | v=Topic:Anatomy | voy=no | species=no | d=Q514 | mw=no | display=Anatomy}} * {{dmoz|Health/Medicine/Basic_Sciences/Anatomy}} * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/podcasts/series/iots/all#playepisode115 Anatomy], ''[[In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)|In Our Time]]''. [[BBC Radio 4]]. [[Melvyn Bragg]] with guests Ruth Richardson, Andrew Cunningham and [[Harold Ellis (professor)|Harold Ellis]]. * {{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Anatomy |volume=1 |pages=920–943 |short=1 |first=Frederick Gymer |last=Parsons }} * [https://anatomia.library.utoronto.ca Anatomia Collection: anatomical plates 1522 to 1867] (digitized books and images) {{Human system and organs}} {{Anatomy}} {{Biology nav}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Anatomy| ]] [[Category:Anatomical terminology| ]] [[Category:Branches of biology]] [[Category:Morphology (biology)]] [[Category:Ancient Egyptian medicine]] g5v2znuxzdra5md3hahboc2h057z896 0 675 858943215 858822788 2018-09-10T17:33:09Z Staszek Lem 12536756 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contribs/80.161.69.182|80.161.69.182]] ([[User talk:80.161.69.182|talk]]) to last version by BD2412 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} '''Affirming the consequent''', sometimes called '''converse error''', '''fallacy of the converse''' or '''confusion of necessity and sufficiency''', is a [[formal fallacy]] of inferring the [[converse (logic)|converse]] from the original statement. For example, "My driveway is wet, so it must be raining" is an example of this fallacy (someone may have turned on a hose). The fallacious statement is based on the true statement that "if it is raining, then the driveway is wet", but is a fallacy because the order of cause and effect have been reversed. The corresponding argument has the general [[argument form|form]]: :<math>\frac{P \to Q, Q}{\therefore P}</math> An argument of this form is [[Validity (logic)|invalid]], i.e., the conclusion can be false even when statements 1 and 2 are true. Since ''P'' was never asserted as the ''only'' sufficient condition for ''Q'', other factors could account for ''Q'' (while ''P'' was false).<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.fallacyfiles.org/afthecon.html |title = Affirming the Consequent |website = Fallacy Files |publisher = Fallacy Files |accessdate = 9 May 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |chapter=Confusion of a Necessary with a Sufficient Condition |page=150 |first=T. Edward |last=Damer |title=Attacking Faulty Reasoning |edition=4th |publisher=Wadsworth |location= |year=2001 |isbn= }}</ref> To put it differently, if ''P'' implies ''Q'', the '''only''' inference that can be made is ''non-Q'' implies ''non-P''. (''Non-P'' and ''non-Q'' designate the opposite propositions to ''P'' and ''Q''.) This is known as logical [[contraposition]]. Symbolically: <math>(P \to Q)\leftrightarrow (\neg Q \to \neg P)</math> The name ''affirming the [[consequent]]'' derives from the premise ''Q'', which affirms the "then" clause of the [[indicative conditional|conditional]] premise. ==Examples== '''Example 1''' One way to demonstrate the invalidity of this argument form is with a counterexample with true premises but an obviously false conclusion. For example: :If [[Bill Gates]] owns [[United States Bullion Depository|Fort Knox]], then Bill Gates is [[Wealth|rich]]. :Bill Gates is rich. :Therefore, Bill Gates owns Fort Knox. Owning Fort Knox is not the ''only'' way to be rich. Any number of other ways to be rich exist. However, one can affirm with certainty that "if someone is not rich" (''non-Q''), then "this person does not own Fort Knox" (''non-P''). This is the [[contrapositive]] of the first statement, and it must be true if and only if the original statement is true. '''Example 2''' Arguments of the same form can sometimes seem superficially convincing, as in the following example: :If I had been thrown off the top of the [[Eiffel Tower]], then I would be dead. :I am dead. :Therefore, I was thrown off the top of the Eiffel Tower. Being thrown off the top of the Eiffel Tower is not the ''only'' cause of death, since there exist numerous different causes of death. Affirming the consequent is commonly used in [[rationalization (psychology)|rationalization]], and thus appears as a [[coping mechanism]] in some people. '''Example 3''' In ''[[Catch-22]]'',<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Catch-22|last=Heller|first=Joseph|publisher=Vintage|year=1994|isbn=0-09-947731-9|location=|pages=438, 8}}</ref> the chaplain is interrogated for supposedly being 'Washington Irving'/'Irving Washington', who has been blocking out large portions of soldiers' letters home. The colonel has found such a letter, but with the Chaplain's name signed. :'You can read, though, can't you?' the colonel persevered sarcastically. 'The author signed his name.' :'That's my name there.' :'Then you wrote it. [[Q.E.D.]]' ''P'' in this case is 'The chaplain signs his own name', and ''Q'' 'The chaplain's name is written'. The chaplain's name may be written, but he did not necessarily write it, as the colonel falsely concludes ''(and in fact he did not, as in the novel, Yossarian signed the name''<ref name=":0" />'')''. ==See also== * [[Appeal to consequences]] * [[Confusion of the inverse]] * [[Denying the antecedent]] * [[ELIZA effect]] * [[Fallacy of the single cause]] * [[Fallacy of the undistributed middle]] * [[Inference to the best explanation]] * ''[[Modus ponens]]'' * ''[[Modus tollens]]'' * ''[[Post hoc ergo propter hoc]]'' * [[Necessity and sufficiency]] ==References== {{reflist}} {{Formal fallacy}} [[Category:Propositional fallacies]] i6zubgx3vdtcto4v9e41vbsav4dn7dt 0 676 861412547 857201419 2018-09-27T06:56:25Z Gentlecollapse6 16899771 reorganize wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|Tarkovsky|the surname, as well as other people with this name|Tarkovsky (disambiguation){{!}}Tarkovsky (surname)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2015}} {{Infobox person | name = Andrei Tarkovsky<br/>Андре́й Тарко́вский | image = Andrei Tarkovsky.jpg | alt = Monochrome photo of Andrei Tarkovsky pointing towards the camera that took the picture | birth_name = Andrei Arsenyevich Tarkovsky | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1932|4|4}} | birth_place = Zavrazhye, [[Yuryevetsky District]], [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]], [[Soviet Union]] | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1986|12|29|1932|4|4}} | death_place = [[Paris]], [[France]] |resting_place = [[Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemetery]] | occupation = [[Film director]], [[screenwriter]] | years_active = 1958–86 <!-- Unknown parameter: | religion = Christianity<ref>"Tarkovsky, Andrei; translated by Kitty Hunter-Blair (1991). [[Time Within Time: The Diaries 1970-1986]]. [[Kolkata|Calcutta]]: Seagull Books. {{ISBN|81-7046-083-2}}.</ref> --> | spouse = {{nowrap|[[Irma Raush]] <small>(1957–70)</small><br/>[[Larisa Tarkovskaya|Larisa Kizilova]] <small>(1970–86)</small>}} | parents = [[Arseny Tarkovsky]] (1907–1989) | awards = {{plainlist | * [[Lenin Prize]] {{small|(1990)}} * [[British Academy of Film and Television Arts|BAFTA]] {{small|(1988)}} }} | notable_works = {{Plainlist| *''[[Ivan's Childhood]]'' {{small|(1962)}} *''[[Andrei Rublev (film)|Andrei Rublev]]'' {{small|(1966)}} *''[[Solaris (1972 film)|Solaris]]'' {{small|(1972)}} *''[[The Mirror (1975 film)|Mirror]]'' {{small|(1975)}} *''[[Stalker (1979 film)|Stalker]]'' {{small|(1979)}} }} }} '''Andrei Arsenyevich Tarkovsky''' ({{lang-rus|Андре́й Арсе́ньевич Тарко́вский|p=ɐnˈdrʲej ɐrˈsʲenʲjɪvʲɪtɕ tɐrˈkofskʲɪj}}; 4 April 1932 – 29 December 1986) was a Russian filmmaker, writer, film editor, [[film theory|film theorist]], theatre and opera director. His work is characterized by long takes, unconventional [[dramatic structure]], distinctly authored use of [[cinematography]], and spiritual and [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] themes. His contribution to cinema was so influential that works done in a similar way are described as Tarkovskian.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Hampton|first1=Howard|title=Riffs: 'On Celestial Music,' by Rick Moody|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/03/books/review/on-celestial-music-by-rick-moody.html|accessdate=20 April 2015|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=1 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Robey|first1=Tim|title=How I Ended This Summer, review |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/filmreviews/8467251/How-I-Ended-This-Summer-review.html|accessdate=20 April 2015|work=tf|date=21 April 2011}}</ref> Director [[Ingmar Bergman]] said of him: <blockquote>Tarkovsky for me is the greatest (director), the one who invented a new language, true to the nature of film, as it captures life as a reflection, life as a dream.<ref name="ReferenceA">Title quote of 2003 Tarkovsky Festival Program, Pacific Film Archive</ref></blockquote> Tarkovsky's films include ''[[Ivan's Childhood]]'' (1962), ''[[Andrei Rublev (film)|Andrei Rublev]]'' (1966), ''[[Solaris (1972 film)|Solaris]]'' (1972), ''[[The Mirror (1975 film)|Mirror]]'' (1975), and ''[[Stalker (1979 film)|Stalker]]'' (1979). He directed the first five of his seven feature films in the [[Soviet Union]]; his last two films, ''[[Nostalghia]]'' (1983) and ''[[The Sacrifice]]'' (1986), were produced in Italy and Sweden, respectively. The films ''Andrei Rublev'', ''Solaris'', ''Mirror'', and ''Stalker'' are regularly listed among the [[List of films considered the best|greatest films of all time]]. ==Life== ===Childhood and early life=== Andrei Tarkovsky was born in the village of Zavrazhye in the [[Yuryevetsky District]] of the [[Ivanovo Industrial Oblast]] (modern-day [[Kadyysky District]] of the [[Kostroma Oblast]], Russia) to the poet and translator [[Arseny Tarkovsky|Arseny Alexandrovich Tarkovsky]], a native of [[Yelisavetgrad]], [[Kherson Governorate]], and Maria Ivanova Vishnyakova, a graduate of the [[Maxim Gorky Literature Institute]] who later worked as a [[corrector]]; she was born in Moscow in the Dubasov family estate. Andrei's paternal grandfather Aleksandr Karlovich Tarkovsky (in {{lang-pl|Aleksander Tarkowski}}) was a [[Poles|Polish]] nobleman who worked as a bank clerk. His wife Maria Danilovna Rachkovskaya was a [[Romanians|Romanian]] teacher who arrived from [[Iași]].<ref name='gordon'>[http://www.tarkovskiy.su/texty/vospominania/MTarkovskaya04.html Marina Tarkovskaya: «My brother enjoyed being a descendant of the Dagestanian princes»] interview to the [[Dmitry Gordon|Gordon Boulevard]] newspaper at the ''Andrei Tarkovsky'' media archive, 2007 (in Russian)</ref> Andrei's maternal grandmother Vera Nikolaevna Vishnyakova (née Dubasova) belonged to an old Dubasov family of [[Russian nobility]] that traces its history back to the 17th century; among her relatives was Admiral [[Fyodor Dubasov]], a fact she had to conceal during the Soviet days. She was married to Ivan Ivanovich Vishnyakov, a native of the [[Kaluga Governorate]] who studied law at the [[Moscow University]] and served as a judge in [[Kozelsk]].<ref>[http://www.itogi.ru/arts-exclus/2012/14/176471.html Filming Eternity] interview with Tarkovsky's sister Marina Tarkovskaya, [[:ru:Итоги (журнал)|Itogy]] journal, April 2, 2012 (in Russian)</ref><ref>[https://ru.wikisource.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%A1%D0%91%D0%95/%D0%94%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B Dubasov family] from the [[Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary]], 1890–1907 ([[Wikisource]], in Russian)</ref> According to the family legend, Tarkovsky's ancestors on his father's side were princes from the [[Shamkhalate of Tarki]], [[Dagestan]], although his sister Marina Tarkovskaya who did a detailed research on their genealogy called it «a myth, even a prank of sorts», stressing that none of the documents confirms this version.<ref name='gordon' /> Tarkovsky spent his childhood in [[Yuryevets, Ivanovo Oblast|Yuryevets]].<ref>{{cite news |first=Marina |last=Sipatova |script-title=ru:Тайна рода Тарковских |work=[[Moskovskij Komsomolets]] |year=2007 |url=http://www.mk.ru/blogs/MK/2007/02/20/culture/92002 |language=Russian|accessdate=25 November 2007}}</ref> He was described by childhood friends as active and popular, having many friends and being typically in the center of action. His father left the family in 1937, subsequently volunteering for the army in 1941. Tarkovsky stayed with his mother, moving with her and his sister Marina to Moscow, where she worked as a proofreader at a printing press. In 1939 Tarkovsky enrolled at the Moscow School № 554. During the war, the three evacuated to [[Yuryevets, Ivanovo Oblast|Yuryevets]], living with his maternal grandmother. In 1943 the family returned to Moscow. Tarkovsky continued his studies at his old school, where the poet [[Andrey Voznesensky]] was one of his classmates. He studied piano at a music school and attended classes at an art school. The family lived on Shchipok Street in the [[Zamoskvorechye District]] in Moscow. From November 1947 to spring 1948 he was in the hospital with [[tuberculosis]]. Many themes of his childhood—the evacuation, his mother and her two children, the withdrawn father, the time in the hospital—feature prominently in his film ''[[The Mirror (1975 film)|Mirror]]''. In his school years, Tarkovsky was a troublemaker and a poor student.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K_-vCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2|title=Andrei Tarkovsky: The Winding Quest|page=2|last=Green|first=Peter|publisher=Springer|date=1993|isbn=1349119962}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HnTIHKpkbrAC&pg=PA230|title=The Magical Chorus: A History of Russian Culture from Tolstoy to Solzhenitsyn|page=230|last=Volkov|first=Solomon|publisher=Vintage Books|date=2009|isbn=1400077869}}</ref> He still managed to graduate, and from 1951 to 1952 studied [[Arabic language|Arabic]] at the Oriental Institute in Moscow, a branch of the [[Academy of Sciences of the USSR]]. Although he already spoke some Arabic and was a successful student in his first semesters, he did not finish his studies and dropped out to work as a prospector for the Academy of Science Institute for Non-Ferrous Metals and Gold. He participated in a year-long research expedition to the river Kureikye near [[Turukhansk]] in the [[Krasnoyarsk Krai|Krasnoyarsk Province]]. During this time in the [[taiga]], Tarkovsky decided to study film. ===Film school student=== Upon returning from the research expedition in 1954, Tarkovsky applied at the [[All-Union State Institute of Cinematography|State Institute of Cinematography]] (VGIK) and was admitted to the film-directing program. He was in the same class as [[Irma Raush]] whom he married in April 1957.<ref name="kompravda">{{cite news |first=Anastasia | last=Pleshakova |title= Тарковский был "разрешенным контрреволюционером" |trans-title= Tarkovsky was "a legal сounterrevolutionary"| publisher= [[Komsomolskaya Pravda]] |date=4 April 2007 |url=http://www.kp.ru/daily/23881/65502/ |accessdate=27 November 2007| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080104174327/http://www.kp.ru/daily/23881/65502/| archivedate= 4 January 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref> The early [[Nikita Khrushchev|Khrushchev]] era offered good opportunities for young film directors. Before 1953, annual film production was low and most films were directed by veteran directors. After 1953, more films were produced, many of them by young directors. The [[Khrushchev Thaw]] relaxed Soviet social restrictions a bit and permitted a limited influx of European and North American literature, films and music. This allowed Tarkovsky to see films of the [[Italian neorealism|Italian neorealists]], [[French New Wave]], and of directors such as [[Akira Kurosawa|Kurosawa]], [[Luis Buñuel|Buñuel]], [[Ingmar Bergman|Bergman]], [[Robert Bresson|Bresson]], [[Andrzej Wajda]] (whose film ''[[Ashes and Diamonds (film)|Ashes and Diamonds]]'' influenced Tarkovsky) and [[Kenji Mizoguchi|Mizoguchi]]. Tarkovsky's teacher and mentor was [[Mikhail Romm]], who taught many film students who would later become influential film directors. In 1956 Tarkovsky directed his first student short film, ''[[The Killers (1956 film)|The Killers]]'', from a short story of [[Ernest Hemingway]]. The short film ''[[There Will Be No Leave Today]]'' and the [[screenplay]] ''[[Concentrate (screenplay)|Concentrate]]'' followed in 1958 and 1959. An important influence on Tarkovsky was the film director [[Grigori Chukhrai]], who was teaching at the VGIK. Impressed by the talent of his student, Chukhrai offered Tarkovsky a position as assistant director for his film ''Clear Skies''. Tarkovsky initially showed interest but then decided to concentrate on his studies and his own projects.<ref name="kompravda" /> During his third year at the VGIK, Tarkovsky met [[Andrei Konchalovsky]]. They found much in common as they liked the same film directors and shared ideas on cinema and films. In 1959 they wrote the script ''Antarctica – Distant Country'', which was later published in the ''[[Moskovskij Komsomolets]]''. Tarkovsky submitted the script to [[Lenfilm]], but it was rejected. They were more successful with the script ''[[The Steamroller and the Violin]]'', which they sold to [[Mosfilm]]. This became Tarkovsky's graduation project, earning him his diploma in 1960 and winning First Prize at the New York Student Film Festival in 1961. ==Career== ===Film career in the Soviet Union=== Tarkovsky's first feature film was ''[[Ivan's Childhood]]'' in 1962. He had inherited the film from director Eduard Abalov, who had to abort the project. The film earned Tarkovsky international acclaim and won the [[Golden Lion]] award at the [[Venice Film Festival]] in the year 1962. In the same year, on 30 September, his first son Arseny (called Senka in Tarkovsky's diaries) Tarkovsky was born. [[File:Tarkovsky vgik.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Monument to Andrei Tarkovsky at entrance of [[Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography]]]] In 1965, he directed the film ''[[Andrei Rublev (film)|Andrei Rublev]]'' about the life of [[Andrei Rublev]], the fifteenth-century Russian [[iconography|icon painter]]. ''Andrei Rublev'' was not, except for a single screening in Moscow in 1966, immediately released after completion due to problems with Soviet authorities. Tarkovsky had to cut the film several times, resulting in several different versions of varying lengths. A version of the film was presented at the [[Cannes Film Festival]] in 1969 and won the [[FIPRESCI|FIPRESCI prize]]. The film was widely released in the Soviet Union in a cut version in 1971. He divorced his wife, [[Irma Raush]], in June 1970. In the same year, he married [[Larisa Tarkovskaya|Larissa Kizilova]] (née Egorkina), who had been a production assistant for the film ''Andrei Rublev'' (they had been living together since 1965). Their son, Andrei Andreyevich Tarkovsky, was born in the same year on 7 August.<ref>{{Cite book | last=Gianvito | first=John | title=Andrei Tarkovsky: Interviews ([[Conversations with Filmmakers Series]]) | year=2006 | publisher=University Press of Mississippi | location= | isbn=1-57806-220-9 | pages=XXV}} </ref> In 1972, he completed ''[[Solaris (1972 film)|Solaris]]'', an adaptation of the novel ''[[Solaris (novel)|Solaris]]'' by [[Stanisław Lem]]. He had worked on this together with screenwriter [[Fridrikh Gorenshtein]] as early as 1968. The film was presented at the [[Cannes Film Festival]], won the [[Grand Prix (Cannes Film Festival)|Grand Prix Spécial du Jury]] and the [[FIPRESCI|FIPRESCI prize]], and was nominated for the [[Palme d'Or]]. From 1973 to 1974, he shot the film ''[[The Mirror (1975 film)|Mirror]]'', a highly autobiographical and unconventionally structured film drawing on his childhood and incorporating some of his father's poems. In this film Tarkovsky portrayed the plight of childhood affected by war. Tarkovsky had worked on the screenplay for this film since 1967, under the consecutive titles ''Confession'', ''White day'' and ''A white, white day''. From the beginning the film was not well received by Soviet authorities due to its content and its perceived elitist nature. Russian authorities placed the film in the "third category," a severely limited distribution, and only allowed it to be shown in third-class cinemas and workers' clubs. Few prints were made and the film-makers received no returns. Third category films also placed the film-makers in danger of being accused of wasting public funds, which could have serious effects on their future productivity.<ref>Marshall, Herbert. ''Sight and Sound''. Vol 45, no 2. Spring 1976. p. 93.</ref> These difficulties are presumed to have made Tarkovsky play with the idea of going abroad and producing a film outside the Soviet film industry.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tarkovsky |first=Andrei |author2=translated by Kitty Hunter-Blair |title=[[Time Within Time: The Diaries 1970-1986]] |publisher=Seagull Books |year=1991 |location=[[Calcutta]] |isbn=81-7046-083-2}}</ref> During 1975, Tarkovsky also worked on the screenplay ''[[Hoffmanniana]]'', about the German writer and poet [[E. T. A. Hoffmann]]. In December 1976, he directed ''[[Hamlet]]'', his only stage play, at the [[Lenkom Theatre]] in Moscow. The main role was played by [[Anatoly Solonitsyn]], who also acted in several of Tarkovsky's films. At the end of 1978, he also wrote the screenplay ''Sardor'' together with the writer Aleksandr Misharin. The last film Tarkovsky completed in the Soviet Union was ''[[Stalker (1979 film)|Stalker]]'', inspired by the novel ''[[Roadside Picnic]]'' by the brothers [[Arkady and Boris Strugatsky]]. Tarkovsky had met the brothers first in 1971 and was in contact with them until his death in 1986. Initially he wanted to shoot a film based on their novel ''[[Dead Mountaineer's Hotel]]'' and he developed a raw script. Influenced by a discussion with Arkady Strugatsky he changed his plan and began to work on the script based on ''Roadside Picnic''. Work on this film began in 1976. The production was mired in troubles; improper development of the negatives had ruined all the exterior shots. Tarkovsky's relationship with cinematographer [[Georgy Rerberg]] deteriorated to the point where he hired [[Alexander Knyazhinsky]] as a new first cinematographer. Furthermore, Tarkovsky suffered a heart attack in April 1978, resulting in further delay. The film was completed in 1979 and won the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury at the [[Cannes Film Festival]]. In the same year Tarkovsky also began the production of the film ''The First Day'' (Russian: Первый День ''Pervyj Dyen′''), based on a script by his friend and long-term collaborator [[Andrei Konchalovsky]]. The film was set in 18th-century Russia during the reign of [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]] and starred [[Natalya Bondarchuk]] and [[Anatoli Papanov]]. To get the project approved by [[Goskino]], Tarkovsky submitted a script that was different from the original script, omitting several scenes that were critical of the [[Religion in the Soviet Union|official atheism in the Soviet Union]]. After shooting roughly half of the film the project was stopped by Goskino after it became apparent that the film differed from the script submitted to the censors. Tarkovsky was reportedly infuriated by this interruption and destroyed most of the film.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite book |last=|script-title=ru:Мир и фильмы Андрея Тарковского. Сост. А. Сандлер. |trans-title=Andey Tarkovsky's world and films | publisher= Iskusstvo(Искусство) |year=1990 |location=Moscow |isbn=81-7046-083-2|language=Russian}}</ref> ===Film career outside the Soviet Union=== [[File:Andrej Tarkovskij mug shot at Latina Refugee Camp 1985.jpg|thumb|right|Mug shot of Andrei Tarkovsky at the [[Latina Refugee Camp|Refugee Camp]] of [[Latina, Lazio|Latina]] (Italy) in 1985]] During the summer of 1979, Tarkovsky traveled to Italy, where he shot the documentary ''[[Voyage in Time]]'' together with his long-time friend [[Tonino Guerra]]. Tarkovsky returned to Italy in 1980 for an extended trip during which he and Guerra completed the script for the film ''[[Nostalghia]]''. Tarkovsky returned to Italy in 1982 to start shooting ''[[Nostalghia]]''. He did not return to his home country. As [[Mosfilm]] withdrew from the project, he had to complete the film with financial support provided by the Italian [[RAI (Italy)|RAI]]. Tarkovsky completed the film in 1983. ''[[Nostalghia]]'' was presented at the [[Cannes Film Festival]] and won the [[FIPRESCI|FIPRESCI prize]] and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury. Tarkovsky also shared a special prize called ''Grand Prix du cinéma de creation'' with [[Robert Bresson]]. Soviet authorities prevented the film from winning the [[Palme d'Or]],<ref name="Wagstaff2004">{{cite book |last=Wagstaff |first=Peter |title=Border crossings: mapping identities in modern Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jFKGgLAQ8mMC&pg=PA169 |accessdate=7 March 2011 |year=2004 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-3-03910-279-2 |page=169}}</ref> a fact that hardened Tarkovsky's resolve to never work in the Soviet Union again. In the same year, he also staged the opera ''[[Boris Godunov (opera)|Boris Godunov]]'' at the [[Royal Opera House]] in London under the musical direction of [[Claudio Abbado]]. He spent most of 1984 preparing the film ''[[The Sacrifice]]''. At a press conference in [[Milan]] on 10 July 1984, he announced that he would never return to the Soviet Union and would remain in Europe. At that time, his son Andrei Jr. was still in the Soviet Union and not allowed to leave the country. On 28 August 1985, Tarkovsky arrived at [[Latina Refugee Camp]] in [[Latina, Lazio|Latina]],<ref>{{cite news|first=Alberto|last=Custodero|title=Latina, quei profughi dell'Est dimenticati. E spunta la scheda di Tarkovskij|journal=La Repubblica|date=10 December 2015|url=http://www.repubblica.it/cultura/2015/12/10/news/latina_profughi_est_rivoluzione_ungherese_commemorazione_documentario_emanuela_gasbarroni_andrej_tarkovskij-129035264/}}</ref> where he was registered with the serial number 13225/379.<ref>{{cite news|title=Campo profughi a Latina, la scheda ritrovata di Tarkovskij. Documenti, foto e testimonianze|journal=La Repubblica|date=8 December 2015|url= http://www.repubblica.it/cultura/2015/12/08/foto/campo_profughi_latina_documenti_foto_e_testimonianze-129059106/1/?ref=nrct-1#1}}</ref> ===Death=== During 1985, he shot the film ''[[The Sacrifice]]'' in Sweden. At the end of the year he was diagnosed with terminal lung cancer. In January 1986, he began treatment in Paris and was joined there by his son, who was finally allowed to leave the Soviet Union. ''[[The Sacrifice]]'' was presented at the [[Cannes Film Festival]] and received the [[Grand Prix (Cannes Film Festival)|Grand Prix Spécial du Jury]], the [[FIPRESCI|FIPRESCI prize]] and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury. As Tarkovsky was unable to attend due to his illness, the prizes were collected by his son, Andrei Jr. [[File:Gravestone of Andrei Tarkovsky 2007.jpg|thumb|Andrei and Larisa Tarkovsky's grave, [[Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemetery]] in France]] In Tarkovsky's last [[Time Within Time: The Diaries 1970-1986|diary]] entry (15 December 1986), he wrote: "But now I have no strength left – that is the problem". The diaries are sometimes also known as ''[[Time Within Time: The Diaries 1970-1986|Martyrolog]]'' and were published posthumously in 1989 and in English in 1991. Tarkovsky died in Paris on 29 December 1986. His funeral ceremony was held at the [[Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, Paris|Alexander Nevsky Cathedral]]. He was buried on 3 January 1987 in the [[Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemetery|Russian Cemetery]] in [[Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois, Essonne|Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois]] in France. The inscription on his gravestone, which was conceived by Tarkovsky's wife, Larisa Tarkovskaya, reads: ''To the man who saw the Angel''. A conspiracy theory emerged in Russia in the early 1990s when it was alleged that Tarkovsky did not die of natural causes but was assassinated by the [[KGB]]. Evidence for this hypothesis includes testimonies by former KGB agents who claim that [[Viktor Chebrikov]] gave the order to eradicate Tarkovsky to curtail what the Soviet government and the KGB saw as [[anti-Soviet propaganda]] by Tarkovsky. Other evidence includes several memoranda that surfaced after the [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|1991 coup]] and the claim by one of Tarkovsky's doctors that his cancer could not have developed from a natural cause.<ref>Komsolmoskaya Pravda, "New Tarkovsky documents surface", 15. September 1995, page 23.</ref> As with Tarkovsky, his wife [[Larisa Tarkovskaya]] and actor [[Anatoli Solonitsyn]] all died from the very same type of lung cancer. Vladimir Sharun, sound designer in ''[[Stalker (1979 film)|Stalker]]'', is convinced that they were all poisoned by the chemical plant where they were shooting the film.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tyrkin |first=Stas |title=In Stalker Tarkovsky foretold Chernobyl |journal=Komsomolskaya Pravda |url=http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheTopics/Stalker/sharun.html |date=23 March 2001 |accessdate=9 September 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20091009192507/http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheTopics/Stalker/sharun.html| archivedate= 9 October 2009 | deadurl= no}}</ref> ===Filmography=== {{main article|Andrei Tarkovsky filmography}} Tarkovsky is mainly known as a film director. During his career he directed only seven feature films, as well as three shorts from his time at VGIK. These include: * ''[[Ivan's Childhood]]'' (1962) * ''[[Andrei Rublev (film)|Andrei Rublev]]'' (1966) * ''[[Solaris (1972 film)|Solaris]]'' (1972) * ''[[The Mirror (1975 film)|Mirror]]'' (1975) * ''[[Stalker (1979 film)|Stalker]]'' (1979) * ''[[Nostalghia]]'' (1983) * ''[[The Sacrifice]]'' (1986) He also wrote several screenplays. Furthermore, he directed the play ''[[Hamlet]]'' for the stage in Moscow, directed the opera ''[[Boris Godunov (opera)|Boris Godunov]]'' in London, and he directed a radio production of the short story ''Turnabout'' by [[William Faulkner]]. He also wrote ''[[Sculpting in Time]]'', a book on film theory. Tarkovsky's first feature film was ''[[Ivan's Childhood]]'' in 1962. He then directed ''[[Andrei Rublev (film)|Andrei Rublev]]'' in 1966, ''[[Solaris (1972 film)|Solaris]]'' in 1972, ''[[The Mirror (1975 film)|Mirror]]'' in 1975 and ''[[Stalker (1979 film)|Stalker]]'' in 1979. The documentary ''[[Voyage in Time]]'' was produced in Italy in 1982, as was ''[[Nostalghia]]'' in 1983. His last film ''[[The Sacrifice]]'' was produced in Sweden in 1986. Tarkovsky was personally involved in writing the screenplays for all his films, sometimes with a cowriter. Tarkovsky once said that a director who realizes somebody else's screenplay without being involved in it becomes a mere illustrator, resulting in dead and monotonous films.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tarkovsky |first=Andrei |title=Lectures on Film Directing (notes from classes taught by Tarkovsky at the State Institute of Cinematography) |journal=Iskusstvo Kino |year=1990 |url=http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheTopics/Directing.html |accessdate=14 January 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Illg |first=Jerzy |title=Z Andriejem Tarkowskim rozmawiają Jerzy Illg, Leonard Neuger |journal=Res Publica |volume=1 |pages=137–160 |location=Warsaw |year=1987 |url=http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheTopics/interview.html}}</ref> A book of 60 photos, ''Instant Light, Tarkovsky Polaroids'', taken by Tarkovsky in Russia and Italy between 1979 and 1984 was published in 2006. The collection was selected by Italian photographer Giovanni Chiaramonte and Tarkovsky's son Andrey A. Tarkovsky.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Instant Light, Tarkovsky Polaroids|last = Tarkovsky|first = Andrei|publisher = Thames and Hudson|year = 2006|isbn = 9780500286142|location = |pages = |editor-last = Chiaramonte|editor-first = Giovanni|editor2-last = Tarkovsky|editor2-first = Andrey A.}}</ref> '''Bibliography''' Books written by Tarkovsky # Sculpting in Time, published in [[Sculpting in Time|1986]] # Time Within Time : The Diaries 1970 - 1986, published in 1989 ===Awards=== {{main article|List of awards won by Andrei Tarkovsky}} Numerous awards were bestowed on Tarkovsky throughout his lifetime. At the [[Venice Film Festival]] he was awarded the [[Golden Lion]] for ''[[Ivan's Childhood]]''. At the [[Cannes Film Festival]], he won the [[FIPRESCI|FIPRESCI prize]] four times, the [[Prize of the Ecumenical Jury]] three times (more than any other director), and the [[Grand Prix (Cannes Film Festival)|Grand Prix Spécial du Jury]] twice. He was also nominated for the [[Palme d'Or]] two times. In 1987, the [[British Academy of Film and Television Arts]] awarded the [[BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language#1980s|BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Language Film]] to ''[[The Sacrifice]]''. [[File:Andrei tarkovsky stamp russia 2007.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Russian stamp featuring Tarkovsky]] Under the influence of [[Glasnost]] and [[Perestroika]], Tarkovsky was finally recognized in the Soviet Union in the Autumn of 1986, shortly before his death, by a retrospective of his films in Moscow. After his death, an entire issue of the film magazine ''Iskusstvo Kino'' was devoted to Tarkovsky. In their obituaries, the film committee of the [[Council of Ministers (Soviet Union)|Council of Ministers of the USSR]] and the Union of Soviet Film Makers expressed their sorrow that Tarkovsky had to spend the last years of his life in exile.<ref>{{cite news |title=Obituary |publisher=[[Literaturnaya Gazeta]] |date=7 January 1987}}</ref> Posthumously, he was awarded the [[Lenin Prize]] in 1990, one of the highest state honors in the Soviet Union. In 1989 the ''Andrei Tarkovsky Memorial Prize'' was established, with its first recipient being the Russian animator [[Yuriy Norshteyn]]. In three consecutive events, the [[Moscow International Film Festival]] awards the annual ''Andrei Tarkovsky Award'' in the years of 1993, 1995 and 1997.{{citation needed|date=July 2017}} In 1996 the Andrei Tarkovsky Museum opened in [[Yuryevets, Ivanovo Oblast|Yuryevets]], his childhood town.<ref>{{cite web|title=МУЗЕЙ А.ТАРКОВСКОГО |url=http://www.museum.ru/tarkovsky |accessdate=30 November 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070708053303/http://www.museum.ru/tarkovsky/ |archivedate=8 July 2007 }}</ref> A [[minor planet]], [[3345 Tarkovskij]], discovered by Soviet astronomer [[Lyudmila Georgievna Karachkina]] in 1982, has also been named after him.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schmadel |first=Lutz |title=Dictionary of Minor Planet Names |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?q=3345+tarkovskij |isbn=3-540-00238-3 |year=2003}}</ref> Tarkovsky has been the subject of several documentaries. Most notable is the 1988 documentary ''[[Moscow Elegy]]'', by Russian film director [[Alexander Sokurov]]. Sokurov's own work has been heavily influenced by Tarkovsky. The film consists mostly of narration over stock footage from Tarkovsky's films. ''Directed by Andrei Tarkovsky'' is 1988 documentary film by [[Michal Leszczylowski]], an editor of the film ''The Sacrifice''. Film director [[Chris Marker]] produced the television documentary ''[[One Day in the Life of Andrei Arsenevich]]'' as an homage to Andrei Tarkovsky in 2000.<ref>{{cite web |title=Significant Documentaries |url=http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheDocumentaries/Documentaries.html |accessdate=15 January 2008 | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080115220027/http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheDocumentaries/Documentaries.html| archivedate= 15 January 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref> [[Ingmar Bergman]] was quoted as saying: "Tarkovsky for me is the greatest [of us all], the one who invented a new language, true to the nature of film, as it captures life as a reflection, life as a dream".<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Film historian [[Steven Dillon (writer and professor)|Steven Dillon]] says that much of subsequent film was deeply influenced by the films of Tarkovsky.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dillon|first=Steven|title=The Solaris Effect: Art and Artifice in Contemporary American Film|publisher=[[University of Texas Press]]|year=2006|isbn=978-0-292-71345-1}}</ref> At the entrance to the [[Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography]] in [[Moscow, Russia]] there is a monument that includes statues of Tarkovsky, [[Gennady Shpalikov]] and [[Vasily Shukshin]].<ref name="panoramio">{{cite web|url=https://www.panoramio.com/photo/26383277|title=Panoramio - Photo of Monument to Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography famous learner - Gennady Shpalikov, Andrei Tarkovsky and Vasily Shukshin|website=panoramio.com|accessdate=27 November 2017}}</ref> ==Unproduced screenplays== ===''Concentrate''=== '''''Concentrate''''' ({{lang-ru|Концентрат|link=no}}, ''Konsentrat'') is a never-filmed 1958 screenplay by Russian film director Andrei Tarkovsky. The screenplay is based on Tarkovsky's year in the [[taiga]] as a member of a research expedition, prior to his enrollment in film school.<ref>{{cite book | last = Turovskaya | first = Maya | title = Tarkovsky: Cinema as Poetry | publisher = Faber and Faber | year = 1989 | location = London | url = http://ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheTopics/On_Shorts.html | isbn = 0-571-14709-7}}</ref> It's about the leader of a geological expedition, who waits for the boat that brings back the [[concentrate]]s collected by the expedition. The expedition is surrounded by mystery, and its purpose is a state secret. Although some authors claim that the screenplay was filmed, according to Marina Tarkovskaya, Tarkovsky's sister (and wife of Aleksandr Gordon, a fellow student of Tarvosky during his film school years) the screenplay was never filmed. Tarkovsky wrote the screenplay during his entrance examination at the [[All-Union State Institute of Cinematography|State Institute of Cinematography]] (VGIK) in a single sitting. He earned the highest possible grade, excellent ({{lang-ru|link=no|отлично}}) for this work. In 1994 fragments of the ''Concentrate'' were filmed and used in the documentary ''Andrei Tarkovsky's Taiga Summer'' by Marina Tarkovskaya and Aleksandr Gordon.<ref>{{cite web | last = Blasco | first = Gonzalo | title = An Interview with Marina Tarkovskaia and Alexander Gordon | publisher = andreitarkovski.org | date = 10 November 2003 | url = https://www.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheTopics/Marina_and_Alexandr.html | accessdate = 10 December 2007 }} </ref> ===''Hoffmanniana''=== {{Infobox short story | name = Hoffmanniana | title_orig = Гофманиана | translator = | author = Andrei Tarkovsky | country = [[Soviet Union|USSR]] | language = Russian | series = | genre = | published_in = | publication_type = | publisher = | media_type = Screenplay | pub_date = 1976 | english_pub_date = | preceded_by = }} '''''Hoffmanniana''''' ({{lang-ru|Гофманиана}}) is a never-filmed 1974 screenplay by Russian film director Andrei Tarkovsky. The screenplay is based on the life and work of German author [[E. T. A. Hoffmann]]. In 1974 an acquaintance from [[Tallinnfilm]] approached Tarkovsky to write a screenplay on a German theme. Tarkovsky considered [[Thomas Mann]] and E.T.A. Hoffmann, and also thought about [[Henrik Ibsen|Ibsen]]'s ''[[Peer Gynt]]''. In the end Tarkovsky signed a contract for a script based on the life and work of Hoffmann. Tarkovsky planned to write the script during the summer of 1974 at his [[dacha]]. Writing was not without difficulty, less than a month before the deadline he had not written a single page. He finally finished the project in late 1974 and submitted the final script to Tallinnfilm in October.<ref name=wpowell>{{cite book | last = Tarkovsky | first = Andrei | authorlink = |author2=edited by William Powell | title = Collected Screenplays | publisher = Faber & Faber | year = 1999 | location = London | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = }} </ref> Although the script was well received by the officials at Tallinnfilm, it was the consensus that no one but Tarkovsky would be able to direct it. The script was sent to [[Goskino]] in February 1976, and although approval was granted for proceeding with making the film the screenplay was never realized. In 1984, during the time of his exile in the West, Tarkovsky revisited the screenplay and made a few changes. He also considered to finally direct a film based on the screenplay but ultimately dropped this idea.<ref name="wpowell"/> ==Influences== Tarkovsky became a film director during the mid and late 1950s, a period referred to as the [[Khrushchev Thaw]], during which Soviet society opened to foreign films, literature and music, among other things. This allowed Tarkovsky to see films of European, American and Japanese directors, an experience which influenced his own film making. His teacher and mentor at the film school, [[Mikhail Romm]], allowed his students considerable freedom and emphasized the independence of the film director. Tarkovsky was, according to fellow student Shavkat Abdusalmov, fascinated by Japanese films. He was amazed by how every character on the screen is exceptional and how everyday events such as a Samurai cutting bread with his sword are elevated to something special and put into the limelight.<ref>{{cite book |last=Abdusalamov |first=Shavkat |author2=translated by Sergei Sossinsky |title=Feedback Effects, in About Andrei Tarkovsky, Memoirs and Biographies |publisher=Progress Publishers |year=1990 |location=Moscow |url=http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheTopics/On_Japanese_Influences.html |isbn=5-01-001973-6}}</ref> Tarkovsky has also expressed interest in the art of Haiku and its ability to create "images in such a way that they mean nothing beyond themselves."<ref>Tarkovsky, Andrei. Sculpting in Time. Trans. Kitty Hunter-Blair. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, 2003.</ref> Tarkovsky perceived that the art of cinema has only been truly mastered by very few filmmakers, stating in a 1970 interview with Naum Abramov that "they can be counted on the fingers of one hand."<ref name="BFI">{{cite web|last1=Gamble|first1=Patrick|title=10 great films that inspired Andrei Tarkovsky|url=http://www.bfi.org.uk/news-opinion/news-bfi/lists/10-great-films-inspired-andrei-tarkovsky|website=BFI|publisher=British Film Institute|accessdate=20 July 2016|date=27 October 2015}}</ref> In 1972, Tarkovsky told film historian [[Leonid Kozlov]] his ten favorite films. The list includes: ''[[Diary of a Country Priest]]'' and ''[[Mouchette]]'' by [[Robert Bresson]]; ''[[Winter Light]]'', ''[[Wild Strawberries (film)|Wild Strawberries]]'', and ''[[Persona (film)|Persona]]'' by [[Ingmar Bergman]]; ''[[Nazarín]]'' by [[Luis Buñuel]]; ''[[City Lights]]'' by [[Charlie Chaplin]]; ''[[Ugetsu]]'' by [[Kenji Mizoguchi]]; ''[[Seven Samurai]]'' by [[Akira Kurosawa]], and ''[[The Woman in the Dunes (film)|Woman in the Dunes]]'' by [[Hiroshi Teshigahara]]. Among his favorite directors were Buñuel, Mizoguchi, Bergman, Bresson, Kurosawa, [[Michelangelo Antonioni]], [[Jean Vigo]], and [[Carl Theodor Dreyer]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lasica |first=Tom |title=Tarkovsky's Choice |journal=Sight and Sound |volume=3 |issue=3 |date=March 1993 |url=http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheTopics/Tarkovsky-TopTen.html |accessdate=25 December 2007 | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20071121082212/http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheTopics/Tarkovsky-TopTen.html| archivedate= 21 November 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> With the exception of ''City Lights'', the list does not contain any films of the early silent era. The reason is that Tarkovsky saw film as an art as only a relatively recent phenomenon, with the early film-making forming only a prelude. The list has also no films or directors from Tarkovsky's native Russia, although he rated Soviet directors such as [[Boris Barnet]], [[Sergei Parajanov]] and [[Alexander Dovzhenko]] highly. He said of Dovzhenko's ''[[Earth (1930 film)|Earth]]'', "I have lived a lot among very simple farmers and met extraordinary people. They spread calmness, had such tact, they conveyed a feeling of dignity and displayed wisdom that I have seldom come across on such a scale. Dovzhenko had obviously understood wherein the sense of life resides. [...] This trespassing of the border between nature and mankind is an ideal place for the existence of man. Dovzhenko understood this."{{sfn|Gianvito|2006|p=42–43}} Although strongly opposed to commercial cinema, in a famous exception Tarkovsky praised the blockbuster film ''[[The Terminator]]'', saying its "vision of the future and the relation between man and its destiny is pushing the frontier of cinema as an art". He was critical of the "brutality and low acting skills", but nevertheless impressed by this film.<ref name="ReferenceB" /> ==Cinematic style== In a 1962 interview, Tarkovsky argued, "All art, of course, is intellectual, but for me, all the arts, and cinema even more so, must above all be emotional and act upon the heart."{{sfn|Gianvito|2006|p=5}} His films are characterized by [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] themes, extremely [[long take]]s, and images often considered by critics to be of exceptional beauty. Recurring motifs are dreams, memory, childhood, running water accompanied by fire, rain indoors, reflections, levitation, and characters re-appearing in the foreground of long panning movements of the camera. He once said, "Juxtaposing a person with an environment that is boundless, collating him with a countless number of people passing by close to him and far away, relating a person to the whole world, that is the meaning of cinema.” Tarkovsky incorporated levitation scenes into several of his films, most notably ''Solaris''. To him these scenes possess great power and are used for their photogenic value and magical inexplicability.<ref>{{Cite news |last=de Brantes |first=Charles |title=La foi est la seule chose qui puisse sauver l'homme |newspaper=La France Catholique |date=20 June 1986 |url=http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheTopics/AT_On.html |accessdate=14 January 2008}}</ref> Water, clouds, and reflections were used by him for their surreal beauty and photogenic value, as well as their symbolism, such as waves or the forms of brooks or running water.<ref>{{cite press release |title=English Programme Booklet for ''The Sacrifice'' |publisher=Swedish Film Institute |url=http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheTopics/AT_For_Dummies.html |accessdate=14 January 2008}}</ref> Bells and candles are also frequent symbols. These are symbols of film, sight and sound, and Tarkovsky's film frequently has themes of self-reflection.{{Original research inline|date=April 2017}} Tarkovsky developed a theory of cinema that he called "sculpting in time". By this he meant that the unique characteristic of cinema as a medium was to take our experience of time and alter it. Unedited movie footage transcribes time in [[Real-time (media)|real time]]. By using long takes and few cuts in his films, he aimed to give the viewers a sense of time passing, time lost, and the relationship of one moment in time to another. Up to, and including, his film ''[[The Mirror (1975 film)|Mirror]]'', Tarkovsky focused his cinematic works on exploring this theory. After ''Mirror'', he announced that he would focus his work on exploring the [[dramatic unities]] proposed by [[Aristotle]]: a concentrated action, happening in one place, within the span of a single day. Several of Tarkovsky's films have color or black and white sequences. This first occurs in the otherwise monochrome ''[[Andrei Rublev (film)|Andrei Rublev]]'', which features a color epilogue of [[Andrei Rublev|Rublev's]] authentic religious icon paintings. All of his films afterwards contain monochrome, and in ''[[Stalker (1979 film)|Stalker's]]'' case [[Sepia tone|sepia]] sequences, while otherwise being in color. In 1966, in an interview conducted shortly after finishing ''Andrei Rublev'', Tarkovsky dismissed color film as a "commercial gimmick" and cast doubt on the idea that contemporary films meaningfully use color. He claimed that in everyday life one does not consciously notice colors most of the time, and that color should therefore be used in film mainly to emphasize certain moments, but not all the time, as this distracts the viewer. To him, films in color were like moving paintings or photographs, which are too beautiful to be a realistic depiction of life.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Chugunova |first=Maria |title=On Cinema – Interview with Tarkovsky |journal=To the Screen |date=December 1966 |url=http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheTopics/On_Color.html |accessdate=14 January 2008}}</ref> '''Bergman on Tarkovsky''' Ingmar Bergman, a renowned director, commented on Tarkovsky {{Quote |text=My discovery of Tarkovsky's first film was like a miracle. Suddenly, I found myself standing at the door of a room the keys of which had until then, never been given to me. It was a room I had always wanted to enter and where he was moving freely and fully at ease. I felt encountered and stimulated: someone was expressing what I had always wanted to say without knowing how. Tarkovsky is for me the greatest, the one who invented a new language, true to the nature of film, as it captures life as a reflection, life as a dream<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nostalghia.com/|title=Nostalghia.com - An Andrei Tarkovsky Information Site|last=Bielawski|first=Trond Trondsen and Jan|website=nostalghia.com|access-date=2018-03-11}}</ref>}} Contrarily, however, Bergman conceded the truth in the claim made by a critic who wrote that, "with ''[[Autumn Sonata]]'' Bergman does Bergman," adding, "Tarkovsky began to make Tarkovsky films, and that [[Fellini]] began to make Fellini films [...] [[Buñuel]] nearly always made Buñuel films." This [[pastiche]] of one's own work has been derogatorily termed as "self-karaoke."<ref>http://www.openculture.com/2013/10/ingmar-bergman-evaluates-his-fellow-filmmakers.html</ref> ===Vadim Yusov=== Tarkovsky worked in close collaboration with cinematographer [[Vadim Yusov]] from 1958 to 1972, and much of the visual style of Tarkovsky's films can be attributed to this collaboration.<ref>List of Noted Film Director And Cinematographer Collaborations: Andrei Tarkovsky Vadim Yusov, Museum of Learning. [http://www.museumstuff.com/learn/topics/List_of_noted_film_director_and_cinematographer_collaborations::sub::Andrei_Tarkovsky_Vadim_Yusov]</ref> Tarkovsky would spend two days preparing for Yusov to film a single long take, and due to the preparation, usually only a single take was needed.<ref name="Andrei Tarkovsky p. 79">The films of Andrei Tarkovsky: a visual fugue By Vida T. Johnson, Graham Petrie, p. 79.</ref> ===Sven Nykvist=== In his last film, ''[[The Sacrifice]]'', Tarkovsky worked with cinematographer [[Sven Nykvist]], who had worked on many films with director [[Ingmar Bergman]]. (Nykvist was not alone: several people involved in the production had previously collaborated with Bergman, notably lead actor [[Erland Josephson]], who had also acted for Tarkovsky in ''[[Nostalghia]]''.) Nykvist complained that Tarkovsky would frequently look through the camera and even direct actors through it.<ref name="Andrei Tarkovsky p. 79"/> == Films about Tarkovsky == *''[[Voyage in Time]]'' (1983): documents the travels in Italy of Andrei Tarkovsky in preparation for the making of his film ''Nostalghia'', [[Tonino Guerra]]. *''Tarkovsky: A Poet in the Cinema'' (1984): directed by Donatella Baglivo *''Auf der Suche nach der verlorenen Zeit'' (1988): Andrej Tarkowskijs Exil und Tod. Documentary directed by Ebbo Demant. Germany. *''[[One Day in the Life of Andrei Arsenevich]]'' (1999): French documentary film directed by [[Chris Marker]] *"Andrey" (color/b&w, short-fiction, 35mm, 15min. 2006) A film by Nariné Mktchyan and Arsen Azatyan. Festivals: Yerevan IFF 2006, Rotterdam IFF 2007, Busan IFF 2007, Sydney IFF 2007, Zerkalo FF Ivanovo (Special Prize) 2008, Kinoshock FF 2014 ==References== '''Notes''' {{Reflist|30em}} '''Bibliography''' {{Refbegin}} *{{Cite book | last = Dunne | first = Nathan | year = 2008 | title = Tarkovsky | publisher = Black Dog Publishing | isbn = 1-906155-04-6}} *{{Cite book | year = 2006 | title = Andrei Tarkovsky: Interviews ([[Conversations with Filmmakers Series]]) | editor-last = Gianvito | editor-first = John | publisher = University Press of Mississippi | isbn = 1-57806-220-9 | ref=harv }} *{{Cite book | last = Le Fanu | first = Mark | year = 1987 | title = The Cinema of Andrei Tarkovsky | publisher = British Film Institute }} *{{Cite book | last = Johnston | first = Vida T. | last2 = Petrie | first2 = Graham | year = 1997 | title = The Films of Andrei Tarkovsky: A Visual Fugue | publisher = Indiana Univ. Press | isbn = 0-253-20887-4 | location = Bloomington}} *{{Cite book | last = Martin | first = Sean | year = 2005 | title = Andrei Tarkovsky | publisher = Pocket Essentials | isbn = 1-904048-49-8}} *{{Cite book | last = Jónsson | first = Gunnlaugur A. | last2 = Óttarsson | first2 = Thorkell Á. | year = 2006 | title = Through the Mirror: Reflections on the Films of Andrei Tarkovsky | publisher = Cambridge Scholars Press | isbn = 1-904303-11-0}} *{{Cite journal | title = Dossier Andrei Tarkovsky | editor-last = revue ''NUNC'' | volume = n°11, 2006 | publisher = Editions de Corlevour }} *{{Cite book | last = Tarkovsky | first = Andrei | year = 1989 | title = Sculpting in Time | publisher = University of Texas Press | isbn = 978-0-292-77624-1}} *{{cite journal | doi = 10.1386/fiin.8.2.49 | last = Slevin | first = Tom | year = 2010 | title = Existence, Ethics and Death in Andrei Tarkovsky's cinema: the cultural philosophy of ''Solaris'' | journal = Film International |volume= 8 |issue=2 | pages = 49–62}} *Tumanov, Vladimir. "Philosophy of Mind and Body in Andrei Tarkovsky's Solaris." Film-Philosophy. 20 (2016) 2-3: 357-375. DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3366/film.2016.0020 *{{cite book | last = Tejeda | first = Carlos | year = 2010 | title = Andrei Tarkovski | publisher = Cátedra, Madrid | url = https://catedra.com/libro.php?codigo_comercial=195082 | isbn = 978-84-376-2666-6}} *{{cite book | last = Elmanovitš | first = Tatjana | year = 1980 | title = Ajapeegel. Andrei Tarkovski filmid | publisher = Eesti Raamat | language = Estonian}} *{{cite book | last = Turovskaya | first = Maya | year = 1991 | title = 7½ ili Filmõ Andreya Tarkovskovo | publisher = Iskusstvo | language = Russian}} *{{cite book |last = Alexander-Garrett |first = Layla |year = 2011 |title = Andrei Tarkovsky: A Photographic Chronicle of the Making of The Sacrifice |publisher = Cygnnet |url = http://www.cygnnet.co.uk/books/?id=4 |isbn = 978-09-570-4160-8 |language = English, Russian |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20121112052431/http://www.cygnnet.co.uk/books/?id=4 |archivedate = 12 November 2012 |df = dmy-all }} {{Refend}} ==External links== {{Commons category|Andrej Tarkovskij}} {{wikiquote}} *{{IMDb name|1789}} *{{Sfdb name}} *[http://www.sensesofcinema.com/2002/great-directors/tarkovsky/ Andrei Tarkovsky] at [[Senses of Cinema]] *{{worldcat id|lccn-n78-10232}} *[http://www.andrei-tarkovsky.com/ Website about Andrei Tarkovsky, Films, Articles, Interviews] *[http://people.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/ Nostalghia.com - An Andrei Tarkovsky Information Site], at Film Studies Program in the Department of Communication and Culture, [[University of Calgary]] *[http://rbth.com/literature/2014/11/26/andrei_tarkovsky_biography_wrestles_with_the_filmmakers_remarkable_41717.html Andrei Tarkovsky: Biography wrestles with the filmmaker’s remarkable life] {{Andrei Tarkovsky}} {{Prix de la mise en scene 1980-1999}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Tarkovsky, Andrei}} [[Category:Andrei Tarkovsky| ]] [[Category:1932 births]] [[Category:1986 deaths]] [[Category:People from Yuryevets District]] [[Category:Burials at Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemetery]] [[Category:Russian people of Polish descent]] [[Category:Russian Orthodox Christians from Russia]] [[Category:Russian people of Romanian descent]] [[Category:BAFTA winners (people)]] [[Category:Russian male actors]] [[Category:Soviet film directors]] [[Category:Russian film directors]] [[Category:Russian opera directors]] [[Category:Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography alumni]] [[Category:High Courses for Scriptwriters and Film Directors faculty]] [[Category:Deaths from lung cancer]] [[Category:Deaths from cancer in France]] [[Category:Lenin Prize winners]] [[Category:20th-century Soviet male actors]] [[Category:Science fiction film directors]] [[Category:20th-century Russian male actors]] [[Category:Soviet emigrants to Italy]] [[Category:Soviet emigrants to France]] ayll45d5v30xt71jiy3jk441q5ccton 0 677 859000442 857511831 2018-09-11T01:49:25Z Citation bot 7903804 Alter: isbn. Removed parameters. You can [[WP:UCB|use this bot]] yourself. [[WP:DBUG|Report bugs here]]. | [[WP:UCB|User-activated]]. wikitext text/x-wiki {{other uses}} {{redirect|Ambiguous|the film|Ambiguous (film)}} {{Multiple issues| {{More footnotes|date=September 2017}} {{tone|date=September 2017}} }} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}}[[File:Alice 05a-1116x1492.jpg|thumb|250px|alt=Drawing of the back an anthropomorphic caterpillar, seated on a toadstool amid grass and flowers, blowing smoke from a hookah; a blonde girl in an old-fashioned frock is standing on tiptoe to peer at the caterpillar over the toadstool's edge|Sir [[John Tenniel]]'s illustration of the [[Caterpillar (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)|Caterpillar]] for [[Lewis Carroll]]'s ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' is noted for its ambiguous central figure, whose head can be viewed as being a human male's face with a pointed nose and chin or as being the head end of an actual [[caterpillar]], with the first two right "true" legs visible.<ref>"And do you see its long nose and chin? At least, they ''look'' exactly like a nose and chin, that is don't they? But they really ''are'' two of its legs. You know a Caterpillar has got ''quantities'' of legs: you can see more of them, further down." Carroll, Lewis. ''The Nursery "Alice"''. Dover Publications (1966), p 27.</ref>]] '''Ambiguity''' is a type of [[meaning (linguistics)|meaning]] in which several interpretations are [[wikt:plausible#Adjective|plausible]]. A common aspect of ambiguity is [[uncertainty]]. It is thus an attribute of any idea or statement whose [[intention|intended]] meaning cannot be definitively resolved according to a rule or process with a finite number of steps. (The ''[[wikt:ambi-#Prefix|ambi]]-'' part of the [[Terminology|term]] reflects an idea of "[[2 (number)|two]]", as in "two meanings".) The concept of ambiguity is generally contrasted with [[vagueness]]. In ambiguity, specific and distinct interpretations are permitted (although some may not be immediately obvious), whereas with information that is vague, it is difficult to form any interpretation at the desired level of specificity. Context may play a role in resolving ambiguity. For example, the same piece of information may be ambiguous in one context and unambiguous in another. == Linguistic forms == [[File:Structural analysis of an ambiguous spanish sentence.svg|thumb|Structural analysis of an ambiguous Spanish sentence:<br /> '''Pepe vio a Pablo enfurecido'''<br />Interpretation 1: When Pepe was angry, then he saw Pablo<br />Interpretation 2: Pepe saw that Pablo was angry.<br />Here, the syntactic tree in figure represents interpretation 2.]] The [[Polysemy|lexical ambiguity]] of a word or phrase pertains to its having more than one meaning in the language to which the word belongs. "Meaning" here refers to whatever should be captured by a good dictionary. For instance, the word "bank" has several distinct lexical definitions, including "[[Bank|financial institution]]" and "[[Bank (geography)|edge of a river]]". Or consider "[[apothecary]]". One could say "I bought herbs from the apothecary". This could mean one actually spoke to the apothecary ([[pharmacist]]) or went to the apothecary ([[pharmacy]]). The context in which an ambiguous word is used often makes it evident which of the meanings is intended. If, for instance, someone says "I buried $100 in the bank", most people would not think someone used a shovel to dig in the mud. However, some linguistic contexts do not provide sufficient information to disambiguate a used word. Lexical ambiguity can be addressed by algorithmic methods that automatically associate the appropriate meaning with a word in context, a task referred to as [[word sense disambiguation]]. The use of multi-defined words requires the author or speaker to clarify their context, and sometimes elaborate on their specific intended meaning (in which case, a less ambiguous term should have been used). The goal of clear concise communication is that the receiver(s) have no misunderstanding about what was meant to be conveyed. An exception to this could include a politician whose "[[weasel word]]s" and [[obfuscation]] are necessary to gain support from multiple [[Electoral district|constituents]] with [[mutually exclusive]] conflicting desires from their candidate of choice. Ambiguity is a powerful tool of [[political science]]. More problematic are words whose senses express closely related concepts. "Good", for example, can mean "useful" or "functional" (''That's a good hammer''), "exemplary" (''She's a good student''), "pleasing" (''This is good soup''), "moral" (''a good person'' versus ''the lesson to be learned from a story''), "[[righteous]]", etc. " I have a good daughter" is not clear about which sense is intended. The various ways to apply [[prefix]]es and [[suffix]]es can also create ambiguity ("unlockable" can mean "capable of being unlocked" or "impossible to lock"). [[Syntactic ambiguity]] arises when a sentence can have two (or more) different meanings because of the structure of the sentence—its syntax. This is often due to a modifying expression, such as a prepositional phrase, the application of which is unclear. "He ate the cookies on the couch", for example, could mean that he ate those cookies that were on the couch (as opposed to those that were on the table), or it could mean that he was sitting on the couch when he ate the cookies. "To get in, you will need an entrance fee of $10 or your voucher and your drivers' license." This could mean that you need EITHER ten dollars OR BOTH your voucher and your license. Or it could mean that you need your license AND you need EITHER ten dollars OR a voucher. Only rewriting the sentence, or placing appropriate punctuation can resolve a syntactic ambiguity.<ref name="ReferenceA">Critical Thinking, 10th ed., Ch 3, Moore, Brooke N. and Parker, Richard. McGraw-Hill, 2012</ref> For the notion of, and theoretic results about, syntactic ambiguity in artificial, [[formal languages]] (such as computer [[programming language]]s), see [[Ambiguous grammar]]. [[Spoken language]] can contain many more types of ambiguities which are called phonological ambiguities, where there is more than one way to compose a set of sounds into words. For example, "ice cream" and "I scream". Such ambiguity is generally resolved according to the context. A mishearing of such, based on incorrectly resolved ambiguity, is called a [[mondegreen]]. [[Semantic ambiguity]] happens when a sentence contains an ambiguous word or phrase—a word or phrase that has more than one meaning. In "We saw her duck" (example due to Richard Nordquist), the word "duck" can refer either # to the person's bird (the noun "duck", modified by the possessive pronoun "her"), or # to a motion she made (the verb "duck", the subject of which is the objective pronoun "her", object of the verb "saw").<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Lexical ambiguity is contrasted with semantic ambiguity. The former represents a choice between a finite number of known and meaningful context-dependent interpretations. The latter represents a choice between any number of possible interpretations, none of which may have a standard agreed-upon meaning. This form of ambiguity is closely related to [[vagueness]]. Linguistic ambiguity [[Ambiguity (law)|can be a problem in law]], because the interpretation of written documents and oral agreements is often of paramount importance. Philosophers (and other users of logic) spend a lot of time and effort searching for and removing (or intentionally adding) ambiguity in arguments because it can lead to incorrect conclusions and can be used to deliberately conceal bad arguments. For example, a politician might say, "I oppose taxes which hinder economic growth", an example of a glittering generality. Some will think he opposes taxes in general because they hinder economic growth. Others may think he opposes only those taxes that he believes will hinder economic growth. In writing, the sentence can be rewritten to reduce possible misinterpretation, either by adding a comma after "taxes" (to convey the first sense) or by changing "which" to "that" (to convey the second sense) or by rewriting it in other ways. The devious politician hopes that each constituent will interpret the statement in the most desirable way, and think the politician supports everyone's opinion. However, the opposite can also be true – an opponent can turn a positive statement into a bad one if the speaker uses ambiguity (intentionally or not). The logical fallacies of amphiboly and equivocation rely heavily on the use of ambiguous words and phrases. In [[continental philosophy]] (particularly phenomenology and existentialism), there is much greater tolerance of ambiguity, as it is generally seen as an integral part of the human condition. [[Martin Heidegger]] argued that the relation between the subject and object is ambiguous, as is the relation of mind and body, and part and whole.[3] In Heidegger's phenomenology, Dasein is always in a meaningful world, but there is always an underlying background for every instance of signification. Thus, although some things may be certain, they have little to do with Dasein's sense of care and existential anxiety, e.g., in the face of death. In calling his work Being and Nothingness an "essay in phenomenological ontology" [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] follows Heidegger in defining the human essence as ambiguous, or relating fundamentally to such ambiguity. [[Simone de Beauvoir]] tries to base an ethics on Heidegger's and Sartre's writings (The Ethics of Ambiguity), where she highlights the need to grapple with ambiguity: "as long as philosophers and they [men] have thought, most of them have tried to mask it...And the ethics which they have proposed to their disciples have always pursued the same goal. It has been a matter of eliminating the ambiguity by making oneself pure inwardness or pure externality, by escaping from the sensible world or being engulfed by it, by yielding to eternity or enclosing oneself in the pure moment." Ethics cannot be based on the authoritative certainty given by mathematics and logic, or prescribed directly from the empirical findings of science. She states: "Since we do not succeed in fleeing it, let us, therefore, try to look the truth in the face. Let us try to assume our fundamental ambiguity. It is in the knowledge of the genuine conditions of our life that we must draw our strength to live and our reason for acting". Other continental philosophers suggest that concepts such as life, nature, and sex are ambiguous. Corey Anton has argued that we cannot be certain what is separate from or unified with something else: language, he asserts, divides what is not, in fact, separate. Following Ernest Becker, he argues that the desire to 'authoritatively disambiguate' the world and existence has led to numerous ideologies and historical events such as genocide. On this basis, he argues that ethics must focus on 'dialectically integrating opposites' and balancing tension, rather than seeking a priori validation or certainty. Like the existentialists and phenomenologists, he sees the ambiguity of life as the basis of creativity. In literature and rhetoric, ambiguity can be a useful tool. Groucho Marx's classic joke depends on a grammatical ambiguity for its humor, for example: "Last night I shot an elephant in my pajamas. How he got in my pajamas, I'll never know". Songs and poetry often rely on ambiguous words for artistic effect, as in the song title "Don't It Make My Brown Eyes Blue" (where "blue" can refer to the color, or to sadness). In the narrative, ambiguity can be introduced in several ways: motive, plot, character. [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]] uses the latter type of ambiguity with notable effect in his novel ''The Great Gatsby''. [[Christianity]] and [[Judaism]] employ the concept of paradox synonymously with 'ambiguity'. Many Christians and Jews endorse Rudolf Otto's description of the sacred as 'mysterium tremendum et fascinans', the awe-inspiring mystery which fascinates humans.[dubious – discuss] The orthodox Catholic writer G. K. Chesterton regularly employed paradox to tease out the meanings in common concepts which he found ambiguous or to reveal meaning often overlooked or forgotten in common phrases. (The title of one of his most famous books, Orthodoxy, itself employing such a paradox.) Metonymy involves the use of the name of a subcomponent part as an abbreviation, or jargon, for the name of the whole object (for example "wheels" to refer to a car, or "flowers" to refer to beautiful offspring, an entire plant, or a collection of blooming plants). In modern vocabulary, critical semiotics,[9] metonymy encompasses any potentially ambiguous word substitution that is based on contextual contiguity (located close together), or a function or process that an object performs, such as "sweet ride" to refer to a nice car. Metonym miscommunication is considered a primary mechanism of linguistic humor. == Music == In [[music]], pieces or sections which confound expectations and may be or are interpreted simultaneously in different ways are ambiguous, such as some [[polytonality]], [[polymeter]], other ambiguous [[metre|meters]] or [[rhythm]]s, and ambiguous [[phrase (music)|phrasing]], or (Stein 2005, p.&nbsp;79) any [[aspect of music]]. The [[music of Africa]] is often purposely ambiguous. To quote [[Donald Francis Tovey|Sir Donald Francis Tovey]] (1935, p.&nbsp;195), "Theorists are apt to vex themselves with vain efforts to remove uncertainty just where it has a high aesthetic value." == Visual art == {{Unreferenced section|date=September 2016}} [[File:Necker cube.svg|The [[Necker cube]], an ambiguous image|thumb]] In visual art, certain images are visually ambiguous, such as the [[Necker cube]], which can be interpreted in two ways. Perceptions of such objects remain stable for a time, then may flip, a phenomenon called [[multistable perception]]. The opposite of such ambiguous images are [[impossible object]]s. Pictures or photographs may also be ambiguous at the semantic level: the visual image is unambiguous, but the meaning and narrative may be ambiguous: is a certain facial expression one of excitement or fear, for instance? == Constructed language == {{Unreferenced section|date=September 2016}} Some [[Constructed language|languages have been created]] with the intention of avoiding ambiguity, especially [[Polysemy|lexical ambiguity]]. [[Lojban]] and [[Loglan]] are two related languages which have been created for this, focusing chiefly on syntactic ambiguity as well. The languages can be both spoken and written. These languages are intended to provide a greater technical precision over big natural languages, although historically, such attempts at language improvement have been criticized. Languages composed from many diverse sources contain much ambiguity and inconsistency. The many exceptions to [[syntax]] and [[semantic]] rules are time-consuming and difficult to learn. == Computer science == In computer science, the [[SI prefix]]es [[kilo-]], [[mega-]] and [[giga-]] were historically used in certain contexts to mean either the first three powers of 1024 (1024, 1024² and 1024³) contrary to the [[metric system]] in which these units unambiguously mean one thousand, one million, and one billion. This usage is particularly prevalent with electronic memory devices (e.g. [[DRAM]]) addressed directly by a binary machine register where a decimal interpretation makes no practical sense. Subsequently, the Ki, Mi, and Gi prefixes were introduced so that [[metric prefix#Binary prefixes|binary prefixes]] could be written explicitly, also rendering k, M, and G ''unambiguous'' in texts conforming to the new standard — this led to a ''new'' ambiguity in engineering documents lacking outward trace of the binary prefixes (necessarily indicating the new style) as to whether the usage of k, M, and G remains ambiguous (old style) or not (new style). Note also that 1 M (where M is ambiguously 1,000,000 or 1,048,576) is ''less'' uncertain than the engineering value 1.0e6 (defined to designate the interval 950,000 to 1,050,000), and that as non-volatile storage devices began to commonly exceed 1 GB in capacity (where the ambiguity begins to routinely impact the second significant digit), GB and TB almost always mean 10⁹ and 10¹² [[bytes]]. == Mathematical notation == [[Mathematical notation]], widely used in [[physics]] and other [[science]]s, avoids many ambiguities compared to expression in natural language. However, for various reasons, several [[Lexical (semiotics)|lexical]], [[syntactic]] and [[semantic]] ambiguities remain. === Names of functions === The '''ambiguity''' in the style of writing a [[Function (mathematics)|function]] should not be confused with a [[multivalued function]], which can (and should) be defined in a deterministic and unambiguous way. Several [[special function]]s still do not have established notations. Usually, the conversion to another notation requires to scale the argument or the resulting value; sometimes, the same name of the function is used, causing confusions. Examples of such underestablished functions: * [[Sinc function]] * [[Elliptic integral#Complete elliptic integral of the third kind|Elliptic integral of the third kind]]; translating elliptic integral form [[MAPLE]] to [[Mathematica]], one should replace the second argument to its square, see [[Talk:Elliptic integral#List of notations]]; dealing with complex values, this may cause problems. * [[Exponential integral]]<ref name="irene">{{cite book |first1=M. |last1=Abramovits |first2=I. |last2=Stegun |title=Handbook on mathematical functions |page= 228 |url=http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/page_228.htm }}</ref> * [[Hermite polynomial]]<ref name="irene"/>{{rp|775}} === Expressions === Ambiguous expressions often appear in physical and mathematical texts. It is common practice to omit multiplication signs in mathematical expressions. Also, it is common to give the same name to a variable and a function, for example, <math>f=f(x)</math>. Then, if one sees <math>f=f(y+1)</math>, there is no way to distinguish whether it means <math>f=f(x)</math> '''multiplied''' by <math>(y+1)</math>, or function <math>f</math> '''evaluated''' at argument equal to <math>(y+1)</math>. In each case of use of such notations, the reader is supposed to be able to perform the deduction and reveal the true meaning. Creators of algorithmic languages try to avoid ambiguities. Many algorithmic languages ([[C++]] and [[Fortran]]) require the character * as symbol of multiplication. The [[Wolfram Language]] used in [[Mathematica]] allows the user to omit the multiplication symbol, but requires square brackets to indicate the argument of a function; square brackets are not allowed for grouping of expressions. Fortran, in addition, does not allow use of the same name (identifier) for different objects, for example, function and variable; in particular, the expression '''f=f(x)''' is qualified as an error. The order of operations may depend on the context. In most [[programming language]]s, the operations of division and multiplication have equal priority and are executed from left to right. Until the last century, many editorials assumed that multiplication is performed first, for example, <math>a/bc</math> is interpreted as <math>a/(bc)</math>; in this case, the insertion of parentheses is required when translating the formulas to an algorithmic language. In addition, it is common to write an argument of a function without parenthesis, which also may lead to ambiguity. Sometimes, one uses ''italics'' letters to denote elementary functions. In the [[scientific journal]] style, the expression <math> s i n \alpha</math> means product of variables <math>s</math>, <math>i</math>, <math>n</math> and <math>\alpha</math>, although in a slideshow, it may mean <math>\sin[\alpha]</math>. A comma in subscripts and superscripts sometimes is omitted; it is also ambiguous notation. If it is written <math>T_{mnk}</math>, the reader should guess from the context, does it mean a single-index object, evaluated while the subscript is equal to product of variables <math>m</math>, <math>n</math> and <math>k</math>, or it is indication to a trivalent tensor. The writing of <math>T_{mnk}</math> instead of <math>T_{m,n,k}</math> may mean that the writer either is stretched in space (for example, to reduce the publication fees) or aims to increase number of publications without considering readers. The same may apply to any other use of ambiguous notations. Subscripts are also used to denote the argument to a function, as in <math>F_{x}</math>. <!-- Some scientific journals use superscripts to indicate citations. If one cites reference number 6 about [[coherent addition of lasers]], the centenve may read as follows: Practically, the number of lasers, which can be combined in such a way, does not exceed 10⁶. "Oh, this very powerful method allows for the combination of a million lasers," the reader may think. To avoid such ambiguity, [[citations]] in Wikipedia appear inside square bracket ^[1]. !--> === Examples of potentially confusing ambiguous mathematical expressions === <math>\sin^2\alpha/2</math>, which could be understood to mean either <math>(\sin(\alpha/2))^2</math> or <math>(\sin(\alpha))^2/2</math>. In addition, <math>\sin^2(x)</math> may mean <math>\sin(\sin(x))</math>, as <math>\exp^2(x)</math> means <math>\exp(\exp(x))</math> (see [[tetration]]). <math>\sin^{-1}\alpha</math>, which by convention means <math>\arcsin(\alpha)</math>, though it might be thought to mean <math>(\sin(\alpha))^{-1}</math>, since <math>\sin^{n} \alpha</math> means <math>(\sin(\alpha))^{n}</math>. <math>a/2b</math>, which arguably should mean <math>(a/2)b</math> but would commonly be understood to mean <math>a/(2b)</math> . === Notations in quantum optics and quantum mechanics === It is common to define the [[coherent states]] in [[quantum optics]] with <math>~|\alpha\rangle~ </math> and states with fixed number of photons with <math>~|n\rangle~</math>. Then, there is an "unwritten rule": the state is coherent if there are more Greek characters than Latin characters in the argument, and <math>~n~</math>photon state if the Latin characters dominate. The ambiguity becomes even worse, if <math>~|x\rangle~</math> is used for the states with certain value of the coordinate, and <math>~|p\rangle~</math> means the state with certain value of the momentum, which may be used in books on [[quantum mechanics]]. Such ambiguities easily lead to confusions, especially if some normalized [[adimensional]], [[dimensionless]] variables are used. Expression <math> |1\rangle </math> may mean a state with single photon, or the coherent state with mean amplitude equal to 1, or state with momentum equal to unity, and so on. The reader is supposed to guess from the context. === Ambiguous terms in physics and mathematics === Some physical quantities do not yet have established notations; their value (and sometimes even [[dimension]], as in the case of the [[Einstein coefficients]]), depends on the system of notations. Many terms are ambiguous. Each use of an ambiguous term should be preceded by the definition, suitable for a specific case. Just like [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] states in [[Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus]]: "... Only in the context of a proposition has a name meaning."<ref>{{cite book |last=Wittgenstein |first=Ludwig |title=Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus |page=39 |publisher=Dover Publications Inc. |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-486-40445-5 }}</ref> A highly confusing term is ''gain''. For example, the sentence "the gain of a system should be doubled", without context, means close to nothing.<br /> It may mean that the ratio of the output voltage of an electric circuit to the input voltage should be doubled.<br /> It may mean that the ratio of the output power of an electric or optical circuit to the input power should be doubled.<br /> It may mean that the gain of the laser medium should be doubled, for example, doubling the population of the upper laser level in a quasi-two level system (assuming negligible absorption of the ground-state). The term ''intensity'' is ambiguous when applied to light. The term can refer to any of [[irradiance]], [[luminous intensity]], [[radiant intensity]], or [[radiance]], depending on the background of the person using the term. Also, confusions may be related with the use of [[atomic percent]] as measure of concentration of a [[dopant]], or [[Optical resolution|resolution]] of an imaging system, as measure of the size of the smallest detail which still can be resolved at the background of statistical noise. See also [[Accuracy and precision]] and its talk. The [[Berry paradox]] arises as a result of systematic ambiguity in the meaning of terms such as "definable" or "nameable". Terms of this kind give rise to [[Virtuous circle and vicious circle|vicious circle]] fallacies. Other terms with this type of ambiguity are: satisfiable, true, false, function, property, class, relation, cardinal, and ordinal.<ref>Russell/Whitehead, Principia Mathematica</ref> == Mathematical interpretation of ambiguity == [[File:Necker cube and impossible cube.svg|The [[Necker cube]] and [[impossible cube]], an underdetermined and overdetermined object, respectively.|thumb]] In mathematics and logic, ambiguity can be considered to be an instance of the logical concept of [[underdetermination]]—for example, <math>X=Y</math> leaves open what the value of ''X'' is—while its opposite is a [[self-contradiction]], also called [[inconsistency]], [[paradoxicalness]], or [[oxymoron]], or in mathematics an [[inconsistent system]]—such as <math>X=2, X=3</math>, which has no solution. Logical ambiguity and self-contradiction is analogous to visual ambiguity and [[impossible object]]s, such as the Necker cube and impossible cube, or many of the drawings of [[M. C. Escher]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Reflexivity, Contradiction, Paradox and M. C. Escher |first=Laurence |last=Goldstein |year=1996 |journal=[[Leonardo Journal|Leonardo]] |volume=29 |pages=299–308 |doi=10.2307/1576313 |issue=4 |jstor=1576313 |postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}} }}</ref> == See also == {{Col-begin}} {{Col-1-of-3}} * [[Abbreviation]] * [[Ambiguity (law)]] * [[Ambiguity tolerance]] * [[Amphibology]] * [[Decision problem]] * [[Disambiguation (disambiguation)]] * [[Double entendre]] {{Col-2-of-3}} * [[Essentially contested concept]] * [[Fallacy]] * [[Formal fallacy]] * [[Golden hammer]] * [[Informal fallacy]] {{Col-3-of-3}} * [[Self reference]] * [[Semantics]] * [[Uncertainty]] * [[Volatility, uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity]] * [[Word-sense disambiguation]] {{col-end}} == References == {{Reflist}} == External links == {{Wiktionary|ambiguity}} * {{cite SEP |url-id=Ambiguity |title=Ambiguity}} * {{InPho|idea|1883}} * {{PhilPapers|search|ambiguity}} * [http://www.gray-area.org/Research/Ambig/ Collection of Ambiguous or Inconsistent/Incomplete Statements] * [http://www.languagesoftware.net/articles/better-english-leaving-out-ambiguities/?article2pdf=1? Leaving out ambiguities when writing] {{Relevance fallacies}} {{Formal Fallacy}} {{Informal Fallacy}} {{Philosophical logic}} {{philosophy of language}} [[Category:Semantics]] [[Category:Mathematical notation]] [[Category:Ambiguity| ]] pmr0dcof27t97jnvn59mtwo8z96ok59 0 678 791284483 791284447 2017-07-19T07:50:41Z Yelysavet 18882995 [[WP:AES|←]]Redirected page to [[Cain and Abel]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Cain and Abel]] {{wikidata redirect}} 125jq3ch0yt24zalumtprc6oa9180ik 0 679 857398711 855428058 2018-08-31T12:51:28Z Hayman30 22783192 /* Songs */ + wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wiktionary|animal}} An '''[[animal]]''' is a multicellular, eukaryotic organism of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. '''Animal''' or '''Animals''' or '''The Animal''' may also refer to: {{TOC right}} ==People== * [[The Animal (nickname)]], a set index of people nicknamed "The Animal" or "Animal" ===Professional wrestlers=== * [[Road Warrior Animal]], commonly shortened to "Animal" (born 1960), the best-known ring persona of Joe Laurinaitis * [[Animal Hamaguchi]] (born 1947), ring name of Japanese retired wrestler Heigo Hamaguchi * [[George Steele]] (1937–2017), American retired professional wrestler, author and actor known as "The Animal" ==Books and publications== * [[Animal (book)|''Animal'' (book)]], full title ''Animal: The Definitive Visual Guide to The World's WildLife'', a 2003 non-fiction book by David Burnie and several co-authors * ''Animal'', 2012 novel by [[K'wan Foye]] * [[Animal (journal)|''Animal'' (journal)]], full title: ''Animal: An International Journal of Animal Bioscience'', British academic journal ==Film and television== ===Film=== * [[Animal (1977 film)|''Animal'' (1977 film)]], French film (''L'Animal'') starring Jean-Paul Belmondo and Raquel Welch * [[Animal (2001 film)|''Animal'' (2001 film)]], Argentine comedy film by Sergio Bizzio with Carlos Roffé * [[Animal (2005 film)|''Animal'' (2005 film)]], US direct-to-video action drama film starring Ving Rhames and Terrance Howard * [[Animal (2014 film)|''Animal'' (2014 film)]], US horror film starring Keke Palmer * [[Animals (2003 film)|''Animals'' (2003 film)]], stand-up show written and performed by Ricky Gervais, filmed in 2003 * ''Animals'', 2014 film written by and starring [[David Dastmalchian]] * [[Animals (2017 film)|''Animals'' (2017 film)]], German film * ''[[The Animal]]'', 2001 US comedy film featuring Rob Schneider * [[The Animals (film)|''The Animals'' (film)]], 2012 Filipino coming-of-age film by Gino M. Santos ===Television=== * ''[[Animals.]]'', a 2016 American animated television series * [[Animals (South Korean TV series)|''Animals'' (South Korean TV series)]], a South Korean TV series * [[Animals (The Goodies)|"Animals" (''The Goodies'')]], television series episode * "Animals", an [[List of Men Behaving Badly episodes#ep4|episode of ''Men Behaving Badly'']] * "Animals", an episode of ''[[Off the Air (TV series)#ep1|Off the Air]]'' * "Animals", an [[List of The Vicar of Dibley episodes#ep6|episode of ''The Vicar of Dibley'']] * [[Animal (audio play)|''Animal'' (audio play)]], an audio drama based on the television series ''Doctor Who'' ===Fictional characters=== * [[Animal (Muppet)]], a character from the television series ''The Muppet Show'' * Animal, a character in the television series ''[[Takeshi's Castle]]'' * Animal, played by Ken Hudson Campbell, a character on the TV sitcom ''[[Herman's Head]]'' ==Music== ===Bands=== * [[The Animals]], a British rock band * [[A.N.I.M.A.L.]], an Argentinian heavy metal band ===Albums=== * [[The Animals (American album)|''The Animals'' (American album)]] (1964), by the Animals * [[The Animals (British album)|''The Animals'' (British album)]] (1964), by the Animals * [[Animals (Pink Floyd album)|''Animals'' (Pink Floyd album)]] (1977) * ''Animal'' (1988), by [[the Bar-Kays]] * [[Animal (Motor Ace album)|''Animal'' (Motor Ace album)]] (2005) * [[Animal (Animosity album)|''Animal'' (Animosity album)]] (2007) * ''Animal!'' (2008), by [[Margot & the Nuclear So and So's]] * [[Animals (This Town Needs Guns album)|''Animals'' (This Town Needs Guns album)]] (2008) * ''Animal'' (2008), by [[Far East Movement]] * ''Animal'' (2009), by the London-based electronic band [[autoKratz]] * [[Animal (Kesha album)|''Animal'' (Kesha album)]] (2010) * ''Animal'' (2013), by [[Berlin (band)|Berlin]] * [[Animals (EP)]] (2013), by Ryan Starx ===Songs=== {{redirect-distinguish|Animal (song)|Animal song|The Animal Song}} * [[Animal (Conor Maynard song)|"Animal" (Conor Maynard song)]] * [[Animal (Def Leppard song)|"Animal" (Def Leppard song)]] * [[Animal (Jebediah song)|"Animal" (Jebediah song)]] * [[Animal (Juvenile song)|"Animal" (Juvenile song)]] * [[Animal (Kesha song)|"Animal" (Kesha song)]] * [[Animal (Miike Snow song)|"Animal" (Miike Snow song)]] * [[Animal (Neon Trees song)|"Animal" (Neon Trees song)]] * [[Animal (Pearl Jam song)|"Animal" (Pearl Jam song)]] * [[Animal (R.E.M. song)|"Animal" (R.E.M. song)]] * [[Animal (Troye Sivan song)|"Animal" (Troye Sivan song)]] * [[Animals (Kevin Ayers song)|"Animals" (Kevin Ayers song)]] * [[Animals (Maroon 5 song)|"Animals" (Maroon 5 song)]] * [[Animals (Martin Garrix song)|"Animals" (Martin Garrix song)]] * [[Animals (Muse song)|"Animals" (Muse song)]] * [[Animals (Nickelback song)|"Animals" (Nickelback song)]] * [[The Animal (Disturbed song)|"The Animal" (Disturbed song)]] * [[Animal (Fuck Like a Beast)|"Animal" (Fuck Like a Beast)]]", by W.A.S.P. * "Animal", by Against Me! from [[New Wave (Against Me! album)|''New Wave'']] * "Animal", by Ani DiFranco from ''[[Educated Guess]]'' * "Animal", by Black Light Burns from ''[[Cruel Melody]]'' * "Animal", by Ellie Goulding from [[Lights (Ellie Goulding album)|''Lights'']] * "Animal", by Karen O and the Kids from [[Where the Wild Things Are (soundtrack)|''Where the Wild Things Are'']] * "Animal", by Kat DeLuna from ''[[9 Lives (Kat DeLuna album)|9 Lives]]'' * "Animal", by Mindless Self Indulgence from [[If (Mindless Self Indulgence album)|''If'']] * "Animal", by [[Mudmen]] from ''Overrated'' * "Animal" by Subhumans from ''[[Demolition War]]'' * "Animal", by [[Sunhouse (band)|Sunhouse]] from ''Crazy On The Weekend'' * "Animal", by the Kinks from [[To the Bone (The Kinks album)|''To the Bone'']] * "Animal", by Toto from [[Past to Present 1977–1990]] * "Animals", by CocoRosie from ''[[The Adventures of Ghosthorse and Stillborn]]'' * "Animals", by Coldplay as one of the B-sides for [[Clocks (song)|"Clocks"]] * "Animals", by Dead Poetic from [[Vices (Dead Poetic album)|''Vices'']] * "Animals", by Talking Heads from ''[[Fear of Music]]'' * "Animals", by the End from [[Elementary (The End album)|''Elementary'']] * "The Animal", by Steve Vai from ''[[Passion and Warfare]]'' ==Other== * [[ANIMAL (computer worm)]], an early self-replicating computer program * [[ANIMAL (image processing)]], an interactive software environment for image processing * [[Animal (clothing)]], a sportswear retailer and brand based in the United Kingdom * [[Animal (restaurant)]], a restaurant based in Los Angeles, California, United States ==See also== * ''[[Animals, Animals, Animals]]'', an American educational television series (1976–1981) * [[Animalia (disambiguation)]] * [[Animalism (disambiguation)]] {{Disambiguation}} 62t201egyfp10mt13g36j369uvugt50 0 680 861707803 856886453 2018-09-29T12:08:04Z InternetArchiveBot 27015025 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0beta9) wikitext text/x-wiki {{Other uses}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2012}} {{speciesbox | name = Aardvark | fossil_range = {{Fossil range|5|0|Early [[Pliocene]] – Recent}} | image = Porc formiguer.JPG | image_caption = | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name="iucn">{{harvnb|Lindsey|Cilliers|Griffin|Taylor|2008}}</ref> | genus = Orycteropus | species = afer | authority = ([[Peter Simon Pallas|Pallas]], 1766) | subdivision_ranks = Subspecies | subdivision = See text | range_map = Aardvark area.png | range_map_caption = Aardvark range | range_map_alt = Map of Africa showing a highlighted range (in green) covering most of the continent south of the Sahara desert }} The '''aardvark''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɑːr|d|v|ɑːr|k|}} {{respell|ARD|vark}}; ''Orycteropus afer'') is a medium-sized, burrowing, [[nocturnal]] [[mammal]] native to [[Africa]].<ref name=EB>{{harvnb|Hoiberg|2010|pp=3–4}}</ref> It is the only living [[species]] of the order [[Tubulidentata]],<ref name="MSW3">{{harvnb|Schlitter|2005|p=86}}</ref><ref name=EoM/> although other prehistoric species and genera of Tubulidentata are known. Unlike other [[insectivore]]s, it has a long [[pig]]-like snout, which is used to sniff out food. It roams over most of the southern two-thirds of the African continent, avoiding areas that are mainly rocky. A nocturnal feeder, it subsists on ants and termites, which it will dig out of their hills using its sharp claws and powerful legs. It also digs to create burrows in which to live and rear its young. It receives a "least concern" rating from the [[IUCN]], although its numbers seem to be decreasing. ==Naming and taxonomy== === Naming === The aardvark is sometimes colloquially called "African ant bear",<ref name="Colliers">{{harvnb|Goodwin|1997|pp=2–3}}</ref> "anteater" (not to be confused with the [[anteater|South American anteater]]), or the "Cape anteater"<ref name=Colliers/> after the [[Cape of Good Hope]]. The name "aardvark" ({{IPA-af|ˈɑːrtfark}}) comes from earlier [[Afrikaans]] (erdvark)<ref name=Colliers/> and means "earth [[pig]]" or "ground pig" (''aarde'': earth/ground, ''vark'': pig), because of its burrowing habits.<ref>{{harvnb|Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary|2010}}</ref><ref> "aardvark, n." ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, March 2018, www.oed.com/view/Entry/22. Accessed 24 May 2018.</ref> The name ''Orycteropus'' means burrowing foot, and the name ''afer'' refers to Africa.<ref name=sho/> The name of the aardvarks's order, ''Tubulidentata,'' comes from the tubule-style teeth.<ref name=sho1>{{harvnb|Shoshani|2002|p=619}}</ref> === Taxonomy === The aardvark is not closely related to the pig; rather, it is the sole extant representative of the obscure mammalian [[order (biology)|order]] [[Tubulidentata]],<ref name=sho>{{harvnb|Shoshani|2002|p=618}}</ref> in which it is usually considered to form one variable species of the genus ''[[Orycteropus]]'', the sole surviving genus in the family [[Orycteropodidae]]. The aardvark is not closely related to the [[South America]]n [[anteater]], despite sharing some characteristics and a superficial resemblance.<ref name=awf/> The similarities are based on [[convergent evolution]].<ref name=UR2/> The closest living relatives of the aardvark are the [[elephant shrew]]s, [[tenrecidae|tenrec]]s and [[golden mole]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Asher|Bennett|Lehmann|2009|p=854}}</ref> Along with the [[sirenian]]s, [[hyrax]]es, [[elephant]]s,<ref>{{harvnb|Rodriguez|2013|p=6}}</ref> and their extinct relatives, these animals form the superorder [[Afrotheria]].<ref name=UR>{{harvnb|Rahm|1990|pp=450–451}}</ref> Studies of the brain have shown the similarities with [[Condylarthra]],<ref name=UR2/> and given the clade's status as a [[wastebasket taxon]] it may mean some species traditionally classified as "condylarths" are actually stem-aardvarks.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}} === Evolutionary history === Based on fossils, Bryan Patterson has concluded that early relatives of the aardvark appeared in [[Africa]] around the end of the [[Paleocene]].<ref name=UR2/><ref name=sho2>{{harvnb|Shoshani|2002|p=620}}</ref> The [[ptolemaiida]]ns, a mysterious clade of mammals with uncertain affinities, may actually be stem-aardvarks, either as a sister clade to [[Tubulidentata]] or as a grade leading to true tubulidentates.<ref name="Cote et al 2007">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cote S, Werdelin L, Seiffert ER, Barry JC |title=Additional material of the enigmatic Early Miocene mammal ''Kelba'' and its relationship to the order Ptolemaiida |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci USA |volume=104 |issue=13 |pages=5510–5 |date=March 2007 |pmid=17372202 |pmc=1838468 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0700441104 |bibcode = 2007PNAS..104.5510C }}</ref><ref name=Seifert2007>{{cite journal|last=Seiffert|first=Erik R|title=A new estimate of afrotherian phylogeny based on simultaneous analysis of genomic, morphological, and fossil evidence|journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology|year=2007|volume=7|issue=1|pages=224|doi=10.1186/1471-2148-7-224|url=http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/7/224|pmid=17999766|pmc=2248600}}</ref> The first unambiguous tubulidentate was probably ''[[Myorycteropus africanus]]'' from [[Kenya]]n [[Miocene]] deposits.<ref name=UR2/> The earliest example from the genus ''[[Orycteropus]]'' was ''[[Orycteropus mauritanicus]]'', found in [[Algeria]] in deposits from the middle Miocene, with an equally old version found in Kenya.<ref name=UR2/> Fossils from the aardvark have been dated to 5 million years, and have been located throughout [[Europe]] and the [[Near East]].<ref name=UR2/> The mysterious Pleistocene ''[[Plesiorycteropus]]'' from [[Madagascar]] was originally thought to be a tubulidentate that was descended from ancestors that entered the island during the [[Eocene]]. However, a number of subtle anatomical differences coupled with recent molecular evidence now lead researchers to believe that ''Plesiorycteropus'' is a relative of golden moles and tenrecs that achieved an aardvark-like appearance and ecological niche through convergent evolution.<ref>Buckley, M. 2013. A molecular phylogeny of Plesiorycteropus reassigns the extinct mammalian order 'Bibymalagasia'. PLoS ONE 8(3):e59614.</ref> ===Subspecies=== The aardvark has seventeen poorly defined subspecies listed:<ref name="MSW3"/> * ''Orycteropus afer afer'' * ''O. a. adametzi'' <small> Grote, 1921</small> * ''O. a. aethiopicus'' <small> [[Carl Jakob Sundevall|Sundevall]], 1843</small> * ''O. a. angolensis'' <small> Zukowsky & [[Theodor Haltenorth|Haltenorth]], 1957</small> * ''O. a. erikssoni'' <small> [[Einar Lönnberg|Lönnberg]], 1906</small> * ''O. a. faradjius'' <small> Hatt, 1932</small> * ''O. a. haussanus'' <small> [[Paul Matschie|Matschie]], 1900</small> * ''O. a. kordofanicus'' <small> [[Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild|Rothschild]], 1927</small> * ''O. a. lademanni'' <small> Grote, 1911</small> * ''O. a. leptodon'' <small> Hirst, 1906</small> * ''O. a. matschiei'' <small> Grote, 1921</small> * ''O. a. observandus'' <small>Grote, 1921</small> * ''O. a. ruvanensis'' <small>Grote, 1921</small> * ''O. a. senegalensis'' <small>[[René Primevère Lesson|Lesson]], 1840</small> * ''O. a. somalicus'' <small>[[Richard Lydekker|Lydekker]], 1908</small> * ''O. a. wardi'' <small>Lydekker, 1908</small> * ''O. a. wertheri'' <small> Matschie, 1898</small> The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica also mentions ''O. a. capensis'' or Cape ant-bear from South Africa.<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Aard-vark|volume=1|page=2}}</ref> ==Description== [[File:Aardvark skeleton mount.JPG|thumb|right|An aardvark skeleton and mounted individual]] The aardvark is vaguely pig-like in appearance. Its body is stout with a prominently arched back<ref name=UR1>{{harvnb|Rahm|1990|p=452}}</ref> and is sparsely covered with coarse hairs. The limbs are of moderate length, with the rear legs being longer than the forelegs.<ref name=UR/> The front feet have lost the pollex (or 'thumb'), resulting in four toes, while the rear feet have all five toes. Each toe bears a large, robust [[Nail (anatomy)|nail]] which is somewhat flattened and shovel-like, and appears to be intermediate between a [[claw]] and a hoof. Whereas the aardvark is considered [[digitigrade]], it appears at time to be [[plantigrade]]. This confusion happens because when it squats it stands on its soles.<ref name=UR1/> An aardvark's weight is typically between {{convert|60|and(-)|80|kg}}.<ref name=UR/> An aardvark's length is usually between {{convert|105|and(-)|130|cm|ft}},<ref name=EoM/> and can reach lengths of {{convert|2.2|m}} when its tail (which can be up to {{convert|70|cm}}) is taken into account. It is {{convert|60|cm|in}} tall at the shoulder, and has a girth of about {{convert|100|cm|ft}}.<ref name=UR1/> It is the [[Largest organisms|largest]] member of the proposed clade [[Afroinsectiphilia]]. The aardvark is pale yellowish-gray in color and often stained reddish-brown by [[soil]]. The aardvark's coat is thin, and the animal's primary protection is its tough skin. Its hair is short on its head and tail; however its legs tend to have longer hair.<ref name=EoM/> The hair on the majority of its body is grouped in clusters of 3-4 hairs.<ref name=UR1/> The hair surrounding its nostrils is dense to help filter particulate matter out as it digs. Its tail is very thick at the base and gradually tapers. ===Head=== The greatly elongated head is set on a short, thick neck, and the end of the snout bears a disc, which houses the nostrils. It contains a thin but complete [[zygomatic arch]].<ref name=UR1/> The head of the aardvark contains many unique and different features. One of the most distinctive characteristics of the Tubulidentata is their [[Tooth|teeth]]. Instead of having a [[pulp (tooth)|pulp cavity]], each tooth has a cluster of thin, hexagonal, upright, parallel tubes of vasodentin (a modified form of [[dentine]]), with individual pulp canals, held together by [[cementum]].<ref name=UR/> The number of columns is dependent on the size of the tooth, with the largest having about 1,500.<ref name=UR2/> The teeth have no [[Tooth enamel|enamel]] coating and are worn away and regrow continuously.<ref name=sho1/> The aardvark is born with conventional incisors and [[canine tooth|canines]] at the front of the jaw, which fall out and are not replaced. Adult aardvarks have only cheek teeth at the back of the [[jaw]], and have a [[dentition|dental formula]] of: {{DentalFormula|upper=0.0.2-3.3|lower=0.0.2.3}} These remaining teeth are peg-like and rootless and are of unique composition.<ref>{{harvnb|Martin|1983|p=377}}</ref> The teeth consist of 14 upper and 12 lower jaw molars.<ref name=Colliers/> The nasal area of the aardvark is another unique area, as it contains ten [[nasal concha]]e, more than any other placental mammal.<ref name=UR/> The sides of the nostrils are thick with hair.<ref name=UR1/> The tip of the snout is highly mobile and is moved by modified [[mimetic muscles]].<ref name=UR/> The fleshy dividing tissue between its nostrils probably has sensory functions,<ref name=EoM/> but it is uncertain whether they are olfactory or vibratory in nature.<ref name=UR6>{{harvnb|Rahm|1990|p=458}}</ref> Its nose is made up of more [[turbinate]] bones than any other mammal, with between 9 and 11, compared to dogs with 4 to 5.<ref name=sho1/> With a large quantity of turbinate bones, the aardvark has more space for the moist [[epithelium]], which is the location of the olfactory bulb.<ref name=sho1/> The nose contains nine [[olfactory bulb]]s, more than any other mammal.<ref name=UR1/> Its keen sense of smell is not just from the quantity of bulbs in the nose but also in the development of the brain, as its [[Olfactory bulb|olfactory lobe]] is very developed.<ref name=UR2>{{harvnb|Rahm|1990|pp=453–454}}</ref> The snout resembles an elongated pig snout. The mouth is small and tubular, typical of species that feed on [[ant]]s and [[termite]]s. The aardvark has a long, thin, snakelike, protruding tongue (as much as {{convert|30|cm|in}} long)<ref name=Colliers/> and elaborate structures supporting a keen [[olfaction|sense of smell]].<ref name="TaylorSkinner">{{harvnb|Taylor|Skinner|2004|p=106}}</ref> The ears, which are very effective,<ref name=Colliers/> are disproportionately long, about {{convert|20|-|25|cm|in}} long.<ref name=UR1/> The eyes are small for its head, and consist only of [[rod cell|rods]].<ref name=UR1/> ===Digestive system=== The aardvark's stomach has a muscular [[pyloric]] area that acts as a [[gizzard]] to grind swallowed food up, thereby rendering chewing unnecessary.<ref name=EoM/> Its [[cecum]] is large.<ref name=UR/> Both sexes emit a strong smelling secretion from an anal gland.<ref name=EoM/> Its [[salivary gland]]s are highly developed and almost completely ring the neck;<ref name=UR/> their output is what causes the tongue to maintain its tackiness.<ref name=UR1/> The female has two pairs of [[teat]]s in the inguinal region.<ref name=UR/> [[Gene]]tically speaking, the aardvark is a [[living fossil]], as its [[chromosome]]s are highly conserved, reflecting much of the early [[eutherian]] arrangement before the divergence of the major modern [[taxon|taxa]].<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2003}}</ref> ==Habitat and range== Aardvarks are found in [[sub-Saharan Africa]], where suitable [[habitat]] ([[savanna]]s, [[grassland]]s, [[woodland]]s and [[bushland]]) and food (i.e., [[ants]] and [[termites]]) is available.<ref name="awf">{{harvnb|African Wildlife Foundation|2013}}</ref> They spend the daylight hours in dark underground burrows to avoid the heat of the day.<ref name=ez>{{harvnb|Anon|2013}}</ref> The only major habitat that they are not present in is swamp forest, as the high water table precludes digging to a sufficient depth.<ref name="iucn"/> They also avoid terrain rocky enough to cause problems with digging.<ref name=UR3>{{harvnb|Rahm|1990|p=455}}</ref> They have been documented as high as {{convert|3200|m|ft}} in Ethiopia. They are present throughout sub-Saharan Africa all the way to South Africa with few exceptions. These exceptions include the coastal areas of [[Namibia]], [[Ivory Coast]], and [[Ghana]]. They are not found in Madagascar.<ref name="iucn"/> ==Ecology and behavior== [[File:Orycteropus afer.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Aardvark resting]] [[File:Erdvarkgat, Dingaanstat.jpg|thumb|right|Entrance to a burrow]] [[File:SanWild17.jpg|thumb|right|Emerging from a burrow]] Aardvarks live for up to 23&nbsp;years in [[captivity (animal)|captivity]].<ref name=UR/> Its keen hearing warns it of predators: [[lion]]s, [[leopard]]s, cheetahs, [[African wild dog|hunting dog]]s, [[hyena]]s, and [[pythonidae|pythons]].<ref name=Colliers/><ref name=UR6/> Some humans also hunt aardvarks for meat.<ref name=Colliers/> Aardvarks can dig fast or run in zigzag fashion to elude enemies, but if all else fails, they will strike with their claws, tail and shoulders, sometimes flipping onto their backs lying motionless except to lash out with all four feet.<ref name=UR6/> They are capable of causing substantial damage to unprotected areas of an attacker.<ref name=sho1/> They will also dig to escape as they can, when pressed, dig extremely quickly.<ref name=UR6/> ===Feeding=== The aardvark is [[nocturnal]] and is a solitary creature that feeds almost exclusively on [[ant]]s and [[termite]]s ([[myrmecophagy]]);<ref name="EoM">{{harvnb|van Aarde|1984|pp=466–467}}</ref> the only fruit eaten by aardvarks is the [[aardvark cucumber]].<ref name=UR6/> In fact, the cucumber and the aardvark have a symbiotic relationship as they eat the subterranean fruit, then defecate the seeds near their burrows, which then grow rapidly due to the loose soil and fertile nature of the area. The time spent in the intestine of the aardvark helps the fertility of the seed, and the fruit provides needed moisture for the aardvark.<ref name=sho1/><ref name=UR6/> They avoid eating the African [[driver ant]] and red ants.<ref name=UR4/> Due to their stringent diet requirements, they require a large range to survive.<ref name=UR3/> An aardvark emerges from its burrow in the late afternoon or shortly after sunset, and forages over a considerable home range encompassing {{convert|10|to|30|km|mi}}. While foraging for food, the aardvark will keep its nose to the ground and its ears pointed forward, which indicates that both smell and hearing are involved in the search for food. They zig-zag as they forage and will usually not repeat a route for 5–8 days as they appear to allow time for the termite nests to recover before feeding on it again.<ref name=UR4/> During a foraging period, they will stop and dig a "V" shaped trench with their forefeet and then sniff it profusely as a means to explore their location.<ref name=EoM/> When a concentration of ants or termites is detected, the aardvark digs into it with its powerful front legs, keeping its long ears upright to listen for predators, and takes up an astonishing number of [[insect]]s with its long, sticky tongue—as many as 50,000 in one night have been recorded. Its claws enable it to dig through the extremely hard crust of a termite or ant mound quickly. It avoids inhaling the dust by sealing the nostrils.<ref name=ez/> When successful, the aardvark's long (up to {{convert|30|cm|in}})<ref name=EB/> tongue licks up the insects; the termites' biting, or the ants' stinging attacks are rendered futile by the tough skin. After an aardvark visit at a termite mound, other animals will visit to pick up all the leftovers.<ref name=UR5>{{harvnb|Rahm|1990|p=457}}</ref> Termite mounds alone don't provide enough food for the aardvark, so they look for termites that are on the move. When these insects move, they can form columns {{convert|10|-|40|m|ft}} long and these tend to provide easy pickings with little effort exerted by the aardvark. These columns are more common in areas of livestock or other hoofed animals.<ref name=UR5/> The trampled grass and dung attract termites from [[Odontotermes]], [[Microtermes]], and [[Pseudacanthotermes]] genera.<ref name=UR5/> On a nightly basis they tend to be more active during the first portion of the night time (20:00-00:00); however, they don't seem to prefer bright or dark nights over the other. During adverse weather or if disturbed they will retreat to their burrow systems. They cover between {{convert|2|and|5|km|mi}} per night; however, some studies have shown that they may traverse as far as {{convert|30|km|mi}} in a night.<ref name=EoM/> ===Vocalization=== The aardvark is a rather quiet animal. However, it does make soft grunting sounds as it forages and loud grunts as it makes for its tunnel entrance.<ref name=UR3/> It makes a bleating sound if frightened.<ref name=UR4>{{harvnb|Rahm|1990|p=456}}</ref> When it is threatened it will make for one of its burrows. If one is not close it will dig a new one rapidly. This new one will be short and require the aardvark to back out when the coast is clear.<ref name=UR4/> ===Movement=== The aardvark is known to be a good swimmer and has been witnessed successfully swimming in strong currents.<ref name=UR4/> It can dig a yard of tunnel in about five minutes,<ref name=UR3/> but otherwise moves fairly slowly. When leaving the burrow at night, they pause at the entrance for about ten minutes, sniffing and listening. After this period of watchfulness, it will bound out and within seconds it will be {{convert|10|m|ft}} away. It will then pause, prick its ears, twisting its head to listen, then jump and move off to start foraging.<ref name=UR3/> Aside from digging out ants and termites, the aardvark also [[fossorial|excavates]] burrows in which to live; of which they generally fall into three categories: burrows made while foraging, refuge and resting location, and permanent homes.<ref name=EoM/> Temporary sites are scattered around the home range and are used as refuges, while the main [[burrow]] is also used for breeding. Main burrows can be deep and extensive, have several entrances and can be as long as {{convert|13|m|ft}}.<ref name=EoM/> These burrows can be large enough for a man to enter.<ref name=Colliers/> The aardvark changes the layout of its home burrow regularly, and periodically moves on and makes a new one. The old burrows are an important part of the African wildlife scene. As they are vacated, then they are inhabited by smaller animals like the [[African Wild Dog|African wild dog]], [[ant-eating chat]], ''[[Nycteris thebaica]]'' and [[warthog]]s.<ref name=UR4/> Other animals that use them are hares, mongooses, hyenas, owls, pythons, and lizards. Without these refuges many animals would die during wildfire season.<ref name=UR4/> Only mothers and young share burrows; however, the aardvark is known to live in small family groups or as a solitary creature.<ref name=Colliers/> If attacked in the tunnel, it will escape by digging out of the tunnel thereby placing the fresh fill between it and its predator, or if it decides to fight it will roll onto its back, and attack with its claws.<ref name=Colliers/> The aardvark has been known to sleep in a recently excavated [[ant]] nest, which also serves as protection from its [[predator]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2013a}}</ref> ===Reproduction=== [[File:Aardvarks.jpg|thumb|right|Aardvark mother and young]] Aardvarks pair only during the breeding season; after a [[gestation]] period of seven months,<ref name=EoM/> one cub weighing around {{convert|1.7|-|1.9|kg|lb}}<ref name=UR/> is born during May–July.<ref name=Colliers/> When born, the young has flaccid ears and many wrinkles. When nursing, it will nurse off each teat in succession.<ref name=UR6/> After two weeks, the folds of skin disappear and after three, the ears can be held upright.<ref name=UR6/> After 5–6 weeks, body hair starts growing.<ref name=UR6/> It is able to leave the burrow to accompany its mother after only two weeks and eats termites at 9&nbsp;weeks,<ref name=UR6/> and is weaned between three months<ref name=UR/> and 16&nbsp;weeks.<ref name=EoM/> At six months of age, it is able to dig its own burrows, but it will often remain with the mother until the next [[mating season]],<ref name=EoM/> and is sexually mature from approximately two years of age.<ref name=UR/> ==Conservation== Aardvarks were thought to have declining numbers,<ref name=Colliers/> however, this is possibly due to the fact that they are not readily seen.<ref name="iucn"/> There are no definitive counts because of their nocturnal and secretive habits; however, their numbers seem to be stable overall. They are not considered common anywhere in Africa, but due to their large range, they maintain sufficient numbers. There may be a slight decrease in numbers in eastern, northern, and western Africa. Southern African numbers are not decreasing. It receives an official designation from the IUCN as [[least concern]].<ref name="iucn"/> However, they are a species in a precarious situation, as they are so dependent on such specific food; therefore if a problem arises with the abundance of termites, the species as a whole would be affected drastically.<ref name=EoM/> Aardvarks handle captivity well. The first zoo to have one was [[London Zoo]] in 1869, which had an animal from [[South Africa]].<ref name=UR6/> ==Mythology and popular culture== [[File:F-14A Tomcat of VF-114 in flight 1977.jpg|thumb|200px|F-14 Tomcat from VF-114 Aardvarks with the squadron mascot painted on the tail]] In [[African folklore]], the aardvark is much admired because of its diligent quest for food and its fearless response to [[army ant|soldier ants]]. [[Hausa people|Hausa]] magicians make a charm from the heart, skin, forehead, and nails of the aardvark, which they then proceed to pound together with the root of a certain tree. Wrapped in a piece of skin and worn on the chest, the charm is said to give the owner the ability to pass through walls or roofs at night. The charm is said to be used by burglars and those seeking to visit young girls without their parents' permission.<ref>{{harvnb|Rebecca|2007}}</ref> Also, some tribes, such as the [[Mangbetu people|Margbetu]], [[Ayanda]], and [[Logo people|Logo]],<ref name=EoM/> will use aardvark teeth to make bracelets, which are regarded as good luck charms.<ref name=Colliers/> The meat, which has a resemblance to pork, is eaten in certain cultures.<ref name=EoM/> The [[Egyptian mythology|Egyptian god]] [[Set (mythology)|Set]] is usually depicted with the head of an [[Set animal|unidentified animal]], whose similarity to an aardvark has been noted in scholarship.<ref>{{harvnb|te Velde|1997|p=13}}</ref> The [[Arthur Read|titular character]] of ''[[Arthur (TV series)|Arthur]]'', an animated television series for children based on a book series and produced by [[WGBH-TV|WGBH]], shown in more than 180 countries, is an aardvark.<ref>{{harvnb|WGBH|2013}}</ref> [[Otis the Aardvark]] was a puppet character used on [[Children's BBC]] programming. An aardvark features as the antagonist in the cartoon ''[[The Ant and the Aardvark]]'' as well as in the Canadian animated series ''[[The Raccoons]]''. In the military, the Air Force supersonic fighter-bomber [[General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark|F-111/FB-111]] was nicknamed the Aardvark because of its long nose resembling the animal. It also had similarities with its nocturnal missions flown at a very low level employing ordnance that could penetrate deep into the ground. In the US Navy, the squadron [[VF-114]] was nicknamed the Aardvarks, flying [[McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II|F-4]]s and then [[Grumman F-14 Tomcat|F-14]]s. The squadron mascot was adapted from the animal in the comic strip ''[[B.C. (comic strip)#Animals and other non-human characters|B.C.]]'', which the F-4 was said to resemble. [[Cerebus the Aardvark]] is a 300-issue comic book series by Dave Sim. ==Footnotes== {{Reflist|30em}} ==References== {{refbegin|2}} * {{cite web | author = African Wildlife Foundation | title = Aardvark | publisher = African Wildlife Foundation | url=http://www.awf.org/content/wildlife/detail/aardvark | accessdate = 2013-11-18 | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080105044436/http://www.awf.org/content/wildlife/detail/aardvark | archivedate= 5 January 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no | year = 2013 | ref = harv }} * {{cite web|author=Anon |title=All About Aardvarks |url=http://www.easyscienceforkids.com/all-about-aardvarks.html |website=Easy Science for Kids |publisher=Online Science Tutor for Kids |accessdate=2013-11-18 |year=2013 |ref=harv |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111151040/http://www.easyscienceforkids.com/all-about-aardvarks.html |archivedate=11 November 2013 }} * {{cite web|author=Anon |website=Animal Corner |year=2013a |title=Rainforest Aardvark |url=http://www.animalcorner.co.uk/rainforests/aardvark.html |accessdate=10 January 2014 |ref=harv |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726194347/http://www.animalcorner.co.uk/rainforests/aardvark.html |archivedate=26 July 2013 }} * {{cite web | author = Anon | title = Great Uncle Aardvark? | website = BBC News | date = 20 January 2003 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2676377.stm | accessdate = 2013-11-18 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080207170352/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2676377.stm | archivedate = 7 February 2008 | ref = harv }} * {{Cite journal | last = Asher | first = R. J. | last2 = Bennett | first2 = N. | last3 = Lehmann | first3 = T. | title = The new framework for understanding placental mammal evolution | journal = BioEssays | volume = 31 | issue = 8 | pages = 853–864 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19582725| pmc = | doi = 10.1002/bies.200900053 | ref = harv}} * {{cite encyclopedia | last1 = Goodwin | first1 = George G. | editor-last = Johnston | editor-first = Bernard | encyclopedia = Collier's Encyclopedia | title = Aardvark | edition = 1st | year = 1997 | publisher = P.F. Collier | volume = I: A to Ameland | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1571610935 | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last = Hoiberg | editor-first = Dale H. | encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica | title = Aardvark | edition = 15th | year = 2010 | publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. | volume = I: A-ak Bayes | location = Chicago, IL | isbn = 978-1-59339-837-8 | ref = harv }} * {{IUCN | version = 2008 | assessor = Lindsey, P. | assessor2 = Cilliers, S. | assessor3 = Griffin, M. | assessor4 = Taylor, A. | assessor5 = Lehmann, T. | assessor6 = Rathbun, G. | year = 2008 | id = 41504 | title = Orycteropus afer | downloaded = 2013-11-18|ref={{harvid|Lindsey|Cilliers|Griffin|Taylor|2008}} }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last = Martin | first = Elizabeth A. | encyclopedia = MacMillan Dictionary of Life Sciences | title = Tubulidentata | isbn = 978-0333348673 | year = 1983 | edition = 2nd | publisher = MacMillan | ref = harv }} * {{cite web | author = Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary | title = aardvark | year = 2010 | website = Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary | accessdate = 2013-11-18 | url = http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/aardvark | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last = Rahm | first = Urs | editor-last = Parker | editor-first = Sybil P. | title = Tubulidentates: Aardvark | encyclopedia = Grzimek's Encyclopedia of Mammals | volume = 4 | publisher = McGraw-Hill Publishing Company | location = New York, NY | isbn = 0-07-909508-9 | year = 1990 | pp = 450 458 | ref = harv }} * {{cite web | author = Rebecca | title = Cute as a Button but a Pain in my Butt: The Aardvark | url = http://www.themagicalbuffet.com/Issues/Vol02_Iss07/Article_049.html | accessdate = 2013-11-18 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080117180543/http://www.themagicalbuffet.com/Issues/Vol02_Iss07/Article_049.html | archivedate = 17 January 2008 <!--DASHBot--> | deadurl = no | year = 2007 | ref = harv }} * {{cite journal | last = Rodriguez | first = Tommy | title = Technological Perspectives in Phylogeny Research: Revisiting Comparative Analysis of Complete Mitochondrial Genomes for Time-Extended Lineages | journal = Figshare | url = https://dx.doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.804317 | doi = 10.6084/m9.figshare.804317 | year = 2013 | format = PDF | pages = 1–9 | ref = harv}} * {{MSW3 Tubulidentata | id = 11300004|ref={{harvid|Schlitter|2005}} }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last = Shoshani | first = Jeheskel | editor-last = Robertson | editor-first = Sarah | title = Tubulidentata | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Life Sciences | year = 2002 | volume = 18: Svedberg, Theodor to Two-hybrid and Related Systems | publisher = Nature Publishing Group | location = London, UK | isbn = 1-56159-274-9 | ref = harv }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Taylor | first1 = W. A. | last2 = Skinner | first2 = J. D. | title = Adaptations of the Aardvark for Survival in the Karoo: A Review | journal = Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa | volume = 59 | issue = 2 | publisher = Taylor & Francis | year = 2004 | doi = 10.1080/00359190409519169 | url = http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00359190409519169#preview | pages = 105–108 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = te Velde | first = Henk | title = Seth, God of Confusion: A Study of His Role in Egyptian Mythology and Religion (Ancient Near East) | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0po3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA13 | year = 1997 | publisher = Brill Academic Pub | isbn = 978-9004054028 | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last = van Aarde | first = Rudi J. | editor-last = Macdonald | editor-first = David | title = Aardvark | encyclopedia = The Encyclopedia of Mammals | year = 1984 | publisher = Facts on File Publications | location = New York, NY | isbn = 0-87196-871-1 | ref = harv}} * {{cite web | author = WGBH | url = https://www.pbs.org/parents/arthur/program/prog_summary.html | title = About the Program: "Arthur" | website = PBS.org | publisher = Public Broadcasting System | year = 2013 | ref = harv }} {{refend}} ==External links== {{Wikispecies|Orycteropus afer}} {{Commons|Orycteropus afer}} * {{Cite web | url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Z5OoBqqYsk&t=0m46s | title = Aardvarks at the Bronx Zoo | accessdate = 2013-11-18 }} * [http://www.aardvarkafrica.org IUCN/SSC Afrotheria Specialist Group - Aardvark website] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080907110513/http://www.wackywildlifewonders.com/files/animals/antbear.html Antbear/Aardvark] at wackywildlifewonders.com * [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Orycteropus_afer.html Information] at Animal Diversity Web: [[University of Michigan]] Museum of Zoology * [[wikisource:File:Aardvark.pdf|"The Biology of the Aardvark"]] (''Orycteropus afer'') diploma thesis (without pictures) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080414134457/http://www.tierseiten.com/roehrenzaehner/aardvark.pdf "The Biology of the Aardvark" (''Orycteropus afer'')] same diploma thesis (including the pictures) * [http://www.zooborns.typepad.com/zooborns/aardvark/ Some good photos of baby aardvarks] * {{Wikisource-inline|list= ** "[[s:Popular Science Monthly/Volume 14/March 1879/The Aard-Vark or Earth-Hog|The Aard-Vark or Earth-Hog]]" in ''[[Popular Science Monthly]]'', Vol. 14 (March 1879) ** {{Cite NSRW|wstitle=Aardvark |short=x |noicon=x}} ** {{Cite Collier's|wstitle=Aard-vark |short=x |noicon=x}} }} {{mammals}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q46212}} [[Category:Mammals of Africa]] [[Category:Myrmecophagous mammals]] [[Category:Living fossils]] [[Category:Mammals described in 1766]] [[Category:Extant Zanclean first appearances]] 05jah17xcwdw6d0qlo39fuvt8b2l7ge 0 681 861707859 860953513 2018-09-29T12:08:35Z InternetArchiveBot 27015025 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0beta9) wikitext text/x-wiki {{other uses}} {{Speciesbox | taxon = Proteles cristata | parent_authority = [[Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire|I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire]], 1824 | authority = [[Anders Sparrman|Sparrman]], 1783 | display_parents = 2 | name = Aardwolf | fossil_range = [[Pleistocene]] – [[Recent]] | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = {{refn | group = nb |Database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is of least concern <ref name="IUCN">{{harvnb|Anderson|Mills|2008}}</ref>}} | image = Proteles cristatus1.jpg | image_upright = 1.2 | image_caption = An aardwolf in Namib-Nord, [[Namibia]] | range_map = Aardwolf area.png | range_map_caption = Aardwolf range }} The '''aardwolf''' (''Proteles cristata'') is a small, [[insectivore|insectivorous]] [[mammal]], native to [[East Africa|East]] and [[Southern Africa]]. Its name means "earth-wolf" in [[Afrikaans]] and [[Dutch language|Dutch]].<ref name=EB/> It is also called "maanhaar-jackal"<ref name="OED">{{harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary Online|2013}}</ref> (Afrikaans for "[[:wikt:mane#English|mane]]-jackal") or ''civet hyena'', based on its habit of secreting substances from its [[anal gland]], a characteristic shared with the [[civet]].<ref name=ingo/> The aardwolf is in the same family as the [[hyena]]. Unlike many of its relatives in the order [[Carnivora]], the aardwolf does not hunt large [[animal]]s. It eats [[insect]]s and their [[larvae]],<ref name="wff">{{harvnb|Anon|1998|p=144}}</ref> mainly [[termite]]s; one aardwolf can lap up as many as 250,000 termites during a single night using its long, sticky tongue.<ref name=mh71/> The aardwolf lives in the [[shrubland]]s of eastern and southern Africa – open lands covered with stunted trees and shrubs. It is [[nocturnal]], resting in [[burrow]]s during the day and emerging at night to seek food. ==Taxonomy== The aardwolf is generally classified with the hyena family [[Hyaenidae]], though it was formerly placed in its own family Protelidae.{{refn|group=nb|Some sources such as Coetzee in Meester and Setzer (1977), Köhler and Ricardson (1990), and Yalden, Largen, and Koch (1980), classify the aardwolf in its own family still.<ref name=w1>{{harvnb|Nowak|2005|pp=222–223}}</ref>}} Early on, scientists felt that it was merely mimicking the [[striped hyena]], which subsequently led to the creation of Protelidae.<ref>{{harvnb|Brottman|2012|pp=28–29}}</ref> Recent studies have suggested that the aardwolf probably broke away from the rest of the hyena family early on; how early is still unclear, as the fossil record and genetic studies disagree by 10 million years.<ref name=koe>{{harvnb|Koepfli|Jenks|Eizirik|Zahirpour|2006|p=615}}</ref>{{refn| group = nb |The fossil record shows 18–20 mya, and genetic studies indicate roughly 10.6 mya.<ref name=koe/>}} The aardwolf is the only surviving species in the [[subfamily]] Protelinae. There is disagreement as to whether the species is [[Monotypic taxon|monotypic]].<ref name=Woz>{{harvnb|Wozencraft|2005|p=573}}</ref> or can be divided into [[subspecies]] ''P. c. cristatus'' of [[Southern Africa]] and ''P. c. septentrionalis'' of [[East Africa]].<ref name=ingo/><ref name=mh33/> ==Etymology== The [[genus|generic]] name ''proteles'' comes from two words both of [[Greek language|Greek]] origin, ''protos'' and ''teleos'' which combined means "complete in front" based on the fact that they have five toes on their front feet and four on the rear.<ref name=ingo/> The specific name, ''cristatus'', comes from [[Latin]] and means "provided with a comb", relating to their mane.<ref name=ingo/> ==Physical characteristics== [[Image:Aardwolf02.jpg|thumb|left|Detail of head – taken at the [[Cincinnati Zoo]]]] The aardwolf resembles a very thin [[striped hyena]], but with a more-slender [[snout|muzzle]], black vertical stripes on a coat of yellowish fur, and a long, distinct [[wikt:mane|mane]] down the midline of the neck and back. It also has one or two diagonal stripes down the fore- and hind-quarters, along with several stripes on its legs.<ref name=mh33>{{harvnb|Mills|Harvey|2001|p=33}}</ref> The mane is raised during confrontations to make the aardwolf appear larger. It is missing the throat spot that others in the family have.<ref name=ingo/> Its lower leg (from the knee down) is all black, and its tail is bushy with a black tip.<ref name=w1/> The aardwolf is about {{convert|55|to|80|cm|in|abbr=on}} long, excluding its bushy tail, which is about {{convert|20|-|30|cm|in|abbr=on}} long,<ref name=EB>{{harvnb|Hoiberg|2010|p=4}}</ref><ref name=w1/> and stands about {{convert|40|to|50|cm|in|abbr=on}} tall at the shoulders.<ref name="Colliers">{{harvnb|Goodwin|1997|p=3}}</ref> An adult aardwolf weighs approximately {{convert|7|–|10|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, sometimes reaching {{convert|15|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name=ingo>{{harvnb|Rieger|1990|pp=570–571}}</ref> The aardwolves in the south of the continent tend to be smaller (about {{convert|10|kg|lb|abbr=on}})than the eastern version (around {{convert|14|kg|lb|abbr=on}}).<ref name=mh33/> The front feet have five toes each, unlike the four-toed hyena.<ref name=EB/><ref>{{harvnb|Brottman|2012|p=29}}</ref> The teeth and skull are similar to those of other hyenas, though smaller,<ref name=Colliers/> and its cheek teeth are specialised for eating insects.<ref name=EB/> It does still have canines, but, unlike other hyenas, these teeth are used primarily for fighting and defense.<ref name=w1/> Its ears, which are large,<ref name=w1/> are very similar to those of the striped hyena.<ref name=ingo/> As an aardwolf ages, it will normally lose some of its teeth, though this has little impact on its feeding habits due to the softness of the insects that it eats.<ref name="wff" /> [[Image:Aardwolf Skull.JPG|thumb|left|Aardwolf [[skull]]]] ==Distribution and habitat== Aardwolves live in open, dry plains and [[bushland]], avoiding mountainous areas.<ref name=w1/> Due to their specific food requirements, they are only found in regions where termites of the family [[Hodotermitidae]] occur. Termites of this family depend on dead and withered grass and are most populous in heavily grazed [[grassland]]s and [[savannah]]s, including [[arable land|farmland]]. For most of the year, aardwolves spend time in shared territories consisting of up to a dozen dens, which are occupied for six weeks at a time.<ref name="wff" /> There are two distinct populations: one in Southern Africa, and another in East and Northeast Africa. The species does not occur in the intermediary [[miombo]] forests. An adult pair, along with their most-recent offspring, occupies a territory of {{convert|1|-|4|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref name=mh108>{{harvnb|Mills|Harvey|2001|pp=108–109}}</ref> ==Behavior== [[Image:Aardwolf.jpg|thumb|left|Aardwolf at the [[San Antonio Zoo and Aquarium|San Antonio Zoo]]]] Aardwolves are shy and [[nocturnal animal|nocturnal]], sleeping in underground burrows by day.<ref name=EB/> They will, on occasion during the winter, become diurnal feeders. This happens during the coldest periods as they then stay in at night to conserve heat.<ref name=br30>{{harvnb|Brottman|2012|p=30}}</ref> They have often been mistaken for solitary animals. In fact, they live as [[monogamous pairing in animals|monogamous pairs]] with their young.<ref>Richardson, P. R. K. "[https://journals.co.za/content/sajsci/83/7/AJA00382353_5361?crawler=true&mimetype=application/pdf Aardwolf mating system: overt cuckoldry in an apparently monogamous mammal]." South African Journal of Science 83.7 (1987): 405.</ref><ref name="koel">{{harvnb|Koehler|Richardson|1990|p=4}}</ref> If their territory is infringed upon, they will chase the intruder up to {{convert|400|m|ft|abbr=on}} or to the border.<ref name=mh108/> If the intruder is caught, which rarely happens,<ref name=mh108/> a fight will occur, which is accompanied by soft clucking,<ref name=br31/> hoarse barking, and a type of roar.<ref name=PKR/> The majority of incursions occur during mating season, when they can occur once or twice per week.<ref name=PKR/> When food is scarce, the stringent territorial system may be abandoned and as many as three pairs may occupy a "single territory".<ref name=PKR/> The territory is marked by both sexes, as they both have developed anal glands from which they extrude a black substance that is smeared on rocks or grass stalks in {{convert|5|mm|in|adj=on}}-long streaks.<ref name=PKR/> Aardwolves also have scent glands on the forefoot and penile pad.<ref>Stoeckelhuber, Mechthild, Alexander Sliwa, and Ulrich Welsch. "[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/1097-0185(20000701)259:3%3C312::AID-AR80%3E3.0.CO;2-X/full Histo‐physiology of the scent‐marking glands of the penile pad, anal pouch, and the forefoot in the aardwolf (Proteles cristatus)]." The anatomical record 259.3 (2000): 312-326.</ref> They often mark near termite mounds within their territory every 20 minutes or so. If they are patrolling their territorial boundaries, the marking frequency increases drastically, to once every {{convert|50|m|ft|abbr=on}}. At this rate, an individual may mark 60 marks per hour,<ref name=PKR/> and upwards of 200 per night.<ref name=mh108/> An aardwolf pair may have up to 10 dens, and numerous feces [[Midden#Other definitions|midden]]s, within their territory. When they deposit excreta at their middens, they dig a small hole and cover it with sand. Their dens are usually abandoned [[aardvark]], [[springhare]], or [[Old World porcupine|porcupine]] dens,<ref name=br31>{{harvnb|Brottman|2012|p=31}}</ref> or on occasion they are crevices in rocks. They will also dig their own dens, or enlarge dens started by springhares.<ref name=PKR/> They typically will only use one or two dens at a time, rotating through all of their dens every six months. During the summer, they may rest outside their den during the night, and sleep underground during the heat of the day. Aardwolves are not fast runners nor are they particularly adept at fighting off predators. Therefore, when threatened, the aardwolf may attempt to mislead its foe by doubling back on its tracks. If confronted, it may raise its mane in an attempt to appear more menacing. It also emits a foul-smelling liquid from its anal glands.<ref name=Colliers/> ===Feeding=== The aardwolf feeds primarily on termites and more specifically on ''[[Trinervitermes]]''.<ref name=mh71>{{harvnb|Mills|Harvey|2001|p=71}}</ref> This genus of termites has different species throughout the aardwolf's range. In East Africa, they eat ''[[Trinervitermes bettonianus]]'', and in central Africa, they eat ''[[Trinervitermes rhodesiensis]]'', and finally in southern Africa, they eat ''[[Trinervitermes trinervoides|T. trinervoides]]''.<ref name=EB/><ref name=mh71/><ref name=PKR>{{harvnb|Richardson|Bearder|1984|pp=158–159}}</ref> Their technique consists of licking them off the ground as opposed to the [[aardvark]], which digs into the mound.<ref name=br30/> They locate their food by sound and also from the scent secreted by the soldier termites.<ref name=PKR/> An aardwolf may consume up to 250,000 [[termites]] per night using its sticky, long tongue.<ref name=mh71/><ref name="wff" /> They do not destroy the termite mound or consume the entire colony, thus ensuring that the termites can rebuild and provide a continuous supply of food. They often memorize the location of such nests and return to them every few months.<ref name=br31/> During certain seasonal events, such as the onset of the rainy season and the cold of midwinter, the primary termites become scarce, so the need for other foods becomes pronounced. During these times, the southern aardwolf will seek out ''[[Hodotermes]] mossambicus'', a type of [[harvester termite]]<ref name=PKR/> active in the afternoon, which explains some of their diurnal behavior in the winter.<ref name=mh71/> The eastern aardwolf, during the rainy season, subsists on termites from the genera ''[[Odontotermes]]'' and ''[[Macrotermes]]''.<ref name=mh71/> They are also known to feed on other insects, larvae, eggs, and, some sources say, occasionally small mammals and birds, but these constitute a very small percentage of their total diet.<ref name=PKR/> Unlike other [[hyena]]s, aardwolves do not scavenge or kill larger animals.<ref name=w1/><ref name=br31/> Contrary to popular myths, aardwolves do not eat carrion, and if they are seen eating while hunched over a dead carcass, they are actually eating larvae and beetles.<ref name=w1/> Also, contrary to some sources, they do not like meat, unless it is finely ground or cooked for them.<ref name=w1/> The adult aardwolf was formerly assumed to forage in small groups,<ref name=Colliers/> but more recent research has shown that they are primarily solitary foragers,<ref name=koel/> necessary because of the scarcity of their insect prey. Their primary source, ''Trinervitermes'', forages in small but dense patches of {{convert|25|-|100|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name=PKR/> While foraging, the aardwolf can cover about {{convert|1|km|mi|abbr=on}} per hour, which translates to {{convert|8|-|12|km|mi|abbr=on}} per summer night and {{convert|3|-|8|km|mi|abbr=on}} per winter night.<ref name=w1/> ===Breeding=== The [[breeding season]] varies depending on location, but normally takes place during autumn or spring. In South Africa, breeding occurs in early July.<ref name=mh108/> During the breeding season, unpaired male aardwolves search their own territory, as well as others, for a female to mate with. Dominant males also mate opportunistically with the females of less dominant neighboring aardwolves,<ref name=mh108/> which can result in conflict between rival males.<ref name=ingo/> Dominant males even go a step further and as the breeding season approaches, they make increasingly greater and greater incursions onto weaker males' territories. As the female comes into [[oestrus]], they add pasting to their tricks inside of the other territories, sometimes doing so more in rivals' territories than their own.<ref name=mh108/> Females will also, when given the opportunity, mate with the dominant male, which increases the chances of the dominant male guarding "his" cubs with her.<ref name=mh108/> [[Copulation (zoology)|Copulation]] lasts between 1 and 4.5 hours.<ref>Sliwa, Alexander. "[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Alexander_Sliwa/publication/35640520_A_functional_analysis_of_scent_marking_and_mating_behaviour_in_the_aardwolf_Proteles_cristatus_Sparrman_1783/links/54edc8cd0cf272fc6d224e72.pdf A functional analysis of scent marking and mating behaviour in the aardwolf.]" Proteles cristatus (1996).</ref> [[Gestation]] lasts between 89 and 92 days,<ref name=ingo/><ref name=mh108/> producing two to five [[List of animal names|cubs]] (most often two or three) during the rainy season (November–December),<ref name=Colliers/> when termites are more active.<ref name=EB/> They are born with their eyes open, but initially are helpless,<ref name=PKR/> and weigh around {{convert|200|-|350|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref name=ingo/> The first six to eight weeks are spent in the [[Burrow|den]] with their parents.<ref name=br31/> The male may spend up to six hours a night watching over the cubs while the mother is out looking for food.<ref name=mh108/><ref name=PKR/> After three months, they begin supervised foraging, and by four months are normally independent, though they often share a den with their mother until the next breeding season.<ref name=br31/> By the time the next set of cubs is born, the older cubs have moved on.<ref name=mh108/> Aardwolves generally achieve [[sexual maturity]] at one and a half to two years of age.<ref name=ingo/> ==Conservation== The aardwolf has not seen decreasing numbers and they are relatively widespread throughout eastern Africa. They are not common throughout their range, as they maintain a density of no more than 1 per square kilometer, if the food is good. Because of these factors, the IUCN has rated the aardwolf as [[least concern]].<ref name="IUCN"/> In some areas, they are persecuted by man because of the mistaken belief that they prey on livestock; however, they are actually beneficial to the farmers because they eat termites that are detrimental.<ref name=PKR/> In other areas, the farmers have recognized this, but they are still killed, on occasion, for their fur. Dogs and insecticides<ref name="IUCN"/> are also common killers of the aardwolf.<ref name=br31/> ==Interaction with humans== Aardwolfs are common sights at zoos. [[Frankfurt Zoo]] in [[Germany]] was home to the oldest recorded aardwolf in captivity at 18 years and 11 months.<ref name=w1/> <!-- Commented out: [[Image:Aardwolf (Harvard University).JPG|thumb|''Proteles cristatus'']] --> [[Image:Aardwolf.png|thumb|Illustration of ''Proteles cristatus'']] ==Notes== {{Reflist | group = nb }} ==Footnotes== {{Reflist|30em}} ==References== * {{Wikicite | reference = {{IUCN2008 | assessor = Anderson, M. | assessor2 = Mills, G. | year = 2008 | id = 18372 | title = Proteles cristatus: Aardwolf | downloaded = 22 March 2009 }} | ref = {{harvid | Anderson | Mills | 2008}} }} * {{cite book | author = Anon | title = Wildlife Fact File | publisher = IMP Publishing Ltd. | year = 1998 | volume = Group 1 | pages = Card 144 | nopp = true | isbn = 978-1886614772 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Brottman | first = Mikita | editor-last = Burt | editor-first = Jonathon | title = Hyena | series = Animal | year = 2012 | pages = 28–32 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9wfhR4fBEDYC&printsec=frontcover | publisher = Reaktion Books | location = London, UK | isbn = 978-1-86189-9217 | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last1 = Goodwin | first1 = George G. | editor-last = Johnston | editor-first = Bernard | encyclopedia = Collier's Encyclopedia | title = Aardwolf | edition = 1st | year = 1997 | publisher = P.F. Collier | volume = I: A to Ameland | location = New York, NY | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last = Hoiberg | editor-first = Dale H. | encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica | title = Aardwolf | edition = 15th | year = 2010 | publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. | volume = I: A-Ak - Bayes | location = Chicago, IL | isbn = 978-1-59339-837-8 | ref = harv }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Koehler | first1 = C. E. | last2 = Richardson | first2 = P. R. K. | year = 1990 | title = Proteles cristatus | journal = [[Mammalian Species]] | volume = 363 | issue = | pages = 1–6 | jstor = 3504197 | publisher = American Society of Mammalogists | ref = harv }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Koepfli | first1 = Klaus-Peter | last2 = Jenks | first2 = Susan M. | last3 = Eizirik | first3 = Eduardo | last4 = Zahirpour | first4 = Tannaz | last5 = Van Valkenburgh | first5 = Blaire | last6 = Wayne | first6 = Robert K. | title = Molecular systematics of the Hyaenidae: Relationships of a Relictual Lineage Resolved by a Molecular Supermatrix | url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055790305003623 | format = PDF | year = 2006 | volume = 38 | issue = 3 | journal = Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution | pages = 603–620 | doi = 10.1016/j.ympev.2005.10.017 | issn = 1055-7903 | pmid=16503281 | ref = harv | citeseerx = 10.1.1.529.1977 }} * {{cite book | last1 = Mills | first1 = Gus | last2 = Harvey | first2 = Martin | title = African Predators | publisher = Smithsonian Institution Press | location = Washington, DC | year = 2001 | isbn = 1-56098-096-6 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Nowak | first = Ronald M. | title = Walker's Carnivores of the World | year = 2005 | isbn = 0-8018-8032-7 | publisher = The Johns Hopkins University Press | location = Baltimore, MD | ref = harv }} * {{cite web | author = Oxford English Dictionary Online | url = http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/243856?redirectedFrom=maanhaar& | title = maanhaar | year = 2013 | accessdate = 23 April 2014 | website = Oxford English Dictionary | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last1 = Richardson | first1 = Phillip K. R. | last2 = Bearder | first2 = Simon K. | editor1-last = MacDonald | editor1-first = David | encyclopedia = The Encyclopedia of Mammals | title = The Hyena Family | isbn = 0-87196-871-1 | publisher = Facts on File Publication | location = New York, NY | year = 1984 | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last = Rieger | first = Ingo | editor1-last = Parker | editor1-first = Sybil P. | title = Hyenas | encyclopedia = Grzimek's Encyclopedia of Mammals | volume = 3 | publisher = McGraw-Hill Publishing Company | location = New York, NY | isbn = 0-07-909508-9 | year = 1990 | ref = harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor1-last = Simpson | editor1-first = J. A. | editor2-last = Weiner | editor2-first = E. S. C. | encyclopedia = The Oxford English Dictionary | title = aard-wolf | year = 1989 | publisher = Clarendon Press | location = Oxford, UK | isbn = 0-19-861213-3 | edition = 2nd | volume = I: A — Bazouki | ref = harv }} * {{MSW3 Carnivora | id = 14000689 | page = 573}} ==Further reading== * {{cite book | last1 = Skinner | first1 = J. D. | last2 = Chimimba | first2 = Christian T. | title = The Mammals of the Southern African Sub-region | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=iqwEYkTDZf4C | accessdate = 15 March 2013 | year = 2006 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 978-0-521-84418-5 | edition = 3rd}} ==External links== {{Commons|Proteles cristata}} {{Wikispecies|Proteles cristata}} * [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Proteles_cristatus.html Animal Diversity Web] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100417192844/http://www.hyaenidae.org/the-hyaenidae/aardwolf-proteles-cristatus.html IUCN Hyaenidae Specialist Group Aardwolf pages on hyaenidae.org] * {{Wikisource-inline|list= ** {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Aard-wolf |short=x |noicon=x}} ** {{Cite Collier's|wstitle=Aard-wolf |short=x |noicon=x}} }} {{Carnivora|F.}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q185295}} {{use dmy dates|date=January 2012}} [[Category:Mammals described in 1783]] [[Category:Carnivorans of Africa]] [[Category:Hyenas]] [[Category:Mammals of Southern Africa]] [[Category:Fauna of East Africa]] [[Category:Myrmecophagous mammals]] jpjxgl3qjyjx2jqgev7vlci0slz5zl1 0 682 861862090 859193453 2018-09-30T15:52:54Z LazyMo 34780828 the word origin added wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|the building material|the software company|Adobe Systems}} {{Distinguish|abode|adobo}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} [[File:Adobe wall (detail) 1.jpg|thumb|200px|Adobe wall (detail) in Bahillo, [[Palencia]], Spain.]] [[File:AdobeSurfaceCoatingRenewalOnWall.jpg|thumb|Renewal of the surface [[coating]] of an adobe wall in [[Chamisal, New Mexico]]]] [[File:Qasroddasht.JPG|thumb|[[Shiraz]], [[Iran]]. Its urban gardens are separated by adobe walls.]] '''Adobe''' ({{IPAc-en|US|ə|ˈ|d|oʊ|b|i|audio=En-us-adobe.ogg}}, {{IPAc-en|UK|ə|ˈ|d|əʊ|b|i}};<ref>[https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/adobe definition of adobe from Oxford Dictionaries Online]. Retrieved 25 December 2010.</ref> {{IPA-es|aˈðoβe|lang}}) (from Arabic "''al-ṭub"''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/adobe|title=the definition of adobe|website=www.dictionary.com|language=en|access-date=2018-09-30}}</ref>'')'' is a building material made from earth and other organic materials. Adobe means [[mudbrick]] in Spanish, but in some English-speaking regions of Spanish heritage, the term is used to refer to any kind of earth construction. Most adobe buildings are similar in appearance to [[cob (material)|cob]] and [[rammed earth]] buildings. Adobe is among the earliest building materials, and is used throughout the world. ==Description== Adobe bricks are rectangular prisms small enough that they can quickly air dry individually without cracking. They can be subsequently assembled, with the application of adobe mud to bond the individual bricks into a structure. There is no standard size, with substantial variations over the years and in different regions. In some areas a popular size measured 8" inches x 4" inches x 12" inches weighing about 25 pounds; in other contexts the size is 10" x 4" x 14" weighing about 35 pounds. The maximum sizes can reach up to 100 pound; above this weight it becomes difficult to move the pieces, and it is preferred to ram the mud ''in situ'', resulting in a different typology known as [[rammed earth]]. ==Strength== In dry climates, adobe structures are extremely durable, and account for some of the oldest existing buildings in the world. Adobe buildings offer significant advantages due to their greater [[thermal mass]], but they are known to be particularly susceptible to earthquake damage if they are not somehow reinforced.<ref>[http://www.livingatlaschile.com/?s=adobe Short documentary about adobe preparation and [[2010 Chile earthquake]]] Livingatlaschile.com, FICh, retrieved 5 March 2014</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Collyns |first=Dan |authorlink= |title=Peru rebuilds two years on from quake |work= |publisher=news.bbc.co.uk |date=15 August 2009 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/8201971.stm |doi= |accessdate=24 August 2009 | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090815100847/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/8201971.stm| archivedate= 15 August 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}} the [[1976 Guatemala earthquake]] the [[2003 Bam earthquake]]</ref> Cases where adobe structures were widely damaged during earthquakes include the [[1976 Guatemala earthquake]], the [[2003 Bam earthquake]], and the [[2010 Chile earthquake]]. ==Distribution== Buildings made of sun-dried earth are common throughout the world ([[Middle East]], [[Western Asia]], [[North Africa]], [[West Africa]], [[South America]], southwestern [[North America]], [[Spain]], and [[Eastern Europe]].)<ref>Marchand, Trevor. ''The Masons of Djenne''. Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 2009</ref><ref>Museum of Lithuanian life, Rumsiskes, Lithuania (2011)</ref> Adobe had been in use by [[indigenous peoples of the Americas]] in the [[Southwestern United States]], [[Mesoamerica]], and the [[Andes]] for several thousand years.<ref>{{cite book | last = Beck | first = Roger B. | authorlink = | author2 = Linda Black |author3=Larry S. Krieger |author4=Phillip C. Naylor |author5=Dahia Ibo Shabaka | title = World History: Patterns of Interaction | publisher = McDougal Littell | year = 1999 | location = Evanston, IL | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 978-0-395-87274-1 }}</ref> [[Puebloan peoples]] built their adobe structures with handsful or basketsful of adobe, until the Spanish introduced them to making bricks. Adobe bricks were used in Spain from the [[Bronze Age#Age sub-divisions|Late Bronze]] and [[Iron Age]]s (eighth century BCE onwards).<ref>{{cite book|last= de Chazelles-Gazzal|first=Claire-Anne|title=Les maisons en terre de la Gaule méridionale|publisher=Éditions Monique Mergoil|year=1997|location=Montagnac, France|pages=49–57}}</ref> Its wide use can be attributed to its simplicity of design and manufacture, and economics.<ref>{{cite book|title=Natural hazards in El Salvador|last=Rose|first=William I.|author2=Julian J. Bommer|publisher=Geological Society of America|isbn=978-0-8137-2375-4|year=2004|page=299}}</ref> A distinction is sometimes made between the smaller ''adobes'', which are about the size of ordinary baked bricks, and the larger ''adobines'', some of which may be one to two yards (1–2&nbsp;m) long. ==Etymology== [[File:San Pedro de Atacama church.jpg|thumb|left|Church at [[San Pedro de Atacama]], [[Chile]]]] The word ''adobe'' {{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|d|oʊ|b|iː}} has existed for around 4000 years with relatively little change in either pronunciation or meaning. The word can be traced from the [[Middle Egyptian language|Middle Egyptian]] (c. 2000&nbsp;BC) word ''ɟbt'' "mudbrick." Middle Egyptian evolved into [[Late Egyptian language|Late Egyptian]], [[Demotic (Egyptian)|Demotic]] or "pre-Coptic", and finally to Coptic (c. 600&nbsp;BC), where it appeared as τωωβε {{IPA|tōʾpə}}. This was adopted into Arabic as {{lang|ar|الطوب}} ''aṭ-ṭawbu'' or ''aṭ-ṭūbu'', with the [[Article (grammar)#Definite article|definite article]] ''al-'' attached.<ref>"adobe", ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Second Edition, on CD-ROM (v. 4.0) © Oxford University Press, 2009</ref> ''tuba'',<ref>''Spanish Word Histories and Mysteries: English Words that Come from Spanish'', Houghton Mifflin Co., 2007, p.5</ref><ref>[http://www.earth-auroville.com/adobe_moulding_en.php "Adobe Moulding" Auroville Earth Institute]</ref> This was assimilated into the [[Old Spanish language]] as ''adobe'' {{IPA|[aˈdobe]}}, probably via [[Mozarabic language|Mozarabic]]. English borrowed the word from Spanish in the early 18th century, still referring to [[mudbrick]] construction. [[File:Santa Fe adobe.jpg|thumb|Adobe style in [[Santa Fe, New Mexico]]]] In more modern English usage, the term "adobe" has come to include a style of architecture popular in the desert climates of North America, especially in [[New Mexico]]., regardless of the construction method. ==Composition== An adobe brick is a [[composite material]] made of earth mixed with water and an organic material such as [[straw]] or [[Dung (matter)|dung]]. The [[soil]] composition typically contains [[sand]], [[silt]] and [[clay]]. Straw is useful in binding the brick together and allowing the brick to dry evenly, thereby preventing cracking due to uneven shrinkage rates through the brick.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Vargas|first=J.|author2=J. Bariola|author3= M. Blondet|title=Seismic Strength of Adobe Masonry|journal=Materials and Structures|year=1986|volume=9|issue=4|pages=253–256|doi=10.1007/BF02472107}}</ref> Dung offers the same advantage. The most desirable soil texture for producing the mud of adobe is 15% clay, 10–30% silt, and 55–75% fine sand.<ref>{{cite web|last=Garrison|first=James|title=Adobe-The Material, Its Deterioration, Its Coatings|url=http://missions.arizona.edu/sites/default/files/1%20Garrison-Adobe%20Characteristics.pdf|accessdate=27 February 2013|pages=5–16}}</ref> Another source quotes 15–25% clay and the remainder sand and coarser particles up to cobbles {{convert|2|to|10|in|mm|order=flip|-1|abbr=on}}, with no deleterious effect. Modern adobe is stabilized with either emulsified asphalt or Portland [[cement]] up to 10% by weight. No more than half the clay content should be [[expansive clay]]s, with the remainder non-expansive illite or kaolinite. Too much expansive clay results in uneven drying through the brick, resulting in cracking, while too much kaolinite will make a weak brick. Typically the soils of the Southwest United States, where such construction has been widely used, are an adequate composition.<ref>{{cite web|last=Austin |first=George |url=http://geoinfo.nmt.edu/publications/periodicals/nmg/downloads/6/n4/nmg_v6_n4_p69.pdf |work=New Mexico Geology, November 1984 |publisher=New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources |title=Adobe as a building material |deadurl=yes |accessdate=27 February 2013 |page=70 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202232337/http://geoinfo.nmt.edu/publications/periodicals/nmg/downloads/6/n4/nmg_v6_n4_p69.pdf |archivedate=2 December 2013 |df= }}</ref> ==Material properties== [[File:Djenne great mud mosque.jpg|thumb|The [[Great Mosque of Djenné]], [[Mali]], is built in adobe. The struts projecting from the wall serve as decoration, as well as supports for scaffolding during maintenance]] Adobe walls are load bearing, i.e. they carry their own weight into the foundation rather than by another structure, hence the adobe must have sufficient compressive strength. In the United States, most building codes<ref>{{cite web|url=http://quentinwilson.squarespace.com/storage/adobecode.pdf |title=14.7.4 NMAC |format=PDF |accessdate=25 June 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130818200926/http://quentinwilson.squarespace.com/storage/adobecode.pdf |archivedate=18 August 2013 |df= }}</ref> call for a minimum compressive strength of 300&nbsp;lbf/in² (2.07&nbsp;newton/mm²) for the adobe block. Adobe construction should be designed so as to avoid lateral structural loads that would cause bending loads. The building codes require the building sustain a 1 g lateral acceleration earthquake load. Such an acceleration will cause lateral loads on the walls, resulting in shear and bending and inducing tensile stresses. To withstand such loads, the codes typically call for a tensile modulus of rupture strength of at least 50&nbsp;lbf/in² (0.345&nbsp;newton/mm²) for the finished block. In addition to being an inexpensive material with a small resource cost, adobe can serve as a significant heat reservoir due to the thermal properties inherent in the massive walls typical in adobe construction. In climates typified by hot days and cool nights, the high thermal mass of adobe mediates the high and low temperatures of the day, moderating the temperature of the living space. The massive walls require a large and relatively long input of heat from the sun ([[radiation]]) and from the surrounding air ([[convection]]) before they warm through to the interior. After the sun sets and the temperature drops, the warm wall will continue to transfer heat to the interior for several hours due to the time-lag effect. Thus, a well-planned adobe wall of the appropriate thickness is very effective at controlling inside temperature through the wide daily fluctuations typical of desert climates, a factor which has contributed to its longevity as a building material. Thermodynamic material properties are sparsely quoted. The thermal resistance of adobe is quoted as having an [[R-value (insulation)|R-value]] of R₀ = 0.41 h ft² °F/([[Btu]] in)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.emnrd.state.nm.us/ECMD/FORMS/documents/MANUAL2.1.pdf |title=2009 New Mexico Energy Conservation Code: Residential Applications Manual |publisher=Emnrd.state.nm.us |accessdate=21 July 2013}}</ref> and a conductivity of 0.57 W/(m K) quoted from another source.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Chávez-Galán|first1=Jesus|last2=Almanza|first2=Rafael|last3=Rodríguez|first3=Neftali|title=Experimental Measurements of Thermal Properties for Mexican Building Materials to Simulate Thermal Behavior to Save Energy|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-3-540-75997-3_89|publisher=Spriner|accessdate=25 November 2014}}</ref> A third source provides the following properties: conductivity=0.30 Btu/(h ft °F); heat capacity=0.24 Btu/(lb °F); density=106 lb/ft³ (1700&nbsp;kg/m³).<ref>{{cite web|title=HVAC Systems AE-390|url=http://www.pages.drexel.edu/~act27/AE390/A5/index_files/Page536.htm|publisher=Drexel University|accessdate=25 November 2014}}</ref> To determine the total R-value of a wall for example, multiply R₀ by the thickness of the wall. From knowledge of the adobe density, heat capacity and a diffusivity value, the conductivity is found to be k = 0.20 Btu/(h ft °F) or 0.35 W/(m K). The heat capacity is commonly quoted as c_p = 0.20 Btu/(lb F) or 840 joules/(kg K).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greenhomebuilding.com/QandA/adobe/mass.htm |title=Mass and insulation with adobe |publisher=Green Home Building |accessdate=25 June 2013}}</ref> The density is 95 lb/ft³ or 1520&nbsp;kg/m³. The thermal diffusivity is calculated to be 0.0105&nbsp;ft²/h or 2.72x10⁻⁷ m²/s. ==Uses== ===Poured and puddled adobe walls=== [[File:Cueva de las Jarillas.jpg|thumb|left|Cliff dwellings of poured or puddled adobe (cob) at [[Cuarenta Casas]] in Mexico.]] Poured and [[Puddling (engineering)|puddled]] adobe (puddled clay, piled earth), today called ''cob'', is made by placing soft adobe in layers, rather than by making individual dried bricks or using a form. "Puddle" is a general term for a clay or clay and sand-based material worked into a dense, plastic state.<ref>"puddle, n. 4.". ''Oxford English Dictionary'' 2nd. ed. 2009. CD-rom.</ref> These are the oldest methods of building with adobe in the Americas until holes in the ground were used as forms, and later wooden forms used to make individual bricks were introduced by the Spanish.<ref name="Keefe">Keefe, Laurence. ''Earth Building: Methods and Materials, Repair and Conservation''. London: Taylor & Francis, 2005. 22. Print.</ref> ===Adobe bricks=== [[File:Milyanfan-adobe-bricks-8038.jpg|thumb|Adobe bricks near a construction site in [[Milyanfan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]]]] Bricks made from adobe are usually made by pressing the mud mixture into an open timber frame. In North America, the brick is typically about {{convert|25|by|36|cm|0|abbr=on}} in size. The mixture is molded into the frame, which is removed after initial setting. After drying for a few hours, the bricks are turned on edge to finish drying. Slow drying in shade reduces cracking. The same mixture, without straw, is used to make [[Mortar (masonry)|mortar]] and often [[plaster]] on interior and exterior walls. Some cultures used [[Lime (material)|lime]]-based cement for the plaster to protect against rain damage.{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} Depending on the form into which the mixture is pressed, adobe can encompass nearly any shape or size, provided drying is even and the mixture includes reinforcement for larger bricks. Reinforcement can include manure, straw, [[cement]], [[rebar]] or wooden posts. Experience has shown straw, cement, or manure added to a standard adobe mixture can all produce a stronger, more crack-resistant brick.<ref>{{cite web|author=Technical Information Online |url=http://practicalaction.org/docs/technical_information_service/mud_plasters_and_renders.pdf |title=Mud Plasters and Renders – Technical Information Online – Practical Answers |publisher=Practicalaction.org |accessdate=9 November 2010}}</ref> A test is done on the soil content first. To do so, a sample of the soil is mixed into a clear container with some water, creating an almost completely saturated liquid. The container is shaken vigorously for one minute. It is then allowed to settle for a day until the soil has settled into layers. Heavier particles settle out first, sand above, silt above that and very fine clay and organic matter will stay in suspension for days. After the water has cleared, percentages of the various particles can be determined. Fifty to 60 percent sand and 35 to 40 percent clay will yield strong bricks. The [[Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service]] at [[New Mexico State University]] recommends a mix of not more than 1/3 clay, not less than 1/2 sand, and never more than 1/3 silt. ===Adobe wall construction=== [[File:Fort Saint-Sébastien - Visite des fouilles juin 2012 68.jpg|thumb|The [[earthen plaster]] removed exposing the adobe bricks at Fort St. Sebastian in France]] The ground supporting an adobe structure should be compressed, as the weight of adobe wall is significant and foundation settling may cause cracking of the wall. Footing depth is to below the ground frost level. The footing and stem wall are commonly 24 and 14 inches thick, respectively. Modern construction codes call for the use of reinforcing steel in the footing and stem wall. Adobe bricks are laid by course. Adobe walls usually never rise above two stories as they are load bearing and adobe has low structural strength. When creating window and door openings, a [[lintel]] is placed on top of the opening to support the bricks above. Atop the last courses of brick, bond beams made of heavy wood beams or modern reinforced concrete are laid to provide a horizontal bearing plate for the roof beams and to redistribute lateral earthquake loads to shear walls more able to carry the forces. To protect the interior and exterior adobe walls, finishes such as mud plaster, whitewash or stucco can be applied. These protect the adobe wall from water damage, but need to be reapplied periodically. Alternatively, the walls can be finished with other nontraditional plasters that provide longer protection. Bricks made with stabilized adobe generally do not need protection of plasters. ===Adobe roof=== The traditional adobe roof has been constructed using a mixture of soil/clay, water, sand and organic materials. The mixture was then formed and pressed into wood forms, producing rows of dried earth bricks that would then be laid across a support structure of wood and plastered into place with more adobe. Depending on the materials available, a roof may be assembled using wood or metal beams to create a framework to begin layering adobe bricks. Depending on the thickness of the adobe bricks, the framework has been preformed using a steel framing and a layering of a metal fencing or wiring over the framework to allow an even load as masses of adobe are spread across the metal fencing like cob and allowed to air dry accordingly. This method was demonstrated with an adobe blend heavily impregnated with cement to allow even drying and prevent cracking. The more traditional flat adobe roofs are functional only in dry climates that are not exposed to snow loads. The heaviest wooden beams, called [[Viga (architecture)|vigas]], lie atop the wall. Across the vigas lie smaller members called latillas<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dl-building.com/preservation-historic-adobe-buildings/ |title=Preservation of Historic Adobe Buildings |publisher=Dawson Lupul |accessdate=30 January 2014}}</ref> and upon those brush is then laid. Finally, the adobe layer is applied. To construct a flat adobe roof, beams of wood were laid to span the building, the ends of which were attached to the tops of the walls. Once the vigas, latillas and brush are laid, adobe bricks are placed. An adobe roof is often laid with bricks slightly larger in width to ensure a greater expanse is covered when placing the bricks onto the roof. Following each individual brick should be a layer of adobe mortar, recommended to be at least {{convert|1|in|mm|order=flip|abbr=on}} thick to make certain there is ample strength between the brick’s edges and also to provide a relative moisture barrier during rain<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://home.howstuffworks.com/home-improvement/construction/materials/adobe-construction2.htm|title=How Adobe Construction Works|date=2012-04-17|work=Add Water, Then Stir - How Adobe Construction Works {{!}} HowStuffWorks|access-date=2017-10-24|language=en}}</ref>. Roof design evolved around 1850 in the American Southwest. Three inches of adobe mud was applied on top of the latillas, then 18 inches of dry adobe dirt applied to the roof. The dirt was contoured into a low slope to a downspout aka a 'canal'. When moisture was applied to the roof the clay particles expanded to create a waterproof membrane. Once a year it was necessary to pull the weeds from the roof and reslope the dirt as needed.{{Citation needed|date=May 2018}} Depending on the materials, adobe roofs can be inherently fire-proof. The construction of a chimney can greatly influence the construction of the roof supports, creating an extra need for care in choosing the materials. The builders can make an adobe chimney by stacking simple adobe bricks in a similar fashion as the surrounding walls. ==Adobe around the world== The largest structure ever made from adobe is the [[Arg-é Bam]] built by the [[Achaemenid Empire]]. Other large adobe structures are the [[Huaca del Sol]] in [[Peru]], with 100 million signed bricks and the ''ciudellas'' of [[Chan Chan]] and [[Tambo Colorado]], both in Peru. {{wide image|Ancient Bam, 2002.png|1000px|align-cap=center|The [[citadel]] of [[Bam, Iran]], or [[Arg-é Bam]], in [[Kerman Province]], [[Iran]]: The world's largest adobe structure, dating to at least 500&nbsp;BC}} <gallery widths="180px" heights="180px" perrow="4"> Image:RomaniaDanubeDelta MakingMaterialForCOnstructing0003jpg.JPG|Still in production today, [[Romania]]'s [[Danube Delta]] Image:RomaniaDanubeDelta MakingMaterialForCOnstructing0002jpg.JPG|Mixing mud and straw in brick frames Image:RomaniaDanubeDelta MakingMaterialForCOnstructing0001jpg.JPG|Community effort Image:Milyanfan-adobe-brick-house-8039.jpg|Adobe brick house under construction in [[Kyrgyzstan]] Image: Sa'dah 02.jpg|House in [[Sa'dah]], [[Yemen]] Image:AdobeHouseVrancea.JPG|Adobe brick house under construction in [[Romania]] Image:5640-Linxia-City-Dongguan-back-street.jpg|An adobe wall in [[Linxia City]], [[Gansu]], China Image:Poeh museum, night.jpg|[[Poeh Museum]] tower, the tallest adobe structure in [[New Mexico]], USA Image:16 21 2688 san miguel.jpg|[[San Miguel Mission]] in [[Santa Fe, New Mexico]] Image:Great Mosque of Djenné 3.jpg|[[Great Mosque of Djenné]], famous building made from [[Mudbrick#Banco|banco]], a type of adobe Image:Adobe house in middle america by D Ramey Logan.jpg|Adobe house in [[Middle America (United States)|Middle America]] </gallery> ==See also== * [[Alker]] * [[Cob (building)]] * [[Compressed earth block]] * [[Earth structure]] * [[Hassan Fathy]] * [[Mudbrick]] * [[Qadad]] (waterproofing plaster) * [[Qalat (fortress)]] * [[Rammed earth]] * [[San Xavier del Bac]] * [[Sod house]] * [[Super Adobe]] * [[Wattle and daub]] * [[Cas di torto]] * [[Monterey Colonial architecture]] used adobe walls * [[Ctesiphon Arch]] in Iraq is the largest mud brick arch in the world built beginning in 540 AD ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==External links== {{Commons category|Adobe (building material)}} {{Wiktionary|adobe}} * [http://www.buildingwithawareness.com/ ''Building With Awareness''] A detailed how-to DVD video that shows adobe wall construction and their use as thermal mass walls * [http://www.calearth.org Cal-Earth (The California Institute of Earth Art and Architecture)] has developed a patented system called Superadobe, in which bags filled with stabilized earth are layered with strands of barbed wire to form a structure strong enough to withstand earthquakes, fire and flood. * [http://www.eartharchitecture.org Earth Architecture] – A website whose focus is contemporary issues in earth architecture. * [http://www.eartha.org.uk/ Earth Architecture and Conservation in East Anglia] – British organisation that focuses on the proper maintenance and conservation of earth buildings in a region of the UK that has a long history of building with mud. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060525191123/http://kerpic.org/ Kerpic.org] – A website on earthen architecture researches stabilized with gypsum. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060430112553/http://www.kleiwerks.org/ Kleiwerks] – International organization recognized for their unique contribution to modern earthen and natural building techniques throughout the world, their focus is on education through hands on experience. Very experienced experts are contactable and there are regular demonstrations in the area. * [http://www.sensaciones.de/ Valle de Sensaciones] – Artistic construction with adobe, Experimental ground and theme park for creative living close to nature * [http://www.wmf.org/project/adobe-missions-new-mexico World Monuments Fund – Adobe Missions of New Mexico] – Description of a project of the [[World Monuments Fund]] for the preservation of adobe churches in [[New Mexico]], in the United States. {{Prehistoric technology}} [[Category:Soil-based building materials]] [[Category:Masonry]] [[Category:Adobe buildings and structures]] [[Category:Appropriate technology]] [[Category:Vernacular architecture]] [[Category:Requests for audio pronunciation (Spanish)]] [[Category:Sustainable building]] [[Category:Buildings and structures by construction material]] lp4jcq0rea16dhg1n7wvl00f0x1ya0l 0 683 858082026 856517331 2018-09-04T23:00:10Z Jj98 12683541 /* References */ fmt wikitext text/x-wiki {{redirect2|Adventurer|Adventures||Adventure (disambiguation)|and|Adventurer (disambiguation)}} {{use dmy dates|date=July 2012}} [[File:Kjelkeoverisen.jpg|thumb|260px|[[Fridtjof Nansen]] reached a record latitude of 86°14′ during his [[Nansen's Fram expedition|North Pole expedition]] of 1893–96. ]] An '''adventure''' is an exciting experience that is typically a bold, sometimes [[risk]]y, undertaking.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/adventure |title=Adventure |work=dictionary.com |date= |accessdate=2013-06-13}}</ref> Adventures may be activities with some potential for physical danger such as [[traveling]], [[exploring]], [[skydiving]], [[mountain climbing]], [[scuba diving]], [[river rafting]] or participating in [[extreme sports]]. ==Motivation== Adventurous experiences create psychological [[arousal]],<ref>{{citation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6YjcgAn8TfsC&pg=PA187 |title=On the psychobiology of personality |chapter=Sensation Seeking and Participation in Physical Risk Sports |author=M Gomà-i-Freixanet |year=2004 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044209-9 |page=187}}</ref> which can be interpreted as negative (e.g. [[fear]]) or positive (e.g. [[flow (psychology)|flow]]). For some people, adventure becomes a major pursuit in and of itself. According to adventurer [[André Malraux]], in his ''La Condition Humaine'' (1933), "If a man is not ready to risk his life, where is his dignity?".{{full citation needed|date=June 2013}} Similarly, [[Helen Keller]] stated that "Life is either a daring adventure or nothing."<ref>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Helen|title=The Open Door|year=1957}}</ref> Outdoor adventurous activities are typically undertaken for the purposes of [[recreation]] or [[wikt:excitement|excitement]]: examples are [[adventure racing]] and [[Adventure travel|adventure tourism]]. Adventurous activities can also lead to gains in knowledge, such as those undertaken by explorers and pioneers – the British adventurer [[Jason Lewis (adventurer)|Jason Lewis]], for example, uses adventures to draw global [[sustainability]] lessons from living within finite environmental constraints on expeditions to share with schoolchildren. [[Adventure education]] intentionally uses challenging experiences for [[learning]]. ==Adventure in mythology and fiction== Some of the oldest and most widespread stories in the world are stories of adventure such as [[Homer]]'s ''[[The Odyssey]]''.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/14/books/review/Mansbach-t.html|title=Odysseus Remixed|author=Adam Mansbach|date=12 February 2010|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Richard Jenkyns |url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/98/05/31/reviews/fagles-odyssey.html |title=Heroic Enterprise – (Book review: The Odyssey translated by Robert Fagles) |publisher=nytimes.com |date=1996-12-22 |accessdate=2013-06-13}}</ref><ref>Zweig, P. (1974). ''The adventurer: The fate of adventure in the Western world'', New York: Basic Books.</ref> The [[knight errant]] was the form the "adventure seeker" character took in the late Middle Ages. The [[adventure novel]] exhibits these "protagonist on adventurous journey" characteristics as do many popular feature [[Adventure film|films]], such as ''[[Star Wars (film)|Star Wars]]''<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1977/05/26/movies/moviesspecial/26STAR.html|title=A Trip to a Far Galaxy That's Fun and Funny|author=Vincent Canby|date=26 May 1977|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> and ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]''.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://movies.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=EE05E7DF173AA42CA1494CC6B6799D836896|title=Movie Review: Raiders of the Lost Ark|author=Vincent Canby|date=12 June 1981|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> [[File:Alice's Adventures in Wonderland - Carroll, Robinson - S001 - Cover.jpg|thumb|right|[[Lewis Carroll]]'s ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' is a well-known example of a fantasized adventure story.]] ===Outdoors=== Adventure books may have the theme of the hero or main character going to face the [[wilderness]] or [[Mother Nature]]. Examples include books such as [[Hatchet (book)|Hatchet]] or [[My Side of the Mountain]]. These books are less about "questing", such as in mythology or other adventure novels, but more about surviving on their own, living off the land, gaining new experiences, and becoming closer to the natural world. ===Questing=== Many adventures are based on the idea of a quest: the hero goes off in pursuit of a reward, whether it be a skill, prize, or perhaps the safety of a person. On the way, the hero must overcome various obstacles. Mythologist [[Joseph Campbell]] discussed his notion of the [[monomyth]] in his book, ''[[The Hero with a Thousand Faces]]''. Campbell proposed that the heroic mythological stories from culture to culture followed a similar underlying pattern, starting with the "call to adventure", followed by a hazardous journey, and eventual triumph. ===Video games=== {{See also|Adventure game}} {{Expand section|date=January 2018}} Many [[video games]] are adventure games. ==Adventure in nonfiction== From ancient times, travelers and explorers have written about their adventures. Journals which became best-sellers in their day were written, such as [[Marco Polo]]'s journal ''[[The Travels of Marco Polo]]'' or [[Mark Twain]]'s ''[[Roughing It]]''. Others were personal journals, only later published, such as the journals of [[Meriwether Lewis|Lewis]] and [[William Clark|Clark]] or [[Captain James Cook]]'s journals. There are also books written by those not directly a part of the adventure in question, such as [[The Right Stuff (book)|The Right Stuff]] by [[Tom Wolfe]], or books written by those participating in the adventure but in a format other than that of a journal, such as Conquistadors of the Useless by [[Lionel Terray]]. Documentaries often use the theme of adventure as well. ==Adventure sports== There are many sports classified as adventure sports, due to their inherent danger and excitement. Some of these include [[mountain climbing]], [[skydiving]], or other [[extreme sports]]. ==See also== *[[List of genres]] *[[Exploration]] *[[Tourism]] *[[Travel]] *[[Sports]] *[[Adventure travel]] ==References== {{wikiquote}} {{reflist|30em}} ==External links== {{Commons category|Adventure}} * [http://www.en.abenteuer.fak13.uni-muenchen.de/index.html Website of the Research Unit "Philology of Adventure"]: ongoing research project on the literary history of the adventure pattern * [http://theargonauts.com/what-is-an-adventure/ What is an adventure?] A definition of "adventure", "hero" and "epic" with an illustration of the hero's journey. * [[voy:Main Page|Wikivoyage]] [[Category:Adventure| ]] lfm5w0xhu6fzeo6ubxg9nqec7lu6ljt 0 686 15899212 8164649 2004-12-06T00:57:24Z Wetman 21492 eliminating secondary redirect wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Amalthea (mythology)]] i8dssgc2pl2g40q0mhdlaol7gn9v73z 0 687 783824750 290580324 2017-06-04T22:07:09Z Tom.Reding 9784415 +{{R category shell}} using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Analysis of variance]] {{Redirect category shell|1= {{R from other capitalisation}} }} tgbxgwjul457y508t1wfdize2rh00aa 0 689 861663432 861648268 2018-09-29T02:40:00Z Tris T7 28390403 added amount of population with reference wikitext text/x-wiki {{Other uses}} {{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Infobox continent |title = Asia |image = [[File:Asia (orthographic projection).svg|alt=Globe centered on Asia, with Asia highlighted. The continent is shaped like a right-angle triangle, with Europe to the west, oceans to the south and east and Oceania to the south-east.|220px]] |area = {{convert|44579000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} &nbsp;([[List of continents by area|1st]])<ref name=NG264>{{cite book |publisher=National Geographic Society (U.S.) |title=National Geographic Family Reference Atlas of the World |location=Washington, D.C. |year=2006 |page=264}}</ref> |population = {{UN_Population|Asia}} ({{UN_Population|Year}}; [[List of continents by population|1st]]){{UN_Population|ref}} |density = 100/km² (260/sq mi) |GDP_nominal = $28.23 trillion (2017; [[List of continents by GDP (nominal)|1st]]) |GDP_PPP = $56.62 trillion (2017; 1st) |GDP_per_capita = $6,690 (2017; [[List of continents by GDP (nominal)#GDP per capita (nominal) by continents|5th]])<ref>{{cite web|title=IMF (WEO April 2017 Edition) GDP nominal per capita – international dollar|url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2017/01/weodata/index.aspx}}</ref> |demonym = [[Asian people|Asian]] |countries = 49 UN members,<br> 1 UN observer, 5 other states |list_countries = List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia |dependencies = {{Collapsible list | titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal; | list_style = text-align:left; | 1 = {{flag|Akrotiri and Dhekelia}} | 2 = {{flag|British Indian Ocean Territory}} | 3 = {{flag|Christmas Island}} | 4 = {{flag|Cocos (Keeling) Islands}} | 5 = {{flag|Hong Kong}} | 6 = {{flag|Macau}} }} |unrecognized = {{Collapsible list | titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal; | list_style = text-align:left; | 1 = {{flag|Abkhazia}} | 2 = {{flag|Artsakh}} | 3 = {{flag|Northern Cyprus}} | 4 = {{flag|South Ossetia}} | 5 = {{flag|Taiwan}}}} |languages = [[Languages of Asia|List of languages]] |time = [[UTC+2]] to [[UTC+12]] |internet = [[.asia]] |cities ={{plainlist| *[[List of metropolitan areas in Asia|Metropolitan areas of Asia]] *[[List of cities in Asia]]}} {{Collapsible list | list_style = text-align:left; |{{flagicon|Thailand}} [[Bangkok]] |{{flagicon|India}} [[Bangalore]] |{{flagicon|China}} [[Beijing]] |{{flagicon|South Korea}} [[Busan]] |{{flagicon|Bangladesh}} [[Chittagong]] |{{flagicon|India}} [[Delhi]] |{{flagicon|Bangladesh}} [[Dhaka]] |{{flagicon|Qatar}} [[Doha]] |{{flagicon|UAE}} [[Dubai]] |{{flagicon|China}} [[Guangzhou]] |{{flagicon|Vietnam}} [[Hanoi]] |{{flagicon|Vietnam}} [[Ho Chi Minh]] |{{flagicon|Hong Kong}} [[Hong Kong]] |{{flagicon|Turkey}} [[Istanbul]] |{{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[Jakarta]] |{{flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Karachi]] |{{flagicon|India}} [[Kolkata]] |{{flagicon|Malaysia}} [[Kuala Lumpur]] |{{flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Lahore]] |{{flagicon|Philippines}} [[Manila]] |{{flagicon|India}} [[Mumbai]] |{{flagicon|Japan}} [[Osaka]] |{{flagicon|North Korea}} [[Pyongyang]] |{{flagicon|Saudi Arabia}} [[Riyadh]] |{{flagicon|China}} [[Shanghai]] |{{flagicon|China}} [[Shenzhen]] |{{flagicon|Singapore}} [[Singapore]] |{{flagicon|India}} [[Hyderabad]] |{{flagicon|South Korea}} [[Seoul]] |{{flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Peshawar]] |{{flagicon|Taiwan}} [[Taipei]] |{{flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Quetta]]<ref>[http://www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf World urban areas]</ref> |{{flagicon|Iran}} [[Tehran]] |{{flagicon|Japan}} [[Tokyo]] |{{flagicon|Mongolia}} [[Ulaanbaatar]] }} }} '''Asia''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|eɪ|ʒ|ə|,_|ˈ|eɪ|ʃ|ə|audio=En-us-Asia.ogg}}) is [[Earth]]'s largest and most populous [[continent]], located primarily in the [[Eastern Hemisphere|Eastern]] and [[Northern Hemisphere|Northern]] [[Hemisphere of the Earth|Hemispheres]]. It shares the continental landmass of [[Eurasia]] with the continent of [[Europe]] and the continental landmass of [[Afro-Eurasia]] with both Europe and [[Africa]]. Asia covers an area of {{convert|44,579,000|km2|sqmi}}, about 30% of Earth's total land area and 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area. The continent, which has long been home to the majority of the [[human population]],<ref>{{cite web |title=The World at Six Billion |url=https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/sixbillion/sixbillion.htm |publisher=UN Population Division |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305042434/http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/sixbillion/sixbillion.htm |archivedate=March 5, 2016 |deadurl=no}}, [https://web.archive.org/web/20160101220025/http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/sixbillion/sixbilpart1.pdf Table 2]</ref> was the site of many of the [[first civilization]]s. Asia is notable for not only its overall large size and population, but also dense and large settlements, as well as vast barely populated regions. Its 4,522,036,285 people at present (Friday 28th of September 2018) constitute roughly 60% of the world's population.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.populationof.net/asia/|title=Population of Asia. 2018 demographics: density, ratios, growth rate, clock, rate of men to women.|website=www.populationof.net|language=en|access-date=2018-09-29}}</ref> In general terms, Asia is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Indian Ocean, and on the north by the Arctic Ocean. The border of Asia with Europe is a historical and [[cultural construct]], as there is no clear physical and geographical separation between them. It is somewhat arbitrary and has moved since its first conception in [[classical antiquity]]. The division of Eurasia into two continents reflects [[East–West dichotomy|East-West]] cultural, linguistic, and ethnic differences, some of which vary on a spectrum rather than with a sharp dividing line. The most commonly accepted boundaries place Asia to the east of the [[Suez Canal]] separating it from Africa; and to the east of the [[Turkish Straits]], the [[Ural Mountains]] and [[Ural River]], and to the south of the [[Caucasus Mountains]] and the [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] and [[Black Sea]]s, separating it from Europe.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book |title=National Geographic Atlas of the World |edition=7th |year=1999 |location=Washington, DC |publisher=[[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]] |isbn=978-0-7922-7528-2}} "Europe" (pp. 68–69); "Asia" (pp. 90–91): "A commonly accepted division between Asia and Europe is formed by the Ural Mountains, Ural River, Caspian Sea, Caucasus Mountains, and the Black Sea with its outlets, the Bosporus and Dardanelles."</ref> China and [[Indian subcontinent|India]] alternated in being the [[List of regions by past GDP (PPP)|largest economies in the world]] from 1 to 1800 CE. China was a major economic power and attracted many to the east,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/SRR/Volume14/nalapat.html |title=Professor M.D. Nalapat. Ensuring China's "Peaceful Rise". Accessed January 22, 2016. |publisher= |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100110045822/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/SRR/Volume14/nalapat.html |archivedate=10 January 2010 |df=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED460052&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED460052|title=Dahlman, Carl J; Aubert, Jean-Eric. China and the Knowledge Economy: Seizing the 21st Century. WBI Development Studies. World Bank Publications. Accessed January 22, 2016|website=Eric.ed.gov|accessdate=9 November 2017|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080304235359/http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED460052&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED460052|archivedate=4 March 2008|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.economist.com/surveys/displaystory.cfm?story_id=E1_PNTJQTR |title=The Real Great Leap Forward. The Economist. Sept 30, 2004 |work=The Economist |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227234147/http://www.economist.com/surveys/displaystory.cfm?story_id=E1_PNTJQTR |archivedate=27 December 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>[https://archive.is/20080305025204/http://search.ft.com/ftArticle?queryText=China+the+world%E2%80%99s+largest+economy+for+18+of+the+past+20+centuries&y=6&aje=false&x=14&id=050926000484&ct=0]</ref> and for many the legendary wealth and prosperity of the ancient culture of India personified Asia,<ref>[http://www.indianscience.org/essays/22-%20E--Gems%20&%20Minerals%20F.pdf] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120220244/http://www.indianscience.org/essays/22-%20E--Gems%20%26%20Minerals%20F.pdf|date=20 November 2008}}</ref> attracting European commerce, exploration and colonialism. The accidental discovery of a trans-Atlantic route from Europe to America by Columbus while in search for a route to India demonstrates this deep fascination. The [[Silk Road]] became the main East-West trading route in the Asian hinterlands while the [[Straits of Malacca]] stood as a major sea route. Asia has exhibited economic dynamism (particularly East Asia) as well as robust population growth during the 20th century, but overall population growth has since fallen.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.economist.com/diversions/millennium/displayStory.cfm?Story_ID=346605 |title=Like herrings in a barrel |journal=The Economist |date=23 December 1999 |issue=Millennium issue: Population |publisher=The ''Economist'' online, The Economist Group |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104100155/http://www.economist.com/diversions/millennium/displayStory.cfm?Story_ID=346605 |archivedate=4 January 2010 |df=dmy-all }}.</ref> Asia was the birthplace of most of the world's mainstream religions including [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], [[Judaism]], [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]], [[Jainism]], [[Sikhism]], [[Zoroastrianism]], as well as many other religions. Given its size and diversity, the concept of Asia—a [[toponymy|name]] dating back to [[classical antiquity]]—may actually have more to do with [[human geography]] than [[physical geography]].{{cn|date=September 2018}} Asia varies greatly across and within [[Regions of Asia|its regions]] with regard to ethnic groups, cultures, environments, economics, historical ties and government systems. It also has a mix of many different climates ranging from the equatorial south via the hot desert in the [[Middle East]], temperate areas in the east and the <!-- extremely --> continental centre to vast subarctic and polar areas in [[Siberia]]. ==Definition and boundaries== {{details|topic=Asian borders|Geography of Asia#Boundary|Boundaries between continents|List of transcontinental countries#Asia and Europe|Copenhagen criteria}} ===Asia–Africa boundary=== The boundary between Asia and Africa is the [[Red Sea]], the [[Gulf of Suez]], and the [[Suez Canal]].{{citation needed|date=November 2017}} This makes Egypt a [[transcontinental country]], with the [[Sinai peninsula]] in Asia and the remainder of the country in Africa. ===Asia–Europe boundary=== [[File:Palazzo_Ferreria_statue.jpeg|thumb|right|Statue representing Asia at [[Palazzo Ferreria]], in [[Valletta]], [[Malta]]]] The border between Asia and Europe was historically defined by European academics.<ref name="NatGeo">{{cite web |url=http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2013/07/09/geography-in-the-news-eurasias-boundaries/ |title=Geography in the News: Eurasia's Boundaries |author=Neal Lineback |publisher=National Geographic |date=9 July 2013 |accessdate=9 June 2016 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508224947/http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2013/07/09/geography-in-the-news-eurasias-boundaries/ |archivedate=8 May 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The [[Don River (Russia)|Don River]] became unsatisfactory to northern Europeans when [[Peter the Great]], king of the [[Tsardom of Russia]], defeating rival claims of [[Sweden]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]] to the eastern lands, and armed resistance by the tribes of [[Siberia]], synthesized a new [[Russian Empire]] extending to the [[Ural Mountains]] and beyond, founded in 1721. The major geographical theorist of the empire was actually a former Swedish prisoner-of-war, taken at the [[Battle of Poltava]] in 1709 and assigned to [[Tobolsk]], where he associated with Peter's Siberian official, [[Vasily Tatishchev]], and was allowed freedom to conduct geographical and anthropological studies in preparation for a future book.{{Citation needed|date=October 2011}} In Sweden, five years after Peter's death, in 1730 [[Philip Johan von Strahlenberg]] published a new atlas proposing the Urals as the border of Asia. The Russians were enthusiastic about the concept, which allowed them to keep their European identity in geography. Tatishchev announced that he had proposed the idea to von Strahlenberg. The latter had suggested the [[Emba River]] as the lower boundary. Over the next century various proposals were made until the [[Ural River]] prevailed in the mid-19th century. The border had been moved perforce from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea into which the Ural River projects.<ref>{{harvnb|Lewis|Wigen|1997|pp=27–28}}</ref> The border between the Black Sea and the Caspian is usually placed along the crest of the [[Caucasus Mountains]], although it is sometimes placed further north.<ref name="NatGeo"/> ===Asia–Oceania boundary=== The border between Asia and the region of [[Oceania]] is usually placed somewhere in the [[Malay Archipelago]]. The [[Maluku Islands]] in Indonesia are often considered to lie on the border of southeast Asia, with [[New Guinea]], to the east of the islands, being wholly part of Oceania. The terms Southeast Asia and Oceania, devised in the 19th century, have had several vastly different geographic meanings since their inception. The chief factor in determining which islands of the Malay Archipelago are Asian has been the location of the colonial possessions of the various empires there (not all European). Lewis and Wigen assert, "The narrowing of 'Southeast Asia' to its present boundaries was thus a gradual process."<ref name="Myth">{{harvnb | Lewis | Wigen | 1997 | pp=170–173}}</ref> ===Ongoing definition=== [[File:Afro-Eurasia (orthographic projection).svg|thumb|left|[[Afro-Eurasia]] shown in green]] Geographical Asia is a cultural artifact of European conceptions of the world, beginning with the [[Ancient Greeks]], being imposed onto other cultures, an imprecise concept causing endemic contention about what it means. Asia is larger and more culturally diverse than Europe.<ref>{{harvnb|Lewis|Wigen|1997|pp=36–37}}</ref> It does not exactly correspond to the cultural borders of its various types of constituents.<ref>{{harvnb|Lewis|Wigen|1997|pp=7–9}}</ref> From the time of [[Herodotus]] a minority of geographers have rejected the three-continent system (Europe, Africa, Asia) on the grounds that there is no substantial physical separation between them.<ref name=McG-H>{{cite web |title=Asia |url=http://accessscience.com/abstract.aspx?id=054800&referURL=http%3a%2f%2faccessscience.com%2fcontent.aspx%3fid%3d054800 |work=AccessScience |publisher=McGraw-Hill |accessdate=26 July 2011 |archivedate=27 November 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111127141127/http://accessscience.com/abstract.aspx?id=054800&referURL=http%3A%2F%2Faccessscience.com%2Fcontent.aspx%3Fid%3D054800 |deadurl=yes |df=}}</ref> For example, Sir [[Barry Cunliffe]], the emeritus professor of European archeology at Oxford, argues that Europe has been geographically and culturally merely "the western excrescence of the continent of Asia".<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200812/editors-choice |title=Geography Is Destiny |first=Benjamin |last=Schwartz |journal=The Atlantic |date=December 2008 |publisher=Atlantic Magazine |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090930211221/http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200812/editors-choice |archivedate=30 September 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Geographically, Asia is the major eastern constituent of the continent of [[Eurasia]] with Europe being a northwestern [[peninsula]] of the landmass. Asia, Europe and Africa make up a single continuous landmass – [[Afro-Eurasia]] (except for the Suez Canal) – and share a common [[continental shelf]]. Almost all of Europe and the better part of Asia sit atop the [[Eurasian Plate]], adjoined on the south by the [[Arabian Plate|Arabian]] and [[Indian Plate]] and with the easternmost part of Siberia (east of the [[Chersky Range]]) on the [[North American Plate]]. {{Clear}} ==Etymology== [[File:Gulf5..JPG|thumb|upright=1.35|Ptolemy's Asia]] The English name "Asia" was originally a concept of [[Greek civilization]].<ref name="reid">[[T.R. Reid|Reid, T.R.]] ''[[Confucius Lives Next Door: What living in the East teaches us about living in the west]]'' Vintage Books(1999).</ref> The place name "Asia" in various forms in a large number of modern languages is of unknown ultimate provenience. Its etymology and language of origin are uncertain. It appears to be one of the most ancient of recorded names. A number of theories have been published. English Asia can be traced through the formation of English literature to Latin literature, where it has the same form, Asia. Whether all uses and all forms of the name derive also from the Latin of the [[Roman Empire]] is much less certain. One of the first classical writers to use Asia as a name of the whole continent was [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://etymonline.com/index.php?term=Asia&allowed_in_frame=0|title=Asia – Origin and meaning of Asia by Online Etymology Dictionary|website=Etymonline.com|accessdate=9 November 2017|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525113914/http://etymonline.com/index.php?term=Asia&allowed_in_frame=0|archivedate=25 May 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> This [[metonymy|metonymical]] change in meaning is common and can be observed in some other geographical names, such as [[Skandinavia]] (from [[Scania]]). ===Bronze Age=== Before Greek poetry, the [[Aegean Sea]] area was in a [[Greek Dark Age]], at the beginning of which syllabic writing was lost and alphabetic writing had not begun. Prior to then in the [[Bronze Age]] the records of the [[Assyrian Empire]], the [[Hittite Empire]] and the various [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] states of Greece mention a region undoubtedly Asia, certainly in Anatolia, including if not identical to Lydia. These records are administrative and do not include poetry. The Mycenaean states were destroyed about 1200 BCE by unknown agents although one school of thought assigns the [[Dorian invasion]] to this time. The burning of the palaces baked clay diurnal administrative records written in a Greek syllabic script called [[Linear B]], deciphered by a number of interested parties, most notably by a young World War II cryptographer, [[Michael Ventris]], subsequently assisted by the scholar, [[John Chadwick]]. A major cache discovered by [[Carl Blegen]] at the site of ancient [[Pylos]] included hundreds of male and female names formed by different methods. Some of these are of women held in servitude (as study of the society implied by the content reveals). They were used in trades, such as cloth-making, and usually came with children. The epithet ''lawiaiai'', "captives", associated with some of them identifies their origin. Some are ethnic names. One in particular, aswiai, identifies "women of Asia".<ref>{{harvnb|Ventris|Chadwick|1973|p=536}}.</ref> Perhaps they were captured in Asia, but some others, Milatiai, appear to have been of [[Miletus]], a Greek colony, which would not have been raided for slaves by Greeks. Chadwick suggests that the names record the locations where these foreign women were purchased.<ref>{{harvnb|Ventris|Chadwick|1973|p=410}}</ref> The name is also in the singular, Aswia, which refers both to the name of a country and to a female of it. There is a masculine form, aswios. This Aswia appears to have been a remnant of a region known to the Hittites as Assuwa, centered on Lydia, or "Roman Asia". This name, ''Assuwa'', has been suggested as the origin for the name of the continent "Asia".<ref>Bossert, Helmut T., ''Asia'', Istanbul, 1946.</ref> The [[Assuwa league]] was a confederation of states in western Anatolia, defeated by the [[Hittites]] under [[Tudhaliya I]] around 1400 BCE. Alternatively, the [[etymology]] of the term may be from the [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] word ''(w)aṣû(m)'', which means 'to go outside' or 'to ascend', referring to the direction of the sun at sunrise in the Middle East and also likely connected with the Phoenician word ''asa'' meaning east. This may be contrasted to a similar etymology proposed for ''Europe'', as being from Akkadian ''erēbu(m)'' 'to enter' or 'set' (of the sun). [[T. R. Reid]] supports this alternative etymology, noting that the ancient Greek name must have derived from ''asu'', meaning 'east' in [[Assyria]]n (''ereb'' for ''Europe'' meaning 'west').<ref name="reid"/> The ideas of ''Occidental'' (form [[Latin]] ''Occidens'' 'setting') and ''Oriental'' (from Latin ''Oriens'' for 'rising') are also European invention, synonymous with ''Western'' and ''Eastern''.<ref name="reid"/> Reid further emphasizes that it explains the Western point of view of placing all the peoples and cultures of Asia into a single classification, almost as if there were a need for setting the distinction between Western and [[Eastern world|Eastern civilizations]] on the [[Eurasia]]n continent.<ref name="reid"/> Ogura Kazuo and Tenshin Okakura are two outspoken Japanese figures on the subject.<ref name="reid"/> ===Classical antiquity=== [[File:Roman Empire - Asia (125 AD).svg|thumb|The province of [[Asia (Roman province)|Asia]] highlighted (in red) within the Roman Empire.]] Latin Asia and Greek Ἀσία appear to be the same word. Roman authors translated Ἀσία as Asia. The Romans named a province [[Asia (Roman province)|Asia]], located in western Anatolia (in modern-day Turkey). There was an Asia Minor and an Asia Major located in modern-day [[Iraq]]. As the earliest evidence of the name is Greek, it is likely circumstantially that Asia came from Ἀσία, but ancient transitions, due to the lack of literary contexts, are difficult to catch in the act. The most likely vehicles were the ancient geographers and historians, such as [[Herodotus]], who were all Greek. [[Ancient Greek]] certainly evidences early and rich uses of the name.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D*%29asi%2Fa |title=Ἀσία |author=Henry George Liddell |author2=Robert Scott |author3=Henry Stuart Jones |author4=Roderick McKenzie |encyclopedia=A Greek-English Lexicon |year=2007 |location=Medford |publisher=Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University |origyear=1940 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427042823/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D*%29asi%2Fa |archivedate=27 April 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The first continental use of Asia is attributed to Herodotus (about 440 BCE), not because he innovated it, but because his ''Histories'' are the earliest surviving prose to describe it in any detail. He defines it carefully,<ref>Book IV, Articles 37–40.</ref> mentioning the previous geographers whom he had read, but whose works are now missing. By it he means [[Anatolia]] and the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian Empire]], in contrast to [[Greece]] and [[Egypt]]. Herodotus comments that he is puzzled as to why three women's names were "given to a tract which is in reality one" ([[Europa (mythology)|Europa]], [[Asia (mythology)|Asia]], and [[Libya (mythology)|Libya]], referring to Africa), stating that most Greeks assumed that Asia was named after the wife of [[Prometheus]] (i.e. [[Hesione]]), but that the [[Lydia]]ns say it was named after Asies, son of Cotys, who passed the name on to a tribe at [[Sardis]].<ref>Book IV, Article 45.</ref> In [[Greek mythology]], "[[Asia (mythology)|Asia]]" (''Ἀσία'') or "Asie" (''Ἀσίη'') was the name of a "[[Nymph]] or [[Titan (mythology)|Titan]] goddess of Lydia".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theoi.com/Nymphe/NympheAsie.html |title=Asie |work=Encyclopedia: Greek Gods, Spirits, Monsters |publisher=Theoi Greek Mythology, Exploring Mythology in Classical Literature and Art |date=2000–2011 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100604045105/http://www.theoi.com/Nymphe/NympheAsie.html |archivedate=4 June 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In ancient Greek religion, places were under the care of female divinities, parallel to guardian angels. The poets detailed their doings and generations in allegoric language salted with entertaining stories, which subsequently playwrights transformed into classical Greek drama and became "Greek mythology". For example, [[Hesiod]] mentions the daughters of [[Tethys (mythology)|Tethys]] and [[Oceanus|Ocean]], among whom are a "holy company", "who with the Lord [[Apollo]] and the Rivers have youths in their keeping".<ref>''Theogony'', Line 345 ff.</ref> Many of these are geographic: Doris, Rhodea, Europa, Asia. Hesiod explains:<ref>''Theogony'', Line 364ff.</ref> <blockquote>For there are three-thousand neat-ankled daughters of Ocean who are dispersed far and wide, and in every place alike serve the earth and the deep waters.</blockquote> The [[Iliad]] (attributed by the ancient Greeks to [[Homer]]) mentions two Phrygians (the tribe that replaced the [[Luvians]] in Lydia) in the [[Trojan War]] named [[Asius (mythology)|Asios]] (an adjective meaning "Asian");<ref>Μ95, Π717.</ref> and also a marsh or lowland containing a marsh in Lydia as {{lang|grc|ασιος}}.<ref>Β461.</ref> ==History== {{Main|History of Asia}} [[File:Silkroutes.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|The [[Silk Road]] connected civilizations across Asia<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.silk-road.com/artl/srtravelmain.shtml |title=Ancient Silk Road Travellers |author=Silkroad Foundation, Adela C.Y. Lee |website=Silk-road.com |accessdate=9 November 2017 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171108022054/http://www.silk-road.com/artl/srtravelmain.shtml |archivedate=8 November 2017 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>]] The history of Asia can be seen as the distinct histories of several peripheral coastal regions: East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia and the Middle East, linked by the interior mass of the Central Asian [[steppe]]s. The coastal periphery was home to some of the world's earliest known civilizations, each of them developing around fertile river valleys. The civilizations in [[Mesopotamia]], the [[Indus Valley]] and the [[Yellow River]] shared many similarities. These civilizations may well have exchanged technologies and ideas such as [[mathematics]] and the wheel. Other innovations, such as writing, seem to have been developed individually in each area. Cities, states and empires developed in these lowlands. The central steppe region had long been inhabited by horse-mounted nomads who could reach all areas of Asia from the [[steppe]]s. The earliest postulated expansion out of the steppe is that of the [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-Europeans]], who spread their languages into the Middle East, South Asia, and the borders of China, where the [[Tocharians]] resided. The northernmost part of Asia, including much of [[Siberia]], was largely inaccessible to the steppe nomads, owing to the dense forests, climate and [[tundra]]. These areas remained very sparsely populated. The center and the peripheries were mostly kept separated by mountains and deserts. The [[Caucasus]] and [[Himalaya]] mountains and the [[Karakum Desert|Karakum]] and [[Gobi Desert|Gobi]] deserts formed barriers that the steppe horsemen could cross only with difficulty. While the urban city dwellers were more advanced technologically and socially, in many cases they could do little in a military aspect to defend against the mounted hordes of the steppe. However, the lowlands did not have enough open grasslands to support a large horsebound force; for this and other reasons, the [[nomad]]s who conquered states in China, India, and the Middle East often found themselves adapting to the local, more affluent societies. The Islamic [[Caliphate]]'s defeats of the Byzantine and Persian empires led to West Asia and southern parts of Central Asia and western parts of South Asia under its control during [[Early Muslim conquests|its conquests]] of the 7th century. The [[Mongol Empire]] conquered a large part of Asia in the 13th century, an area extending from China to Europe. Before the Mongol invasion, [[Song dynasty]] reportedly had approximately 120 million citizens; the 1300 census which followed the invasion reported roughly 60 million people.<ref>Ping-ti Ho. "An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China", in ''Études Song'', Series 1, No 1, (1970). pp. 33–53.</ref> The [[Black Death]], one of the most devastating [[pandemic]]s in human history, is thought to have originated in the arid plains of central Asia, where it then travelled along the [[Silk Road]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/middle_ages/blackdisease_01.shtml |title=BBC – History – Black Death |publisher=BBC |date=17 February 2011 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605000815/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/middle_ages/blackdisease_01.shtml |archivedate=5 June 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The [[Russian Empire]] began to expand into Asia from the 17th century, and would eventually take control of all of Siberia and most of Central Asia by the end of the 19th century. The [[Ottoman Empire]] controlled Anatolia, most of the Middle East, North Africa and the Balkans from the mid 16th century onwards. In the 17th century, the [[Manchu people|Manchu]] conquered China and established the [[Qing dynasty]]. The Islamic [[Mughal Empire]] and the Hindu [[Maratha Empire]] controlled much of India in the 16th and 18th centuries respectively.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sen |first1=Sailendra Nath |title=An Advanced History of Modern India |page=11 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=bXWiACEwPR8C&pg=PA1941-IA82&lpg=PA1941-IA82&dq=Peshwa+Balaji+Vishwanath+1714 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011162115/https://books.google.com/books?id=bXWiACEwPR8C&pg=PA1941-IA82&lpg=PA1941-IA82&dq=Peshwa+Balaji+Vishwanath+1714&ots=kqD8F1YxL1&sig=OoCIPl_SH4oqKws730skPFJxVqc&ei=fluCVcjhFsT98QWFg4L4Dw&ved=0CDYQ6AEwBg |archivedate=11 October 2017 |df=dmy-all |isbn=9780230328853 |year=2010 }}</ref> <gallery> File:A Map of the Countries between Constantinople and Calcutta- Including Turkey in Asia, Persia, Afghanistan and Turkestan WDL11753.png|Map of western, southern, and central Asia in 1885<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11753/#institution=library-of-congress&page=17 |title=A Map of the Countries between Constantinople and Calcutta: Including Turkey in Asia, Persia, Afghanistan and Turkestan |website=Wdl.org |accessdate=9 November 2017 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017220525/https://www.wdl.org/en/item/11753/#institution=library-of-congress&page=17 |archivedate=17 October 2017 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> File:Modern Asia (1796).tif|The map of Asia in 1796, which also included the continent of [[Australia (continent)|Australia]] (then known as [[New Holland (Australia)|New Holland]]). File:Asien Bd1.jpg|1890 map of Asia </gallery> ==Geography and climate== {{main|Geography of Asia|Climate of Asia}} {{see also|:Category:Biota of Asia}} [[File:Himalayas.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Himalayas|Himalayan]] range is home to some of the planet's highest peaks.]] Asia is the largest continent on Earth. It covers 9% of the Earth's total surface area (or 30% of its land area), and has the largest coastline, at {{convert|62800|km|mi|0}}. Asia is generally defined as comprising the eastern four-fifths of [[Eurasia]]. It is located to the east of the [[Suez Canal]] and the [[Ural Mountains]], and south of the [[Caucasus Mountains]] (or the [[Kuma–Manych Depression]]) and the [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] and [[Black Sea]]s.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Asia |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9110518/Asia |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] Online |year=2006 |location=Chicago |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081118141016/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9110518/Asia |archivedate=18 November 2008 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> It is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Indian Ocean and on the north by the Arctic Ocean. Asia is subdivided into 48 countries, three of them (Russia, [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Turkey]]) having part of their land in Europe. Asia has extremely diverse climates and geographic features. Climates range from arctic and subarctic in Siberia to tropical in southern India and Southeast Asia. It is moist across southeast sections, and dry across much of the interior. Some of the largest daily temperature ranges on Earth occur in western sections of Asia. The monsoon circulation dominates across southern and eastern sections, due to the presence of the Himalayas forcing the formation of a thermal low which draws in moisture during the summer. Southwestern sections of the continent are hot. Siberia is one of the coldest places in the Northern Hemisphere, and can act as a source of arctic air masses for North America. The most active place on Earth for tropical cyclone activity lies northeast of the Philippines and south of Japan. The [[Gobi Desert]] is in [[Mongolia]] and the [[Arabian Desert]] stretches across much of the Middle East. The [[Yangtze River]] in China is the longest river in the continent. The [[Himalayas]] between Nepal and China is the tallest mountain range in the world. Tropical rainforests stretch across much of southern Asia and coniferous and deciduous forests lie farther north. <gallery> File:Paysan soignant ses boeufs (Kerala).jpg|[[Kerala backwaters]] File:Naadam rider 2.jpg|Mongolian [[steppe]] File:1 li jiang guilin yangshuo 2011.jpg|[[South China Karst]] File:Akkem Valley 2011.jpg|[[Altai Mountains]] File:Hunza Valley from Eagle Point.jpg|[[Hunza Valley]] </gallery> ===Main regions=== * [[North Asia]] ([[Siberia]]) * [[East Asia]] ([[Far East]]) * [[West Asia]] ([[Middle East]] or [[Near East]]) * [[Central Asia]] * [[South Asia]] ([[Indian subcontinent]]) * [[Southeast Asia]] ([[Indochina]] and [[East Indies]]) ===Climate change=== A survey carried out in 2010 by global risk analysis farm [[Maplecroft]] identified 16 countries that are extremely vulnerable to climate change. Each nation's vulnerability was calculated using 42 socio, economic and environmental indicators, which identified the likely climate change impacts during the next 30 years. The Asian countries of [[Bangladesh]], India, [[Vietnam]], Thailand, Pakistan and [[Sri Lanka]] were among the 16 countries facing extreme risk from climate change. Some shifts are already occurring. For example, in tropical parts of India with a [[semi-arid climate]], the temperature increased by 0.4&nbsp;°C between 1901 and 2003. A 2013 study by the [[International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics]] ([[ICRISAT]]) aimed to find science-based, pro-poor approaches and techniques that would enable Asia's agricultural systems to cope with climate change, while benefitting poor and vulnerable farmers. The study's recommendations ranged from improving the use of climate information in local planning and strengthening weather-based agro-advisory services, to stimulating diversification of rural household incomes and providing incentives to farmers to adopt natural resource conservation measures to enhance forest cover, replenish groundwater and use [[renewable energy]].<ref>[http://exploreit.icrisat.org/sites/default/files/uploads/1378286859_PolicyBrief23.pdf ''Vulnerability to Climate Change: Adaptation Strategies and layers of Resilience''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226173957/http://exploreit.icrisat.org/sites/default/files/uploads/1378286859_PolicyBrief23.pdf |date=26 February 2014 }}, [[ICRISAT]], Policy Brief No. 23, February 2013</ref> ==Economy== {{Main|Economy of Asia|List of Asian countries by GDP|List of countries in Asia-Pacific by GDP (nominal)|List of Asian and Pacific countries by GDP (PPP)}} [[File:1 singapore city skyline dusk panorama 2011.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|Singapore has one of the [[World's busiest port|busiest ports in the world]] and is the world's fourth largest [[Foreign exchange market|foreign exchange]] trading center.]] {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: right; float:right; clear:right; border:1px solid #aaa; margin:10px" |- style="background:#dbdbdb;" ! Rank ! Country ! [[List of countries by past and projected GDP (PPP)|GDP]] <small>(PPP, Peak Year)</small><br /><small>millions of [[International dollar|USD]]</small> ! Peak Year |- | 1 ||align=left|{{flag|China}} || 25,238,563 || 2018 |- | 2 ||align=left|{{flag|India}} || 10,385,432 || 2018 |- | 3 ||align=left|{{flag|Japan}} || 5,619,492 || 2018 |- | 4 ||align=left|{{flag|Russia}} || 4,168,884 || 2018 |- | 5 ||align=left|{{flag|Indonesia}} || 3,492,208 || 2018 |- | 6 ||align=left|{{flag|Turkey}} || 2,320,641 || 2018 |- | 7 ||align=left|{{flag|South Korea}} || 2,138,242 || 2018 |- | 8 ||align=left|{{nowrap|{{flag|Saudi Arabia}}}} || 1,844,751 || 2018 |- | 9 ||align=left|{{flag|Iran}} || 1,749,428 || 2018 |- | 10 ||align=left|{{flag|Thailand}} || 1,310,573 || 2018 |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: right; float:right; clear:right; border:1px solid #aaa; margin:10px" |- style="background:#dbdbdb;" ! Rank ! Country ! [[List of IMF ranked countries by past and projected GDP (nominal)|GDP]] <small>(nominal, Peak Year)</small><br /><small>millions of [[International dollar|USD]]</small> ! Peak Year |- | 1 ||align=left|{{flag|China}} || 14,092,514 || 2018 |- | 2 ||align=left|{{flag|Japan}} || 6,203,213 || 2012 |- | 3 ||align=left|{{flag|India}} || 2,848,231 || 2018 |- | 4 ||align=left|{{flag|Russia}} || 2,297,125 || 2013 |- | 5 ||align=left|{{flag|South Korea}} || 1,693,246 || 2018 |- | 6 ||align=left|{{flag|Indonesia}} || 1,074,966 || 2018 |- | 7 ||align=left|{{flag|Turkey}} || 950,328 || 2013 |- | 8 ||align=left|{{nowrap|{{flag|Saudi Arabia}}}} || 756,350 || 2014 |- | 9 ||align=left|{{flag|Taiwan}} || 613,295 || 2018 |- | 10 ||align=left|{{flag|Iran}} || 577,214 || 2011 |} Asia has the largest continental economy by both [[GDP]] [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|Nominal]] and [[purchasing power parity|PPP]] in the world, and is the fastest growing economic region.<ref>{{cite news |title=http://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPD@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD|url=http://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPD@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD |work= www.imf.org}}</ref> {{as of|2011}}, the largest economies in Asia are China, Japan, India, South Korea and Indonesia based on GDP in both nominal and PPP.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aneki.com/countries2.php?t=Largest_Economies_in_Asia&table=fb126&places=2&unit=*&order=desc&dependency=independent&number=5&cntdn=n&r=-201-202-203-204-205-206-207-208-209-210-211-212-116-214-215-216-217-218-219-220&c=asia&measures=Country--GDP&units=*--$*&decimals=*--*|title=Largest_Economies_in_Asia|website=Aneki.com|accessdate=9 November 2017}}</ref> Based on Global Office Locations 2011, Asia dominated the office locations with 4 of the top 5 being in Asia: Hong Kong, Singapore, Tokyo, [[Seoul]] and Shanghai. Around 68 percent of international firms have office in Hong Kong.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cfoinnovation.com/content/hong-kong-singapore-tokyo-worlds-top-office-destinations |title=Hong Kong, Singapore, Tokyo World's Top Office Destinations |work=CFO innovation ASIA |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807011203/http://www.cfoinnovation.com/content/hong-kong-singapore-tokyo-worlds-top-office-destinations |archivedate=7 August 2011 |df=dmy-all |access-date=21 July 2011 }}</ref> In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the economies of China<ref>{{cite web |ssrn=916768 |title=Five Years of China WTO Membership: EU and US Perspectives About China's Compliance With Transparency Commitments and the Transitional Review Mechanism}}</ref> and India have been growing rapidly, both with an average annual growth rate of more than 8%. Other recent very-high-growth nations in Asia include [[Israel]], [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], [[Bangladesh]], Pakistan, Thailand, [[Vietnam]], [[Mongolia]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Cyprus]] and the [[Philippines]], and mineral-rich nations such as [[Kazakhstan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Iran]], [[Brunei]], the [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Qatar]], [[Kuwait]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Bahrain]] and [[Oman]]. According to [[economic historian]] [[Angus Maddison]] in his book ''The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective'', India had the world's largest economy during 0 BCE and 1000 BCE.<ref>The World Economy: Historical Statistics, Angus Maddison</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theworldeconomy.org/MaddisonTables/MaddisontableB-18.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2013-05-21 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130722202625/http://www.theworldeconomy.org/MaddisonTables/MaddisontableB-18.pdf |archivedate=22 July 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> China was the [[Economic history of China|largest and most advanced economy]] on earth for much of recorded history,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/SRR/Volume14/nalapat.html |title=Professor M.D. Nalapat. Ensuring China's "Peaceful Rise". Accessed 30 January 2008 |publisher=Bharat-rakshak.com |date=11 September 2001 |accessdate=1 June 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100110045822/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/SRR/Volume14/nalapat.html |archivedate=10 January 2010 |df=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED460052&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED460052 |title=Dahlman, Carl J; Aubert, Jean-Eric. China and the Knowledge Economy: Seizing the 21st century. WBI Development Studies. World Bank Publications. Accessed 30 January 2008 |publisher=Eric.ed.gov |accessdate=1 June 2010 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080304235359/http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED460052&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED460052 |archivedate=4 March 2008 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/surveys/displaystory.cfm?story_id=E1_PNTJQTR |title=The Real Great Leap Forward |work=The Economist |date=30 September 2004 |accessdate=1 June 2010 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227234147/http://www.economist.com/surveys/displaystory.cfm?story_id=E1_PNTJQTR |archivedate=27 December 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>[http://search.ft.com/ftArticle?queryText=China%20the%20world%E2%80%99s%20largest%20economy%20for%2018%20of%20the%20past%2020%20centuries&y=6&aje=false&x=14&id=050926000484&ct=0]{{dead link|date=August 2017|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> until the [[British Empire]] (excluding [[British India|India]]) overtook it in the mid-19th century. For several decades in the late twentieth century Japan was the largest economy in Asia and second-largest of any single nation in the world, after surpassing the [[Soviet Union]] (measured in net material product) in 1986 and Germany in 1968. (NB: A number of supernational economies are larger, such as the [[European Union]] (EU), the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) or [[APEC]]). This ended in 2010 when China overtook Japan to become the world's second largest economy. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Japan's GDP was almost as large (current exchange rate method) as that of the rest of Asia combined.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}} In 1995, Japan's economy nearly equaled that of the US as the largest economy in the world for a day, after the Japanese currency reached a record high of 79 [[Japanese yen|yen]]/US$. Economic growth in Asia since World War II to the 1990s had been concentrated in Japan as well as the four regions of South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore located in the [[Pacific Rim]], known as the [[Four Asian Tigers|Asian tigers]], which have now all received developed country status, having the highest [[GDP per capita]] in Asia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.emergingdragon.com/ |title=Rise of Japan and 4 Asian Tigers from |publisher=emergingdragon.com |accessdate=1 June 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100422013118/http://www.emergingdragon.com/ |archivedate=22 April 2010 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy}}</ref> [[File:Mumbai 03-2016 10 skyline of Lotus Colony.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Mumbai is one of the most populous cities on the continent. The city is an infrastructure and tourism hub, and plays a crucial role in the [[Economy of India]].]] It is forecasted that India will overtake Japan in terms of nominal GDP by 2020.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbcglobal.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=84&Itemid=507 |title=Commonwealth Business Council-Asia |accessdate=12 April 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070728122032/http://www.cbcglobal.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=84&Itemid=507 |archivedate=28 July 2007 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy}}</ref> By 2027, according to [[Goldman Sachs]], China will have the largest economy in the world. Several trade blocs exist, with the most developed being the [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]]. Asia is the largest continent in the world by a considerable margin, and it is rich in natural resources, such as petroleum, forests, fish, water, rice, copper and silver. Manufacturing in Asia has traditionally been strongest in East and Southeast Asia, particularly in China, [[Taiwan]], South Korea, Japan, India, the Philippines, and Singapore. Japan and South Korea continue to dominate in the area of [[multinational corporation]]s, but increasingly the PRC and India are making significant inroads. Many companies from Europe, North America, South Korea and Japan have operations in Asia's developing countries to take advantage of its abundant supply of cheap labour and relatively developed infrastructure. According to [[Citigroup]] 9 of 11 [[3G (countries)|Global Growth Generators]] countries came from Asia driven by population and income growth. They are [[Bangladesh]], China, India, Indonesia, [[Iraq]], Mongolia, Philippines, [[Sri Lanka]] and Vietnam.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sme.com.ph/sme-news/news.php?newsid=2324 |title=Philippine potential cited |publisher=sme.com.ph |date=24 February 2011 |accessdate=1 March 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110424124759/https://www.sme.com.ph/sme-news/news.php?newsid=2324 |archivedate=24 April 2011 |df=dmy}}</ref> Asia has four main financial centers: Tokyo, Hong Kong, Singapore and Shanghai. [[Call center]]s and [[business process outsourcing]] (BPOs) are becoming major employers in India and the Philippines due to the availability of a large pool of highly skilled, English-speaking workers. The increased use of outsourcing has assisted the rise of India and the China as financial centers. Due to its large and extremely competitive information technology industry, India has become a major hub for outsourcing. In 2010, Asia had 3.3 million millionaires (people with net worth over US$1 million excluding their homes), slightly below North America with 3.4 million millionaires. Last year Asia had toppled Europe.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/international-news/asian-pacific/asias-millionaire-population-overtakes-europe/article2072205/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110625124306/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/international-news/asian-pacific/asias-millionaire-population-overtakes-europe/article2072205/ |dead-url=yes |archive-date=2011-06-25 |title=Asia has more millionaires than Europe |location=Toronto}}</ref> Citigroup in The Wealth Report 2012 stated that Asian centa-millionaire overtook North America's wealth for the first time as the world's "economic center of gravity" continued moving east. At the end of 2011, there were 18,000 Asian people mainly in Southeast Asia, China and Japan who have at least $100 million in disposable assets, while North America with 17,000 people and Western Europe with 14,000 people.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-03-27/citigroup-study-shows-asian-rich-topping-north-american.html |title=Citigroup Study Shows Asian Rich Topping North American |date=28 March 2012 |work=Bloomberg |first=Sanat |last=Vallikappen |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150114212900/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-03-27/citigroup-study-shows-asian-rich-topping-north-american.html |archivedate=14 January 2015 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> ==Tourism== [[File:Grand Palace Bangkok.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A Thai temple complex with several ornate buildings and a stupa, and a lot of visitors|[[Wat Phra Kaeo]] in the [[Grand Palace]] is among Bangkok's major tourist attractions.]] With growing Regional Tourism with domination of Chinese visitors, [[MasterCard]] has released Global Destination Cities Index 2013 with 10 of 20 are dominated by Asia and Pacific Region Cities and also for the first time a city of a country from Asia (Bangkok) set in the top-ranked with 15.98 international visitors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.italianvenue.com/news/20135281339-milan-and-rome-named-among-the-most-widely-visited-cities-in-the-world-in-the-mastercard-global-destination-cities-index-report/|title=Milan and Rome named among the most widely visited cities in the world in the Mastercard Global Destination Cities Index report|date=28 May 2013|website=Italianavenue.com|accessdate=9 November 2017|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017220531/http://www.italianvenue.com/news/20135281339-milan-and-rome-named-among-the-most-widely-visited-cities-in-the-world-in-the-mastercard-global-destination-cities-index-report/|archivedate=17 October 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> ==Demographics== {{Main|Demographics of Asia}} {{Historical populations |title = Historical populations |type = Asia |align = right |footnote = Source: [https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/sixbillion/sixbilpart1.pdf "UN report 2004 data" (PDF).]<br />The figure for {{UN_Population|Year}} is provided by {{UN_Population|source}}. |1500 |243000000 |1700 |436000000 |1900 |947000000 |1950 |1402000000 |1999 |3634000000 |{{UN_Population|Year}} |{{replace|{{UN_Population|Asia}}|,}} }} [[File:WorldPopulation.png|thumb|right|upright=1.35|Graph showing population by continent as a percentage of [[world population]] (1750–2005)]] East Asia had by far the strongest overall [[Human Development Index]] (HDI) improvement of any region in the world, nearly doubling average HDI attainment over the past 40 years, according to the report's analysis of health, education and income data. China, the second highest achiever in the world in terms of HDI improvement since 1970, is the only country on the "Top 10 Movers" list due to income rather than health or education achievements. Its per capita income increased a stunning 21-fold over the last four decades, also lifting hundreds of millions out of income poverty. Yet it was not among the region's top performers in improving school enrollment and life expectancy.<ref name="UNDP">{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/PR6-HDR10-RegRBAP-E-rev5-sm.pdf |title=2010 Human Development Report: Asian countries lead development progress over 40 years |publisher=UNDP |accessdate=22 December 2010 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101121161015/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/PR6-HDR10-RegRBAP-E-rev5-sm.pdf |archivedate=21 November 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> <br>[[Nepal]], a South Asian country, emerges as one of the world's fastest movers since 1970 mainly due to health and education achievements. Its present [[life expectancy]] is 25 years longer than in the 1970s. More than four of every five children of school age in Nepal now attend primary school, compared to just one in five 40 years ago.<ref name="UNDP"/> <br> Japan and South Korea ranked highest among the countries grouped on the HDI (number 11 and 12 in the world, which are in the "very high human development" category), followed by Hong Kong (21) and Singapore (27). [[Afghanistan]] (155) ranked lowest amongst Asian countries out of the 169 countries assessed.<ref name="UNDP"/> ===Languages=== {{Main|Languages of Asia}} Asia is home to several [[language family|language families]] and many [[language isolate]]s. Most Asian countries have more than one language that is natively spoken. For instance, according to [[Ethnologue]], more than 600 languages are spoken in Indonesia, more than 800 languages spoken in India, and more than 100 are spoken in the Philippines. China has many languages and dialects in different provinces. ===Religions=== {{See also|Eastern philosophy|Religion in Asia|List of Asian mythologies}} [[File:Westernwall2.jpg|thumb|The [[Western Wall]] and the [[Dome of the Rock]], [[Jerusalem]]]] [[File:Beyt-i Haram.jpg|thumb|right|Pilgrims in the annual [[Hajj]] at the [[Kaabah]] in [[Mecca]].]] [[File:India - Madurai temple - 0785.jpg|thumb|upright|The Hindu [[Meenakshi temple]] in [[Madurai]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]].]] [[File:Spring Temple Buddha picturing Vairocana, in Lushan County, Henan, China.png|thumb|upright|[[Spring Temple Buddha]] in [[Lushan County, Henan]], China is the [[List of statues by height|world's tallest statue]].]] Many of the world's [[major religious groups|major religions]] have their origins in Asia, including the five most practiced in the world (excluding [[irreligion]]), which are Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Chinese folk religion (classified as Confucianism and Taoism), and Buddhism respectively. Asian mythology is complex and diverse. The story of the [[Flood myth|Great Flood]] for example, as presented to Jews in the [[Hebrew Bible]] in the narrative of [[Noah]]—and later to Christians in the [[Old Testament]], and to [[Islam|Muslims]] in the [[Quran]]—is earliest found in [[Mesopotamian mythology]], in the [[Enûma Eliš]] and ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]''. [[Hindu mythology]] similarly tells about an [[avatar]] of [[Vishnu]] in the form of a [[Matsya|fish]] who warned [[Sraddhadeva Manu|Manu]] of a terrible flood. Ancient [[Chinese mythology]] also tells of a [[Great Flood (China)|Great Flood]] spanning generations, one that required the combined efforts of emperors and divinities to control. ====Abrahamic==== The [[Abrahamic religions]] including Judaism, Christianity, Islam and [[Bahá'í Faith]] originated in West Asia. Judaism, the oldest of the Abrahamic faiths, is practiced primarily in [[Israel]], the [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]] homeland and historical birthplace of the [[Jews|Hebrew nation]]: which today consists both of those [[Jews|Israelites]] who remained in [[Mizrahi Jews|Asia/North Africa]] and those who returned from [[Jewish diaspora|diaspora]] in [[Ashkenazi Jews|Europe]], [[American Jews|North America]], and other regions;<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/jewpop.html |title=The Jewish Population of the World |publisher=Jewishvirtuallibrary.org |accessdate=1 June 2010 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100621102211/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/jewpop.html |archivedate=21 June 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> though various diaspora communities persist worldwide. Jews are the predominant ethnic group in [[Israel]] (75.6%) numbering at about 6.1 million,<ref>{{cite news |author=Yoram Ettinger |title=Defying demographic projections |url=http://www.israelhayom.com/site/newsletter_opinion.php?id=3913 |accessdate=29 October 2013 |newspaper=[[Israel Hayom]] |date=April 5, 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029191655/http://www.israelhayom.com/site/newsletter_opinion.php?id=3913 |archivedate=29 October 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> although the levels of adherence to Jewish religion vary. Outside of Israel there are small ancient Jewish communities in [[Turkey]] (17,400),<ref name="jewishvirtuallibrary">{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Turkey.html |title=Turkey Virtual Jewish History Tour &#124; Jewish Virtual Library |publisher=jewishvirtuallibrary.org |accessdate=15 December 2014 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011161052/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Turkey.html |archivedate=11 October 2014 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[Azerbaijan]] (9,100),<ref name="mashke2">{{cite web |url=http://pop-stat.mashke.org/azerbaijan-ethnic2009.htm |title=Ethnic composition of Azerbaijan 2009 |publisher=Pop-stat.mashke.org |date=1971-04-07 |accessdate=2012-12-22 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/65Bh6vFLe?url=http://pop-stat.mashke.org/azerbaijan-ethnic2009.htm |archivedate=3 February 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Iran (8,756),<ref name=IranCensusMurder>{{cite web |url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/jewish-woman-brutally-murdered-in-iran-over-property-dispute/#ixzz3Ac6duaqw |title=Jewish woman brutally murdered in Iran over property dispute |publisher=The Times of Israel |date=November 28, 2012 |accessdate=Aug 16, 2014 |quote="A government census published earlier this year indicated there were a mere 8,756 Jews left in Iran" |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819102713/http://www.timesofisrael.com/jewish-woman-brutally-murdered-in-iran-over-property-dispute/#ixzz3Ac6duaqw |archivedate=19 August 2014 |df=dmy-all }} See [[Persian Jews#Iran]]</ref> India (5,000) and [[Uzbekistan]] (4,000),<ref>[http://www.ajcarchives.org/AJC_DATA/Files/AJYB727.CV.pdf World Jewish Population 2007] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326020910/http://www.ajcarchives.org/AJC_DATA/Files/AJYB727.CV.pdf |date=26 March 2009 }}, ''American Jewish Yearbook'', vol. 107 (2007), p. 592.</ref> among many other places. In total, there are 14.4–17.5 million (2016, est.)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jewishdatabank.org/Studies/details.cfm?StudyID=831|title=World Jewish Population 2016 (DellaPergola, AJYB) {{!}} Berman Jewish DataBank|website=jewishdatabank.org|access-date=2018-03-24}}</ref> Jews alive in the world today, making them one of the smallest Asian minorities, at roughly 0.3 to 0.4 percent of the total population of the continent. Christianity is a widespread religion in Asia with more than 286 million adherents according to [[Pew Research Center]] in 2010,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-christians/ |title=Christians |date=18 December 2012 |work=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |accessdate=13 March 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150310002132/http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-christians/ |archivedate=10 March 2015 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> and nearly 364 million according to [[Encyclopædia Britannica|Britannica]] Book of the Year 2014.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=LccRAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA324&q=reconciled%20table%20%22worldwide%20by%20religion%22&f=falsePew |title=Britannica Book of the Year 2014 |publisher= |accessdate=13 March 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429073722/https://books.google.com/books?id=LccRAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA324&redir_esc=y&q=reconciled%20table%20%22worldwide%20by%20religion%22&f=falsePew |archivedate=29 April 2016 |df=dmy-all |isbn=9781625131713 |author1=Encyclopaedia Britannica |first1=Inc |date=2014-03-01 }}</ref> Constituting around 12.6% of the total population of Asia. In the Philippines and [[East Timor]], Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion; it was introduced by the Spaniards and the Portuguese, respectively. In [[Armenia]], [[Cyprus]], Georgia and Asian Russia, [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] is the predominant religion. In the Middle East, such as in the [[Levant]], [[Syriac Christianity]] ([[Church of the East]]) and [[Oriental Orthodoxy]] are prevalent minority denominations, which are both [[Eastern Christian]] sects mainly adhered to [[Assyrian people]] or Syriac Christians. [[Saint Thomas Christians]] in India trace their origins to the evangelistic activity of [[Thomas the Apostle]] in the 1st century.<ref>''The Encyclopedia of Christianity'', Volume 5 by Erwin Fahlbusch. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. 2008, p. 285. {{ISBN|978-0-8028-2417-2}}.</ref> Islam, which originated in the [[Hejaz]] located in modern-day Saudi Arabia, is the second largest and most widely-spread religion in Asia with at least 1 billion Muslims constituting around 23.8% of the total population of Asia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-asia/|title=Region: Asia-Pacific|date=27 January 2011|website=Pewforum.org|accessdate=9 November 2017|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010061404/http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-asia/|archivedate=10 October 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> With 12.7% of the world Muslim population, the country currently with the largest Muslim population in the world is Indonesia, followed by Pakistan (11.5%), India (10%), [[Bangladesh]], Iran and [[Turkey]]. [[Mecca]], [[Medina]] and [[Holiest sites in Islam#Jerusalem|Jerusalem]] are the three holiest cities for Islam in all the world. The [[Hajj]] and [[Umrah]] attract large numbers of Muslim devotees from all over the world to Mecca and Medina. Iran is the largest [[Shi'a]] country. The [[Bahá'í Faith]] originated in Asia, in Iran (Persia), and spread from there to the Ottoman Empire, Central Asia, India, and Burma during the lifetime of Bahá'u'lláh. Since the middle of the 20th century, growth has particularly occurred in other Asian countries, because Bahá'í activities in many Muslim countries has been severely [[Persecution of Bahá'ís|suppressed]] by authorities. [[Lotus Temple]] is a big Baha'i Temple in India. ====Indian and East Asian religions==== [[File:Akshardham Lotus.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Swaminarayan Hinduism|Swaminarayan]] [[Akshardham (Delhi)|Akshardham Temple]] in [[Delhi]], according to the [[Guinness World Record]]s is the ''World's Largest Comprehensive Hindu Temple''<ref>{{cite news |first=Preeti |last=Jha |url=http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/Guinness-comes-to-east-Delhi-Akshardham-worlds-largest-Hindu-temple/254631/ |title=Guinness comes to east Delhi: Akshardham world's largest Hindu temple |date=26 December 2007 |publisher=[[The Indian Express|ExpressIndia.com]] |accessdate=2 January 2008 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071228055300/http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/Guinness-comes-to-east-Delhi-Akshardham-worlds-largest-Hindu-temple/254631/ |archivedate=28 December 2007 |df=}}</ref>]] Almost all Asian religions have philosophical character and Asian philosophical traditions cover a large spectrum of philosophical thoughts and writings. [[Indian philosophy]] includes [[Hindu philosophy]] and [[Buddhist philosophy]]. They include elements of nonmaterial pursuits, whereas another school of thought from India, [[Cārvāka]], preached the enjoyment of the material world. The religions of [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and [[Sikhism]] originated in India, South Asia. In East Asia, particularly in China and Japan, [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]] and [[Zen|Zen Buddhism]] took shape. {{as of|2012}}, Hinduism has around 1.1 billion adherents. The faith represents around 25% of Asia's population and is the largest religion in Asia. However, it is mostly concentrated in South Asia. Over 80% of the populations of both India and Nepal adhere to Hinduism, alongside significant communities in Bangladesh, Pakistan, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and [[Bali]], Indonesia. Many overseas Indians in countries such as Burma, Singapore and Malaysia also adhere to Hinduism. Buddhism has a great following in mainland Southeast Asia and East Asia. Buddhism is the religion of the majority of the populations of [[Cambodia]] (96%),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/cb.html |title= The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=20 December 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101229001224/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/cb.html |archivedate=29 December 2010 |deadurl=no |df=dmy}}</ref> [[Thailand]] (95%),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/th.html |title=CIA — The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=20 December 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101229000203/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/th.html |archivedate=29 December 2010 |deadurl=no |df=dmy}}</ref> [[Burma]] (80–89%),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bm.html |title=The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=20 December 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101229013140/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bm.html |archivedate=29 December 2010 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy}}</ref> Japan (36–96%),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ja.html |title= The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=20 December 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101228224107/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ja.html |archivedate=28 December 2010 |deadurl=no |df=dmy}}</ref> [[Bhutan]] (75–84%),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bt.html |title= The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=20 December 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101228202246/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bt.html |archivedate=28 December 2010 |deadurl=no |df=dmy}}</ref> [[Sri Lanka]] (70%),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop43&gp=Activities&tpl=3 |title=The Census of Population and Housing of Sri Lanka-2011 |publisher=Department of Census and Statistics |accessdate=29 July 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724072557/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop43&gp=Activities&tpl=3 |archivedate=24 July 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[Laos]] (60–67%)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/la.html |title= The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=20 December 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101229000748/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/la.html |archivedate=29 December 2010 |deadurl=no |df=dmy}}</ref> and [[Mongolia]] (53–93%).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mg.html |title= The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=20 December 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101229001357/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mg.html |archivedate=29 December 2010 |deadurl=no |df=dmy}}</ref> Large Buddhist populations also exist in Singapore (33–51%),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sn.html |title= The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=20 December 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101228230816/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sn.html |archivedate=28 December 2010 |deadurl=no |df=dmy}}</ref> [[Taiwan]] (35–93%),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tw.html |title= The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=20 December 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101229003947/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tw.html |archivedate=29 December 2010 |deadurl=no |df=dmy}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=China (includes Taiwan only): International Religious Freedom Report 2005 |url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51508.htm |publisher=US Department of State: [[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor]] |date=8 November 2005 |accessdate=24 January 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080111063941/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51508.htm |archivedate=11 January 2008 |deadurl=no |df=dmy}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=China (includes Taiwan only): International Religious Freedom Report 2006 |url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71337.htm |publisher=[[US Department of State]]: [[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor]] |date=15 September 2006 |accessdate=24 February 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080213052048/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71337.htm |archivedate=13 February 2008 |deadurl=no |df=dmy}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=China (includes Taiwan only): International Religious Freedom Report 2007 |url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90134.htm |publisher=[[US Department of State]]: [[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor]] |date=15 September 2006 |accessdate=24 February 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216064814/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90134.htm |archivedate=16 February 2008 |deadurl=no |df=dmy}}</ref> South Korea (23–50%),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ks.html |title=CThe World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=20 December 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101228235910/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ks.html |archivedate=28 December 2010 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy}}</ref> [[Malaysia]] (19–21%),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/my.html |title= The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=20 December 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101228233159/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/my.html |archivedate=28 December 2010 |deadurl=no |df=dmy}}</ref> [[Nepal]] (9–11%),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/np.html |title= The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=20 December 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101229013308/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/np.html |archivedate=29 December 2010 |deadurl=no |df=dmy}}</ref> [[Vietnam]] (10–75%),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/vm.html |title=The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=20 December 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101228234229/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/vm.html |archivedate=28 December 2010 |deadurl=no |df=dmy}}</ref> China (20–50%),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/nationality/han/ |title=Chinese Han Nationality: Language, Religion, Customs |website=Travelchinaguide.com |accessdate=9 November 2017 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017220534/https://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/nationality/han/ |archivedate=17 October 2017 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[North Korea]] (2–14%),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.everyculture.com/Ja-Ma/North-Korea.html |title=Culture of North Korea – Alternative name, History and ethnic relations |work=Countries and Their Cultures |publisher=Advameg Inc. |accessdate=4 July 2009 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805183929/http://www.everyculture.com/Ja-Ma/North-Korea.html |archivedate=5 August 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/kn.html#People|title=The World Factbook|website=Cia.gov|accessdate=9 November 2017|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703175031/https://www.cia.gov/Library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/kn.html#People|archivedate=3 July 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2792.htm |title=Background Note: North Korea |author=Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs |date=2009|publisher=U.S. State Department |accessdate=4 July 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090701191406/http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2792.htm |archivedate=1 July 2009 |deadurl=no |df=dmy}}</ref> and small communities in India and [[Bangladesh]]. In many Chinese communities, Mahayana Buddhism is easily syncretized with Taoism, thus exact religious statistics is difficult to obtain and may be understated or overstated. The Communist-governed countries of China, Vietnam and North Korea are officially atheist, thus the number of Buddhists and other religious adherents may be under-reported. [[Jainism]] is found mainly in India and in oversea Indian communities such as the United States and Malaysia. [[Sikhism]] is found in Northern India and amongst overseas Indian communities in other parts of Asia, especially Southeast Asia. [[Confucianism]] is found predominantly in Mainland China, South Korea, Taiwan and in overseas Chinese populations. Taoism is found mainly in Mainland China, Taiwan, Malaysia and Singapore. Taoism is easily syncretized with [[Mahayana Buddhism]] for many Chinese, thus exact religious statistics is difficult to obtain and may be understated or overstated. <gallery> File:Jews-pray-in-the-Western-Wall-1.jpg|[[Jews]] praying at [[Western Wall]], [[Jerusalem]], [[Israel]] File:Traditional wedding at Meji-jingu 72570539 f30636e2ef o.jpg|[[Marriage in Japan#Weddings in Japan|Japanese wedding]] at the [[Meiji Shrine]] File:A day of devotion – Thaipusam in Singapore (4316108409).jpg|[[Thaipusam|Hindu]] festival celebrated by Singapore's [[Tamil people|Tamil]] community File:Cross Procession in Novosibirsk 01.jpg|[[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] cross procession in [[Novosibirsk]] File:Black Nazarene procession.jpg|Catholic procession of the [[Black Nazarene]] in [[Manila]] File:İstanbul 4258.jpg|Muslim men praying in [[Turkey]] File:Hama-RomanOrthodoxChurch.jpg|The [[Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch]] of the [[Presentation of Mary|Entrance of the Theotokos]] in [[Hama]], [[Syria]] File:Mor-mattai.png|The [[Mar Mattai monastery|Monastery of St. Matthew]], located atop [[Mount Alfaf]] in [[northern Iraq]], is recognized as one of the oldest Christian monasteries in existence. File:Cathedral of Saint Ephrem the Syrian (2).jpg|Cathedral of [[Saint Ephrem]] in [[Aleppo]], [[Syria]] File:Motael Church, Dili, East Timor (312012049).jpg|The Church of [[Motael Church|São António de Motael]], [[Dili]] File:DeirAlQamar-Saidet.jpg|[[Maronite Church]] of Saidet et Tallé in [[Deir el Qamar]], [[Lebanon]] </gallery> ==Modern conflicts== <!-- Commented out: [[File:TrangBang.jpg|thumb|right|[[Phan Thị Kim Phúc]], center, running down a road near [[Trảng Bàng District|Trảng Bàng]], Vietnam, on 8 June 1972, after a [[napalm]] bomb was dropped on the village of Trảng Bàng by a plane of the [[Vietnam Air Force]] <sub>Photo: [[Nick Ut]] / The Associated Press</sup>]] --> [[File:Napalm.jpg|thumb|US forces drop [[Napalm]] on suspected [[Viet Cong]] positions in 1965]] [[File:Wounded civilians arrive at hospital Aleppo.jpg|thumb|Wounded civilians arrive at a hospital in [[Aleppo]] during the [[Syrian Civil War]], October 2012]] Some of the events pivotal in the Asia territory related to the relationship with the outside world in the post-[[Second World War]] were: * The [[Chinese Civil War]] * The [[Kashmir conflict]] * The [[Insurgency in Northeast India]] * The [[Korean War]] * The [[First Indochina War|French-Indochina War]] * The [[Vietnam War]] * The [[Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation]] * The [[Sino-Vietnamese War]] * The [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] * The [[Yom Kippur War]] * The [[Iranian Revolution]] * The [[Soviet–Afghan War]] * The [[Iran–Iraq War]] * The [[Indonesian occupation of East Timor]] * The [[Killing Fields|Cambodian Killing Fields]] * The [[Insurgency in Laos]] * The [[Lebanese Civil War]] * The [[Sri Lankan Civil War]] * The [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union]] * The [[Gulf War]] * The [[Nepalese Civil War]] * The [[Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts]] * The [[Nagorno-Karabakh War]] * The [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|War in Afghanistan]] * The [[Iraq War]] * The [[2006 Thai coup d'état]] * The [[Burmese Civil War]] * The [[Saffron Revolution]] * The [[Arab Spring]] * The [[Arab–Israeli conflict]] * The [[Syrian Civil War]] * The [[Sino-Indian War]] * The [[2014 Thai coup d'état]] * The [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]] ==Culture== {{Expand section|More information about general cultural topics other than Nobel prizes|date=June 2011}} {{Main|Culture of Asia}} ===Nobel prizes=== [[File:Tagore3.jpg|thumb|upright|Bengali polymath [[Rabindranath Tagore]] was awarded the [[Nobel Prize for Literature]] in 1913, and became Asia's first Nobel laureate]] The [[polymath]] [[Rabindranath Tagore]], a [[Bengali literature|Bengali]] poet, dramatist, and writer from [[Santiniketan]], now in [[West Bengal]], India, became in 1913 the first Asian [[Nobel Prize|Nobel laureate]]. He won his [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] for notable impact his prose works and poetic thought had on English, French, and other national literatures of Europe and the Americas. He is also the writer of the national anthems of [[Bangladesh]] and India. Other Asian writers who won Nobel Prize for literature include [[Yasunari Kawabata]] (Japan, 1968), [[Kenzaburō Ōe]] (Japan, 1994), [[Gao Xingjian]] (China, 2000), [[Orhan Pamuk]] (Turkey, 2006), and [[Mo Yan]] (China, 2012). Some may consider the American writer, [[Pearl S. Buck]], an honorary Asian Nobel laureate, having spent considerable time in China as the daughter of missionaries, and based many of her novels, namely ''[[The Good Earth]]'' (1931) and ''[[The Mother (1934 novel)|The Mother]]'' (1933), as well as the biographies of her parents of their time in China, ''[[The Exile (1936 book)|The Exile]]'' and ''[[Fighting Angel]]'', all of which earned her the Literature prize in 1938. Also, [[Mother Teresa]] of India and [[Shirin Ebadi]] of Iran were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their significant and pioneering efforts for democracy and human rights, especially for the rights of women and children. Ebadi is the first Iranian and the first Muslim woman to receive the prize. Another Nobel Peace Prize winner is [[Aung San Suu Kyi]] from [[Burma]] for her peaceful and non-violent struggle under a military dictatorship in Burma. She is a nonviolent pro-democracy activist and leader of the National League for Democracy in Burma (Myanmar) and a noted prisoner of conscience. She is a [[Buddhist]] and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. Chinese dissident [[Liu Xiaobo]] was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for "his long and non-violent struggle for fundamental human rights in China" on 8 October 2010. He is the first Chinese citizen to be awarded a Nobel Prize of any kind while residing in China. In 2014, [[Kailash Satyarthi]] from India and [[Malala Yousafzai]] from Pakistan were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize "for their struggle against the suppression of children and young people and for the right of all children to education". Sir [[C. V. Raman]] is the first Asian to get a Nobel prize in Sciences. He won the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] "for his work on the scattering of light and for the discovery of the [[Raman scattering|effect named after him]]". Japan has won the most Nobel Prizes of any Asian nation with 24 followed by India which has won 13. Amartya Sen, (born 3 November 1933) is an Indian economist who was awarded the 1998 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his contributions to welfare economics and [[social choice theory]], and for his interest in the problems of society's poorest members. Other Asian Nobel Prize winners include [[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]], [[Abdus Salam]], [[Malala Yousafzai]], [[Robert Aumann]], [[Menachem Begin]], [[Aaron Ciechanover]], [[Avram Hershko]], [[Daniel Kahneman]], [[Shimon Peres]], [[Yitzhak Rabin]], [[Ada Yonath]], [[Yasser Arafat]], [[José Ramos-Horta]] and Bishop [[Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo]] of [[Timor Leste]], [[Kim Dae-jung]], and 13 Japanese scientists. Most of the said awardees are from Japan and [[Israel]] except for Chandrasekhar and Raman (India), Abdus Salam and Malala yousafzai, (Pakistan), Arafat (Palestinian Territories), Kim (South Korea), and Horta and Belo (Timor Leste). In 2006, Dr. [[Muhammad Yunus]] of [[Bangladesh]] was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for the establishment of [[Grameen Bank]], a community development bank that lends money to poor people, especially women in Bangladesh. Dr. Yunus received his PhD in economics from Vanderbilt University, United States. He is internationally known for the concept of micro credit which allows poor and destitute people with little or no collateral to borrow money. The borrowers typically pay back money within the specified period and the incidence of default is very low. The Dalai Lama has received approximately eighty-four awards over his spiritual and political career.<ref>{{cite web |author=His Holiness's Teachings at TCV |url=http://www.dalailama.com/biography/a-brief-biography |title=A Brief Biography – The Office of His Holiness The Dalai Lama |publisher=Dalailama.com |accessdate=1 June 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100525181231/http://www.dalailama.com/biography/a-brief-biography |archivedate=25 May 2010 |deadurl=no |df=dmy}}</ref> On 22 June 2006, he became one of only four people ever to be recognized with Honorary Citizenship by the Governor General of Canada. On 28 May 2005, he received the Christmas Humphreys Award from the Buddhist Society in the United Kingdom. Most notable was the Nobel Peace Prize, presented in [[Oslo, Norway]] on 10 December 1989. ==Political geography== {{Main|Politics of Asia}} {{See also|List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia}} [[File:20091002 Hong Kong 6269.jpg|thumb|From 1841 to 1997, [[British Hong Kong|Hong Kong]] was a British colony.]]{{Asia Labelled Map}} {| class="sortable wikitable" ! style="line-height:95%; width:2em" class="unsortable" | [[Flag]] ! Name ! [[List of countries by population|Population]]{{UN_Population|ref}}<br />({{UN_Population|Year}}) ! [[List of countries and dependencies by area|Area]]<br />(km²) ! Capital |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Afghanistan}} | [[Afghanistan]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Afghanistan}} | style="text-align:right;"| 647,500 | [[Kabul]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Armenia}} | [[Armenia]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Armenia}} | style="text-align:right;"| 29,743 | [[Yerevan]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Azerbaijan}} | [[Azerbaijan]]<ref name="transcon">[[transcontinental country]].</ref> | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Azerbaijan}} | style="text-align:right;"| 86,600 | [[Baku]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Bahrain}} | [[Bahrain]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Bahrain}} | style="text-align:right;"| 760 | [[Manama]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Bangladesh}} | [[Bangladesh]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Bangladesh}} | style="text-align:right;"| 147,570 | [[Dhaka]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Bhutan}} | [[Bhutan]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Bhutan}} | style="text-align:right;"| 38,394 | [[Thimphu]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Brunei}} | [[Brunei]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Brunei Darussalam}} | style="text-align:right;"| 5,765 | [[Bandar Seri Begawan]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Cambodia}} | [[Cambodia]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Cambodia}} | style="text-align:right;"| 181,035 | [[Phnom Penh]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|China}} | [[China|China (PRC)]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|China}} | style="text-align:right;"| 9,596,961 | Beijing |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Cyprus}} | [[Cyprus]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Cyprus}} | style="text-align:right;"| 9,251 | [[Nicosia]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|East Timor}} | [[East Timor]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Timor-Leste}} | style="text-align:right;"| 14,874 | [[Dili]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Egypt}} | [[Egypt]]<ref name="transcon"/> | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Egypt}} | style="text-align:right;"| 1,010,408 | Cairo |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Georgia}} | [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]<ref name="transcon"/> | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Georgia}} | style="text-align:right;"| 69,700 | [[Tbilisi]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|India}} | [[India]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|India}} | style="text-align:right;"| 3,287,263 | [[New Delhi]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Indonesia}} | [[Indonesia]]<ref name="transcon"/> | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Indonesia}} | style="text-align:right;"| 1,904,569 | Jakarta |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Iran}} | [[Iran]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Iran (Islamic Republic of)}} | style="text-align:right;"| 1,648,195 | [[Tehran]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Iraq}} | [[Iraq]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Iraq}} | style="text-align:right;"| 438,317 | [[Baghdad]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Israel}} | [[Israel]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Israel}} | style="text-align:right;"| 20,770 | [[Jerusalem]] (disputed) |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Japan}} | [[Japan]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Japan}} | style="text-align:right;"| 377,915 | Tokyo |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Jordan}} | [[Jordan]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Jordan}} | style="text-align:right;"| 89,342 | [[Amman]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Kazakhstan}} | [[Kazakhstan]]<ref name="transcon"/> | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Kazakhstan}} | style="text-align:right;"| 2,724,900 | [[Astana]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Kuwait}} | [[Kuwait]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Kuwait}} | style="text-align:right;"| 17,818 | [[Kuwait City]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Kyrgyzstan}} | [[Kyrgyzstan]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Kyrgyzstan}} | style="text-align:right;"| 199,951 | [[Bishkek]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Laos}} | [[Laos]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Lao People's Democratic Republic}} | style="text-align:right;"| 236,800 | [[Vientiane]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Lebanon}} | [[Lebanon]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Lebanon}} | style="text-align:right;"| 10,400 | [[Beirut]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Malaysia}} | [[Malaysia]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Malaysia}} | style="text-align:right;"| 329,847 | [[Kuala Lumpur]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Maldives}} | [[Maldives]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Maldives}} | style="text-align:right;"| 298 | [[Malé]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Mongolia}} | [[Mongolia]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Mongolia}} | style="text-align:right;"| 1,564,116 | [[Ulaanbaatar]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Myanmar}} | [[Myanmar]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Myanmar}} | style="text-align:right;"| 676,578 | [[Naypyidaw]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Nepal}} | [[Nepal]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Nepal}} | style="text-align:right;"| 147,181 | [[Kathmandu]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|North Korea}} | [[North Korea]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Dem. People's Republic of Korea}} | style="text-align:right;"| 120,538 | [[Pyongyang]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Oman}} | [[Oman]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Oman}} | style="text-align:right;"| 309,500 | [[Muscat]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Pakistan}} | [[Pakistan]] | style="text-align:right;"| 211,103,000 | style="text-align:right;"| 796,095 | [[Islamabad]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Palestine}} | [[State of Palestine|Palestine]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|State of Palestine}} | style="text-align:right;"| 6,220 | [[Ramallah]]<br />(''[[East Jerusalem|Jerusalem]]'') (claimed) |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Philippines}} | [[Philippines]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Philippines}} | style="text-align:right;"| 343,448 | [[Manila]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Qatar}} | [[Qatar]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Qatar}} | style="text-align:right;"| 11,586 | [[Doha]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Russia}} | [[Russia]]<ref name="transcon"/> | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Russian Federation}} | style="text-align:right;"| 17,098,242 | Moscow |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Saudi Arabia}} | [[Saudi Arabia]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Saudi Arabia}} | style="text-align:right;"| 2,149,690 | [[Riyadh]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Singapore}} | [[Singapore]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Singapore}} | style="text-align:right;"| 697 | Singapore |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|South Korea}} | [[South Korea]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Republic of Korea}} | style="text-align:right;"| 100,210 | [[Seoul]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Sri Lanka}} | [[Sri Lanka]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Sri Lanka}} | style="text-align:right;"| 65,610 | [[Colombo]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Syria}} | [[Syria]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Syrian Arab Republic}} | style="text-align:right;"| 185,180 | [[Damascus]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Taiwan}} | [[Taiwan|Taiwan (ROC)]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|China, Taiwan Province of China}} | style="text-align:right;"| 36,193 | [[Taipei]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Tajikistan}} | [[Tajikistan]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Tajikistan}} | style="text-align:right;"| 143,100 | [[Dushanbe]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Thailand}} | [[Thailand]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Thailand}} | style="text-align:right;"| 513,120 | [[Bangkok]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Turkey}} | [[Turkey]]<ref>[[Eastern Thrace]] region of Turkey is in Europe. Therefore Turkey is a [[transcontinental country]].</ref> | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Turkey}} | style="text-align:right;"| 783,562 | [[Ankara]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Turkmenistan}} | [[Turkmenistan]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Turkmenistan}} | style="text-align:right;"| 488,100 | [[Ashgabat]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|United Arab Emirates}} | [[United Arab Emirates]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|United Arab Emirates}} | style="text-align:right;"| 83,600 | [[Abu Dhabi]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Uzbekistan}} | [[Uzbekistan]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Uzbekistan}} | style="text-align:right;"| 447,400 | [[Tashkent]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Vietnam}} | [[Vietnam]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Viet Nam}} | style="text-align:right;"| 331,212 | [[Hanoi]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Yemen}} | [[Yemen]] | style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Yemen}} | style="text-align:right;"| 527,968 | [[Sana'a]] |} Within the above-mentioned states are several partially recognized countries with [[List of states with limited recognition|limited to no international recognition]]. None of them are members of the UN: {| class="sortable wikitable" ! style="line-height:95%; width:2em" class="unsortable" | [[Flag]] ! Name ! [[List of countries by population|Population]]<br /> ! [[List of countries and dependencies by area|Area]]<br />(km²) ! Capital |- |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Abkhazia}} | [[Abkhazia]] | style="text-align:right;"| 242,862 | style="text-align:right;"| 8,660 | [[Sukhumi]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Artsakh}} | [[Republic of Artsakh|Artsakh]] | style="text-align:right;"| 146,573 | style="text-align:right;"| 11,458 | [[Stepanakert]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|Northern Cyprus}} | [[Northern Cyprus]] | style="text-align:right;"| 285,356 | style="text-align:right;"| 3,355 | [[Nicosia]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| {{Flagicon|South Ossetia}} | [[South Ossetia]] | style="text-align:right;"| 51,547 | style="text-align:right;"| 3,900 | [[Tskhinvali]] |} ==See also== <!-- {{Wikipedia-Books}} --> {{main|Outline of Asia|Index of Asia-related articles}} '''References to articles:''' <!-- * [[Bibliography of Asia]] --> * [[Subregions of Asia]] '''Special topics:''' * [[Asian Century]] * [[Asian cuisine]] * [[Asian furniture]] * [[Asian Games]] * [[Asian Para Games]] * [[Asian Monetary Unit]] * [[Asian people]] * [[Eastern world]] * [[Eurasia]] * [[Far East]] * [[East Asia]] * [[Southeast Asia]] * [[South Asia]] * [[Central Asia]] * [[Fauna of Asia]] * [[Flags of Asia]] * [[Middle East]] ** [[Eastern Mediterranean]] ** [[Levant]] ** [[Near East]] * [[Pan-Asianism]] '''Lists:''' * [[List of cities in Asia]] * [[List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population]] * [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia]] {{div col end}} ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Bibliography== * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=The myth of continents: a critique of metageography |first=Martin W. |last=Lewis |first2=Kären |last2=Wigen |publisher=University of California Press |year=1997 |isbn=0-520-20743-2 |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles}} * {{cite book |ref=harv |first=Michael |last=Ventris |first2=John |last2=Chadwick |title=Documents in Mycenaean Greek |edition=2nd |year=1973 |location=Cambridge |publisher=University Press}} ==Further reading== * Higham, Charles. ''Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations''. Facts on File library of world history. New York: Facts On File, 2004. * Kamal, Niraj. "Arise Asia: Respond to White Peril". New Delhi:Wordsmith,2002, {{ISBN|978-81-87412-08-3}} * Kapadia, Feroz, and Mandira Mukherjee. ''Encyclopaedia of Asian Culture and Society.'' New Delhi: Anmol Publications, 1999. * Levinson, David, and Karen Christensen. ''Encyclopedia of Modern Asia''. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2002. ==External links== {{Sister project links|voy=Asia|Asia}} * {{cite web |title=Display Maps |work=The Soil Maps of Asia |publisher=European Digital Archive of Soil Maps – EuDASM |url=http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/esdb_archive/EuDASM/asia/indexes/idx_country.htm |accessdate=26 July 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812114558/http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/esdb_archive/EuDASM/asia/indexes/idx_country.htm |archivedate=12 August 2011}} * {{cite web |title=Asia Maps |work=Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection |url=http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/asia.html |publisher=University of Texas Libraries |accessdate=20 July 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718061834/http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/asia.html |archivedate=18 July 2011 |deadurl=no |df=dmy}} * {{cite web |title=Asia |publisher=Norman B. Leventhal Map Center at the Boston Public Library |url=http://maps.bpl.org/search_advanced/?mtid=786 |accessdate=26 July 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929144209/http://maps.bpl.org/search_advanced/?mtid=786 |archivedate=29 September 2011}} * {{cite journal |title=What is Asia? |url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/geography/geo_whatis.html |first=Philip |last=Bowring |journal=Eastern Economic Review |volume=135 |number=7 |date=12 February 1987 |publisher=Columbia University Asia For Educators}} {{Portal bar|Asia|Geography}} {{Navboxes |title = Articles Related to Asia |list = {{Asia topics|state=expanded}} {{Countries of Asia}} {{Continents of the world}} {{Regions of the world}} }} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2013}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Asia| ]] [[Category:Continents]] n7cruwabrlqek40s6bvxz9p0uh9vpho 0 690 860451117 860429877 2018-09-20T19:28:00Z Thayts 9149033 Undid revision 860401071 by [[Special:Contributions/2601:85:C201:6424:1C18:ECDC:787D:CE03|2601:85:C201:6424:1C18:ECDC:787D:CE03]] ([[User talk:2601:85:C201:6424:1C18:ECDC:787D:CE03|talk]]) wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|the island country}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2016}} {{Coord|12|30|40|N|69|58|27|W|type:isle|display=title}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Aruba | common_name = Aruba | image_flag = Flag of Aruba.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Aruba.svg | national_motto = <!--citation?: "One Happy Island"--> | national_anthem = ''[[Aruba Dushi Tera]]''<br/>{{small|''Aruba, Sweet Land''}}<br/>[[File:Aruba Dushi Tera instrumental.ogg|center]] | image_map = Aruba in its region.svg | map_caption = {{map caption |location_color=circled in red |region=the [[Caribbean]] |region_color=light yellow}} | official_languages = {{vunblist |[[Dutch language|Dutch]] |[[Papiamento]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Migge |first1=Bettina |last2=Léglise |first2=Isabelle |last3=Bartens |first3=Angela |year=2010 |title=Creoles in Education: An Appraisal of Current Programs and Projects |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |location=Amsterdam |page = 268 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4SMLb6hKv4YC&lpg=PT276 |isbn=978-90-272-5258-6}}</ref>}} | ethnic_groups = {{vunblist |82.1% [[Dutch people|have a Dutch Passport]] {{clarify|date=April 2018}}<!--is this about nationality or racial/ethnic composition?--> |6.6% [[Colombians|Colombian]]{{clarify|date=April 2018}} |5.5% Other |2.2% [[Venezuelans|Venezuelan]]{{clarify|date=April 2018}} |2.2% [[People of the Dominican Republic|Dominican]]{{clarify|date=April 2018}} |1.2% [[Haitians|Haitian]]{{clarify|date=April 2018}} |0.1% unspecified }} | demonym = [[Culture of Aruba|Arubian]] | capital = [[Oranjestad, Aruba|Oranjestad]] | coordinates = {{Coord|12|31|07|N|70|02|09|W}} | largest_city = capital | membership_type = Sovereign state | membership = {{flag|Kingdom of the Netherlands}} | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy]] under [[constitutional monarchy]] | leader_title1 = [[Monarchy of the Netherlands|Monarch]] | leader_name1 = [[Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands|Willem-Alexander]] | leader_title2 = [[Governor of Aruba|Governor]] | leader_name2 = [[Alfonso Boekhoudt]] | leader_title3 = [[Prime Minister of Aruba|Prime Minister]] | leader_name3 = [[Evelyn Wever-Croes]] | legislature = [[Estates of Aruba]] | sovereignty_type = [[Autonomy]] {{nobold|within the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]]}} | established_event1 = Date | established_date1 = 1 January 1986 | area_km2 = 178.91 | area_sq_mi = 69.08 | percent_water = negligible | population_census = | population_census_year = | population_estimate = {{UN_Population|Aruba}}{{UN_Population|ref}} | population_estimate_rank = 197th | population_estimate_year = {{UN_Population|Year}} | population_density_km2 = 612 | population_density_sq_mi = 1489.79 | population_density_rank = 22nd | religion = | GDP_PPP = US$2.616 billion<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aa.html Aruba], [[The World Factbook]].</ref> | GDP_PPP_rank = 190th | GDP_PPP_year = 2011 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = US$25,300 | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 47th | GDP_nominal = US$2.991 billion | GDP_nominal_year = 2013<ref name="Centrale Bank van Aruba">[http://www.cbaruba.org/cba/readBlob.do?id=2711 An update of the estimation of Aruba’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for 2011, 2012 and 2013]. Central Bank of Aruba</ref> | GDP_nominal_per_capita = US$28,924 | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 32nd | GDP_nominal_rank = 162nd | HDI_year = 2013 | HDI_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI = 0.908<!--number only-->| currency = [[Aruban florin]] | currency_code = AWG | time_zone = [[Atlantic Standard Time|AST]] | utc_offset = −4 | drives_on = right | cctld = [[.aw]] | calling_code = [[+297]] }} '''Aruba''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|r|uː|b|ə}} {{respell|ə|ROO|bə}}; {{IPA-nl|aːˈrubaː|lang}}, Papiamento: {{IPA-pt|aˈruba|}}) is an island and a [[Countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands|constituent country]] of the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]] in the southern [[Caribbean Sea]], located about {{convert|1600|km}} west of the main part of the [[Lesser Antilles]] and {{convert|29|km|0}}<ref name="Britannica">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/37333/Aruba|title=Aruba|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=10 August 2014}}</ref> north of the coast of [[Venezuela]]. It measures {{convert|32|km|0}} long from its northwestern to its southeastern end and {{convert|10|km|0}} across at its widest point.<ref name="Britannica"/> Together with [[Bonaire]] and [[Curaçao]], Aruba forms a group referred to as the [[ABC islands (Lesser Antilles)|ABC islands]]. Collectively, Aruba and the other Dutch islands in the Caribbean are often called the [[Dutch Caribbean]]. Aruba is one of the four countries that form the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]], along with the [[Netherlands]], [[Curaçao]], and [[Sint Maarten]]; the citizens of these countries are all Dutch nationals. Aruba has no administrative subdivisions, but, for census purposes, is divided into eight regions. Its capital is [[Oranjestad, Aruba|Oranjestad]]. Unlike much of the Caribbean region, Aruba has a dry climate and an arid, [[cactus]]-strewn landscape. This climate has helped tourism as visitors to the island can reliably expect warm, sunny weather. It has a land area of {{convert|179|km2|sqmi|1|abbr=on}} and is densely populated, with a total of 102,484 inhabitants at the 2010 Census. It lies outside [[Hurricane Alley]]. ==Etymology== The name Aruba may have different origins:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.visitaruba.com/about-aruba/general-aruba-facts/history/|title=History|last=|first=|date=|website=Visitaruba.com|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=23 March 2018}}</ref>{{better source|date=April 2018}} * From the Spanish ''Oro hubo'' which means "there was gold" * From the Indian{{what?|date=April 2018}} word ''Oruba'' which means "well-placed" * From the Indian{{what?|date=April 2018}} words ''Ora'' ("shell") and ''Oubao'' ("island") == History == {{main|History of Aruba}} [[File:Oranjestad.jpg|thumb|left|The capital, [[Oranjestad, Aruba|Oranjestad]]]] Aruba's first inhabitants are thought to have been [[Caquetios Indian|Caquetío Amerindians]] from the [[Arawak peoples|Arawak]] tribe, who migrated there from [[Venezuela]] to escape attacks by the [[Kalina people|Caribs]]. Fragments of the earliest known Indian settlements date back to 1000 AD. As sea currents made [[canoe]] travel to other [[Caribbean islands]] difficult, [[Caquetio]] culture remained more closely associated with that of mainland South America. Europeans first learned of Aruba following the explorations for Spain by [[Amerigo Vespucci]] and [[Alonso de Ojeda]] in the summer of 1499. Both described Aruba as an "island of giants", remarking on the comparatively large stature of the native Caquetíos compared to Europeans. Gold was not discovered on Aruba for another 300 years. Vespucci returned to Spain with stocks of cotton and [[Caesalpinia echinata|brazilwood]] from the island and described houses built into the ocean. Vespucci and Ojeda's tales spurred interest in Aruba, and Spaniards soon colonized the island.<ref name=advent>{{cite book |last=Sullivan| first=Lynne M.| year=2006| title=Adventure Guide to Aruba, Bonaire & Curaçao| publisher=Hunter Publishing, Inc.| location=Edison, NJ| pages=57–58| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M8SyFOyvjkQC&lpg=PA58}}</ref><ref name=early>{{cite book | last=Sauer| first=Carl Ortwin| year=1966| title=The Early Spanish Main| publisher=Cambridge University Press| location=Cambridge| page=112| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=plzS7SL_-f0C&lpg=PA112}}</ref> Because it had low rainfall, Aruba was not considered profitable for the plantation system and the economics of the [[slave trade]].{{citation needed|date=July 2013}} Aruba was colonized by [[Spanish Empire|Spain]] for over a century. ''Simas'', the ''[[Cacique]]'', or [[Tribal chief|chief]], in Aruba, welcomed the first Catholic priests in Aruba, who gave him a wooden cross as a gift. In 1508, the Spanish Crown appointed Alonso de Ojeda as its first Governor of Aruba, as part of ''Nueva Andalucía''. Arawaks spoke the "broken Spanish" which their ancestors had learned on [[Hispaniola]].{{citation needed|date=July 2013}} Another governor appointed by Spain was [[Juan Martínez de Ampiés]]. A ''cédula real'' decreed in November 1525 gave Ampiés, factor of Española, the right to repopulate Aruba. In 1528, Ampiés was replaced by a representative of the [[Welser|House of Welser]] of [[Augsburg]]. The Netherlands seized Aruba from Spain in 1636 in the course of the [[Thirty Years' War]]. Since 1636, Aruba has been under [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]] administration, initially governed by [[Peter Stuyvesant]], later appointed to [[New Amsterdam]] (New York City). Stuyvesant was on a special mission in Aruba in November and December 1642. The island was included under the [[Dutch West India Company]] (W.I.C.) administration, as "New Netherland and Curaçao", from 1648 to 1664. In 1667 the Dutch administration appointed an Irishman as "Commandeur" in Aruba. The Dutch took control 135 years after the Spanish, leaving the Arawaks to farm and graze livestock, and used the island as a source of meat for other Dutch possessions in the Caribbean.{{citation needed|reason=no direct linkage has been supplied to demonstrate that one lead to the other|date=August 2012}} Aruba's proximity to [[South America]] resulted in interaction with cultures of the coastal areas more than a century after independence of Netherlands from Spain; architectural similarities can be seen between the 19th-century parts of Oranjestad and the nearby Venezuelan city of [[Santa Ana de Coro|Coro]] in [[Falcón State]]. Historically, Dutch was not widely spoken on the island outside of colonial administration; its use increased in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.<ref name=Putte>''Dede pikiña ku su bisiña: Papiamentu-Nederlands en de onverwerkt verleden tijd''. van Putte, Florimon., 1999. Zutphen: de Walburg Pers</ref> Students on Curaçao, Aruba, and Bonaire were taught predominantly in Spanish until the late 19th century, when the British took Curaçao, Aruba, and Bonaire. Teaching of Spanish was restored when Dutch rule resumed in 1815. Also, efforts were made to introduce bilingual popular education in Dutch and Papiamentu in the late 19th century.<ref>Van Putte 1999.</ref> During the Napoleonic wars, the [[British Empire]] took control over the island, between 1799 and 1802, and between 1804 and 1816, before handing it back to the Dutch.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britishempire.co.uk/maproom/aruba.htm|title=British Empire: Caribbean: Aruba|publisher=}}</ref> During World War II with the [[Netherlands in World War II#German occupation|occupation of the Netherlands]] in 1940 the oil facilities in Aruba came under the administration of the [[Dutch government-in-exile]] in London, and [[Attack on Aruba|Aruba continued to supply oil to the British and their allies]]. === Move towards independence === {{Update|inaccurate=yes|section|date=April 2013}} In August 1947, Aruba presented its first ''Staatsreglement'' (constitution), for Aruba's ''[[Independence|status aparte]]'' as an autonomous state within the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]]. By 1954, the [[Charter of the Kingdom of the Netherlands]] was established, providing a framework for relations between Aruba and the rest of the Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Robbers|first=Gerhard|title=Encyclopedia of World Constitutions|publisher=Facts on File, Inc.|volume=1|year=2007|location=New York City|page=649|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M3A-xgf1yM4C&lpg=PA649|isbn=0-8160-6078-9}}</ref> In 1972, at a conference in [[Suriname]], [[Betico Croes]] (MEP), a politician from Aruba, proposed a ''sui-generis'' Dutch Commonwealth of four states: Aruba, the Netherlands, Suriname and the [[Netherlands Antilles]], each to have its own nationality. C. Yarzagaray, a parliamentary member representing the AVP political party, proposed a [[referendum]] so that the people of Aruba could choose whether they wanted total independence or ''Status Aparte'' as a full autonomous state under the Crown. Croes worked in Aruba to inform and prepare the people of Aruba for independence. In 1976, he appointed a committee that chose the national flag and anthem, introducing them as symbols of Aruba's sovereignty and independence. He set 1981 as a target date for independence. In March 1977, the first Referendum for Self Determination was held with the support of the United Nations; 82% of the participants voted for independence.<ref name="BBC Aruba Profile">{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-20211986 |title=BBC News&nbsp;— Aruba profile&nbsp;— Timeline |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=5 November 2013 |accessdate=15 July 2014}}</ref> The Island Government of Aruba assigned the Institute of Social Studies in [[The Hague]] to prepare a study for independence; it was titled ''Aruba en Onafhankelijkheid, achtergronden, modaliteiten en mogelijkheden; een rapport in eerste aanleg'' (Aruba and independence, backgrounds, modalities and opportunities; a preliminary report) (1978). At the conference in The Hague in 1981, Aruba's independence was set for the year 1991. In March 1983, Aruba reached an official agreement within the Kingdom for its independence, to be developed in a series of steps as the Crown granted increasing autonomy. In August 1985 Aruba drafted a constitution that was unanimously approved. On 1 January 1986, after elections were held for its first parliament, Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles; it officially became a country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Full independence was projected in 1996. After his death in 1986, Croes was proclaimed ''Libertador di Aruba''. At a convention in The Hague in 1990, at the request of Aruba's [[Nelson Oduber|Prime Minister]], the governments of Aruba, the Netherlands, and the Netherlands Antilles postponed indefinitely its transition to full independence. The article scheduling Aruba's complete independence was rescinded in 1995, although the process could be revived after another referendum. == Geography == {{main|Geography of Aruba}} [[File:Aruba map.png|thumb|A map of Aruba]] [[File:Aruba - Encyclopaedie van Nederlandsch West-Indië-Antilles part 1, right.gif|thumb|Map of Aruba from the ''[[Encyclopaedie van Nederlandsch West-Indië 1914-1917]].'']] [[File:197306 aruba naturalbridge.jpg|thumb|Natural bridge in Aruba (collapsed 2 September 2005)]] Aruba is a generally flat, riverless island in the [[Leeward Antilles]] island arc of the [[Lesser Antilles]] in the southern part of the Caribbean. It has white sandy beaches on the western and southern coasts of the island, relatively sheltered from fierce ocean currents.<ref name="Aruba: the happy island">{{cite web|author=Canoe inc. |url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Travel/Activities/SunSand/2011/06/22/18320936.html |title=Aruba: the happy island |publisher=Slam.canoe.ca |date=22 June 2011 |accessdate=15 July 2014}}</ref> This is where most tourist development has occurred.<ref name="Aruba: the happy island" /> The northern and eastern coasts, lacking this protection, are considerably more battered by the sea and have been left largely untouched by humans. The hinterland of the island features some rolling hills, the best known of which are called [[Hooiberg]] at {{convert|165|m|ft|0|sp=us}} and [[Mount Jamanota]], the highest on the island at {{convert|188|m|ft|0|sp=us}} above sea level. Oranjestad, the capital, is located at {{Coord|12|31|01|N|70|02|04|W|}}. To the east of Aruba are [[Bonaire]] and [[Curaçao]], two island territories which once formed the southwest part of the [[Netherlands Antilles]]. This group of islands is sometimes called the [[ABC islands (Lesser Antilles)|ABC islands]]. They are located on the South American [[continental shelf]] and therefore geographically listed as part of South America. The [[Aruba Natural Bridge|Natural Bridge]] was a large, naturally formed limestone bridge on the island's north shore. It was a popular tourist destination until its collapse in 2005. === Cities and towns === {{main|List of cities in Aruba}} The island, with a population of just over 100,000 inhabitants, does not have major cities. The island is divided into six districts.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.aruba.com/us/our-island/regions|title=Cities in Aruba - Guide to Aruba's Biggest Cities|access-date=2018-06-03|language=en-us}}</ref> Most of the island's population resides in or around the two major city-like districts of Oranjestad (Capital) and San Nicolaas. Oranjestad and San Nicolaas are both divided into two districts for census purposes only.<ref name="census2010">{{cite report|url=http://cbs.aw/wp/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Fifth-Population-and-Housing-Census-Aruba.pdf|title=Fifth Population and Housing Census, 2010: Selected Tables|author=Aruba Central Bureau of Statistics|date=September 29, 2010|page=75-76|access-date=June 3, 2018}}</ref> The districts are as follows: * [[Noord]] * [[Oranjestad, Aruba|Oranjestad]] * [[Paradera]] * [[San Nicolaas]] * [[Santa Cruz, Aruba|Santa Cruz]] * [[Savaneta]] === Fauna === {{Expand section|date=January 2015}} The island of Aruba, being isolated from the main land of South America, has fostered the evolution of multiple endemic animals. The island provides a habitat for the endemic [[Cnemidophorus arubensis|Aruban Whiptail]] and [[Crotalus durissus unicolor|Aruba Rattlesnake]], as well as an endemic subspecies of [[Athene cunicularia|Burrowing Owl]] and [[Eupsittula pertinax|Brown-throated Parakeet]]. The rattlesnake and the owl are printed on the Aruban [[Aruban Florin|currency]]. === Flora === [[File:Aruba_Cacti.jpg|thumb|Yatu cactus growing in Aruba]] {{Expand section|date=October 2015}} The flora of Aruba differs from the typical tropical island vegetation. [[Xeric scrublands]] are common, with various forms of [[cacti]], thorny shrubs, and evergreens. The most known plant is the [[Aloe vera]], which has a place on the [[Coat of Arms of Aruba]]. === Climate === {{main|Climate of Aruba}} By the [[Köppen climate classification]], Aruba has a [[semi-arid climate#Hot semi-arid climates|hot semi-arid climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]] ''BSh'').<ref name=extremes /> Mean monthly temperature in Oranjestad varies little from {{convert|26.7|°C|1}} to {{convert|29.2|C}}, moderated by constant [[trade winds]] from the Atlantic Ocean, which come from the north-east. Yearly rainfall barely exceeds {{convert|470|mm|in|1|disp=or}} in Oranjestad, although it is extremely variable<ref>Dewar, Robert E. and Wallis, James R; ‘Geographical patterning in interannual rainfall variability in the tropics and near tropics: An L-moments approach’; in ''[[Journal of Climate]]'', 12; pp. 3457–3466</ref> and can range from as little as {{convert |150|mm|in|2|disp=or}} during strong [[El Niño]] years (e.g. 1911/1912, 1930/1931, 1982/1983, 1997/1998) to over {{convert|1,000|mm|in|2|disp=or}} in [[La Niña]] years like 1933/1934, 1970/1971 or 1988/1989. <div style="width:75%"> {{Weather box | location = Oranjestad, Aruba (1981–2010, extremes 1951–2010) | metric first=Yes | single line = yes |Jan record high C = 32.5 |Feb record high C = 33.0 |Mar record high C = 33.9 |Apr record high C = 34.4 |May record high C = 34.9 |Jun record high C = 35.2 |Jul record high C = 35.3 |Aug record high C = 36.1 |Sep record high C = 36.5 |Oct record high C = 35.4 |Nov record high C = 35.0 |Dec record high C = 34.8 |year record high C = |Jan high C = 30.0 |Feb high C = 30.4 |Mar high C = 30.9 |Apr high C = 31.5 |May high C = 32.0 |Jun high C = 32.2 |Jul high C = 32.0 |Aug high C = 32.6 |Sep high C = 32.7 |Oct high C = 32.1 |Nov high C = 31.3 |Dec high C = 30.4 |year high C = 31.5 |Jan mean C = 26.7 |Feb mean C = 26.8 |Mar mean C = 27.2 |Apr mean C = 27.9 |May mean C = 28.5 |Jun mean C = 28.7 |Jul mean C = 28.6 |Aug mean C = 29.1 |Sep mean C = 29.2 |Oct mean C = 28.7 |Nov mean C = 28.1 |Dec mean C = 27.2 |year mean C = 28.1 |Jan low C = 24.5 |Feb low C = 24.7 |Mar low C = 25.0 |Apr low C = 25.8 |May low C = 26.5 |Jun low C = 26.7 |Jul low C = 26.4 |Aug low C = 26.8 |Sep low C = 26.9 |Oct low C = 26.4 |Nov low C = 25.8 |Dec low C = 25.0 |year low C = 25.9 |Jan record low C = 21.3 |Feb record low C = 20.6 |Mar record low C = 21.4 |Apr record low C = 21.5 |May record low C = 21.8 |Jun record low C = 22.7 |Jul record low C = 21.2 |Aug record low C = 21.3 |Sep record low C = 22.1 |Oct record low C = 21.9 |Nov record low C = 22.0 |Dec record low C = 20.5 |year record low C = |rain colour = green |Jan rain mm = 39.3 |Feb rain mm = 20.6 |Mar rain mm = 8.7 |Apr rain mm = 11.6 |May rain mm = 16.3 |Jun rain mm = 18.7 |Jul rain mm = 31.7 |Aug rain mm = 25.8 |Sep rain mm = 45.5 |Oct rain mm = 77.8 |Nov rain mm = 94.0 |Dec rain mm = 81.8 |Jan humidity = 77.5 |Feb humidity = 76.1 |Mar humidity = 75.7 |Apr humidity = 77.1 |May humidity = 77.9 |Jun humidity = 77.4 |Jul humidity = 77.8 |Aug humidity = 76.2 |Sep humidity = 76.8 |Oct humidity = 78.6 |Nov humidity = 79.1 |Dec humidity = 78.4 |year humidity = 77.4 |Jan rain days = 8.4 |Feb rain days = 5.0 |Mar rain days = 1.8 |Apr rain days = 1.9 |May rain days = 2.2 |Jun rain days = 2.8 |Jul rain days = 4.9 |Aug rain days = 4.3 |Sep rain days = 3.9 |Oct rain days = 7.4 |Nov rain days = 10.6 |Dec rain days = 11.4 |unit rain days = 1.0 mm |source 1 = DEPARTAMENTO METEOROLOGICO ARUBA,<ref name=climate>{{cite web |url= http://www.meteo.aw/files/Download/climatnormals19812010.pdf |publisher = Departamento Meteorologico Aruba |title= Summary Climatological Normals 1981–2010 |accessdate=15 October 2012}}</ref> (extremes)<ref name=extremes>{{cite web |url= http://www.meteo.aw/climate.php |publisher = Departamento Meteorologico Aruba |title= Climate Data Aruba |accessdate=15 October 2012}}</ref> | date=February 2011 }} </div> == Demographics == {{Main|Demographics of Aruba}} [[File:Aruba-demography.png|thumb|upright=1.60|Population of Aruba 1961–2003, according to the [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]] in 2005; number of inhabitants given in thousands]] {{bar box |title=Ethnic groups of Aruba <ref name="CIAPAPUANEWGUINEA">{{cite web|url= https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aa.html|title=Central America and Caribbean ::ARUBA|publisher= CIA The World Factbook}}</ref>{{better source|date=April 2018}} |titlebar=#ddd |left1=Ethnic groups |right1=percent |float=left |bars= {{bar percent|[[Dutch people|Dutch]]|Blue|82.1}} {{bar percent|[[Colombians|Colombian]] |Orange|6.6}} {{bar percent| Other |black|5.5}} {{bar percent|[[Venezuelans|Venezuelan]]|Yellow|2.2}} {{bar percent|[[People of the Dominican Republic|Dominican]] |Green|2.2}} {{bar percent|[[Haitians|Haitian]]|Orange|1.2}} {{bar percent|Unspecified |Purple| 0.1}} }} {{Clear-left}} In terms of nationality, the population is estimated to be 82.1% [[Dutch people|Dutch]], 6.6% [[Colombians|Colombian]], 2.2% [[Venezuelans|Venezuelan]], 2.2% [[People of the Dominican Republic|Dominican]], 1.2% [[Haitians|Haitian]], 0.1% unspecified.{{Cn|date=April 2018}} In terms of ethnic composition, the population is estimated to be 75% mixed European/Amerindian/African, 15% Black and 10% other ethnicities. The Arawak heritage is stronger on Aruba than on most Caribbean islands, and a quite big portion of Arubans who claim their ethnicity as Dutch possess Arawak blood. Although no full-blooded [[Native American (Americas)|Aboriginals]] remain, the features of the islanders clearly indicate their genetic [[Arawak peoples|Arawak]] heritage. Most of the population is descended from Caquetio Indians and Dutch and to a lesser extent of Africans, Spanish, Portuguese, English, French, and Sephardic Jewish ancestors. Aruba is a home of Chinese, and [[Indo-Caribbeans|Indo Caribbeans]] and [[Javanese people|Javanese]], who descend largely from workers contracted from India and the island of [[Java]] in the former [[Dutch East Indies]] (modern [[Indonesia]]).{{cn|date=April 2018}} Recently, there has been substantial immigration to the island from neighboring American and Caribbean nations, possibly attracted by the higher paid jobs. In 2007, new immigration laws were introduced to help control the growth of the population by restricting [[foreign worker]]s to a maximum of three years residency on the island. Demographically, Aruba has felt the impact of its proximity to Venezuela. Many of Aruba's families are descended from Venezuelan immigrants. There is a seasonal increase of Venezuelans living in second homes. As Aruba has a little proximity to Colombia, Colombian residents and their children are found here. === Language === {{main|Languages of Aruba}} The official languages are [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and [[Papiamento]]. However, Dutch is the sole language for all administration and legal matters,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dutchcaribbeanlegalportal.com/about-us/the-dutch-caribbean |title=About Us |website=DutchCaribbeanLegalPortal.com |accessdate=2014-05-20}}</ref> Papiamento is the predominant language on Aruba. It is a [[creole language]], spoken on Aruba, [[Bonaire]], and [[Curaçao]], that incorporates words from Portuguese, West African languages, Dutch, and Spanish. English is known by many; its usage has grown due to tourism. Other common languages spoken, based on the size of their community, are Portuguese, Chinese, German, Spanish, and French. In recent years, the government of Aruba has shown an increased interest in acknowledging the cultural and historical importance of its native language. Although spoken Papiamento is fairly similar among the several Papiamento-speaking islands, there is a big difference in written Papiamento. The orthography differs per island and even per group of people. Some are more oriented towards Portuguese and use the equivalent spelling (e.g. "y" instead of "j"), where others are more oriented towards Dutch. The book ''The Buccaneers of America'', first published in 1678, states through eyewitness account that the natives on Aruba spoke Spanish already. Spanish became an important language in the 18th century due to the close economic ties with Spanish colonies in what are now Venezuela and Colombia,<ref>Dede pikiña ku su bisiña: Papiamentu-Nederlands en de onverwerkt verleden tijd. van Putte, Florimon., 1999. Zutphen: de Walburg Pers</ref> and several [[Venezuela]]n TV networks are received, and the fact that Aruba has a presence of Venezuelan and Colombian residents. The oldest government official statement written in Papiamento dates from 1803. Around 12.6% of the population today speaks Spanish.<ref name=cia>{{cite web |author=Central Intelligence Agency |authorlink=Central Intelligence Agency |publisher=[[The World Factbook]]|title=Aruba |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aa.html |year=2009|accessdate=6 June 2011| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110604234830/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aa.html| archivedate= 4 June 2011 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Use of English dates to the early 19th century, when the British took Curaçao, Aruba and [[Bonaire]]. When Dutch rule resumed in 1815, officials already noted wide use of the language.<ref name=Putte /> Aruba has four newspapers published in Papiamento: ''Diario'', ''Bon Dia'', ''Solo di Pueblo'' and ''Awe Mainta''; and three in English: ''Aruba Daily'', ''Aruba Today'' and ''The News''. ''Amigoe'' is a newspaper published in Dutch. Aruba also has 18 radio stations (two AM and 16 FM) and two local television stations ([[Telearuba]], and Channel 22). Aruba is a [[Multilingualism|polyglot]] society. Most of Aruba's population is able to converse in at least two of the languages of Papiamentu, Dutch, English, and Spanish. === Religion === {{bar box |title=Religions of Aruba <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html#aa|title=The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency|website=Cia.gov|accessdate=25 August 2017}}</ref> |titlebar=#ddd |left1=Religions |right1=percent |float=right |bars= {{bar percent|[[Roman Catholic]]|DodgerBlue|75.3}} {{bar percent|Other|Grey|12}} {{bar percent|None|Black|5.5}} {{bar percent|[[Protestant]]|SkyBlue|4.9}} {{bar percent| Other Christian|blue|3.4}} {{bar percent|[[Jehovah's Witness]]|teal|1.7}} {{bar percent|Unspecified|LightGrey|0.5}} }} Three-quarters of the population is Roman Catholic. === Regions === For census purposes, Aruba is divided into eight regions, which have no administrative functions: {| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin-bottom: 0;" |- ! Name !! Area (km²) !! Population <br /> 1991 Census !! Population <br /> 2000 Census !! Population <br /> 2010 Census |- | Noord / Tanki Leendert || {{formatnum: 34.62}} || {{formatnum: 10056}} || {{formatnum: 16944}} || {{formatnum: 21495}} |- | Oranjestad West || {{formatnum: 9.29}} || {{formatnum: 8779}} || {{formatnum: 12131}} || {{formatnum: 13976}} |- | Oranjestad Oost || {{formatnum: 12.88}} || {{formatnum: 11266}} || {{formatnum: 14224}} || {{formatnum: 14318}} |- | Paradera || {{formatnum: 20.49}} || {{formatnum: 6189}} || {{formatnum: 9037}} || {{formatnum: 12024}} |- | San Nicolas Noord || {{formatnum: 23.19}} || {{formatnum: 8206}} || {{formatnum: 10118}} || {{formatnum: 10433}} |- | San Nicolas Zuid || {{formatnum: 9.64}} || {{formatnum: 5304}} || {{formatnum: 5730}} || {{formatnum: 4850}} |- | Santa Cruz || {{formatnum: 41.04}} || {{formatnum: 9587}} || {{formatnum: 12326}} || {{formatnum: 12870}} |- | Savaneta || {{formatnum: 27.76}} || {{formatnum: 7273}} || {{formatnum: 9996}} || {{formatnum: 11518}} |- | Total Aruba || {{formatnum: 178.91}} || {{formatnum: 66687}} || {{formatnum: 90506}} || {{formatnum: 101484}} |} == Government == {{main|Politics of Aruba}} [[File:EU OCT and OMR map en.png|thumb|left|Map of the European Union in the world with overseas countries and territories and outermost regions]] [[File:Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands|King Willem-Alexander]] is the [[head of state]] of Aruba]] [[File:Parlamentodiaruba.jpg|thumb|Parliament of Aruba in [[Oranjestad, Aruba|Oranjestad]]]] As a [[Countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands|constituent country]] of the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]], Aruba's politics take place within a framework of a 21-member [[parliamentary democracy|Parliament]] and an eight-member Cabinet. The [[governor of Aruba]] is appointed for a six-year term by the monarch, and the prime minister and deputy prime minister are elected by the Staten (or "Parlamento") for four-year terms. The Staten is made up of 21 members elected by direct, popular vote to serve a four-year term.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.arubaforeignaffairs.com/afa/readBlob.do?id=694|title=Political Stability|accessdate=7 June 2011 |work= |publisher=Aruba Department of Foreign Affairs|date= }}</ref> Together with the [[Netherlands]], the countries of Aruba, [[Curaçao]] and [[Sint Maarten]] form the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]]. As they share the same Dutch citizenship, these four countries still also share the Dutch passport as the Kingdom of the Netherlands passport. As Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten have small populations, the three countries had to limit immigration. To protect their population, they have the right to control the admission and expulsion of people from the Netherlands. Aruba is designated as a member of the Overseas Countries and Territories (OCT) and is thus officially not a part of the [[European Union]], though Aruba can and does receive support from the European Development Fund.<ref name=euprofile>{{cite web |url=http://www.eeas.europa.eu/aruba/index_en.htm |title=EU Relations with Aruba |accessdate=6 June 2011 |work= |publisher=European Union |date= | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110609050531/http://eeas.europa.eu/aruba/index_en.htm| archivedate= 9 June 2011 | deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/development/overseas_countries_territories/index_en.htm |title=Overseas Countries and Territories (OCT) |accessdate=6 June 2011 |work= |publisher=European Union |date= }}</ref> === Politics === The Aruban legal system is based on the Dutch model. In Aruba, legal jurisdiction lies with the ''Gerecht in Eerste Aanleg'' ([[Court of First Instance]]) on Aruba, the ''Gemeenschappelijk Hof van Justitie van Aruba, Curaçao, Sint Maarten en van Bonaire, Sint Eustatius en Saba'' ([[Joint Court of Justice of Aruba, Curaçao, Sint Maarten, and of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba]]) and the ''[[Hoge Raad der Nederlanden]]'' (Supreme Court of Justice of the Netherlands).<ref>[http://www.aruba.com/ExploretheIsland/IslandFacts/law.aspx Aruba.com] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130215045034/http://www.aruba.com/ExploretheIsland/IslandFacts/law.aspx |date=15 February 2013 }}</ref> The ''Korps Politie Aruba'' ([[Aruba Police Force]]) is the island's law enforcement agency and operates district precincts in Oranjestad, Noord, San Nicolaas, and Santa Cruz, where it is headquartered.<ref name="KPA-districts">{{cite web|url=http://www.kparuba.com/districts.html|title=Korps Politie Aruba: district precincts|publisher=Aruba Police Force|accessdate=11 September 2010}}</ref> [[Deficit spending]] has been a staple in Aruba's history, and modestly high inflation has been present as well. By 2006, the government's debt had grown to 1.883 billion Aruban florins.<ref>{{cite web|author=Central Bureau of Statistics |title=Key Indicators General Government, 1997–2006 |url=http://www.cbs.aw/cbs/manageDocument.do?dispatch=view&id=927 |accessdate=7 June 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722232628/http://www.cbs.aw/cbs/manageDocument.do?dispatch=view&id=927 |archivedate=22 July 2011 }}</ref> Aruba received some [[development aid]] from the Dutch government each year through 2009, as part of a deal (signed as "Aruba's Financial Independence") in which the Netherlands gradually reduced its financial help to the island each successive year. In 2006, the Aruban government changed several tax laws to reduce the deficit. [[Direct tax]]es have been converted to indirect taxes as proposed by the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]]. A 3% tax has been introduced on sales and services, while income taxes have been lowered and revenue taxes for business reduced by 20%. The government compensated workers with 3.1% for the effect that the B.B.O. would have on the inflation for 2007. == Education == Aruba's educational system is patterned after the [[Education in the Netherlands|Dutch system of education]].<ref name="Bogaerts (Transitional times)">{{cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/mlb/redsox/2013/09/03/usa-today-minor-league-player-of-the-year-xander-bogaerts-boston-red-sox/2760091/ |title=Bogaerts: USA TODAY Sports' Minor League Player of Year |publisher=Usatoday.com |date=3 September 2013 |accessdate=15 July 2014}}</ref> The Government of Aruba finances the public national education system.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}} There are mostly public schools, and there are private schools, including the [[International School of Aruba]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://3dprint.com/107833/aruba-e-nable-3d-print-hands/|title=Hands for Ziti: Teacher & Students from International School of Aruba Team Up to 3D Print e-NABLE Prosthetics {{!}} 3DPrint.com {{!}} The Voice of 3D Printing / Additive Manufacturing|website=3dprint.com|language=en-US|access-date=2018-09-15}}</ref> and Schakel College.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tilburgers.nl/tag/schakel-college-in-tilburg/|title=Schakel College in Tilburg • Tilburgers.nl - Nieuws uit Tilburg|website=Tilburgers.nl - Nieuws uit Tilburg|language=nl-NL|access-date=2018-09-15}}</ref> There are two [[medical schools]], [[Aureus University School of Medicine]] and [[Xavier University School of Medicine]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aureusuniversity.com/|title=Aureus University School of Medicine|website=Aureusuniversity.com|accessdate=25 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.xusom.com/|title=Caribbean Medical School - Xavier University|website=Caribbean Medical School - Xavier University|accessdate=25 August 2017}}</ref> as well as its own national university, the University of Aruba. == Economy == {{Main|Economy of Aruba}} Aruba has one of the highest standards of living in the Caribbean region. There is a low unemployment rate.<ref>[http://data.un.org/CountryProfile.aspx?crName=Aruba Aruba]. un.org</ref> The GDP per capita for Aruba was estimated to be $28,924 in 2014; among the highest in the Caribbean and the Americas.<ref name="cia" /> Its main trading partners are Colombia, the United States, Venezuela, and the [[Netherlands]]. [[File:Aruba export map.png|thumb|upright=1.70|A graphical breakdown of Aruba's economy by exports]] The island's economy has been dominated by three main industries: tourism, [[aloe]] export, and [[Oil refinery|petroleum refining]] (The [[Lago Oil and Transport Company]] and the Arend Petroleum Maatschappij Shell Co.).{{citation needed|date=July 2012}} Before the "Status Aparte" (a separate completely autonomous country/state within the Kingdom), oil processing was the dominant industry in Aruba despite expansion of the tourism sector. Today, the influence of the oil processing business is minimal{{explain|How is this, given the graphic of exports beside|date=February 2017}}. The size of the agriculture and manufacturing sectors also remains minimal. Aloe was introduce to Aruba in 1840 but did not become a big export till 1890. Cornelius Eman founded Aruba Aloe Balm and the industry had become very important to the economy. At one point two thirds of the island was covered in Aloe Vera fields and the first plantation covered 150 acres and it is still used today at 127 years old. Aruba had become the largest exporter of aloe in the world, also because of Aruba's climate and dry soil the aloe plants flourished and the aloin content was twenty two percent while the aloin content in the rest of the world was only as high as fifteen percent (arubablog.net) From this Aruba now has its own line of aloe and that contains skin care products, deodorant, sun care, shower and hair products (Aruba aloe). The official exchange rate of the [[Aruban florin]] is pegged to the US dollar at 1.79 florins to 1 USD.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.currency.me.uk/convert/usd/awg |title=Convert Dollars to Aruba Florin &#124; USD to AWG Currency Converter |publisher=Currency.me.uk |date= |accessdate=15 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://themoneyconverter.com/USD/AWG.aspx |title=Convert United States Dollar to Aruban Florin &#124; USD to AWG Currency Converter |publisher=Themoneyconverter.com |date= |accessdate=15 July 2014}}</ref><!---note that currency fluctuates slightly because of the necessity of forcing the florin to the dollar by buying or selling florins or dollars---> Because of this fact, and due to a large number of American tourists, many businesses operate using US dollars instead of florins, especially in the hotel and resort districts. === Tourism === About three quarters of the Aruban [[gross national product]] is earned through tourism or related activities.<ref name="CIA">{{cite web|title=The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aa.html|website=Cia.gov|accessdate=12 October 2016}}</ref> Most tourists are from the United States (predominantly from the north-east US), Canada, the Netherlands and South America, mainly Venezuela and Colombia.{{citation needed|date=October 2013}} As part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, citizens of the Netherlands can travel with relative ease to Aruba and other islands of the Dutch Antilles. No visas are needed for Dutch citizens, only a passport, and although the currency used in Aruba is different (the Netherlands uses the [[Euro]]), money can be easily exchanged at a local bank for [[Aruban Florin]]s. For the facilitation of the passengers whose destination is the United States, the [[United States Department of Homeland Security]] (DHS), [[U.S. Customs and Border Protection]] (CBP) full pre-clearance facility in Aruba has been in effect since 1 February 2001 with the expansion in the Queen Beatrix Airport. United States and Aruba have had the agreement since 1986. It began as a USDA and Customs post. Since 2008, Aruba has been the only island to have this service for private flights.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://highend-traveller.com/aruba/|title=Aruba|date=2016-05-31|work=HighEnd-traveller.com|access-date=2017-12-08|language=en-US}}</ref>{{citation needed|date=November 2012}} == Military == {{See also|Military of Aruba}} Defense on ''Aruba'' is the responsibility of the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]]. The [[Military of the Netherlands|Netherlands Military]] forces that protect ''Aruba'' include the [[Royal Netherlands Navy]], the [[Netherlands Marine Corps]] and the [[Netherlands Coastguard]]. There is also a small indigenous "Arubaanse Militie" (ARUMIL) of about platoon strength. All forces are stationed at Marines Barracks Savaneta. Furthermore, in 1999 the [[United States Department of Defense|U.S. Department of Defense]] established a [[Forward Operating Site|Forward Operating Location]] (FOL) at the airport.<ref>{{cite news|title=Aruba Foreign Affairs|url=http://www.arubaforeignaffairs.com/afa/getPage.do?page=FOL|work=www.arubaforeignaffairs.com}}</ref> == Culture == {{Main|Culture of Aruba}} {{See also|Music of Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles}} [[File:Centrum Oranjestad.jpg|thumb|Ornate buildings in [[Oranjestad, Aruba]]]] On 18 March, Aruba celebrates its National Day. In 1976, Aruba presented its National Anthem (Aruba Dushi Tera) and Flag. Aruba has a varied culture. According to the ''Bureau Burgelijke Stand en Bevolkingsregister'' (BBSB), in 2005 there were ninety-two different nationalities living on the island. Dutch influence can still be seen, as in the celebration of "[[Sinterklaas]]" on 5 and 6 December and other national holidays like 27 April, when in Aruba and the rest of the Kingdom of the Netherlands the King's birthday or "Dia di Rey" ([[Koningsdag]]) is celebrated. [[File:Iguanas Aruba.JPG|left|thumb|[[Iguana]]s on a rooftop in Aruba]] Christmas and [[New Year's Eve]] are celebrated with the typical music and songs for [[Gaita flutes|gaita]]s for Christmas and the Dande{{clarify|date=November 2012}} for New Year, and ''[[Hallaca|ayaca]]'', ''[[ponche crema]]'', ham, and other typical foods and drinks. Millions of florins worth of [[fireworks]] are burnt at midnight on New Year's Eve. On 25 January, [[Betico Croes]]' birthday is celebrated. [[St John's Eve|Dia di San Juan]] is celebrated on 24 June. Besides Christmas, the religious holy days of the [[Feast of the Ascension]] and [[Good Friday]] are holidays on the island. The holiday of [[Carnival|Carnaval]] is also an important one in Aruba, as it is in many Caribbean and Latin American countries, and, like [[Mardi Gras]], that goes on for weeks. Its celebration in Aruba started, around the 1950s, influenced by the inhabitants from Venezuela and the nearby islands (Curaçao, St. Vincent, Trinidad, Barbados, St. Maarten and Anguilla) who came to work for the Oil refinery. Over the years the Carnival Celebration has changed and now starts from the beginning of January till the Tuesday before Ash Wednesday with a large parade on the last Sunday of the festivities (Sunday before Ash Wednesday). Tourism from the United States has recently increased the visibility of American culture on the island, with such celebrations as [[Halloween]] and Thanksgiving Day in November. == Infrastructure == [[File:Aruba Palm Beach.JPG|thumb|Palm Beach]] Aruba's [[Queen Beatrix International Airport]] is located near Oranjestad. According to the Aruba Airport Authority, almost 1.7 million travelers used the airport in 2005, 61% of whom were Americans. Aruba has two ports, Barcadera and Playa, which are located in Oranjestad and Barcadera. The Port of Playa services all the cruise-ship lines, including [[Royal Caribbean International|Royal Caribbean]], [[Carnival Cruise Lines]], [[Norwegian Cruise Line|NCL]], [[Holland America Line]], [[Disney Cruise Line]] and others. Nearly one million tourists enter this port per year. Aruba Ports Authority, owned and operated by the Aruban government, runs these seaports. Arubus is a government-owned bus company. Its buses operate from 3:30&nbsp;a.m. until 12:30&nbsp;a.m., 365 days a year. Small private vans also provide transportation services in certain areas such Hotel Area, San Nicolaas, Santa Cruz and Noord. A street car service runs on rails on the Mainstreet.<ref>[http://news.visitaruba.com/news/street-car-is-up-and-running-on-arubas-mainstreet/ Street car is up and running] The Morning News, 27 February 2013</ref> === Utilities === Water-en Energiebedrijf Aruba, N.V. (W.E.B.) produces potable industrial water at the world's third largest desalination plant.<ref name="Aruba Hosts International Desalination Conference 2007">{{cite web |url=http://www.aruba.com/news/general-news/aruba-hosts-international-desalination-conference-2007/ |title=Aruba Hosts International Desalination Conference 2007 |publisher=Aruba Tourism Authority |date=18 July 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130215045030/http://www.aruba.com/news/general-news/aruba-hosts-international-desalination-conference-2007/ |archivedate=15 February 2013 |accessdate=13 May 2015}}</ref> Average daily consumption in Aruba is about {{convert|37000|LT}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=History|publisher=W.E.B. Aruba NV|url=http://www.webaruba.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=33&Itemid=123|accessdate=7 June 2011| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110718013853/http://www.webaruba.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=33&Itemid=123| archivedate= 18 July 2011 | deadurl= no}}</ref> === Communications === There are two telecommunications providers: [[SetarNV|Setar]], a government-based company and [[Digicel]], both of which are privately owned. Setar is the provider of services such as internet, video conferencing, [[GSM]] wireless technology and land lines.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.setar.aw/|title=Setar N.V.|work= |publisher=Setar N.V.|date= }}</ref> [[Digicel]] is Setar's competitor in wireless technology using the GSM platform.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mio Wireless |url=http://www.mioaruba.com/products |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140619110741/http://www.mioaruba.com/products |archivedate=19 June 2014 }}</ref> == Places of interest == [[File:CHAPEL OF OUR LADY OF ALTO VISTA - ARUBA.JPG|thumb|Alto Vista Chapel]] {{Columns |width=13.7em | col1width=18.4em | col1 = * [[Alto Vista Chapel]] * [[Arikok National Park]] * [[Ayo Rock Formations|Ayo and Casibari Rock Formations]] * [[Bushiribana and Balashi]] * [[California Lighthouse]] * [[Frenchman's Pass]] * [[Hooiberg]] | col2 = * [[Lourdes Grotto]] * [[Mount Jamanota]] * [[Natural Bridge, Aruba]] – collapsed 2 September 2005<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2005-09-02-aruba-bridge_x.htm?csp=36|title=Coral bridge, natural Aruba tourist spot, collapses|work=USA Today|agency=[[Associated Press]]|accessdate=11 September 2010|date=2 September 2005}}</ref> * [[Natural Pool]] * [[Quadiriki Caves]] * [[Sint Nicolaas, Aruba]] * [[Tierra Del Sol Golf Course]] | col3 = ;Beaches * [[Arashi, Aruba|Arashi Beach]] * [[Baby Beach, Aruba]] * [[Caves of Aruba]] * [[Eagle Beach]] * [[Palm Beach, Aruba]] * [[Palm Island, Aruba]] * [[Rodgers Beach, Aruba]] }} ==Notable people== *[[Xander Bogaerts]], [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] shortstop of the [[Boston Red Sox]] *[[Betico Croes]], political activist *[[Henny Eman]], first prime minister of Aruba *[[Bobby Farrell]], musician *[[Dave Benton]], Aruban-Estonian musician *[[Jossy Mansur]], editor of the [[Papiamento]] language newspaper, ''[[Diario (Aruba)|Diario]]'' *[[Nelson Oduber]], prime minister *[[Sidney Ponson]], [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] pitcher *[[Fredis Refunjol]], governor *[[Julia Renfro]], newspaper editor and photographer *[[Jeannette Richardson-Baars]], Deputy Police Commissioner ==See also== {{portal|Geography|North America|Caribbean|Aruba|Netherlands|<!-- Aruba -->}} * [[Bibliography of Aruba]] * [[Central Bank of Aruba]] * [[Index of Aruba-related articles]] * [[List of monuments of Aruba]] * [[Military of Aruba]] * [[Outline of Aruba]] * {{SS|Pedernales}} ==References== {{Reflist}} ==External links== {{commons category|Aruba}} {{Wikivoyage|Aruba}} * [http://www.aruba.com/ Aruba.com]&nbsp;– official tourism site of Aruba * {{dmoz|Regional/Caribbean/Aruba}} * {{Wikiatlas|Aruba}} *[http://dloc.com/CA03400001/ ''Aruba Esso News''] from the [http://www.bibliotecanacional.aw/pa/corant-digitalisa/27 National Library of Aruba], openly and freely available in the [[Digital Library of the Caribbean]] {{Aruba topics}} {{Navboxes | title = Geographic locale | list = {{Island territories of the Netherlands Antilles}} {{Countries of North America}} }} {{Navboxes | title = International membership and history | list = {{Caribbean Community (CARICOM)|state=collapsed}} {{Outlying territories of European countries}} {{Dutch colonies|Kingdom2|state=collapsed}} }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Aruba| ]] [[Category:10th-century establishments in Aruba]] [[Category:1499 establishments in the Spanish Empire]] [[Category:1636 disestablishments in the Spanish Empire]] [[Category:1636 establishments in the Dutch Empire]] [[Category:1799 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire]] [[Category:1799 establishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:1802 disestablishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:1802 establishments in the Dutch Empire]] [[Category:1804 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire]] [[Category:1804 establishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:1816 disestablishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:1816 establishments in the Dutch Empire]] [[Category:1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands Antilles]] [[Category:1986 establishments in Aruba]] [[Category:Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands]] [[Category:Dutch-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Former Dutch colonies]] [[Category:Islands of the Netherlands Antilles]] [[Category:Populated places established in the 10th century]] [[Category:Small Island Developing States]] [[Category:Special territories of the European Union]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1986]] jgil82a53chz8m95bq0u8m1lz1xhxr6 0 691 860052913 858681701 2018-09-18T00:48:25Z Drdpw 8719036 c/e as per [[Talk:Articles of Confederation#Federal?|talk page]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{pp|small=yes}} {{Use mdy dates|date=April 2011}} {{Infobox document |document_name={{nowrap|Articles of Confederation}} |image=Articles page1.jpg |image_caption=Page I of the Articles of Confederation |date_created=November 15, 1777 |date_ratified=March 1, 1781 |location_of_document= [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]] |writer=[[Continental Congress]] |signers=Continental Congress |purpose=First constitution for the United States; replaced by the current [[United States Constitution]] on March 4, 1789 |wikisource=Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union }} The '''Articles of Confederation''', formally the '''Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union''', was an agreement among the [[U.S. state|13 original states]] of the [[United States|United States of America]] that served as its first constitution.<ref>{{cite book| last = Jensen| first = Merrill| title = The Articles of Confederation: An Interpretation of the Social-Constitutional History of the American Revolution, 1774–1781| year = 1959| publisher = University of Wisconsin Press| isbn = 978-0-299-00204-6| pages = xi, 184 }}</ref> It was approved, after much debate (between July 1776 and November 1777), by the [[Second Continental Congress]] on November 15, 1777, and sent to the states for [[ratification]]. The Articles of Confederation [[Coming into force|came into force]] on March 1, 1781, after being ratified by all 13 states. A guiding principle of the Articles was to preserve the [[independence]] and [[sovereignty]] of the states. The [[central government]] established by the Articles received only those powers which the [[Thirteen Colonies|former colonies]] had recognized as belonging to king and parliament.<ref name="Morison p.279">Morison p. 279</ref> The Articles formed a war-time confederation of states, with an extremely limited central government. While unratified, the document was used by the Congress to conduct business, direct the [[American Revolutionary War]], conduct diplomacy with foreign nations, and deal with territorial issues and Native American relations. The adoption of the Articles made few perceptible changes in the federal government, because it did little more than legalize what the Continental Congress had been doing. That body was renamed the Congress of the Confederation; but Americans continued to call it the ''Continental Congress'', since its organization remained the same.<ref name="Morison p.279"/> As the Confederation Congress attempted to govern the continually growing American states, delegates discovered that the limitations placed upon the central government rendered it ineffective at doing so. As the government's weaknesses became apparent, especially after [[Shays' Rebellion]], individuals began asking for changes to the Articles. Their hope was to create a stronger national government. Initially, some states met to deal with their trade and economic problems. However, as more states became interested in meeting to change the Articles, a meeting was set in Philadelphia on May 25, 1787. This became the [[Constitutional Convention (United States)|Constitutional Convention]]. It was quickly realized that changes would not work, and instead the entire Articles needed to be replaced.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kelley|first=Martin|title=Why did the Articles of Confederation fail?|publisher=About Education|url=http://americanhistory.about.com/od/governmentandpolitics/f/articles_of_confederation_fails.htm|accessdate=March 2, 2017}}</ref> On March 4, 1789, the government under the Articles was replaced with the [[Federal government of the United States|federal government]] under the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]].<ref>{{cite book| last = Rodgers| first = Paul| title = United States Constitutional Law: An Introduction| url = https://books.google.com/?id=WUOXmAEACAAJ&pg=PA109| year = 2011| publisher = McFarland| isbn = 978-0-7864-6017-5| page = 109 }}</ref> The new Constitution provided for a much stronger federal government by establishing a chief executive (the [[President of the United States|President]]), courts, and taxing powers. ==Background and context== The political push to increase cooperation among the then-loyal colonies began with the [[Albany Congress]] in 1754 and [[Benjamin Franklin]]'s proposed [[Albany Plan]], an inter-colonial collaboration to help solve mutual local problems. The Articles of Confederation would bear some resemblance to it. Over the next two decades, some of the basic concepts it addressed would strengthen and others would weaken, particularly the degree of deserved loyalty to the crown. With [[Boston Tea Party|civil disobedience]] resulting in coercive, and what the colonials perceived as [[Intolerable Acts|intolerable acts]] of Parliament, and [[Battle of Bunker Hill|armed conflict]] resulting in dissidents being [[Proclamation of Rebellion|proclaimed rebels]] and outside the King's protection, any loyalty remaining shifted toward independence and how to achieve it. In 1775, with events outpacing communications, the [[Second Continental Congress]] began acting as the [[provisional government]] that would run the [[American Revolutionary War]] and gain the colonies their collective independence. It was an era of constitution writing—most states were busy at the task—and leaders felt the new nation must have a written constitution, even though other nations did not. During the war, Congress exercised an unprecedented level of political, diplomatic, military and economic authority. It adopted trade restrictions, established and maintained an army, issued [[fiat money]], created a military code and negotiated with foreign governments.<ref>{{cite book| last = Wood| first = Gordon S.| title = The Creation of the American Republic: 1776–1787| year = 1969| publisher = University of North Carolina Press| pages = 354–55 }}</ref> To transform themselves from outlaws into a legitimate nation, the colonists needed international recognition for their cause and foreign allies to support it. In early 1776, [[Thomas Paine]] argued in the closing pages of the first edition of ''[[Common Sense (pamphlet)|Common Sense]]'' that the "custom of nations" demanded a formal declaration of American independence if any European power were to mediate a peace between the Americans and Great Britain. The monarchies of France and Spain in particular could not be expected to aid those they considered rebels against another legitimate monarch. Foreign courts needed to have American grievances laid before them persuasively in a "manifesto" which could also reassure them that the Americans would be reliable trading partners. Without such a declaration, Paine concluded, "[t]he custom of all courts is against us, and will be so, until, by an independence, we take rank with other nations."<ref>{{cite book| last = Paine| first = Thomas| editor-last = Foner| editor-first = Eric| editor-link = Eric Foner| title = Paine: Collected Writings| publisher = The Library of America | isbn = 978-1-4286-2200-5| pages = 45–6| chapter = Common Sense| date = January 14, 1776 }} (Collection published 1995.)</ref> Beyond improving their existing [[Continental Association|association]], the records of the [[Second Continental Congress]] show that the need for a declaration of independence was intimately linked with the demands of international relations. On June 7, 1776, [[Richard Henry Lee]] introduced [[Lee Resolution|a resolution]] before the Continental Congress declaring the colonies independent; at the same time he also urged Congress to resolve "to take the most effectual measures for forming foreign Alliances" and to prepare a plan of confederation for the newly independent states. Congress then created three overlapping committees to draft the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration]], a [[Model Treaty]], and the Articles of Confederation. The Declaration announced the states' entry into the international system; the model treaty was designed to establish amity and commerce with other states; and the Articles of Confederation, which established "a firm league" among the thirteen free and independent states, constituted an international agreement to set up central institutions for the conduct of vital domestic and foreign affairs.<ref>{{Cite journal |author-link= David Armitage (historian) |first= David |last= Armitage |url= http://maghis.oxfordjournals.org/content/18/3/61.full |title= The Declaration of Independence in World Context |publisher= [[Organization of American Historians]] |journal= Magazine of History |volume= 18 |issue= 3 |pages= 61–66 |year= 2004 |doi=10.1093/maghis/18.3.61}}</ref> ==Drafting== [[File:Articles of Confederation 1977 Issue-13c.jpg|thumb|<center>Articles of Confederation 200th Anniversary commemorative stamp.</center><center>First issued in York, Pennsylvania., 1977</center>]] On June 12, 1776, a day after appointing a committee to prepare a draft of the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]], the Second Continental Congress resolved to appoint a committee of 13 to prepare a draft of a constitution for a union of the states. The committee met repeatedly, and chairman [[John Dickinson (Pennsylvania and Delaware)|John Dickinson]] presented their results to the Congress on July 12, 1776. There were long debates on such issues as sovereignty, the exact powers to be given the confederate government, whether to have a judiciary, and voting procedures.<ref>{{cite book |last= Jensen |title= Articles of Confederation |pages= 127–84}}</ref> The final draft of the Articles was prepared in the summer of 1777 and the Second Continental Congress approved them for ratification by the individual states on November 15, 1777, after a year of debate.<ref name="Schwarz">{{cite journal|url=http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/2006/1/2006_1_72.shtml |first=Frederic D. |last=Schwarz |title=225 Years Ago |journal=American Heritage |date=February–March 2006 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090601231914/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/2006/1/2006_1_72.shtml |archivedate=June 1, 2009 }}</ref> Consensus was achieved by dividing sovereignty between the states and the central government, with a [[unicameral]] legislature that protected the liberty of the individual states. ==Ratification== The Articles of Confederation was submitted to the states for ratification in November 1777. The first state to ratify was [[Virginia]] on December 16, 1777; 12 states had ratified the Articles by February 1779, 14 months into the process.<ref name=MilestoneArticles>{{cite web |url= https://history.state.gov/milestones/1776-1783/Articles |title= Articles of Confederation, 1777–1781 |work=Milestones in the History of U.S. Foreign Relations |publisher=U.S. Department of State |location=Washington, D.C. |accessdate= January 3, 2011 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20101230164242/http://history.state.gov/milestones/1776-1783/Articles |archivedate= December 30, 2010 |deadurl= no}}</ref> The lone holdout, Maryland, refused to go along until the landed states, especially [[Virginia]], had indicated they were prepared to [[State cession|cede their claims]] west of the [[Ohio River]] to the Union.<ref>Frederick D. Williams, Ed. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2VkZCpH201EC&pg=RA1-PA1782&#v=onepage&q&f=false The Northwest Ordinance: Essays on its Formulation, Provisions, and Legacy], p.1782. MSU Press, (2012)</ref> It would be two years before the [[Maryland General Assembly]] became satisfied that the various states would follow through, and voted to ratify. During this time, Congress observed the Articles as its [[de facto]] frame of government. Maryland finally ratified the Articles on February 2, 1781. Congress was informed of Maryland's assent on March 1, and officially proclaimed the Articles of Confederation to be the law of the land.<ref name=MilestoneArticles/><ref>{{cite book| last = Elliot| first = Jonathan| title = The Debates in the Several State Conventions on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution| url = https://books.google.com/?id=pTAMAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA98| accessdate = February 21, 2012| edition = 2nd| volume = 1| year = 1836| publisher = Editor on the Pennsylvania Avenue| location = Washington, D.C.| page = 98 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last = Mallory| first = John| title = United States Compiled Statutes| url = https://books.google.com/?id=6cUZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA10605| accessdate = February 21, 2012| volume = 10| year = 1917| publisher = West Publishing Company| location = St. Paul| pages = 13044–5 }}</ref> The several states ratified the Articles of Confederation on the following dates:<ref>{{cite book| last = Hough| first = Franklin Benjamin| title = American Constitutions| url = https://books.google.com/?id=E24LAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA10| year = 1872| publisher = Weed, Parsons, & Company| location = Albany| page = 10 }} References to a 1778 Virginia ratification are based on an error in the Journals of Congress: "The published Journals of Congress print this enabling act of the Virginia assembly under date of Dec. 15, 1778. This error has come from the MS. vol. 9 (History of Confederation), p. 123, Papers of the Continental Congress, Library of Congress." {{cite book| last = Dyer| first = Albion M.| title = First Ownership of Ohio Lands| url = https://books.google.com/?id=byh58dkalw8C&pg=PA1| origyear = 1911| year = 2008| publisher = Genealogical Publishing Company| location = Baltimore| isbn = 978-0-8063-0098-6| page = 10 }}</ref> {|class="sortable wikitable" style="align:left" ! colspan=2 | State ! Date |- | {{sort|13|1}} | [[File:Seal of Virginia.svg|30px]] [[Virginia]] | {{dts|1777|12|16}} |- | {{sort|12|2}} | [[File:Seal of South Carolina.svg|30px]] [[South Carolina]] | {{dts|1778|02|05}} |- | {{sort|08|3}} | [[File:Seal of New York.svg|30px]] [[New York (state)|New York]] | {{dts|1778|02|06}} |- | {{sort|11|4}} | [[File:Seal of Rhode Island.svg|30px]] [[Rhode Island]] | {{dts|1778|02|09}} |- | {{sort|01|5}} | [[File:Seal of Connecticut.svg|26px]] [[Connecticut]] | {{dts|1778|02|12}} |- | {{sort|03|6}} | [[File:Seal of Georgia.svg|30px]] [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] | {{dts|1778|02|26}} |- | {{sort|06|7}} | [[File:Seal of New Hampshire.svg|30px]] [[New Hampshire]] | {{dts|1778|03|04}} |- | {{sort|10|8}} | [[File:Seal of Pennsylvania.svg|30px]] [[Pennsylvania]] | {{dts|1778|03|05}} |- | {{sort|05|9}} | [[File:Seal of Massachusetts.svg|30px]] [[Massachusetts]] | {{dts|1778|03|10}} |- | {{sort|09|10}} | [[File:Seal of North Carolina.svg|30px]] [[North Carolina]] | {{dts|1778|04|05}} |- | {{sort|07|11}} | [[File:Seal of New Jersey.svg|30px]] [[New Jersey]] | {{dts|1778|11|19}} |- | {{sort|02|12}} | [[File:Seal of Delaware.svg|30px]] [[Delaware]] | {{dts|1779|02|01}} |- | {{sort|04|13}} | [[File:Seal of Maryland (reverse).svg|30px]] [[Maryland]] | {{dts|1781|02|02}} |} ==Article summaries== The Articles of Confederation contain a [[preamble]], thirteen articles, a [[Eschatocol|conclusion]], and a signatory section. The individual articles set the rules for current and future operations of the confederation's central government. Under the Articles, the states retained sovereignty over all governmental functions not specifically relinquished to the national Congress, which was empowered to make war and peace, negotiate diplomatic and commercial agreements with foreign countries, and to resolve disputes between the states. The document also stipulates that its provisions "shall be inviolably observed by every state" and that "[[perpetual Union|the Union shall be perpetual]]". Summary of the purpose and content of each of the 13 articles: # Establishes the name of the confederation with these words: "The stile of this confederacy shall be 'The United States of America.'" # Asserts the sovereignty of each state, except for the specific powers delegated to the confederation government: "Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this Confederation expressly delegated." # Declares the purpose of the confederation: "The said States hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretense whatever." # Elaborates upon the intent "to secure and perpetuate mutual friendship and intercourse among the people of the different States in this union," and to establish [[Equality before the law|equal treatment]] and [[freedom of movement]] for the free inhabitants of each state to pass unhindered between the states, excluding "[[pauper]]s, [[vagabond (person)|vagabonds]], and [[fugitive]]s from justice." All these people are entitled to equal rights established by the state into which they travel. If a crime is committed in one state and the perpetrator flees to another state, he will be [[extradition|extradited]] to and tried in the state in which the crime was committed. # Allocates one vote in the [[Congress of the Confederation]] (the "United States in Congress Assembled") to each state, which is entitled to a delegation of between two and seven members. Members of Congress are to be appointed by state legislatures. No congressman may serve more than three out of any six years. # Only the central government may declare war, or conduct foreign political or commercial relations. No state or official may accept foreign gifts or titles, and granting any title of nobility is forbidden to all. No states may form any sub-national groups. No state may tax or interfere with treaty stipulations [[Model Treaty|already proposed]]. No state may wage war without permission of Congress, unless invaded or under imminent attack on the frontier; no state may maintain a peacetime standing army or navy, unless infested by pirates, but every State is required to keep ready, a well-trained, disciplined, and equipped militia. # Whenever an army is raised for common defense, the state legislatures shall assign military ranks of colonel and below. # Expenditures by the United States of America will be paid with funds raised by state legislatures, and apportioned to the states in proportion to the real property values of each. # Powers and functions of the United States in Congress Assembled. #* Grants to the United States in Congress assembled the sole and exclusive right and power to determine peace and war; to exchange ambassadors; to enter into treaties and alliances, with some provisos; to establish rules for deciding all cases of captures or prizes on land or water; to grant [[Letter of marque|letters of marque and reprisal]] (documents authorizing [[privateer]]s) in times of peace; to appoint courts for the trial of pirates and crimes committed on the high seas; to establish [[Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture|courts for appeals in all cases of captures]], but no member of Congress may be appointed a judge; to set weights and measures (including coins), and for Congress to serve as a final court for disputes between states. #* The court will be composed of jointly appointed commissioners or Congress shall appoint them. Each commissioner is bound by oath to be impartial. The court's decision is final. #* Congress shall regulate the post offices; appoint officers in the military; and regulate the armed forces. #* The United States in Congress assembled may appoint a president who shall not serve longer than one year per three-year term of the Congress. #* Congress may request requisitions (demands for payments or supplies) from the states in proportion with their population, or take credit. #* Congress may not declare war, enter into treaties and alliances, appropriate money, or appoint a commander in chief without nine states assented. Congress shall keep a journal of proceedings and adjourn for periods not to exceed six months. # When Congress is in recess, any of the powers of Congress may be executed by "The committee of the states, or any nine of them", except for those powers of Congress which require nine states ''in'' Congress to execute. # If "Canada" (as the British-held [[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Province of Quebec]] was also known) accedes to this confederation, it will be admitted.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/artconf.asp |title= Articles of Confederation}}</ref> No other colony could be admitted without the consent of nine states. # Reaffirms that the Confederation accepts war debt incurred by Congress before the existence of the Articles. # Declares that the Articles shall be perpetual, and may be altered only with the approval of Congress and the ratification of all the state legislatures. ==Congress under the Articles== ===The Army=== Under the Articles, Congress had the authority to regulate and fund the [[Continental Army]], but it lacked the power to compel the States to comply with requests for either troops or funding. This left the military vulnerable to inadequate funding, supplies, and even food.<ref>{{cite book| last = Carp| first = E. Wayne| title = To Starve the Army at Pleasure: Continental Army Administration and American Political Culture, 1775–1783| year = 1980| publisher = UNC Press Books| isbn = 978-0-8078-4269-0 }}</ref> Further, although the Articles enabled the states to present a unified front when dealing with the European powers, as a tool to build a centralized war-making government, they were largely a failure; Historian Bruce Chadwick wrote: {{quote|George Washington had been one of the very first proponents of a strong federal government. The army had nearly disbanded on several occasions during the winters of the war because of the weaknesses of the Continental Congress. ... The delegates could not draft soldiers and had to send requests for regular troops and militia to the states. Congress had the right to order the production and purchase of provisions for the soldiers, but could not force anyone to supply them, and the army nearly starved in several winters of war.<ref>Chadwick p. 469. Phelps pp. 165–166. Phelps wrote: :"It is hardly surprising, given their painful confrontations with a weak central government and the sovereign states, that the former generals of the Revolution as well as countless lesser officers strongly supported the creation of a more muscular union in the 1780s and fought hard for the ratification of the Constitution in 1787. Their wartime experiences had nationalized them."</ref>}} The Continental Congress, before the Articles were approved, had promised soldiers a pension of half pay for life. However Congress had no power to compel the states to fund this obligation, and as the war wound down after the victory at Yorktown the sense of urgency to support the military was no longer a factor. No progress was made in Congress during the winter of 1783–84. General Henry Knox, who would later become the first [[Secretary of War]] under the Constitution, blamed the weaknesses of the Articles for the inability of the government to fund the army. The army had long been supportive of a strong union.<ref>Puls pp. 174–176</ref> Knox wrote: {{quote|The army generally have always reprobated the idea of being thirteen armies. Their ardent desires have been to be one continental body looking up to one sovereign. ... It is a favorite toast in the army, "A hoop to the barrel" or "Cement to the Union".<ref name="Puls p. 177">Puls p. 177</ref>}} As Congress failed to act on the petitions, Knox wrote to Gouverneur Morris, four years before the Philadelphia Convention was convened, "As the present Constitution is so defective, why do not you great men call the people together and tell them so; that is, to have a convention of the States to form a better Constitution."<ref name="Puls p. 177" /> Once the war had been won, the [[Continental Army]] was largely disbanded. A very small national force was maintained to man the frontier forts and to protect against [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] attacks. Meanwhile, each of the states had an army (or militia), and 11 of them had navies. The wartime promises of bounties and land grants to be paid for service were not being met. In 1783, [[George Washington]] defused the [[Newburgh conspiracy]], but riots by unpaid [[Pennsylvania]] veterans forced Congress to leave Philadelphia temporarily.<ref>{{cite book| last = Lodge| first = Henry Cabot| title = George Washington, Vol. I| url = http://www.fulltextarchive.com/page/George-Washington-Vol-I4/#p98| volume = I| year = 1893 }}</ref> The Congress from time to time during the Revolutionary War requisitioned troops from the states. Any contributions were voluntary, and in the debates of 1788 the Federalists (who supported the proposed new Constitution) claimed that state politicians acted unilaterally, and contributed when the Continental army protected their state's interests. The Anti-Federalists claimed that state politicians understood their duty to the Union and contributed to advance its needs. Dougherty (2009) concludes that generally the States' behavior validated the Federalist analysis. This helps explain why the Articles of Confederation needed reforms.<ref>{{cite journal |first= Keith L. |last= Dougherty |title= An Empirical Test of Federalist and Anti-Federalist Theories of State Contributions, 1775–1783 |journal= Social Science History |date= Spring 2009 |volume= 33 |issue= 1 |pages= 47–74 |doi=10.1215/01455532-2008-015}}</ref> ===Foreign policy=== The 1783 [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]], which ended hostilities with Great Britain, languished in Congress for several months because too few delegates were present at any one time to constitute a [[quorum]] so that it could be ratified. Afterward, the problem only got worse as Congress had no power to enforce attendance. Rarely did more than half of the roughly sixty delegates attend a session of Congress at the time, causing difficulties in raising a [[quorum]]. The resulting paralysis embarrassed and frustrated many American nationalists, including George Washington. Many of the most prominent national leaders, such as Washington, [[John Adams]], [[John Hancock]], and [[Benjamin Franklin]], retired from public life, served as foreign delegates, or held office in state governments; and for the general public, local government and self-rule seemed quite satisfactory. This served to exacerbate Congress's impotence.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ferling|first1=John|title=A Leap in the Dark: The Struggle to Create the American Republic|date=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=255–259}}</ref> Inherent weaknesses in the confederation's frame of government also frustrated the ability of the government to conduct foreign policy. In 1786, [[Thomas Jefferson]], concerned over the failure of Congress to fund an American naval force to confront the [[Barbary pirates]], wrote in a [[Proposals for concerted operation among the powers at war with the Pyratical states of Barbary|diplomatic correspondence]] to [[James Monroe]] that, "It will be said there is no money in the treasury. There never will be money in the treasury till the Confederacy shows its teeth."<ref>{{cite web| title=Editorial Note: Jefferson’s Proposed Concert of Powers against the Barbary States| work=Founders Online| publisher=National Archives| location=Washington, D.C.| accessdate=April 21, 2018| url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-10-02-0424-0001| others=[Original source: The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, vol. 10, 22 June–31 December 1786, ed. Julian P. Boyd. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1954, pp. 560–566]}}</ref> Furthermore, the 1786 [[Jay–Gardoqui Treaty]] with [[Spain]] also showed weakness in foreign policy. In this treaty, which was never ratified, the United States was to give up rights to use the [[Mississippi River]] for 25 years, which would have economically strangled the settlers west of the [[Appalachian Mountains]]. Finally, due to the Confederation's military weakness, it could not compel the [[British army]] to leave frontier forts which were on American soil — forts which, in 1783, the British promised to leave, but which they delayed leaving pending U.S. implementation of other provisions such as ending action against [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalist]]s and allowing them to seek compensation. This incomplete British implementation of the Treaty of Paris would later be resolved by the implementation of [[Jay's Treaty]] in 1795, after the federal Constitution came into force. ===Taxation and commerce=== Under the Articles of Confederation, the central government's power was kept quite limited. The Confederation Congress could make decisions, but lacked enforcement powers. Implementation of most decisions, including modifications to the Articles, required unanimous approval of all thirteen state legislatures.<ref>{{cite book| last = Jensen| first = Merrill| title = The New Nation: A History of the United States During the Confederation, 1781–1789| year = 1950| publisher = Northeastern University Press| isbn = 978-0-930350-14-7| pages = 177–233 }}</ref> Congress was denied any powers of [[taxation]]: it could only request money from the states. The states often failed to meet these requests in full, leaving both Congress and the Continental Army chronically short of money. As more money was printed by Congress, the continental dollars depreciated. In 1779, George Washington wrote to [[John Jay]], who was serving as the president of the Continental Congress, "that a wagon load of money will scarcely purchase a wagon load of provisions."<ref>Stahr p. 105</ref> Mr. Jay and the Congress responded in May by requesting $45&nbsp;million from the States. In an appeal to the States to comply, Jay wrote that the taxes were "the price of liberty, the peace, and the safety of yourselves and posterity."<ref>Stahr p. 107</ref> He argued that Americans should avoid having it said "that America had no sooner become independent than she became insolvent" or that "her infant glories and growing fame were obscured and tarnished by broken contracts and violated faith."<ref>Stahr pp. 107–108</ref> The States did not respond with any of the money requested from them. Congress had also been denied the power to regulate either foreign trade or [[interstate commerce]] and, as a result, all of the States maintained control over their own trade policies. The states and the Confederation Congress both incurred large debts during the Revolutionary War, and how to repay those debts became a major issue of debate following the War. Some States paid off their war debts and others did not. Federal assumption of the states' war debts became a major issue in the deliberations of the Constitutional Convention. ===Accomplishments=== {{unreferenced section|date=February 2017}} {{details|Admission to the Union#Articles of Confederation}} Nevertheless, the Confederation Congress did take two actions with long-lasting impact. The [[Land Ordinance of 1785]] and [[Northwest Ordinance]] created territorial government, set up protocols for the [[admission to the Union|admission of new states]] and the division of land into useful units, and set aside land in each township for [[public domain (land)|public use]]. This system represented a sharp break from imperial colonization, as in Europe, and it established the precedent by which the national (later, federal) government would be sovereign and expand westward—as opposed to the existing states doing so under their sovereignty.<ref>{{cite book| last=Satō| first=Shōsuke| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PY0VAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false| title=History of the land question in the United States| publisher=Isaac Friedenwald, for [[Johns Hopkins University]]| location=Baltimore, Maryland| date=1886| page=352| |orig-year=Digitized 2008| accessdate=March 9, 2018}}</ref> The [[Land Ordinance of 1785]] established both the general practices of land surveying in the west and northwest and the land ownership provisions used throughout the later westward expansion beyond the [[Mississippi River]]. Frontier lands were surveyed into the now-familiar squares of land called the [[township]] (36 square miles), the [[Section (United States land surveying)|section]] (one square mile), and the quarter section (160 [[acre]]s). This system was carried forward to most of the States west of the Mississippi (excluding areas of [[Texas]] and [[California]] that had already been surveyed and divided up by the [[Spanish Empire]]). Then, when the [[Homestead Act]] was enacted in 1867, the quarter section became the basic unit of land that was granted to new settler-farmers. The [[Northwest Ordinance]] of 1787 noted the agreement of the original states to give up [[state cession|northwestern land claims]], organized the [[Northwest Territory]] and laid the groundwork for the eventual creation of new states. While it didn't happen under the articles, the land north of the [[Ohio River]] and west of the (present) western border of Pennsylvania ceded by [[Massachusetts]], [[Connecticut]], [[New York (state)|New York]], [[Pennsylvania]], and [[Virginia]], eventually became the states of: [[Ohio]], [[Indiana]], [[Illinois]], [[Michigan]], and [[Wisconsin]], and the part of [[Minnesota]] east of the Mississippi River. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 also made great advances in the abolition of slavery. New states admitted to the union in this territory would never be slave states. No new states were admitted to the Union under the Articles of Confederation. The Articles provided for a blanket acceptance of the [[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Province of Quebec]] (referred to as "Canada" in the Articles) into the United States if it chose to do so. It did not, and the subsequent Constitution carried no such special provision of admission. Additionally, ordinances to admit [[State of Franklin|Frankland]] (later modified to Franklin), [[Kentucky]], and [[Vermont Republic|Vermont]] to the Union were considered, but none were approved. ===Presidents of Congress=== {{Further|President of the Continental Congress}} Under the Articles of Confederation, the presiding officer of Congress—referred to in many official records as ''President of the United States in Congress Assembled''—chaired the [[Committee of the States]] when Congress was in recess, and performed other administrative functions. He was not, however, an executive in the way the later [[President of the United States]] is a chief executive, since all of the functions he executed were under the direct control of Congress.<ref>{{cite book| last = Jensen| first = Merrill| title = The Articles of Confederation: An Interpretation of the Social-Constitutional History of the American Revolution, 1774–1781| year = 1959| publisher = University of Wisconsin Press| isbn = 978-0-299-00204-6| pages = 178–179 }}</ref> There were 10 presidents of Congress under the Articles. The first, [[Samuel Huntington (statesman)|Samuel Huntington]], had been serving as president of the Continental Congress since September 28, 1779. {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! President !! Term |- | data-sort-value="Huntington, Samuel"|[[Samuel Huntington (statesman)|Samuel Huntington]] || {{sort|01|March 1, 1781}}{{snd}}July 10, 1781 |- | data-sort-value="McKean, Thomas"|[[Thomas McKean]] || {{sort|02|July 10, 1781}}{{snd}}November 5, 1781 |- | data-sort-value="Hanson, John"|[[John Hanson]] || {{sort|03|November 5, 1781}}{{snd}}November 4, 1782 |- | data-sort-value="Boudinot, Elias"|[[Elias Boudinot]] || {{sort|04|November 4, 1782}}{{snd}}November 3, 1783 |- | data-sort-value="Mifflin, Thomas"|[[Thomas Mifflin]] || {{sort|05|November 3, 1783}}{{snd}}June 3, 1784 |- | data-sort-value="Lee, Richard"| [[Richard Henry Lee]] || {{sort|06|November 30, 1784}}{{snd}}November 4, 1785 |- | data-sort-value="Hancock, John"|[[John Hancock]] || {{sort|07|November 23, 1785}}{{snd}}June 5, 1786 |- | data-sort-value="Gorham, Nathaniel"|[[Nathaniel Gorham]] || {{sort|08|June 6, 1786}}{{snd}}November 3, 1786 |- | data-sort-value="StClair, Arthur"|[[Arthur St. Clair]] || {{sort|09|February 2, 1787}}{{snd}}November 4, 1787 |- | data-sort-value="Griffin, Cyrus"|[[Cyrus Griffin]] || {{sort|10|January 22, 1788}}{{snd}}November 15, 1788 |- |} ==The U.S. under the Articles== {{Main|Confederation Period}} The peace treaty left the United States independent and at peace but with an unsettled governmental structure. The Articles envisioned a permanent confederation, but granted to the Congress—the only federal institution—little power to finance itself or to ensure that its resolutions were enforced. There was no president, no executive agencies, no judiciary and no tax base. The absence of a tax base meant that there was no way to pay off state and national debts from the war years except by requesting money from the states, which seldom arrived.<ref>{{cite book| last = Morris| first = Richard B.| title = The Forging of the Union, 1781–1789| year = 1987| publisher = Harper & Row| isbn = 978-0-06-091424-0| pages = 245–66}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last = Frankel| first = Benjamin| title = History in Dispute: The American Revolution, 1763–1789| year = 2003| publisher = St James Press| pages = 17–24 }}</ref> Although historians generally agree that the Articles were too weak to hold the fast-growing nation together, they do give credit to the settlement of the western issue, as the states voluntarily turned over their lands to national control.<ref>{{cite book| last = McNeese| first = Tim| title = Revolutionary America 1764–1799| year = 2009| publisher = Chelsea House Pub| isbn = 978-1-60413-350-9| page = 104 }}</ref> By 1783, with the end of the British blockade, the new nation was regaining its prosperity. However, trade opportunities were restricted by the mercantilism of the British and French empires. The ports of the British West Indies were closed to all staple products which were not carried in British ships. France and Spain established similar policies. Simultaneously, new manufacturers faced sharp competition from British products which were suddenly available again. Political unrest in several states and efforts by debtors to use popular government to erase their debts increased the anxiety of the political and economic elites which had led the Revolution. The apparent inability of the Congress to redeem the public obligations (debts) incurred during the war, or to become a forum for productive cooperation among the states to encourage commerce and economic development, only aggravated a gloomy situation. In 1786–87, [[Shays' Rebellion]], an uprising of dissidents in western Massachusetts against the state court system, threatened the stability of state government.<ref>{{cite book| last1 = Murrin| first1 = John M.| title = Liberty, Equality, Power, A History of the American People: To 1877| year = 2008| publisher = Wadsworth Publishing Company| isbn = 978-1-111-83086-1| page = 187}}</ref> The Continental Congress printed paper money which was so depreciated that it ceased to pass as currency, spawning the expression "not worth a continental". Congress could not levy taxes and could only make requisitions upon the States. Less than a million and a half dollars came into the treasury between 1781 and 1784, although the governors had been asked for two million in 1783 alone.<ref>{{cite book| last = Jensen| first = Merrill| title = The Articles of Confederation| year = 1959| publisher = University of Wisconsin Press| isbn = 978-0-299-00204-6| page = 37 }}</ref> When [[John Adams]] went to London in 1785 as the first representative of the United States, he found it impossible to secure a treaty for unrestricted commerce. Demands were made for favors and there was no assurance that individual states would agree to a treaty. Adams stated it was necessary for the States to confer the power of passing navigation laws to Congress, or that the States themselves pass retaliatory acts against Great Britain. Congress had already requested and failed to get power over navigation laws. Meanwhile, each State acted individually against Great Britain to little effect. When other New England states closed their ports to British shipping, Connecticut hastened to profit by opening its ports.<ref>{{cite book| last = Ferling| first = John| title = John Adams: A Life| year = 2010| publisher = Oxford University Press, USA| isbn = 978-0-19-975273-7| pages = 257–8 }}</ref> By 1787 Congress was unable to protect manufacturing and shipping. State legislatures were unable or unwilling to resist attacks upon private contracts and public credit. Land speculators expected no rise in values when the government could not defend its borders nor protect its frontier population.<ref>{{cite book |first= Jack N. |last= Rakove |chapter= The Collapse of the Articles of Confederation |title= The American Founding: Essays on the Formation of the Constitution |editor1-first= J. Jackson |editor1-last= Barlow |editor2-first= Leonard W. |editor2-last= Levy |editor3-first= Ken |editor3-last= Masugi |year= 1988 |pages= 225–45 |lastauthoramp=y}}</ref> The idea of a convention to revise the Articles of Confederation grew in favor. [[Alexander Hamilton]] realized while serving as Washington's top aide that a strong central government was necessary to avoid foreign intervention and allay the frustrations due to an ineffectual Congress. Hamilton led a group of like-minded nationalists, won Washington's endorsement, and convened the [[Annapolis Convention (1786)|Annapolis Convention]] in 1786 to petition Congress to call a constitutional convention to meet in Philadelphia to remedy the long-term crisis.<ref>{{cite book| last = Chernow| first = Ron| title = Alexander Hamilton| year = 2004| publisher = Penguin Books| isbn = 978-1-101-20085-8 }}</ref> ==Signatures== The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles for distribution to the states on November 15, 1777. A copy was made for each state and one was kept by the [[Continental Congress|Congress]]. On November 28, the copies sent to the states for ratification were unsigned, and the cover letter, dated November 17, had only the signatures of [[Henry Laurens]] and [[Charles Thomson]], who were the [[President of the Continental Congress|President]] and Secretary to the Congress. The Articles, however, were unsigned, and the date was blank. Congress began the signing process by examining their copy of the Articles on June 27, 1778. They ordered a final copy prepared (the one in the National Archives), and that delegates should inform the secretary of their authority for ratification. On July 9, 1778, the prepared copy was ready. They dated it, and began to sign. They also requested each of the remaining states to notify its delegation when ratification was completed. On that date, delegates present from [[New Hampshire]], [[Massachusetts]], [[Rhode Island]], [[Connecticut]], [[New York (state)|New York]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[Virginia]] and [[South Carolina]] signed the Articles to indicate that their states had ratified. [[New Jersey]], [[Delaware]] and [[Maryland]] could not, since their states had not ratified. [[North Carolina]] and [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] also were unable to sign that day, since their delegations were absent. After the first signing, some delegates signed at the next meeting they attended. For example, John Wentworth of New Hampshire added his name on August 8. John Penn was the first of North Carolina's delegates to arrive (on July 10), and the delegation signed the Articles on July 21, 1778. The other states had to wait until they ratified the Articles and notified their Congressional delegation. Georgia signed on July 24, New Jersey on November 26, and Delaware on February 12, 1779. Maryland [[History of Maryland#The Revolutionary period|refused to ratify]] the Articles until every state had ceded its western land claims. [[Anne-César, Chevalier de la Luzerne|Chevalier de La Luzerne]], French [[Diplomatic rank|Minister]] to the United States, felt that the Articles would help strengthen the American government. In 1780 when Maryland requested France provide naval forces in the [[Chesapeake Bay]] for protection from the British (who were conducting raids in the lower part of the bay), he indicated that French Admiral [[Charles René Dominique Sochet, Chevalier Destouches|Destouches]] would do what he could but La Luzerne also “sharply pressed” Maryland to ratify the Articles, thus suggesting the two issues were related.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Sioussat |first= St. George L.|date= October 1936 |title= THE CHEVALIER DE LA LUZERNE AND THE RATIFICATION OF THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION BY MARYLAND, 1780-1781 With Accompanying Documents|url= https://journals.psu.edu/pmhb/article/view/28432/28188 |journal= The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography |volume= 60|issue= 4|pages= 391-418 |access-date= 19 April 2018}}</ref> [[File:Act of Maryland to ratify Articles.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|left|The Act of the Maryland legislature to ratify the Articles of Confederation on February 2, 1781]] On February 2, 1781, the much-awaited decision was taken by the [[Maryland General Assembly]] in [[Annapolis]].<ref name="lawsofmaryland">{{cite web |date= February 2, 1781 |work= Laws of Maryland, 1781 |url= http://aomol.net/megafile/msa/speccol/sc2900/sc2908/000001/000203/html/am203--265.html |title= An ACT to empower the delegates |deadurl= yes |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110723015508/http://aomol.net/megafile/msa/speccol/sc2900/sc2908/000001/000203/html/am203--265.html |archivedate= July 23, 2011 |df= mdy-all }}</ref> As the last piece of business during the afternoon Session, "among engrossed Bills" was "signed and sealed by Governor [[Thomas Sim Lee]] in the Senate Chamber, in the presence of the members of both Houses... an Act to empower the delegates of this state in Congress to subscribe and ratify the articles of confederation" and perpetual union among the states. The Senate then adjourned "to the first Monday in August next." The decision of Maryland to ratify the Articles was reported to the Continental Congress on February 12. The confirmation signing of the Articles by the two Maryland delegates took place in Philadelphia at noon time on March 1, 1781, and was celebrated in the afternoon. With these events, the Articles were entered into force and the United States of America came into being as a sovereign federal state. Congress had debated the Articles for over a year and a half, and the ratification process had taken nearly three and a half years. Many participants in the original debates were no longer delegates, and some of the signers had only recently arrived. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union were signed by a group of men who were never present in the Congress at the same time. {{Clear}} ===Signers=== The signers and the states they represented were: {{col-begin}} {{col-1-of-5}} '''[[Connecticut]]''' * [[Roger Sherman]] * [[Samuel Huntington (statesman)|Samuel Huntington]] * [[Oliver Wolcott]] * [[Titus Hosmer]] * [[Andrew Adams (congressman)|Andrew Adams]] '''[[Delaware]]''' * [[Thomas McKean]] * [[John Dickinson (delegate)|John Dickinson]] * [[Nicholas Van Dyke (governor)|Nicholas Van Dyke]] '''[[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]''' * [[John Walton (1738–1783)|John Walton]] * [[Edward Telfair]] * [[Edward Langworthy]] {{col-2-of-5}} '''[[Maryland]]''' * [[John Hanson]] * [[Daniel Carroll]] '''[[Massachusetts|Massachusetts Bay]]''' * [[John Hancock]] * [[Samuel Adams]] * [[Elbridge Gerry]] * [[Francis Dana]] * [[James Lovell (delegate)|James Lovell]] * [[Samuel Holten]] '''[[New Hampshire]]''' * [[Josiah Bartlett]] * [[John Wentworth Jr.]] {{col-3-of-5}} '''[[New Jersey]]''' * [[John Witherspoon]] * [[Nathaniel Scudder]] '''[[New York (state)|New York]]''' * [[James Duane]] * [[Francis Lewis]] * [[William Duer (delegate)|William Duer]] * [[Gouverneur Morris]] '''[[North Carolina]]''' * [[John Penn (delegate)|John Penn]] * [[Cornelius Harnett]] * [[John Williams (delegate)|John Williams]] {{col-4-of-5}} '''[[Pennsylvania]]''' * [[Robert Morris (merchant)|Robert Morris]] * [[Daniel Roberdeau]] * [[Jonathan Bayard Smith]] * [[William Clingan]] * [[Joseph Reed (jurist)|Joseph Reed]] '''[[Rhode Island|Rhode Island and Providence Plantations]]''' * [[William Ellery]] * [[Henry Marchant]] * [[John Collins (delegate)|John Collins]] {{col-5-of-5}} '''[[South Carolina]]''' * [[Henry Laurens]] * [[William Henry Drayton]] * [[John Mathews (lawyer)|John Mathews]] * [[Richard Hutson]] * [[Thomas Heyward Jr.]] '''[[Virginia]]''' * [[Richard Henry Lee]] * [[John Banister (lawyer)|John Banister]] * [[Thomas Adams (politician)|Thomas Adams]] * [[John Harvie]] * [[Francis Lightfoot Lee]] {{col-end}} Roger Sherman (Connecticut) was the only person to sign all four great state papers of the United States: the [[Continental Association]], the [[United States Declaration of Independence]], the Articles of Confederation and the [[United States Constitution]]. Robert Morris (Pennsylvania) signed three of the great state papers of the United States: the United States Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution. John Dickinson (Delaware), Daniel Carroll (Maryland) and Gouverneur Morris (New York), along with Sherman and Robert Morris, were the only five people to sign both the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution (Gouverneur Morris represented Pennsylvania when signing the Constitution). ==Gallery== Original [[parchment]] pages of the Articles of Confederation, [[National Archives and Records Administration]]. <gallery widths="180px" heights="300px" > File:Articles of Confederation 1-5.jpg|Preamble to Art. V, Sec. 1 File:Articles of Confederation 5-6.jpg|Art. V, Sec. 2 to Art. VI File:Articles of Confederation 7-9.jpg|Art. VII to Art. IX, Sec. 2 File:Articles of Confederation 9-9.jpg|Art. IX, Sec. 2 to Sec. 5 File:Articles of Confederation 9-13.jpg|Art. IX, Sec. 5 to Art. XIII, Sec. 2 File:Articles of Confederation 13.jpg|Art. XIII, Sec. 2 to signatures </gallery> ==Revision and replacement== On January 21, 1786, the Virginia Legislature, following [[James Madison]]'s recommendation, invited all the states to send delegates to Annapolis, Maryland to discuss ways to reduce interstate conflict. At what came to be known as the [[Annapolis Convention (1786)|Annapolis Convention]], the few state delegates in attendance endorsed a motion that called for all states to meet in [[Philadelphia]] in May 1787 to discuss ways to improve the Articles of Confederation in a "Grand Convention." Although the states' representatives to the [[Constitutional Convention (United States)|Constitutional Convention]] in Philadelphia were only authorized to amend the Articles, the representatives held secret, closed-door sessions and wrote a new constitution. The new Constitution gave much more power to the central government, but characterization of the result is disputed. The general goal of the authors was to get close to a [[republic]] as defined by the philosophers of the [[Age of Enlightenment]], while trying to address the many difficulties of the interstate relationships. Historian Forrest McDonald, using the ideas of James Madison from ''Federalist 39'', describes the change this way: {{quote|The constitutional reallocation of powers created a new form of government, unprecedented under the sun. Every previous national authority either had been centralized or else had been a confederation of sovereign states. The new American system was neither one nor the other; it was a mixture of both.<ref>McDonald pg. 276</ref>}} In May 1786, [[Charles Pinckney (governor)|Charles Pinckney]] of [[South Carolina]] proposed that Congress revise the Articles of Confederation. Recommended changes included granting [[United States Congress|Congress]] power over foreign and domestic commerce, and providing means for Congress to collect money from state treasuries. Unanimous approval was necessary to make the alterations, however, and Congress failed to reach a consensus. The weakness of the Articles in establishing an effective unifying government was underscored by the threat of internal conflict both within and between the states, especially after [[Shays' Rebellion]] threatened to topple the state government of Massachusetts. Historian Ralph Ketcham comments on the opinions of [[Patrick Henry]], [[George Mason]], and other [[Anti-Federalism|Anti-Federalists]] who were not so eager to give up the local autonomy won by the revolution: {{quote|Antifederalists feared what Patrick Henry termed the "consolidated government" proposed by the new Constitution. They saw in Federalist hopes for commercial growth and international prestige only the lust of ambitious men for a "splendid empire" that, in the time-honored way of empires, would oppress the people with taxes, conscription, and military campaigns. Uncertain that any government over so vast a domain as the United States could be controlled by the people, Antifederalists saw in the enlarged powers of the general government only the familiar threats to the rights and liberties of the people.<ref>{{cite book| last = Ketcham| first = Ralph| title = Roots of the Republic: American Founding Documents Interpreted| url = https://books.google.com/?id=QlDPAtJXQu0C&pg=PA381| year = 1990| publisher = Rowman & Littlefield| isbn = 978-0-945612-19-3| page = 383 }}</ref>}} Historians have given many reasons for the perceived need to replace the articles in 1787. Jillson and Wilson (1994) point to the financial weakness as well as the norms, rules and institutional structures of the Congress, and the propensity to divide along sectional lines. Rakove (1988) identifies several factors that explain the collapse of the Confederation. The lack of compulsory direct taxation power was objectionable to those wanting a strong centralized state or expecting to benefit from such power. It could not collect customs after the war because tariffs were vetoed by [[Rhode Island]]. Rakove concludes that their failure to implement national measures "stemmed not from a heady sense of independence but rather from the enormous difficulties that all the states encountered in collecting taxes, mustering men, and gathering supplies from a war-weary populace."<ref>Rakove 1988 p. 230</ref> The second group of factors Rakove identified derived from the substantive nature of the problems the Continental Congress confronted after 1783, especially the inability to create a strong foreign policy. Finally, the Confederation's lack of coercive power reduced the likelihood for profit to be made by political means, thus potential rulers were uninspired to seek power. When the war ended in 1783, certain special interests had incentives to create a new "merchant state," much like the British state people had rebelled against. In particular, holders of war scrip and land speculators wanted a central government to pay off scrip at face value and to legalize western land holdings with disputed claims. Also, manufacturers wanted a high tariff as a barrier to foreign goods, but competition among states made this impossible without a central government.<ref>Hendrickson p. 154</ref> ===Legitimacy of closing down=== Political scientist David C. Hendrickson writes that two prominent political leaders in the Confederation, [[John Jay]] of New York and [[Thomas Burke (governor)|Thomas Burke]] of North Carolina believed that "the authority of the congress rested on the prior acts of the several states, to which the states gave their voluntary consent, and until those obligations were fulfilled, neither nullification of the authority of congress, exercising its due powers, nor secession from the compact itself was consistent with the terms of their original pledges."<ref>Hendrickson p. 153–154</ref> According to Article XIII of the Confederation, any alteration had to be approved unanimously: <blockquote>[T]he Articles of this Confederation shall be inviolably observed by every State, and the Union shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter be made in any of them; unless such alteration be agreed to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every State.</blockquote> On the other hand, Article VII of the proposed Constitution stated that it would become effective after ratification by a mere nine states, without unanimity: <blockquote>The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same.</blockquote> The apparent tension between these two provisions was addressed at the time, and remains a topic of scholarly discussion. In 1788, [[James Madison]] remarked (in ''[[Federalist No. 40]]'') that the issue had become moot: "As this objection...has been in a manner waived by those who have criticised the powers of the convention, I dismiss it without further observation." Nevertheless, it is an interesting historical and legal question whether opponents of the Constitution could have plausibly attacked the Constitution on that ground. At the time, there were state legislators who argued that the Constitution was not an alteration of the Articles of Confederation, but rather would be a complete replacement so the unanimity rule did not apply.<ref name=Maier>Maier, Pauline. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=-DvolFMBVRgC&pg=PA62 Ratification: The People Debate the Constitution, 1787-1788]'', p. 62 (Simon and Schuster, 2011).</ref> Moreover, the Confederation had proven woefully inadequate and therefore was supposedly no longer binding.<ref name=Maier /> Modern scholars such as Francisco Forrest Martin agree that the Articles of Confederation had lost its binding force because many states had violated it, and thus "other states-parties did not have to comply with the Articles' unanimous consent rule".<ref>Martin, Francisco. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xNEjqp2A6ZgC&pg=PA5 The Constitution as Treaty: The International Legal Constructionalist Approach to the U.S. Constitution]'', p. 5 (Cambridge University Press, 2007).</ref> In contrast, law professor [[Akhil Amar]] suggests that there may not have really been any conflict between the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution on this point; Article VI of the Confederation specifically allowed side deals among states, and the Constitution could be viewed as a side deal until all states ratified it.<ref>Amar, Akhil. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xfkJRm6VCQ0C&pg=PA517 America's Constitution: A Biography]'', p. 517 (Random House 2012).</ref> ===Final months=== On July 3, 1788, the Congress received [[New Hampshire]]'s all-important ninth ratification of the proposed Constitution, thus, according to its terms, establishing it as the new framework of governance for the ratifying states. The following day delegates considered a bill to admit Kentucky into the Union as a sovereign state. The discussion ended with Congress making the determination that, in light of this development, it would be "unadvisable" to admit Kentucky into the Union, as it could do so "under the Articles of Confederation" only, but not "under the Constitution".<ref>{{cite journal| last1=Kesavan| first1=Vasan| title=When Did the Articles of Confederation Cease to Be Law| journal=Notre Dame Law Review|date=December 1, 2002|volume=78|issue=1|pages=70–71|url=http://scholarship.law.nd.edu/ndlr/vol78/iss1/3 |accessdate=October 31, 2015}}</ref> By the end of July 1788, 11 of the 13 states had ratified the new Constitution. Congress continued to convene under the Articles with a quorum until October.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/continental/timeline2f.html |title= America During the Age of Revolution, 1776–1789 |publisher=Library of Congress |date= |accessdate= April 16, 2011 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110315050400/http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/continental/timeline2f.html |archivedate= March 15, 2011 |deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| author = Charles Lanman| author2 = Joseph M. Morrison| title = Biographical Annals of the Civil Government of the United States| url = https://books.google.com/?id=pp9GAAAAMAAJ| accessdate = April 16, 2011| year = 1887| publisher = J.M. Morrison }}</ref> On Saturday, September 13, 1788, the Confederation Congress voted the resolve to implement the new Constitution, and on Monday, September 15 published an announcement that the new Constitution had been ratified by the necessary nine states, set the first Wednesday in February 1789 for the presidential electors to meet and select a new president, and set the first Wednesday of March 1789 as the day the new government would take over and the government under the Articles of Confederation would come to an end.<ref name="Maier2">{{cite book| last = Maier| first = Pauline| title = Ratification: The People Debate the Constitution, 1787–1788| year = 2010| publisher = Simon and Schuster| isbn = 978-0-684-86855-4| pages = 429–30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/h?ammem/bdsbib:@field(NUMBER+@od1(bdsdcc+2410h)) |title= Continental Congress Broadside Collection for 1778-Sep-13 |accessdate= April 17, 2011}}</ref> <!--- here are links (some to original source docs) to indicate earlier (June & July 1788) "announcements" (tho' not *published*) of ratification by needed 9 states http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/ressub03.asp http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/ratnh.asp https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_history.html ---> On that same September 13, it determined that New York would remain the national capital.<ref name=Maier2/> ==See also== * [[History of the United States (1776–1789)]] * [[Perpetual Union]] * [[Vetocracy]] * [[Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture]] ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Further reading== * {{cite book| last = Bernstein| first = R.B.| editor1-last = Bowling| editor1-first = Kenneth R.| editor2-last = Kennon| editor2-first = Donald R.| title = Inventing Congress: Origins & Establishment Of First Federal Congress| year = 1999| pages = 76–108| chapter = Parliamentary Principles, American Realities: The Continental and Confederation Congresses, 1774–1789| lastauthoramp = y }} * {{cite book| last = Brown| first = Roger H.| title = Redeeming the Republic: Federalists, Taxation, and the Origins of the Constitution| year = 1993| isbn = 978-0-8018-6355-4 }} * {{cite book| last = Burnett| first = Edmund Cody| title = The Continental Congress: A Definitive History of the Continental Congress From Its Inception in 1774 to March 1789| year = 1941 }} * {{cite book| last = Chadwick| first = Bruce| title = George Washington's War| year = 2005| publisher = Sourcebooks, Inc.| isbn = 978-1-4022-2610-6 }} * {{cite book| last = Feinberg| first = Barbara| title = The Articles Of Confederation| year = 2002| publisher = Twenty First Century Books| isbn = 978-0-7613-2114-9 }} * {{cite book |editor1-last= Greene |editor1-first= Jack |editor2-first= J.R. |editor2-last= Pole |title= A Companion to the American Revolution |edition= 2nd |year= 2003 |lastauthoramp=y}} * {{cite book| last = Hendrickson| first = David C.| title = Peace Pact: The Lost World of the American Founding| year = 2003| publisher = University Press of Kansas| isbn = 0-7006-1237-8 }} * {{cite book| last = Hoffert| first = Robert W.| title = A Politics of Tensions: The Articles of Confederation and American Political Ideas| year = 1992| publisher = University Press of Colorado }} * {{cite book| last = Horgan| first = Lucille E.| title = Forged in War: The Continental Congress and the Origin of Military Supply and Acquisition Policy| year = 2002| publisher = Praeger Pub Text| isbn = 978-0-313-32161-0 }} * {{cite book| last = Jensen| first = Merrill| authorlink = Merrill Jensen| title = The Articles of Confederation: An Interpretation of the Social-Constitutional History of the American Revolution, 1774–1781| year = 1959| publisher = University of Wisconsin Press| isbn = 978-0-299-00204-6 }} * {{cite book| last = Jensen| first = Merrill| title = The New Nation| url = https://www.questia.com/read/76864068/the-new-nation-a-history-of-the-united-states-during| year = 1950| publisher = Northeastern University Press| isbn = 978-0-930350-14-7| authormask = —— }} * {{cite journal |authormask= —— |last= Jensen |first=Merrill |title=The Idea of a National Government During the American Revolution |volume=58 |year= 1943 |pages= 356–79 |issue= 3 |doi= 10.2307/2144490 |journal=Political Science Quarterly |jstor=2144490}} * {{cite book| last1 = Jillson| first1 = Calvin| last2 = Wilson| first2 = Rick K.| title = Congressional Dynamics: Structure, Coordination, and Choice in the First American Congress, 1774–1789| year = 1994| publisher = Stanford University Press| isbn = 978-0-8047-2293-3| lastauthoramp = y }} * {{cite book| last = Klos| first = Stanley L.| title = President Who? Forgotten Founders| year = 2004| publisher = Evisum, Inc.| location = Pittsburgh| isbn = 0-9752627-5-0| page = 261 }} * {{cite book| last = Main| first = Jackson T.| title = Political Parties before the Constitution| year = 1974| publisher = W W Norton & Company Incorporated| isbn = 978-0-393-00718-3 }} * {{cite book| last = McDonald| first = Forrest| authorlink = Forrest McDonald| title = Novus Ordo Seclorum: The Intellectual Origins of the Constitution| year = 1986| publisher = University Press of Kansas| isbn = 0-7006-0311-5 }} * {{cite book| last = Mclaughlin| first = Andrew C.| title = A Constitutional History of the United States| url = http://www.constitution.org/cmt/mclaughlin/chus.htm| year = 1935| publisher = Simon Publications| isbn = 978-1-931313-31-5 }} * {{cite book| last = Morris| first = Richard| title = The Forging of the Union, 1781–1789| series = New American Nation Series| year = 1988| publisher = HarperCollins Publishers }} * {{cite book| last = Morison| first = Samuel Eliot| authorlink = Samuel Eliot Morison| title = The Oxford History of the American People| year = 1965| publisher = Oxford University Press| location = New York}} * {{cite book| last = Nevins| first = Allan| title = The American States during and after the Revolution, 1775–1789| url = https://archive.org/details/americanstatesdu006354mbp | year = 1924 |location=New York |publisher=Macmillan}} * {{cite journal |last= Parent |first= Joseph M. |title= Europe's Structural Idol: An American Federalist Republic? |journal= Political Science Quarterly |date= Fall 2009 |volume= 124 |issue= 3 |pages= 513–535 |doi=10.1002/j.1538-165x.2009.tb00658.x}} * {{cite book| last = Phelps| first = Glenn A.| editor-last = Higginbotham| editor-first = Don| editor-link = Don Higginbotham| title = George Washington Reconsidered| year = 2001| publisher = University of Virginia Press| isbn = 0-8139-2005-1| chapter = The Republican General }} * {{cite book| last = Puls| first = Mark| title = Henry Knox: Visionary General of the American Revolution| year = 2008| publisher = Palgrave MacMillan| isbn = 978-1-4039-8427-2 }} * {{cite book| last = Rakove| first = Jack N.| title = The Beginnings of National Politics: An Interpretive History of the Continental Congress| year = 1982| publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press }} * {{cite book| last = Rakove| first = Jack N.| editor1-last = Barlow| editor1-first = J. Jackson| editor2-last = Levy| editor2-first = Leonard W.| editor3-last = Masugi| editor3-first = Ken| title = The American Founding: Essays on the Formation of the Constitution| year = 1988| publisher = Greenwood Press| isbn = 0-313-25610-1| pages = 225–45| chapter = The Collapse of the Articles of Confederation| lastauthoramp = y| authormask = —— }} * {{cite book| last = Van Cleve| first = George William| title = We Have Not a Government: The Articles of Confederation and the Road to the Constitution| year = 2017| publisher = University of Chicago Press| location=Chicago, Illinois| isbn = 978-0-226-48050-3}} ==External links== {{Wikisource-inline|Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union}} {{Commons category-inline|Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union}} {{Wikiquote-inline|Articles of Confederation}} * [https://www.ourdocuments.gov/print_friendly.php?flash=true&page=transcript&doc=3&title=Transcript+of+Articles+of+Confederation+%281777%29 Text version of the Articles of Confederation] * [http://earlyamerica.com/earlyamerica/milestones/articles/cover.html Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union] * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/articles.html Articles of Confederation and related resources], [[Library of Congress]] * [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/nov15.html Today in History: November 15], [[Library of Congress]] * [http://www.usconstitution.net/articles.html United States Constitution Online—The Articles of Confederation] * [http://www.mp3books.com/shop/audio_item.aspx?id=819 Free Download of Articles of Confederation Audio] * [//uscon.mobi/art/index.html Mobile friendly] version of the Articles of Confederation {{Historical American Documents}} {{USArticlesOfConfederationSig}} {{Presidents of the Continental Congress}} {{US history}} {{Pennsylvania during the American Revolutionary War}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Articles Of Confederation}} [[Category:Documents of the American Revolution]] [[Category:Signers of the Articles of Confederation| ]] [[Category:History of the United States (1776–89)]] [[Category:1781 in law]] [[Category:Defunct constitutions]] [[Category:Ordinances of the Continental Congress]] [[Category:Political charters]] [[Category:United States historical documents]] [[Category:1777 in the United States]] [[Category:1781 in the United States]] [[Category:Federalism in the United States]] [[Category:Legal history of the United States]] [[Category:History of York County, Pennsylvania]] [[Category:Pennsylvania in the American Revolution]] [[Category:York, Pennsylvania]] 5h77wjnfhf5ogv56tobcuty271azaiv 0 693 783824762 629644481 2017-06-04T22:07:14Z Tom.Reding 9784415 +{{R category shell}} using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Broch]] {{Redirect category shell|1= {{R from subpage}} }} 1t5b75m1g9ai0zgj6ni2ur0imwcd1h9 0 694 840109095 659166869 2018-05-07T19:46:57Z Timmyshin 8261983 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Asia Minor''' is an alternative name for [[Anatolia]], the westernmost protrusion of Asia, comprising the majority of the Republic of Turkey. It may also refer to: * [[Asia Minor (instrumental)|"Asia Minor" (instrumental)]], a 1961 instrumental recording by Jimmy Wisner (operating under the name Kokomo) * [[Asia Minor (album)|''Asia Minor'' (album)]], an album by Jamaican-born jazz trumpeter Dizzy Reece ==See also== *[[Asia Major (disambiguation)]] {{Disambiguation}} ij1lk3157io01z0o4aaccxaga7fs4wu 0 696 769414545 769390772 2017-03-09T11:18:06Z ZH8000 17531320 wn wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[AA#Rivers]] {{Rcat shell| {{R from wrong name}} {{R from ambiguous page}} {{R to section}} }} 1dlux7uit3va15jpyvu7dz1nduc2li6 0 698 861169055 861168970 2018-09-25T15:50:25Z Entranced98 27199084 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contribs/205.154.255.54|205.154.255.54]] ([[User talk:205.154.255.54|talk]]) to last version by Citation bot wikitext text/x-wiki {{pp-move-indef}} {{short description|Ocean between Europe, Africa and the Americas }} {{Use American English|date=June 2017}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2013}} {{redirect-multi|5|Atlantic|North Atlantic|South Atlantic|Atlantic Basin|Atlantic coast||Atlantic (disambiguation)|and|North Atlantic (disambiguation)|and|South Atlantic (disambiguation)|and|Atlantic Basin (disambiguation)|and|Atlantic Coast (disambiguation)}} {{Infobox body of water | name = Atlantic Ocean | image = Atlantic Ocean location map.svg | alt = Map of the Atlantic Ocean | coords = {{coord|0|N|25|W|region:ZZ_type:waterbody|display=inline,title}}<ref name="CIA-World" /> | basin_countries = [[List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean|List of countries]], [[List of ports and harbours of the Atlantic Ocean|ports]] | area = {{Convert|106460000|km2|abbr=on}}<ref name="NOAA-how-big"/><ref name="Atlantic Ocean - Britannica"/><br />North Atlantic: {{Convert|41490000|km2|abbr=on}},<br /> South Atlantic {{Convert|40270000|km2|abbr=on}}<ref name="ETOPO1" /> | depth = {{Convert|3646|m|abbr=on}}<ref name="ETOPO1" /> | max-depth = {{Convert|8486|m|abbr=on}}<ref name="ETOPO1" /> | volume = {{Convert|310410900|km3|abbr=on}}<ref name="ETOPO1" /> | shore = {{Convert|111866|km|abbr=on}} including marginal seas<ref name="CIA-World" /> | islands = [[List of islands in the Atlantic Ocean|List of islands]] | trenches = [[Puerto Rico Trench|Puerto Rico]]; [[South Sandwich Trench|South Sandwich]]; [[Romanche Trench|Romanche]] }} [[File:Atlantic Ocean to Africa.ogv|thumb|This video was taken by the crew of [[Expedition 29]] on board the [[International Space Station|ISS]]. The pass starts from just northeast of the island of [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]] over the North Atlantic Ocean to central Africa, over [[South Sudan]].]] The '''Atlantic Ocean''' is the second largest of the world's [[ocean]]s, with an area of about {{convert|106,460,000|km2|sqmi|sp=us|abbr=off}}.<ref name="NOAA-how-big">{{Harvnb|NOAA: How big is the Atlantic Ocean?}}</ref><ref name="Atlantic Ocean - Britannica">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Atlantic-Ocean |title=Atlantic Ocean |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=December 20, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215072935/https://www.britannica.com/place/Atlantic-Ocean |archivedate=15 February 2017 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> It covers approximately 20 percent of the [[Earth's surface]] and about 29 percent of its water surface area. It separates the "[[Old World]]" from the "[[New World]]". The Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between [[Europe]] and [[Africa]] to the east, and the [[Americas]] to the west. As one component of the interconnected [[global ocean]], it is connected in the north to the [[Arctic Ocean]], to the [[Pacific Ocean]] in the southwest, the [[Indian Ocean]] in the southeast, and the [[Southern Ocean]] in the south (other definitions describe the Atlantic as extending southward to [[Antarctica]]). The [[Equatorial Counter Current]] subdivides it into the '''North Atlantic Ocean''' and the '''South Atlantic Ocean''' at about [[8th parallel north|8°N]].<ref name="USN-2001" /> Scientific explorations of the Atlantic include the [[Challenger expedition]], the [[German Meteor expedition]], [[Columbia University]]'s [[Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory]] and the [[United States Navy Hydrographic Office]].<ref name="USN-2001" /> ==Etymology== [[File:1710 De La Feuille Map of Africa - Geographicus - Africa-lafeuille-1710.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Aethiopian Ocean]] in a 1710 French map of Africa]] The oldest known mentions of an "Atlantic" sea come from [[Stesichorus]] around mid-sixth century BC (Sch. A. R. 1. 211):<ref name="MangasPlácido1998">{{cite book|last1=Mangas|first1=Julio|last2=Plácido|first2=Domingo|last3=Elícegui|first3=Elvira Gangutia|first4=Helena|last4=Rodríguez Somolinos|title=La Península Ibérica en los autores griegos: de Homero a Platón - SLG / (Sch. A. R. 1. 211)|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=pZBSML97Ya0C|page=283}}|year=1998|publisher=Editorial Complutense|pages=283–}}</ref> ''Atlantikoi pelágei'' (Greek: Ἀτλαντικῷ πελάγει; English: 'the Atlantic sea'; etym. 'Sea of [[Atlantis]]') and in ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|The Histories]]'' of [[Herodotus]] around 450 BC (Hdt. 1.202.4): ''Atlantis thalassa'' (Greek: Ἀτλαντὶς θάλασσα; English: 'Sea of Atlantis' or 'the Atlantis sea'<ref>[http://dge.cchs.csic.es/xdge/Ἀτλαντίς 1 Ἀ. θάλασσα "la mar Atlántida" (the Atlantis sea)..., DGE Dictionary, CSIC, 2006.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180101191304/http://dge.cchs.csic.es/xdge/%E1%BC%88%CF%84%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%AF%CF%82 |date=1 January 2018 }}</ref>) where the name refers to "the sea beyond the [[pillars of Heracles]]" which is said to be part of the sea that surrounds all land.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hdt. 1.202.4}}</ref> Thus, on one hand, the name refers to [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]], the [[Titan (mythology)|Titan]] in [[Greek mythology]], who supported the heavens and who later appeared as a frontispiece in Medieval maps and also lent his name to modern [[Atlas (geography)|atlases]].<ref name="Oxford-Dict">{{Harvnb|Oxford Dictionaries|2015}}</ref> On the other hand, to early [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] sailors and in Ancient Greek mythological literature such as the ''[[Iliad]]'' and the ''[[Odyssey]]'', this all-encompassing ocean was instead known as [[Oceanus]], the gigantic river that encircled the world; in contrast to the enclosed seas well known to the Greeks: the Mediterranean and the Black Sea.<ref>{{Harvnb|Janni|2015|p=27}}</ref> In contrast, the term "Atlantic" originally referred specifically to the [[Atlas Mountains]] in Morocco and the sea off the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] and the North African coast.<ref name="Oxford-Dict" /> The Greek word ''thalassa'' has been reused by scientists for the huge [[Panthalassa]] ocean that surrounded the supercontinent [[Pangaea]] hundreds of millions of years ago. The term "[[Aethiopian Ocean]]", derived from [[Aethiopia|Ancient Ethiopia]], was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century.<ref name="AmCyclo-1873">{{Harvnb|Ripley|Anderson Dana|1873}}</ref> During the [[Age of Discovery]], the Atlantic was also known to English cartographers as the '''Great Western Ocean'''.<ref name=Steele1986>{{cite book|last1=Steele|first1=Ian Kenneth|title=The English Atlantic, 1675-1740: An Exploration of Communication and Community|date=1986|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195039689|page=14|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=N2fmCwAAQBAJ|page=14}}|language=en}}</ref> ==Extent and data== {{For|complete lists of marginal seas and borders of the Atlantic|List of seas#Atlantic Ocean|Borders of the oceans#Atlantic Ocean}} {{For|the extent of the Southern Ocean|Southern Ocean#Definitions and use}} [[File:Atlantic Ocean - en.png|thumb|Extent of the Atlantic Ocean according to the 2002 IHO definition, excluding [[Arctic]] and [[Antarctic]] regions]] The [[International Hydrographic Organization]] (IHO) defined the limits of the oceans and seas in 1953,<ref name="IHO-1953">{{Harvnb|IHO|1953}}</ref> but some of these definitions have been revised since then and some are not used by various authorities, institutions, and countries, see for example the [[CIA World Factbook]]. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas varies. The Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the [[Denmark Strait]], [[Greenland Sea]], [[Norwegian Sea]] and [[Barents Sea]]. To the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe: the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] (where it connects with the [[Mediterranean Sea]]–one of its [[marginal sea]]s–and, in turn, the [[Black Sea]], both of which also touch upon Asia) and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean. The [[20th meridian east|20° East meridian]], running south from [[Cape Agulhas]] to [[Antarctica]] defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the [[60th parallel south|60° parallel]] by the Southern Ocean.<ref name="IHO-1953" /> The Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs and seas. These include the [[Baltic Sea]], [[Black Sea]], [[Caribbean Sea]], [[Davis Strait]], [[Denmark Strait]], part of the [[Drake Passage]], [[Gulf of Mexico]], [[Labrador Sea]], [[Mediterranean Sea]], [[North Sea]], [[Norwegian Sea]], almost all of the [[Scotia Sea]], and other tributary water bodies.<ref name="CIA-World">{{Harvnb|CIA World Factbook: Atlantic Ocean}}</ref> Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures {{Convert|111866|km|abbr=on}} compared to {{Convert|135663|km|abbr=on}} for the Pacific.<ref name="CIA-World" /><ref>{{Harvnb|CIA World Factbook: Pacific Ocean}}</ref> Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of {{Convert|106460000|km2|abbr=on}} or 23.5% of the global ocean and has a volume of {{Convert|310410900|km3|abbr=on}} or 23.3% of the total volume of the earth's oceans. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers {{Convert|81760000|km2|abbr=on}} and has a volume of {{Convert|305811900|km3|abbr=on}}. The North Atlantic covers {{Convert|41490000|km2|abbr=on}} (11.5%) and the South Atlantic {{Convert|40270000|km2|abbr=on}} (11.1%).<ref name="ETOPO1">{{Harvnb|Eakins|Sharman|2010}}</ref> The average depth is {{Convert|3646|m|abbr=on}} and the maximum depth, the [[Milwaukee Deep]] in the [[Puerto Rico Trench]], is {{Convert|8486|m|abbr=on}}.<ref name="ETOPO1" /><ref>{{Harvnb|USGS: Mapping Puerto Rico Trench}}</ref> ==Bathymetry== [[File:Atlantic bathymetry.jpg|thumb|[[False color]] map of ocean depth in the Atlantic basin]] The [[bathymetry]] of the Atlantic is dominated by a [[Mid-ocean ridge|submarine mountain range]] called the [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]] (MAR). It runs from 87°N or {{Convert|300|km|abbr=on}} south of the [[North Pole]] to the subantarctic [[Bouvet Island]] at [[42nd parallel south|42°S]].<ref name="WHC-MAR">{{Harvnb|World Heritage Centre: Mid-Atlantic Ridge}}</ref> ===Mid-Atlantic Ridge=== {{Main|Mid-Atlantic Ridge}} The MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above {{convert|2000|m|abbr=on}} along most of its length, but is interrupted by larger transform faults at two places: the [[Romanche Trench]] near the Equator and the [[Gibbs Fracture Zone]] at [[53rd parallel north|53°N]]. The MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other.<ref name="LevGood-2003">{{Harvnb|Levin|Gooday|2003|loc=Seafloor topography and physiography, pp. 113–114}}</ref> The MAR rises {{Convert|2|-|3|km|abbr=on}} above the surrounding ocean floor and its [[rift valley]] is the [[divergent boundary]] between the [[North American Plate|North American]] and [[Eurasian Plate|Eurasian]] plates in the North Atlantic and the [[South American Plate|South American]] and [[African Plate|African]] plates in the South Atlantic. The MAR produces [[Basaltic lava|basaltic volcanoes]] in [[Eyjafjallajökull]], Iceland, and [[pillow lava]] on the ocean floor.<ref>{{Harvnb|The Geological Society: Mid-Atlantic Ridge}}</ref> The depth of water at the apex of the ridge is less than {{convert|2700|m|fathom ft|abbr=on|lk=out}} in most places, while the bottom of the ridge is three times as deep.<ref>{{cite book |author=Kenneth J. Hsü |title=The Mediterranean Was a Desert: A Voyage of the Glomar Challenger |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-691-02406-6}}</ref> The MAR is intersected by two perpendicular ridges: the [[Azores–Gibraltar Transform Fault]], the boundary between the [[Nubian Plate|Nubian]] and [[Eurasian Plate|Eurasian plates]], intersects the MAR at the [[Azores Triple Junction]], on either side of the Azores microplate, near the [[40th parallel north|40°N]].<ref>{{Harvnb|DeMets|Gordon|Argus|2010|loc=The Azores microplate, pp. 24–25}}</ref> A much vaguer, nameless boundary, between the [[North American Plate|North American]] and [[South American Plate|South American]] plates, intersects the MAR near or just north of the [[Fifteen-Twenty Fracture Zone]], approximately at [[16th parallel north|16°N]].<ref>{{Harvnb|DeMets|Gordon|Argus|2010|loc=Boundary between the North and South America plates, pp. 26–27}}</ref> In the 1870s, the [[Challenger expedition]] discovered parts of what is now known as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, or: {{Quote|text=An elevated ridge rising to an average height of about {{convert|1900|fathom|m ft|abbr=on|disp=sqbr}} below the surface traverses the basins of the North and South Atlantic in a meridianal direction from Cape Farewell, probably its far south at least as Gough Island, following roughly the outlines of the coasts of the Old and the New Worlds.<ref>{{Harvnb|Thomson|1877|p=290}}</ref>}} The remainder of the ridge was discovered in the 1920s by the [[German Meteor expedition]] using echo-sounding equipment.<ref>{{Harvnb|NOAA: Timeline}}</ref> The exploration of the MAR in the 1950s led to the general acceptance of [[seafloor spreading]] and [[plate tectonics]].<ref name="WHC-MAR" /> Most of the MAR runs under water but where it reaches the surfaces it has produced volcanic islands. While nine of these have collectively been nominated a [[World Heritage Site]] for their geological value, four of them are considered of "Outstanding Universal Value" based on their cultural and natural criteria: [[Þingvellir National Park|Þingvellir]], Iceland; [[Landscape of the Pico Island Vineyard Culture]], Portugal; [[Gough and Inaccessible Islands]], United Kingdom; and Brazilian Atlantic Islands: [[Fernando de Noronha]] and [[Atol das Rocas]] Reserves, Brazil.<ref name="WHC-MAR" /> ===Ocean floor=== {{For|a list of fracture zones in the Atlantic|List of fracture zones#Atlantic Ocean}} Continental shelves in the Atlantic are wide off Newfoundland, southern-most South America, and north-eastern Europe. In the western Atlantic [[carbonate platform]]s dominate large areas, for example the [[Blake Plateau]] and [[Bermuda Rise]]. The Atlantic is surrounded by [[passive margin]]s except at a few locations where [[active margin]]s form deep [[oceanic trench|trenches]]: the [[Puerto Rico Trench]] ({{Convert|8414|m|abbr=on|disp=or}} maximum depth) in the western Pacific and [[South Sandwich Trench]] ({{Convert|8264|m|abbr=on|disp=or}}) in the South Atlantic. There are numerous submarine canyons off north-eastern North America, western Europe, and north-western Africa. Some of these canyons extend along the continental rises and farther into the abyssal plains as deep-sea channels.<ref name="LevGood-2003" /> In 1922 a historic moment in cartography and oceanography occurred. The USS Stewart used a Navy Sonic Depth Finder to draw a continuous map across the bed of the Atlantic. This involved little guesswork because the idea of sonar is straight forward with pulses being sent from the vessel, which bounce off the ocean floor, then return to the vessel.<ref name="the Atlantic">{{Cite book |last=Hamilton-Paterson |first=James | author-link = James Hamilton-Paterson |date=1992 |title=The Great Deep}}</ref> The deep ocean floor is thought to be fairly flat with occasional deeps, [[abyssal plain]]s, [[oceanic trench|trenches]], [[seamount]]s, [[Oceanic basin|basins]], [[Oceanic plateau|plateaus]], [[Submarine canyon|canyons]], and some [[guyot]]s. Various shelves along the margins of the continents constitute about 11% of the bottom topography with few deep channels cut across the continental rise. The mean depth between [[60th parallel north|60°N]] and [[60th parallel south|60°S]] is {{Convert|3730|m|abbr=on}}, or close to the average for the global ocean, with a modal depth between {{Convert|4000|and|5000|m|abbr=on}}.<ref name="LevGood-2003" /> In the South Atlantic the [[Walvis Ridge]] and [[Rio Grande Rise]] form barriers to ocean currents. The [[Laurentian Abyss]] is found off the eastern coast of Canada. ==Water characteristics== [[File:Gulf Stream Sea Surface Currents and Temperatures NASA SVS.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|As the Gulf Stream meanders across the North Atlantic from the North American east coast to Western Europe its temperature drops by {{convert|20|C-change}}.|alt=Visualisation of the Gulf Stream stretching from the Gulf of Mexico to Western Europe]] [[File:Circulacion termohalina.jpg|Path of the [[thermohaline circulation]]. Purple paths represent deep-water currents, while blue paths represent surface currents.|thumb|alt=Map displaying a looping line with arrows indicating that water flows eastward in the far Southern ocean, angling north east of Australia, turning sough after passing Alaska, then crossing the mid-Pacific to flow north of Australia, continuing west below Africa, then turning northwest until reaching eastern Canada, then angling east to southern Europe, then finally turning south just below Greenland and flowing down the Americas' eastern coast, and resuming its flow eastward to complete the circle]] Surface water temperatures, which vary with latitude, current systems, and season and reflect the latitudinal distribution of solar energy, range from below {{convert|-2|C|F}} to over {{convert|30|C|F}}. Maximum temperatures occur north of the equator, and minimum values are found in the polar regions. In the middle latitudes, the area of maximum temperature variations, values may vary by {{convert|7|–|8|C-change}}.<ref name="USN-2001" /> From October to June the surface is usually covered with sea ice in the [[Labrador Sea]], [[Denmark Strait]], and Baltic Sea.<ref name="USN-2001" /> The [[Coriolis effect]] circulates North Atlantic water in a clockwise direction, whereas South Atlantic water circulates counter-clockwise. The south [[tide]]s in the Atlantic Ocean are semi-diurnal; that is, two high tides occur during each 24 lunar hours. In latitudes above [[40th parallel north|40° North]] some east-west oscillation, known as the [[North Atlantic oscillation]], occurs.<ref name="USN-2001" /> ===Salinity=== On average, the Atlantic is the saltiest major ocean; surface water [[salinity]] in the open ocean ranges from 33 to 37 parts per thousand (3.3 – 3.7%) by mass and varies with latitude and season. Evaporation, precipitation, river inflow and [[sea ice]] melting influence surface salinity values. Although the lowest salinity values are just north of the equator (because of heavy tropical rainfall), in general the lowest values are in the high latitudes and along coasts where large rivers enter. Maximum salinity values occur at about [[25th parallel north|25° north]] and [[25th parallel south|south]], in [[subtropical]] regions with low rainfall and high evaporation.<ref name="USN-2001">{{Harvnb|U.S. Navy|2001}}</ref> The high surface salinity in the Atlantic, on which the Atlantic [[thermohaline circulation]] is dependent, is maintained by two processes: the [[Agulhas Current#Agulhas leakage and rings|Agulhas Leakage/Rings]], which brings salty Indian Ocean waters into the South Atlantic, and the "Atmospheric Bridge", which evaporates subtropical Atlantic waters and exports it to the Pacific.<ref>{{Harvnb|Marsh|Hazeleger|Yool|Rohling|2007|loc=Introduction, p. 1}}</ref> {{Clear}} ===Water masses=== {| class="wikitable floatright" style="font-size: 0.9em; text-align: center;" |+ Temperature-salinity characteristics for Atlantic water masses<ref>{{Harvnb|Emery|Meincke|1986|loc=Table, p. 385}}</ref> |- ! Water mass !! Temperature !! Salinity |- ! colspan="3" | Upper waters ({{convert|0|-|500|m|ft|-2|disp=or|abbr=on}}) |- | align=left | Atlantic Subarctic<br />Upper Water (ASUW) || 0.0–4.0&nbsp;°C || 34.0–35.0 |- | align=left | Western North Atlantic<br />Central Water (WNACW) || 7.0–20&nbsp;°C || 35.0–36.7 |- | align=left | Eastern North Atlantic<br />Central Water (ENACW) || 8.0–18.0&nbsp;°C || 35.2–36.7 |- | align=left | South Atlantic<br />Central Water (SACW) || 5.0–18.0&nbsp;°C || 34.3–35.8 |- ! colspan="3" | Intermediate waters ({{convert|500|-|1500|m|ft|-2|disp=or|abbr=on}}) |- | align=left | Western Atlantic Subarctic<br />Intermediate Water (WASIW) || 3.0–9.0&nbsp;°C || 34.0–35.1 |- | align=left | Eastern Atlantic Subarctic<br />Intermediate Water (EASIW) || 3.0–9.0&nbsp;°C || 34.4–35.3 |- | align=left | Mediterranean Water (MW) || 2.6–11.0&nbsp;°C || 35.0–36.2 |- | align=left | Arctic Intermediate Water (AIW) || −1.5–3.0&nbsp;°C || 34.7–34.9 |- ! colspan="3" | Deep and abyssal waters (1,500&nbsp;m–bottom or 4,900&nbsp;ft–bottom) |- | align=left | North Atlantic<br />Deep Water (NADW) || 1.5–4.0&nbsp;°C || 34.8–35.0 |- | align=left | Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) || −0.9–1.7&nbsp;°C || 34.64–34.72 |- | align=left | Arctic Bottom Water (ABW) || −1.8 to −0.5&nbsp;°C || 34.85–34.94 |} The Atlantic Ocean consists of four major, upper [[water mass]]es with distinct temperature and salinity. The Atlantic Subarctic Upper Water in the northern-most North Atlantic is the source for Subarctic Intermediate Water and North Atlantic Intermediate Water. North Atlantic Central Water can be divided into the Eastern and Western North Atlantic central Water since the western part is strongly affected by the Gulf Stream and therefore the upper layer is closer to underlying fresher subpolar intermediate water. The eastern water is saltier because of its proximity to Mediterranean Water. North Atlantic Central Water flows into South Atlantic Central Water at [[15th parallel north|15°N]].<ref name="Emery-Atlantic">{{Harvnb|Emery|Meincke|1986|loc=Atlantic Ocean, pp. 384–386}}</ref> There are five intermediate waters: four low-salinity waters formed at subpolar latitudes and one high-salinity formed through evaporation. Arctic Intermediate Water, flows from north to become the source for North Atlantic Deep Water south of the Greenland-Scotland sill. These two intermediate waters have different salinity in the western and eastern basins. The wide range of salinities in the North Atlantic is caused by the asymmetry of the northern subtropical gyre and the large number of contributions from a wide range of sources: Labrador Sea, Norwegian-Greenland Sea, Mediterranean, and South Atlantic Intermediate Water.<ref name="Emery-Atlantic" /> The [[North Atlantic Deep Water]] (NADW) is a complex of four water masses, two that form by deep convection in the open ocean&nbsp;— Classical and Upper Labrador Sea Water&nbsp;— and two that form from the inflow of dense water across the Greenland-Iceland-Scotland sill&nbsp;— Denmark Strait and Iceland-Scotland Overflow Water. Along its path across Earth the composition of the NADW is affected by other water masses, especially [[Antarctic Bottom Water]] and Mediterranean Overflow Water.<ref>{{Harvnb|Smethie|Fine|Putzka|Jones|2000|loc=Formation of NADW, pp. 14299–14300}}</ref> The NADW is fed by a flow of warm shallow water into the northern North Atlantic which is responsible for the anomalous warm climate in Europe. Changes in the formation of NADW have been linked to global climate changes in the past. Since man-made substances were introduced into the environment, the path of the NADW can be traced throughout its course by measuring tritium and radiocarbon from [[nuclear weapon test]]s in the 1960s and [[chlorofluorocarbon|CFCs]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Smethie|Fine|Putzka|Jones|2000|loc=Introduction, p. 14297}}</ref> {{Clear}} ===Gyres=== [[File:Oceanic gyres.png|thumb|Map of the five major ocean [[Ocean gyre|gyres]]|alt=Map showing 5 circles. The first is between western Australia and eastern Africa. The second is between eastern Australia and western South America. The third is between Japan and western North America. Of the two in the Atlantic, one is in hemisphere.]] The clockwise warm-water [[North Atlantic Gyre]] occupies the northern Atlantic, and the counter-clockwise warm-water [[South Atlantic Gyre]] appears in the southern Atlantic.<ref name="USN-2001" /> In the North Atlantic, surface circulation is dominated by three inter-connected currents: the [[Gulf Stream]] which flows north-east from the North American coast at [[Cape Hatteras]]; the [[North Atlantic Current]], a branch of the Gulf Stream which flows northward from the [[Grand Banks of Newfoundland|Grand Banks]]; and the [[Subpolar Front]], an extension of the North Atlantic Current, a wide, vaguely defined region separating the subtropical gyre from the subpolar gyre. This system of currents transport warm water into the North Atlantic, without which temperatures in the North Atlantic and Europe would plunge dramatically.<ref>{{Harvnb|Marchal|Waelbroeck|Colin de Verdière|2016|loc=Introduction, pp. 1545–1547}}</ref> [[File:North Atlantic Circulation.gif|thumb|In the subpolar gyre of the North Atlantic warm subtropical waters are transformed into colder subpolar and polar waters. In the Labrador Sea this water flows back to the subtropical gyre.]] North of the North Atlantic Gyre, the cyclonic [[North Atlantic Subpolar Gyre]] plays a key role in climate variability. It is governed by ocean currents from marginal seas and regional topography, rather than being steered by wind, both in the deep ocean and at sea level.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tréguier|Theetten|Chassignet|Penduff|2005|loc=Introduction, p. 757}}</ref> The subpolar gyre forms an important part of the global [[thermohaline circulation]]. Its eastern portion includes [[Eddy (fluid dynamics)|eddying]] branches of the [[North Atlantic Current]] which transport warm, saline waters from the subtropics to the north-eastern Atlantic. There this water is cooled during winter and forms return currents that merge along the eastern continental slope of Greenland where they form an intense (40–50&nbsp;[[Sverdrup|Sv]]) current which flows around the continental margins of the [[Labrador Sea]]. A third of this water become parts of the deep portion of the [[North Atlantic Deep Water]] (NADW). The NADW, in its turn, feed the [[meridional overturning circulation]] (MOC), the northward heat transport of which is threatened by anthropogenic climate change. Large variations in the subpolar gyre on a decade-century scale, associated with the [[North Atlantic oscillation]], are especially pronounced in [[Labrador Sea Water]], the upper layers of the MOC.<ref>{{Harvnb|Böning|Scheinert|Dengg|Biastoch|2006|loc=Introduction, p. 1; Fig. 2, p. 2}}</ref> The South Atlantic is dominated by the anti-cyclonic southern subtropical gyre. The [[South Atlantic Central Water]] originates in this gyre, while [[Antarctic Intermediate Water]] originates in the upper layers of the circumpolar region, near the [[Drake Passage]] and Falkland Islands. Both these currents receive some contribution from the Indian Ocean. On the African east coast the small cyclonic [[Angola Gyre]] lies embedded in the large subtropical gyre.<ref>{{Harvnb|Stramma|England|1999|loc=Abstract}}</ref> The southern subtropical gyre is partly masked by a wind-induced [[Ekman layer]]. The residence time of the gyre is 4.4–8.5&nbsp;years. [[North Atlantic Deep Water]] flows southerward below the [[thermocline]] of the subtropical gyre.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gordon|Bosley|1991|loc=Abstract}}</ref> ===Sargasso Sea=== {{Main|Sargasso Sea}} [[File:Sargasso.png|thumb|Approximate extent of the Sargasso Sea]] The Sargasso Sea in the western North Atlantic can be defined as the area where two species of ''[[Sargassum]]'' (''S. fluitans'' and ''natans'') float, an area {{Convert|4000|km|abbr=on}} wide and encircled by the [[Gulf Stream]], [[North Atlantic Drift]], and [[North Equatorial Current]]. This population of seaweed probably originated from Tertiary ancestors on the European shores of the former [[Tethys Ocean]] and has, if so, maintained itself by [[Vegetative reproduction|vegetative growth]], floating in the ocean for millions of years.<ref name="Lün-p223">{{Harvnb|Lüning|1990|pp=223–225}}</ref> [[File:HanaOZ.jpg|thumb|left|Sargassum fish (''Histrio histrio'')]] Other species endemic to the Sargasso Sea include the [[sargassum fish]], a predator with algae-like appendages who hovers motionless among the ''Sargassum''. Fossils of similar fishes have been found in fossil bays of the former Tethys Ocean, in what is now the [[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathian]] region, that were similar to the Sargasso Sea. It is possible that the population in the Sargasso Sea migrated to the Atlantic as the Tethys closed at the end of the Miocene around 17&nbsp;Ma.<ref name="Lün-p223" /> The origin of the Sargasso fauna and flora remained enigmatic for centuries. The fossils found in the Carpathians in the mid-20th century, often called the "quasi-Sargasso assemblage", finally showed that this assemblage originated in the [[Carpathian Basin]] from were it migrated over [[Sicily]] to the Central Atlantic where it evolved into modern species of the Sargasso Sea.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jerzmańska|Kotlarczyk|1976|loc=Abstract; Biogeographic Significance of the "Quasi-Sargasso" Assemblage, pp. 303–304}}</ref> The location of the spawning ground for European eels [[Eel life history#Search for the spawning grounds|remained unknown for decades]]. In the early 19th century it was discovered that the southern Sargasso Sea is the spawning ground for both the [[European eel|European]] and [[American eel]] and that the former migrate more than {{Convert|5000|km|abbr=on}} and the latter {{Convert|2000|km|abbr=on}}. Ocean currents such as the Gulf Stream transport eel larvae from the Sargasso Sea to foraging areas in North America, Europe, and Northern Africa.<ref>{{Harvnb|Als|Hansen|Maes|Castonguay|2011|p=1334}}</ref> Recent but disputed research suggests that eels possibly use [[Earth's magnetic field]] to navigate through the ocean both as larvae and as adults.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Do Baby Eels Use Magnetic Maps to Hitch a Ride on the Gulf Stream? |publisher=Scientific American |date=17 April 2017 |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/do-baby-eels-use-magnetic-maps-to-hitch-a-ride-on-the-gulf-stream/?WT.mc_id=SA_EVO_20170417 |access-date=18 April 2017 |ref=harv |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419192009/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/do-baby-eels-use-magnetic-maps-to-hitch-a-ride-on-the-gulf-stream/?WT.mc_id=SA_EVO_20170417 |archivedate=19 April 2017 |df=dmy-all }} </ref> ==Climate== [[File:Atlantic hurricane graphic.gif|thumb|Waves in the [[trade winds]] in the Atlantic Ocean—areas of converging winds that move along the same track as the prevailing wind—create instabilities in the atmosphere that may lead to the formation of hurricanes.|alt=Map of Caribbean showing seven approximately parallel westward-pointing arrows that extend from east of the Virgin Islands to Cuba. The southern arrows bend northward just east of the Dominican Republic before straightening out again.]] Climate is influenced by the temperatures of the surface waters and water currents as well as winds. Because of the ocean's great capacity to store and release heat, maritime climates are more moderate and have less extreme seasonal variations than inland climates. [[Precipitation (meteorology)|Precipitation]] can be approximated from coastal weather data and air temperature from water temperatures.<ref name="USN-2001" /> The oceans are the major source of the atmospheric moisture that is obtained through evaporation. Climatic zones vary with latitude; the warmest zones stretch across the Atlantic north of the equator. The coldest zones are in high latitudes, with the coldest regions corresponding to the areas covered by sea ice. Ocean currents influence climate by transporting warm and cold waters to other regions. The winds that are cooled or warmed when blowing over these currents influence adjacent land areas.<ref name="USN-2001" /> The [[Gulf Stream]] and its northern extension towards Europe, the [[North Atlantic Current|North Atlantic Drift]] is thought to have at least some influence on climate. For example, the Gulf Stream helps moderate winter temperatures along the coastline of southeastern North America, keeping it warmer in winter along the coast than inland areas. The Gulf Stream also keeps extreme temperatures from occurring on the Florida Peninsula. In the higher latitudes, the North Atlantic Drift, warms the atmosphere over the oceans, keeping the British Isles and north-western Europe mild and cloudy, and not severely cold in winter like other locations at the same high latitude. The cold water currents contribute to heavy fog off the coast of eastern Canada (the [[Grand Banks of Newfoundland]] area) and Africa's north-western coast. In general, winds transport moisture and air over land areas.<ref name="USN-2001" /> ===Natural hazards=== [[File:Iceberg A22A, South Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|Iceberg A22A in the South Atlantic Ocean|alt=Overhead photo of iceberg with surrounding clouds|alt=Overhead photo of iceberg]] [[Iceberg]]s are common from early February to the end of July across the shipping lanes near the [[Grand Banks of Newfoundland]]. The ice season is longer in the polar regions, but there is little shipping in those areas.<ref>[https://www.navcen.uscg.gov/?pageName=IIPHome International Ice Patrol]</ref> [[Hurricanes]] are hazard in the western parts of the North Atlantic during the summer and autumn. Due to a consistently strong [[wind shear]] and a weak [[Intertropical Convergence Zone]], they are practically unknown in the South Atlantic.<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/G6.html | title =Why doesn't the South Atlantic Ocean experience tropical cyclones? | last =Landsea | first =Chris | date =13 July 2005 | website =Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorlogical Laboratory | publisher =National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration | access-date =9 June 2018 | quote = }}</ref> ==Plate tectonics== [[File:Pangea animation 03.gif|thumb|The break-up of Pangaea resulted in the opening of the Atlantic Ocean in three stages]] ===Central Atlantic=== {{ Multiple image | align = left | width = 180 | direction = vertical | image1 = Blakey 200Ma - COL.jpg | image2 = Blakey 170Ma - COL.jpg | footer = Opening of the Central Atlantic 200-170 Ma }} The break-up of Pangaea began in the Central Atlantic, between North America and Northwest Africa, where rift basins opened during the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic. This period also saw the first stages of the uplift of the Atlas Mountains. The exact timing is controversial with estimates ranging from 200 to 170&nbsp;Ma.<ref>{{Harvnb|Seton|Müller|Zahirovic|Gaina|2012|loc=Central Atlantic, pp. 218, 220}}</ref> The opening of the Atlantic Ocean coincided with the initial break-up of the supercontinent [[Pangaea]], both of which were initiated by the eruption of the [[Central Atlantic Magmatic Province]] (CAMP), one of the most extensive and voluminous [[large igneous province]]s in Earth's history associated with the [[Triassic–Jurassic extinction event]], one of Earth's major [[extinction event]]s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Blackburn|Olsen|Bowring|McLean|2013|p=941}}</ref> Theoliitic [[Dike (geology)|dikes]], [[Aquatic sill|sills]], and lava flows from the CAMP eruption at 200&nbsp;Ma have been found in West Africa, eastern North America, and northern South America. The extent of the volcanism has been estimated to {{Convert|4.5e6|km2|abbr=on}} of which {{Convert|2.5e6|km2|abbr=on}} covered what is now northern and central Brazil.<ref>{{Harvnb|Marzoli|Renne|Piccirillo|Ernesto|1999|p=616}}</ref> The formation of the [[Central American Isthmus]] closed the [[Central American Seaway]] at the end of the Pliocene 2.8&nbsp;Ma ago. The formation of the isthmus resulted in the migration and extinction of many land-living animals, known as the [[Great American Interchange]], but the closure of the seaway resulted in a "Great American Schism" as it affected ocean currents, salinity, and temperatures in both the Atlantic and Pacific. Marine organisms on both sides of the isthmus became isolated and either diverged or went extinct.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lessios|2008|loc=Abstract, Introduction, p. 64}}</ref> ==={{vanchor|Northern Atlantic|NORTH_ATLANTIC}}=== {{Main|Opening of the North Atlantic Ocean}} Geologically the Northern Atlantic is the area delimited to the south by two conjugate margins, Newfoundland and Iberia, and to the north by the Arctic [[Eurasian Basin]]. The opening of the Northern Atlantic closely followed the margins of its predecessor, the [[Iapetus Ocean]], and spread from the Central Atlantic in six stages: [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]]–[[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]], [[Porcupine Bank|Porcupine]]–North America, Eurasia–Greenland, Eurasia–North America. Active and inactive spreading systems in this area are marked by the interaction with the [[Iceland hotspot]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Seton|Müller|Zahirovic|Gaina|2012|loc=Northern Atlantic, p. 220}}</ref> ===South Atlantic=== {{Multiple image | align = left | direction = vertical | width = 180 | image1 = Gondwana115Ma hg.png | image2 = Gondwana065Ma hg.png | image3 = Gondwana038ma hg.png | footer = The opening of the South Atlantic }} West Gondwana (South America and Africa) broke up in the Early Cretaceous to form the South Atlantic. The apparent fit between the coastlines of the two continents was noted on the first maps that included the South Atlantic and it was also the subject of the first computer-assisted plate tectonic reconstructions in 1965.<ref name="Eagles-intro">{{Harvnb|Eagles|2007|loc=Introduction, p. 353}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Bullard|Everett|Smith|1965}}</ref> This magnificent fit, however, has since then proven problematic and later reconstructions have introduced various deformation zones along the shorelines to accommodate the northward-propagating break-up.<ref name="Eagles-intro" /> Intra-continental rifts and deformations have also been introduced to subdivide both continental plates into sub-plates.<ref name="Seton-2012-p217">{{Harvnb|Seton|Müller|Zahirovic|Gaina|2012|loc=South Atlantic, pp. 217–218}}</ref> Geologically the South Atlantic can be divided into four segments: Equatorial segment, from 10°N to the Romanche Fracture Zone (RFZ);; Central segment, from RFZ to Florianopolis Fracture Zone (FFZ, north of Walvis Ridge and Rio Grande Rise); Southern segment, from FFZ to the Agulhas-Falkland Fracture Zone (AFFZ); and Falkland segment, south of AFFZ.<ref name="Torsvik2009-p1316">{{Harvnb|Torsvik|Rousse|Labails|Smethurst|2009|loc=General setting and magmatism, pp. 1316–1318}}</ref> In the southern segment the Early Cretaceous (133–130&nbsp;Ma) intensive [[magmatism]] of the [[Paraná and Etendeka traps|Paraná–Etendeka Large Igneous Province]] produced by the [[Tristan hotspot]] resulted in an estimated volume of {{Convert|1.5e6|to|2.0e6|km3|abbr=on}}. It covered an area of {{Convert|1.2e6|to|1.6e6|km2|abbr=on}} in Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay and {{Convert|0.8e5|km2|abbr=on}} in Africa. [[Dyke swarm]]s in Brazil, Angola, eastern Paraguay, and Namibia, however, suggest the LIP originally covered a much larger area and also indicate failed rifts in all these areas. Associated offshore basaltic flows reach as far south as the Falkland Islands and South Africa. Traces of magmatism in both offshore and onshore basins in the central and southern segments have been dated to 147–49&nbsp;Ma with two peaks between 143–121&nbsp;Ma and 90–60&nbsp;Ma.<ref name="Torsvik2009-p1316" /> In the Falkland segment rifting began with dextral movements between the Patagonia and Colorado sub-plates between the Early Jurassic (190&nbsp;Ma) and the Early Cretaceous (126.7&nbsp;Ma). Around 150&nbsp;Ma sea-floor spreading propagated northward into the southern segment. No later than 130&nbsp;Ma rifting had reached the Walvis Ridge–Rio Grande Rise.<ref name="Seton-2012-p217" /> In the central segment rifting started to break Africa in two by opening the [[Benue Trough]] around 118&nbsp;Ma. Rifting in the central segment, however, coincided with the [[Geomagnetic reversal#Superchrons|Cretaceous Normal Superchron]] (also known as the Cretaceous quiet period), a 40&nbsp;Ma period without magnetic reversals, which makes it difficult to date sea-floor spreading in this segment.<ref name="Seton-2012-p217" /> The equatorial segment is the last phase of the break-up, but, because it is located on the Equator, magnetic anomalies cannot be used for dating. Various estimates date the propagation of sea-floor spreading in this segment to the period 120–96&nbsp;Ma. This final stage, nevertheless, coincided with or resulted in the end of continental extension in Africa.<ref name="Seton-2012-p217" /> About 50&nbsp;Ma the opening of the [[Drake Passage]] resulted from a change in the motions and separation rate of the South American and Antarctic plates. First small ocean basins opened and a shallow gateway appeared during the Middle Eocene. 34–30&nbsp;Ma a deeper seaway developed, followed by an [[Eocene–Oligocene extinction event|Eocene–Oligocene climatic deterioration]] and the growth of the [[Antarctic ice sheet]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Livermore|Nankivell|Eagles|Morris|2005|loc=Abstract}}</ref> ===Closure of the Atlantic=== {{See also|Pangaea Ultima}} An embryonic subduction margin is potentially developing west of Gibraltar. The [[Gibraltar Arc]] in the western Mediterranean is migrating westward into the Central Atlantic where it joins the converging African and Eurasian plates. Together these three tectonic forces are slowly developing into a new subduction system in the eastern Atlantic Basin. Meanwhile, the [[Scotia Arc]] and [[Caribbean Plate]] in the western Atlantic Basin are eastward-propagating subduction systems that might, together with the Gibraltar system, represent the beginning of the closure of the Atlantic Ocean and the final stage of the Atlantic [[Wilson cycle]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Duarte|Rosas|Terrinha|Schellart|2013|loc=Abstract; Conclusions, p. 842}}</ref> ==History== {{Main category|History of the Atlantic Ocean}} ===Human origin=== [[Human evolution|Humans evolved]] in Africa; first by diverging from other apes around 7&nbsp;Ma; then developing stone tools around 2.6&nbsp;Ma; to finally evolve as [[Anatomically modern human|modern humans]] around 100&nbsp;kya. The earliest evidences for the complex behavior associated with this [[behavioral modernity]] has been found in the Greater [[Cape Floristic Region]] (GCFR) along the coast of South Africa. During the latest glacial stages the now-submerged plains of the [[Agulhas Bank]] were exposed above sea level, extending the South African coastline farther south by hundreds of kilometers. A small population of modern humans&nbsp;— probably fewer than a thousand reproducing individuals&nbsp;— survived glacial maxima by exploring the high diversity offered by these Palaeo-Agulhas plains. The GCFR is delimited to the north by the [[Cape Fold Belt]] and the limited space south of it resulted in the development of social networks out of which complex Stone Age technologies emerged.<ref>{{Harvnb|Marean|Cawthra|Cowling|Esler|2014|loc=pp. 164–166, fig. 8.2, p. 166}}</ref> Human history thus begins on the coasts of South Africa where the Atlantic [[Benguela Current|Benguela Upwelling]] and Indian Ocean [[Agulhas Current]] meet to produce an intertidal zone on which shellfish, fur seal, fishes and sea birds provided the necessary protein sources.<ref>{{Harvnb|Marean|2011|loc=Environmental Context on the South Coast, pp. 423–425}}</ref><!-- Coastal Oasis Model (COM) --> The African origin of this modern behaviour is evidenced by 70,000 years-old engravings from [[Blombos Cave]], South Africa.<ref>{{Harvnb|Henshilwood|d'Errico|Yates|Jacobs|2002|loc=Abstract}}</ref> ===Old World=== [[Mitochondrial DNA]] (mtDNA) studies indicate that 80–60,000 years ago a major demographic expansion within Africa, derived from a single, small population, coincided with the emergence of behavioral complexity and the rapid [[Marine isotope stage|MIS]]&nbsp;5–4 environmental changes. This group of people not only expanded over the whole of Africa, but also started to disperse [[Recent African origin of modern humans|out of Africa]] into Asia, Europe, and Australasia around 65,000 years ago and quickly replaced the archaic humans in these regions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellars|2006|loc=Abstract}}</ref> During the [[Last Glacial Maximum]] (LGM) 20,000 years ago humans had to abandon their initial settlements along the European North Atlantic coast and retreat to the Mediterranean. Following rapid climate changes at the end of the LGM this region was repopulated by [[Magdalenian]] culture. Other hunter-gatherers followed in waves interrupted by large-scale hazards such as the [[Laacher See]] volcanic eruption, the inundation of [[Doggerland]] (now the [[North Sea]]), and the formation of the [[Baltic Sea]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Riede|2014|pp=1–2}}</ref> The European coasts of the North Atlantic were permanently populated about 9–8.5 thousand years ago.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bjerck|2009|loc=Introduction, pp. 118–119}}</ref> This human dispersal left abundant traces along the coasts of the Atlantic Ocean. 50&nbsp;ka-old, deeply stratified [[shell midden]]s found in [[Ysterfontein]] on the western coast of South Africa are associated with the Middle Stone Age (MSA). The MSA population was small and dispersed and the rate of their reproduction and exploitation was less intense than those of later generations. While their middens resemble 12–11&nbsp;ka-old Late Stone Age (LSA) middens found on every inhabited continent, the 50–45&nbsp;ka-old [[Enkapune Ya Muto]] in Kenya probably represents the oldest traces of the first modern humans to disperse out of Africa.<ref>{{Harvnb|Avery|Halkett|Orton|Steele|2008|loc=Introduction, p. 66}}</ref> [[File:Meilgaard-boplads.jpg|thumb|Excavation of the [[Ertebølle culture|Ertebølle]] middens in 1880]] The same development can be seen in Europe. In [[La Riera Cave]] (23–13&nbsp;ka) in Asturias, Spain, only some 26,600 molluscs were deposited over 10&nbsp;ka. In contrast, 8–7&nbsp;ka-old shell middens in Portugal, Denmark, and Brazil generated thousands of tons of debris and artefacts. The [[Ertebølle culture|Ertebølle]] middens in Denmark, for example, accumulated {{Convert|2000|m3|abbr=on}} of shell deposits representing some 50 million molluscs over only a thousand years. This intensification in the exploitation of marine resources has been described as accompanied by new technologies&nbsp;— such as boats, harpoons, and fish-hooks&nbsp;— because many caves found in the Mediterranean and on the European Atlantic coast have increased quantities of marine shells in their upper levels and reduced quantities in their lower. The earliest exploitation, however, took place on the now submerged shelves, and most settlements now excavated were then located several kilometers from these shelves. The reduced quantities of shells in the lower levels can represent the few shells that were exported inland.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bailey|Flemming|2008|loc=The Long-Term History of Marine Resources, pp. 4–5}}</ref> ===New World=== During the LGM the [[Laurentide Ice Sheet]] covered most of northern North America while [[Beringia]] connected Siberia to Alaska. In 1973 late American geoscientist [[Paul S. Martin]] proposed a "blitzkrieg" colonization of the Americas by which [[Clovis culture|Clovis hunters]] migrated into North America around 13,000 years ago in a single wave through an ice-free corridor in the ice sheet and "spread southward explosively, briefly attaining a density sufficiently large to overkill much of their prey."<ref>{{Harvnb|Martin|1973|loc=Abstract}}</ref> Others later proposed a "three-wave" migration over the [[Bering Land Bridge]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Greenberg|Turner|Zegura|1986}}</ref> These hypotheses remained the long-held view regarding the [[Prehistoric migration and settlement of the Americas from Asia|settlement of the Americas]], a view challenged by more recent archaeological discoveries: the oldest archaeological sites in the Americas have been found in South America; sites in north-east Siberia report virtually no human presence there during the LGM; and most Clovis artefacts have been found in eastern North America along the Atlantic coast.<ref>{{Harvnb|O'Rourke|Raff|2010|loc=Introduction, p. 202}}</ref> Furthermore, colonisation models based on mtDNA, [[yDNA]], and [[atDNA]] data respectively support neither the "blitzkrieg" nor the "three-wave" hypotheses but they also deliver mutually ambiguous results. Contradictory data from archaeology and genetics will most likely deliver future hypotheses that will, eventually, confirm each other.<ref>{{Harvnb|O'Rourke|Raff|2010|loc=Conclusions and Outlook, p. 206}}</ref> A proposed route across the Pacific to South America could explain early South American finds and another hypothesis proposes a northern path, through the Canadian Arctic and down the North American Atlantic coast.<ref>{{Harvnb|O'Rourke|Raff|2010|loc=Beringian Scenarios, pp. 205–206}}</ref> Early settlements across the Atlantic have been suggested by alternative theories, ranging from purely hypothetical to mostly disputed, including the [[Solutrean hypothesis]] and some of the [[Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories]]. [[File:Norse-world.png|thumb|Based on the medieval ''[[Sagas of Icelanders|Íslendingasögur]]'' sagas, including the ''[[Greenland saga|Grœnlendinga saga]]'', this interpretative map of the "Norse World" shows that Norse knowledge of the Americas and the Atlantic remained limited.]] The [[Norse colonization of North America|Norse settlement]] of the [[Faroe Islands]] and [[Iceland]] began during the 9th and 10th centuries. A settlement on [[Greenland]] was established before 1000&nbsp;CE, but contact with it was lost in 1409 and it was finally abandoned during the early [[Little Ice Age]]. This setback was caused by a range of factors: an unsustainable economy resulted in erosion and denudation, while conflicts with the local [[Inuit]] resulted in the failure to adapt their Arctic technologies; a colder climate resulted in starvation; and the colony got economically marginalized as the [[Great Plague]] and [[Barbary pirates]] harvested its victims on Iceland in the 15th century.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dugmore|Keller|McGovern|2007|loc=Introduction, pp. 12–13; The Norse in The North Atlantic, pp. 13–14}}</ref> Iceland was initially settled 865–930&nbsp;CE following a warm period when winter temperatures hovered around {{Convert|2|C}} which made farming favorable at high latitudes. This did not last, however, and temperatures quickly dropped; at 1080&nbsp;CE summer temperatures had reached a maximum of {{Convert|5|C}}. The ''[[Landnámabók]]'' (''Book of Settlement'') records disastrous famines during the first century of settlement&nbsp;— "men ate foxes and ravens" and "the old and helpless were killed and thrown over cliffs"&nbsp;— and by the early 1200s hay had to be abandoned for short-season crops such as barley.<ref>{{Harvnb|Patterson|Dietrich|Holmden|Andrews|2010|pp=5308–5309}}</ref> {{See also|Brendan#Possible link to North America}} ===Atlantic World=== {{Main|Atlantic world|Atlantic history}} [[File:Philip II's realms in 1598.png|thumb|left|A century after Columbus' first voyage, large parts of the New World had been included into the [[Spanish Empire]].]] [[Christopher Columbus]] [[Voyages of Christopher Columbus|discovered the Americas]] in 1492 under Spanish flag.<ref name="Chamb-184">{{Harvnb|Chambliss|1989|loc=Piracy, pp. 184–188}}</ref> Six years later [[Vasco da Gama]] reached India under Portuguese flag, by navigating south around the [[Cape of Good Hope]], thus proving that the Atlantic and Indian Oceans are connected. In 1500, in his voyage to India following Vasco da Gama, [[Pedro Alvares Cabral]] reached Brazil, taken by the currents of the [[South Atlantic Gyre]].<!-- unref --> Following these explorations, Spain and Portugal quickly [[Colonization of the Americas|conquered and colonized]] large territories in the New World and forced the Amerindian population into slavery in order to explore the vast quantities of silver and gold they found. Spain and Portugal monopolized this trade in order to keep other European nations out, but conflicting interests nevertheless led to a series of Spanish-Portuguese wars. A peace treaty mediated by the Pope divided the conquered territories into Spanish and Portuguese sectors while keeping other colonial powers away. England, France, and the Dutch Republic enviously watched the Spanish and Portuguese wealth grow and allied themselves with [[Piracy in the Atlantic World|pirates]] such as [[Henry Mainwaring]] and [[Alexandre Exquemelin]]. They could explore the convoys leaving the Americas because prevailing winds and currents made the transport of heavy metals slow and predictable.<ref name="Chamb-184" /> [[File:Atlantic slavetrade estimates.png|thumb|Embarked and disembarked slaves in the [[Atlantic slave trade]] 1525–1863 (first and last slave voyages)]] In the colonies of the Americas, depredation, disease, and slavery quickly reduced the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous population of the Americas]] to the extent that the [[Atlantic slave trade]] had to be introduced to replace them&nbsp;— a trade that became norm and an integral part of the colonization. Between the 15th century and 1888, when [[Slavery in Brazil|Brazil]] became the last part of the Americas to end slave trade, an estimated ten million Africans were exported as slaves, most of them destined for agricultural labour. The slave trade was officially abolished in the [[Slavery in the British Isles|British Empire]] and the [[Slavery in the United States|United States]] in 1808, and slavery itself was abolished in the British Empire in 1838 and in the United States in 1865 after the [[American Civil War|Civil War]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Lovejoy|1982|loc=Abstract}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Bravo|2007|loc=The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade, pp. 213–215}}</ref> From Columbus to the [[Industrial Revolution]] Trans-Atlantic trade, including colonialism and slavery, became crucial for Western Europe. For European countries with a direct access to the Atlantic (including Britain, France, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain) 1500–1800 was a period of sustained growth during which these countries grew richer than those in Eastern Europe and Asia. Colonialism evolved as part of the Trans-Atlantic trade, but this trade also strengthened the position of merchant groups at the expense of monarchs. Growth was more rapid in non-absolutist countries, such as Britain and the Netherlands, and more limited in [[Absolute monarchy|absolutist monarchies]], such as Portugal, Spain, and France, where profit mostly or exclusively benefited the monarchy and its allies.<ref name="Acem-p546">{{Harvnb|Acemoglu|Johnson|Robinson|2005|loc=Abstract; pp. 546–551}}</ref> Trans-Atlantic trade also resulted in an increasing urbanization: in European countries facing the Atlantic urbanization grew from 8% in 1300, 10.1% in 1500, to 24.5% in 1850; in other European countries from 10% in 1300, 11.4% in 1500, to 17% in 1850. Likewise, GDP doubled in Atlantic countries but rose by only 30% in the rest of Europe. By end of the 17th century the volume of the Trans-Atlantic trade had surpassed that of the Mediterranean trade.<ref name="Acem-p546" /> {{See also|List of notable crossings of the Atlantic Ocean}} ==Economy== <!-- [[File:Transatlantic Free Trade Area.svg|thumb|Intended to unite the so-called Western World, the proposed [[Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership]], and its possible future expansion, highlights the global importance of trade across the North Atlantic to the exclusion of the continents bordering the South Atlantic.]] --> The Atlantic has contributed significantly to the development and economy of surrounding countries. Besides major transatlantic transportation and communication routes, the Atlantic offers abundant petroleum deposits in the [[sedimentary rock]]s of the continental shelves.<ref name="USN-2001" /> The Atlantic harbors petroleum and gas fields, fish, [[marine mammal]]s ([[Pinniped|seals]] and whales), [[sand]] and [[gravel]] aggregates, [[placer deposit]]s, [[polymetallic nodules]], and precious stones.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kubesh |first1=K. |last2=McNeil |first2=N. |last3=Bellotto |first3=K. |title=Ocean Habitats |year=2008 |publisher=In the Hands of a Child |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=hMywzK7xuKYC|page=11}} |access-date=5 December 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221191501/https://books.google.com/books?id=hMywzK7xuKYC&pg=PA11 |archivedate=21 December 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Gold deposits are a mile or two under water on the ocean floor, however the deposits are also encased in rock that must be mined through. Currently, there is no cost-effective way to mine or extract gold from the ocean to make a profit.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/gold.html |title=Is there gold in the ocean? |last=Administration |first=US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric |website=oceanservice.noaa.gov |language=EN-US |access-date=2016-03-30 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331103450/http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/gold.html |archivedate=31 March 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Various international treaties attempt to reduce pollution caused by environmental threats such as oil spills, [[marine debris]], and the [[incineration]] of toxic wastes at sea.<ref name="USN-2001" /> ===Fisheries=== The [[Continental shelf|shelves]] of the Atlantic hosts one of the world's richest [[Wild fisheries|fishing resources]]. The most productive areas include the [[Grand Banks of Newfoundland]], the [[Scotian Shelf]], [[Georges Bank]] off [[Cape Cod]], the [[Bahama Banks]], the waters around Iceland, the [[Irish Sea]], the [[Bay of Fundy]], the [[Dogger Bank]] of the North Sea, and the Falkland Banks.<ref name="USN-2001" /> Fisheries have, however, undergone significant changes since the 1950s and global catches can now be divided into three groups of which only two are observed in the Atlantic: fisheries in the Eastern Central and South-West Atlantic oscillate around a globally stable value, the rest of the Atlantic is in overall decline following historical peaks. The third group, "continuously increasing trend since 1950", is only found in the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific.<ref name="NOA-2016-p39">{{Harvnb|FOA|2016|pp=39–41}}</ref> [[File:Northeast Atlantic bathymetry.png|thumb|Banks of the North-East Atlantic]] In the North-East Atlantic total catches decreased between the mid-1970s and the 1990s and reached 8.7 million tons in 2013. [[Blue whiting]] reached a 2.4 million tons peak in 2004 but was down to 628,000 tons in 2013. Recovery plans for cod, sole, and plaice have reduced mortality in these species. [[Arctic cod]] reached its lowest levels in the 1960s–1980s but is now recovered. [[Pollachius virens|Arctic saithe]] and [[haddock]] are considered fully fished; [[Sand eel]] is overfished as was [[capelin]] which has now recovered to fully fished. Limited data makes the state of [[redfish]]es and deep-water species difficult to assess but most likely they remain vulnerable to overfishing. Stocks of [[northern shrimp]] and [[Norwegian lobster]] are in good condition. In the North-East Atlantic 21% of stocks are considered overfished.<ref name="NOA-2016-p39" /> [[File:StLawrence Gulf bathymetry.jpg|thumb|Banks of the North-West Atlantic]] In the North-West Atlantic landings have decreased from 4.2 million tons in the early 1970s to 1.9 million tons in 2013. During the 21st century some species have shown weak signs of recovery, including [[Greenland halibut]], [[yellowtail flounder]], [[Atlantic halibut]], [[haddock]], [[spiny dogfish]], while other stocks shown no such signs, including cod, [[Witch (righteye flounder)|witch flounder]], and redfish. Stocks of invertebrates, in contrast, remain at record levels of abundance. 31% of stocks are overfished in the North-west Atlantic.<ref name="NOA-2016-p39" /> [[File:Time series for collapse of Atlantic northwest cod.png|thumb|left|Capture of Atlantic north-west cod in million tons]] In 1497 [[John Cabot]] became the first to explore mainland North America and one of his major discoveries was the abundant resources of [[Atlantic cod]] off Newfoundland. Referred to as "Newfoundland Currency" this discovery yielded some 200&nbsp;million tons of fish over five centuries. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries new fisheries started to exploit [[haddock]], [[mackerel]], and [[lobster]]. From the 1950s to the 1970s the introduction of European and Asian distant-water fleets in the area dramatically increased the fishing capacity and number of exploited species. It also expanded the exploited areas from near-shore to the open sea and to great depths to include deep-water species such as [[Sebastes|redfish]], [[Greenland halibut]], witch flounder, and [[Grenadiers (fish)|grenadiers]]. [[Overfishing]] in the area was recognised as early as the 1960s but, because this was occurring on [[international waters]], it took until the late 1970s before any attempts to regulate was made. In the early 1990s this finally resulted in the [[collapse of the Atlantic northwest cod fishery]]. The population of a number of deep-sea fishes also collapsed in the process, including [[American plaice]], redfish, and Greenland halibut, together with flounder and grenadier.<ref>{{Harvnb|FAO|2011|pp=22–23}}</ref> In the Eastern Central Atlantic small [[pelagic fish]]es constitute about 50% of landings with sardine reaching 0.6–1.0 million tons per year. Pelagic fish stocks are considered fully fishes or overfished, with sardines south of [[Cape Bojador]] the notable exception. Almost half of stocks are fished at biologically unsustainable levels. Total catches have been fluctuating since the 1970s; reaching 3.9 million tons in 2013 or slightly less than the peak production in 2010.<ref name="NOA-2016-p39" /> [[File:Bahamas.A2001138.1550.250m.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Bahama Banks]]]] In the Western Central Atlantic catches have been decreasing since 2000 and reached 1.3 million tons in 2013. The most important species in the area, [[Gulf menhaden]], reached a million tons in the mid-1980s but only half a million tons in 2013 and is now considered fully fished. [[Round sardinella]] was an important species in the 1990s but is now considered overfished. [[Grouper]]s and [[Lutjanidae|snappers]] are overfished and [[northern brown shrimp]] and [[Eastern oyster|American cupped oyster]] are considered fully fished approaching overfished. 44% of stocks are being fished at unsustainable levels.<ref name="NOA-2016-p39" /> [[File:Agulhas Bank NOAA ETOPO1.jpg|thumb|left|[[Agulhas Bank]]]] In the South-East Atlantic catches have decreased from 3.3 million tons in the early 1970s to 1.3 million tons in 2013. [[Horse mackerel]] and [[hake]] are the most important species, together representing almost half of the landings. Off South Africa and Namibia [[Merluccius paradoxus|deep-water hake]] and [[Merluccius capensis|shallow-water Cape hake]] have recovered to sustainable levels since regulations were introduced in 2006 and the states of [[Southern African pilchard]] and [[Southern African anchovy|anchovy]] have improved to fully fished in 2013.<ref name="NOA-2016-p39" /> In the South-West Atlantic a peak was reached in the mid-1980s and catches now fluctuate between 1.7 and 2.6 million tons. The most important species, the [[Illex argentinus|Argentine shortfin squid]], which reached half a million tons in 2013 or half the peak value, is considered fully fished to overfished. Another important species was the [[Brazilian sardinella]], with a production of 100,000 tons in 2013 it is now considered overfished. Half the stocks in this area are being fished at unsustainable levels: [[Whitehead’s round herring]] has not yet reached fully fished but [[Cunene horse mackerel]] is overfished. The sea snail [[Haliotis midae|perlemoen abalone]] is targeted by illegal fishing and remain overfished.<ref name="NOA-2016-p39" /> {{See also|Ocean fisheries#Atlantic Ocean|Fishing down the food web}} ==Environmental issues== [[File:Nesocichla eremita -Inaccessible Island, British overseas territory-8 (3).jpg|thumb|[[Marine debris]] strewn over the beaches of the South Atlantic [[Inaccessible Island]]]] Endangered marine species include the [[manatee]], [[Pinniped|seals]], sea lions, turtles, and whales. [[Drift net]] fishing can kill dolphins, [[albatross]]es and other seabirds ([[petrel]]s, [[auk]]s), hastening the fish stock decline and contributing to international disputes.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Eisenbud |first=R. |title=Problems and Prospects for the Pelagic Driftnet |year=1985 |publisher=Michigan State University, Animal Legal & Historical Center |url=http://www.animallaw.info/articles/arus12bcenvtlafflrev473.htm |access-date=27 October 2011 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111125082226/http://animallaw.info/articles/arus12bcenvtlafflrev473.htm |archivedate=25 November 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Municipal pollution comes from the eastern United States, southern Brazil, and eastern Argentina; [[oil pollution]] in the [[Caribbean Sea]], [[Gulf of Mexico]], [[Lake Maracaibo]], [[Mediterranean Sea]], and [[North Sea]]; and industrial waste and municipal sewage pollution in the Baltic Sea, North Sea, and Mediterranean Sea. North Atlantic hurricane activity has increased over past decades because of increased sea surface temperature (SST) at tropical latitudes, changes that can be attributed to either the natural [[Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation]] (AMO) or to [[anthropogenic climate change]].<ref name="Mann">{{Harvnb|Mann|Emanuel|2006|pp=233–241}}</ref> A 2005 report indicated that the Atlantic [[meridional overturning circulation]] (AMOC) slowed down by 30% between 1957 and 2004.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bryden|Longworth|Cunningham|2005|loc=Abstract}}</ref> If the AMO were responsible for SST variability, the AMOC would have increased in strength, which is apparently not the case. Furthermore, it is clear from statistical analyses of annual tropical cyclones that these changes do not display multidecadal cyclicity.<ref name="Mann" /> Therefore, these changes in SST must be caused by human activities.<ref>{{Harvnb|Webster|Holland|Curry|Chang|2005}}</ref> The ocean [[mixed layer]] plays an important role heat storage over seasonal and decadal time-scales, whereas deeper layers are affected over millennia and has a heat capacity about 50 times that of the mixed layer. This heat uptake provides a time-lag for climate change but it also results in a thermal expansion of the oceans which contribute to sea-level rise. 21st century global warming will probably result in an [[equilibrium level|equilibrium sea-level]] rise five times greater than today, whilst melting of glaciers, including that of the Greenland ice-sheet, expected to have virtually no effect during the 21st century, will probably result in a sea-level rise of 3–6&nbsp;m over a millennium.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bigg|Jickells|Liss|Osborn|2003|loc=Sea-level change, pp. 1128–1129}}</ref> On 7 June 2006, Florida's wildlife commission voted to take the manatee off the state's endangered species list. Some environmentalists worry that this could erode safeguards for the popular sea creature. [[Marine pollution]] is a generic term for the entry into the ocean of potentially hazardous chemicals or particles. The biggest culprits are rivers and with them many agriculture [[fertilizer]] chemicals as well as livestock and human waste. The excess of oxygen-depleting chemicals leads to [[Hypoxia (environmental)|hypoxia]] and the creation of a [[dead zone (ecology)|dead zone]].<ref>Sebastian A. Gerlach "Marine Pollution", Springer, Berlin (1975)</ref> [[Marine debris]], which is also known as marine litter, describes human-created waste floating in a body of water. Oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the center of [[Oceanic gyres|gyres]] and coastlines, frequently washing aground where it is known as beach litter. {{See also|Environmental impact of shipping|Shutdown of thermohaline circulation}} ==See also== {{Portal|Environment|Ecology|Geography|Weather}} * [[List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean]] * [[Seven Seas]] * [[Shutdown of thermohaline circulation|Gulf Stream shutdown]] * [[:Category:Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean|Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean]] * [[:Category:Atlantic hurricanes|Atlantic hurricanes]] * [[Transatlantic crossing]] ==References== ===Notes=== {{Reflist|30em}} ===Sources=== {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{Cite journal |last1=Acemoglu |first1=D. |last2=Johnson |first2=S. |last3=Robinson |first3=J. |title=The rise of Europe: Atlantic trade, institutional change and economic growth |year=2005 |journal=The American Economic Review |volume=95 |issue=3 |pages=546–579 |url=http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/jrobinson/files/jr_AERAtlanticTrade.pdf | access-date = 13 November 2016 |ref=harv |doi=10.1257/0002828054201305|hdl=1721.1/64034 }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Acemoglu|Johnson|Robinson|2005}} --> * {{Cite journal |last1=Als |first1=T. 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J. |last2=Holland |first2=G. J. |last3=Curry |first3=J. A. |last4=Chang |first4=H. R. |title=Changes in tropical cyclone number, duration, and intensity in a warming environment |year=2005 |journal=Science |volume=309 |issue=5742 |pages=1844–1846 |url=http://www.cegn.org/email/documents/1844.pdf | access-date = 13 November 2016 |doi=10.1126/science.1116448 |ref=harv |pmid=16166514 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114082829/http://www.cegn.org/email/documents/1844.pdf |archivedate=14 November 2016 |df=dmy-all|bibcode=2005Sci...309.1844W }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Webster|Holland|Curry|Chang|2005}} --> * {{Cite web |title=The Mid-Atlantic Ridge |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |date=2007–2008 |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/activities/504/ | access-date = 2 October 2016 |ref={{Harvid|World Heritage Centre: Mid-Atlantic Ridge}}}}<!-- {{Harvnb|World Heritage Centre: Mid-Atlantic Ridge}} --> {{Refend}} ==Further reading== * {{Cite book |last=Winchester |first=Simon |authorlink=Simon Winchester |title=Atlantic: A Vast Ocean of a Million Stories |year=2010 |publisher=HarperCollins UK |isbn=978-0-00-734137-5}} ==External links== {{Sister project links|voy=Atlantic Ocean|wikt=Atlantic Ocean|commons=Atlantic Ocean|q=no|v=no|n=no|s=CIA World Fact Book, 2004/Atlantic Ocean|b=no}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090829012101/http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/geoghist/histories/history/hiscountries/A/atlanticocean.html Atlantic Ocean]. Cartage.org.lb. * [http://www.wdl.org/en/item/10081 "Map of Atlantic Coast of North America from the Chesapeake Bay to Florida"] from 1639 via the [[World Digital Library]] {{List of seas}} {{Ocean}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Atlantic Ocean| ]] [[Category:Oceans]] [[Category:History of the Atlantic Ocean| ]] [[Category:Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean| ]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] oyxmmgqyyl7c8j9sin2caj3khb19xa3 0 700 move=:edit= 861802720 861752223 2018-09-30T03:47:58Z Outriggr 11761454 [[WP:SHORTDES|short description]]: "German philosopher" wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|German philosopher}} {{for|the sculpture|Arthur Schopenhauer (sculpture)}} {{Redirect|Schopenhauer}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2013}} {{Infobox philosopher |region = [[Western philosophy]] |era = [[19th-century philosophy]] |image = Arthur Schopenhauer by J Schäfer, 1859b.jpg |image_size = |caption = |signature = Arthur Schopenhauer Signature.svg |name = Arthur Schopenhauer |birth_date = {{birth date|1788|02|22|df=y}} |birth_place = [[Gdańsk|Danzig]] (Gdańsk),<!--keep both names as per the Danzig/Gdansk vote (Talk:Gdańsk/Vote): "the first occurrence of the name should be used in the form Danzig (Gdansk)"--> [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] |death_date = {{Death date and age|1860|9|21|1788|2|22|df=y}} |death_place = [[Free City of Frankfurt|Frankfurt]], [[German Confederation]] |education = {{plainlist| * {{Interlanguage link|Gymnasium Ernestinum Gotha|de|3=Ernestinum Gotha|lt=Gymnasium illustre zu Gotha}} * [[Georg August University of Göttingen|University of Göttingen]] * [[University of Jena]] ([[PhD]], 1813)}} |nationality = German |residence = Danzig, [[Hamburg]], Frankfurt |institutions = [[Humboldt University of Berlin|University of Berlin]] |school_tradition = {{plainlist| * [[Continental philosophy]] * [[Post-Kantian philosophy]] * [[German idealism]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2018/entries/idealism/|title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|first1=Paul|last1=Guyer|first2=Rolf-Peter|last2=Horstmann|editor-first=Edward N.|editor-last=Zalta|date=21 September 2018|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|via=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/germidea/#H6|title=Idealism (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)|publisher=}}</ref> * [[Transcendental idealism]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/schopenh/#H1|title=Arthur Schopenhauer (1788—1860) (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)|publisher=}}</ref><ref>[[Frederick C. Beiser]] reviews the commonly held position that Schopenhauer was a transcendental idealist and he rejects it: "Though it is deeply heretical from the standpoint of transcendental idealism, Schopenhauer's objective standpoint involves a form of ''[[Transcendental realism (Schopenhauer)|transcendental realism]]'', i.e. the assumption of the independent reality of the world of experience." (Beiser 2016, p. 40)</ref> * [[Metaphysical voluntarism]] * [[Philosophical pessimism]] * [[Antinatalism]]<ref>Schopenhauer, Arthur. ''[[Parerga and Paralipomena]], Short Philosophical Essays'', Vol. 2, Oxford University Press, 2000, Ch. XII: "Additional Remarks on the Doctrine of the Suffering of the World", § 149, p. 292; Schopenhauer, Arthur. ''Studies in Pessimism: The Essays. ''The Pennsylvania State University, 2005, p. 7.</ref>}} |main_interests = [[Metaphysics]], [[aesthetics]], [[ethics]], [[morality]], [[psychology]] |notable_ideas = [[Anthropic principle]]<ref>Arthur Schopenhauer, ''Arthur Schopenhauer: The World as Will and Presentation, Volume 1'', Routledge, 2016, p. 211: "the world [is a] mere ''presentation'', object for a subject&nbsp;..."</ref><ref>Lennart Svensson, ''Borderline: A Traditionalist Outlook for Modern Man'', Numen Books, 2015, p. 71: "[Schopenhauer] said that 'the world is our conception'. A world without a perceiver would in that case be an impossibility. But we can—he said—gain knowledge about Essential Reality for looking into ourselves, by introspection. ... This is one of many examples of the anthropic principle. The world is there for the sake of man."</ref><br>[[Arthur Schopenhauer#Eternal justice|Eternal justice]]<br>[[Principle of sufficient reason|Fourfold root of the principle of sufficient reason]]<br>[[Hedgehog's dilemma]]<br>[[Philosophical pessimism]]<br>[[Principium individuationis]]<br>[[Will (philosophy)|Will]] as [[thing in itself]]<br>[[Arthur Schopenhauer's aesthetics|Schopenhauerian aesthetics]] |influences = {{hlist | [[Buddhism]] | [[Upanishads]] | [[Immanuel Kant]] | [[German mysticism]]<ref>{{Cite book|title=The World as Will and Representation|last=Schopenhauer|first=Arthur|publisher=|year=|isbn=|volume=Vol. 1, Book 4|location=|pages=|quote=For the philosopher, these accounts of the lives of holy, self-denying men, badly as they are generally written, and mixed as they are with super stition and nonsense, are, because of the significance of the material, immeasurably more instructive and impor tant than even Plutarch and Livy. ... But the spirit of this development of Christianity is certainly nowhere so fully and powerfully expressed as in the writings of the German mystics, in the works of Meister Eckhard, and in that justly famous book Die Deutsche Theologie.}}</ref> | [[Plato]] | [[Gottlob Ernst Schulze|G. E. Schulze]]}} |influenced = {{hlist |[[Alfred Adler|Adler]] |[[Machado de Assis]] |[[Julius Bahnsen|Bahnsen]] |[[Samuel Beckett|Beckett]] |[[Thomas Bernhard|Bernhard]] |[[Sigmund Freud]] |[[Emil Cioran]] |[[Jorge Luis Borges|Borges]] |[[L. E. J. Brouwer|Brouwer]] |[[Joseph Campbell|Campbell]] |[[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]<ref>{{Citation|last=Howard|first=Don A.|title=Albert Einstein as a Philosopher of Science|date=December 2005|url=http://www3.nd.edu/~dhoward1/vol58no12p34_40.pdf|journal=Physics Today|volume=58|issue=12|pages=34–40|format=PDF|bibcode=2005PhT....58l..34H|doi=10.1063/1.2169442|accessdate=2015-03-08|via=University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, author's personal webpage|quote=From Schopenhauer he had learned to regard the independence of spatially separated systems as, virtually, a necessary a priori assumption ... Einstein regarded his separation principle, descended from Schopenhauer's ''principium individuationis'', as virtually an axiom for any future fundamental physics. ... Schopenhauer stressed the essential structuring role of space and time in individuating physical systems and their evolving states. This view implies that difference of location suffices to make two systems different in the sense that each has its own real physical state, independent of the state of the other. For Schopenhauer, the mutual independence of spatially separated systems was a necessary a priori truth.}}</ref> |[[Afanasy Fet|Fet]] |[[John Gray (philosopher)|Gray]]<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/john-gray-forget-everything-you-know-641878.html |title=John Gray: Forget everything you know&nbsp;— Profiles, People |publisher=The Independent |date=3 September 2002 |accessdate=12 March 2010 | location=London| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100409072731/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/john-gray-forget-everything-you-know-641878.html| archivedate= 9 April 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> |[[Karl Robert Eduard von Hartmann|Hartmann]] |[[Hermann Hesse|Hesse]] |[[Max Horkheimer|Horkheimer]] |[[Joris-Karl Huysmans|J.K. Huysmans]] |[[Carl Jung|Jung]] |[[Karl Kraus (writer)|Kraus]]<ref>{{Cite book|title=Wittgenstein's Vienna|last=Allan Janik and Stephen Toulmin|first=|publisher=Simon and Schuster|year=1973|isbn=|location=New York|page=74|quote=Kraus himself was no philosopher, even less a scientist. If Kraus's views have a philosophical ancestry, this comes most assuredly from Schopenhauer; for alone among the great philosophers, Schopenhauer was a kindred spirit, a man of philosophical profundity, with a strange talent for polemic and aphorism, a literary as weIl as philosophical genius. Schopenhauer, indeed, was the only philosopher who at all appealed to Kraus.}}</ref> |[[Thomas Ligotti|Ligotti]] |[[Philipp Mainländer|Mainländer]] |[[Ettore Majorana|Majorana]]<ref name=Majorana>{{Cite book|title=Ettore Majorana: Scientific Papers|last=Bassani|first=Giuseppe-Franco|publisher=Springer|year=|isbn=978-3540480914|editor-last=Società Italiana di Fisica|location=|page=xl|quote=His interest in philosophy, which had always been great, increased and prompted him to reflect deeply on the works of various philosophers, in particular Schopenhauer.}}</ref> |[[Thomas Mann|Mann]]{{·}}[[Maupassant]]{{·}}[[Karl Eugen Neumann|Neumann]]{{·}}[[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]]{{·}}[[Gilbert Ryle|Ryle]]<ref>{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Magee|first=Bryan|title=Confessions of a Philosopher|year=1997}}, Ch. 16</ref> |[[George Santayana|Santayana]] |[[Moritz Schlick|Schlick]]<ref>{{Cite book|title=Moritz Schlick|last=B.F. McGuinness|first=|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=336–37|quote=Once again, one has to understand Schlick's world conception, which he took over from Schopenhauer's world as representation and as will. … “To will something” – and here Schlick is heavily influenced by Schopenhauer }}</ref> |[[Erwin Schrödinger|Schrödinger]] |[[Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)|Solovyov]] |[[Oswald Spengler|Spengler]] |[[Leo Tolstoy|Tolstoy]] |[[Karl Heinrich Ulrichs|K. H. Ulrichs]] |[[Hans Vaihinger|Vaihinger]] |[[Johannes Volkelt|Volkelt]] |[[Richard Wagner|Wagner]] |[[Otto Weininger|Weininger]] |[[Ludwig Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein]] |[[Peter Wessel Zapffe|Zapffe]]}} }} '''Arthur Schopenhauer''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ʃ|oʊ|p|ən|h|aʊ|.|ər}} {{respell|SHOH-pən|how-ər}}; {{IPA-de|ˈaɐ̯tʊɐ̯ ˈʃoːpm̩ˌhaʊ̯ɐ|lang}}; 22 February 1788&nbsp;– 21 September 1860) was a German [[philosopher]]. He is best known for his 1818 work ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'' (expanded in 1844), wherein he characterizes the [[Phenomenon|phenomenal]] world as the product of a blind and insatiable [[Schopenhauer #The world as will|metaphysical will]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Essays and Aphorisms|year=2004|publisher=Penguin Classics|isbn=978-0-14-044227-4|author=Arthur Schopenhauer|page=23}}</ref><ref>The Oxford Encyclopedic English Dictionary. 'Schopenhauer': Oxford University Press. 1991. p. 1298. {{ISBN|978-0-19-861248-3}}.</ref> Proceeding from the [[transcendental idealism]] of [[Immanuel Kant]], Schopenhauer developed an [[atheistic]] metaphysical and ethical system that has been described as an exemplary manifestation of [[philosophical pessimism]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Essays and Aphorisms|year=2004|publisher=Penguin Classics|isbn=978-0-14-044227-4|author=Arthur Schopenhauer|pages=22–36|quote= …but there has been none who tried with so great a show of learning to demonstrate that the pessimistic outlook is ''justified'', that life itself is really bad. It is to this end that Schopenhauer’s metaphysic of will and idea exists.}}</ref><ref>''[http://librivox.org/studies-in-pessimism-by-arthur-schopenhauer/ Studies in Pessimism]'' – audiobook from [[LibriVox]].</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion, Volume 2|year=2009|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-387-71801-9|editor1=David A. Leeming |editor2=Kathryn Madden |editor3=Stanton Marlan |page=824|quote=A more accurate statement might be that for a German – rather than a French or British writer of that time – Schopenhauer was an honest and open atheist.}}<!--|accessdate=2 September 2012--></ref> rejecting the contemporaneous [[post-Kantian thought|post-Kantian philosophies]] of [[German idealism]].<ref>Arthur Schopenhauer, The World as Will and Representation, Vol. 1, trans. E. Payne, (New York: Dover Publishing Inc., 1969), Vol. 2, Ch. 50.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Schopenhauer, Philosophy and the Arts|year=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-04406-6|editor=Dale Jacquette|page=162|quote=For Kant, the mathematical sublime, as seen for example in the starry heavens, suggests to imagination the infinite, which in turn leads by subtle turns of contemplation to the concept of God. Schopenhauer's atheism will have none of this, and he rightly observes that despite adopting Kant's distinction between the dynamical and mathematical sublime, his theory of the sublime, making reference to the struggles and sufferings of struggles and sufferings of Will, is unlike Kant's.}}<!--|accessdate=2 September 2012--></ref> Schopenhauer was among the first thinkers in [[Western philosophy]] to share and affirm significant tenets of [[Eastern philosophy]] (e.g., [[asceticism]], the world-as-[[appearance (philosophy)|appearance]]), having initially arrived at similar conclusions as the result of his own philosophical work.<ref>See the book-length study about oriental influences on the genesis of Schopenhauer's philosophy by [[Urs App]]: ''Schopenhauer's Compass. An Introduction to Schopenhauer's Philosophy and its Origins''. Wil: UniversityMedia, 2014 ({{ISBN|978-3-906000-03-9}})</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=An Introduction to the History of Psychology|edition=6th|year=2009|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-495-50621-8|last=Hergenhahn |first=B. R.|page=216|quote=Although Schopenhauer was an atheist, he realized that his philosophy of denial had been part of several great religions; for example, Christianity, Hinduism, and Buddhism.}}<!--|accessdate=2 September 2012--></ref> Though his work failed to garner substantial attention during his life, Schopenhauer has had a posthumous impact across various disciplines, including philosophy, literature, and science. His writing on [[Schopenhauer's aesthetics|aesthetics]], [[morality]], and [[psychology]] influenced thinkers and artists throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. Those who cited his influence include [[Friedrich Nietzsche]],<ref name=SchopBR>Addressed in: Cate, Curtis. Friedrich Nietzsche. Chapter 7.</ref> [[Richard Wagner]], [[Leo Tolstoy]], [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]],<ref name="Culture & Value, p.24, 1933–4">Culture & Value, p. 24, 1933–34</ref> [[Erwin Schrödinger]], [[Otto Rank]], [[Gustav Mahler]], [[Joseph Campbell]], [[Albert Einstein]],<ref>Albert Einstein in [http://www.einstein-website.de/z_biography/credo.html Mein Glaubensbekenntnis] (August 1932): "I do not believe in free will. Schopenhauer's words: 'Man can do what he wants, but he cannot will what he wants,[Der Mensch kann wohl tun, was er will, aber er kann nicht wollen, was er will]' accompany me in all situations throughout my life and reconcile me with the actions of others, even if they are rather painful to me. This awareness of the lack of free will keeps me from taking myself and my fellow men too seriously as acting and deciding individuals, and from losing my temper." Schopenhauer's clearer, actual words were: "You can do what you will, but in any given moment of your life you can ''will'' only one definite thing and absolutely nothing other than that one thing." [Du kannst ''tun'' was du ''willst'': aber du kannst in jedem gegebenen Augenblick deines Lebens nur ''ein'' Bestimmtes ''wollen'' und schlechterdings nichts anderes als dieses eine.] ''[[On the Freedom of the Will]]'', Ch. II.</ref> [[Carl Jung]], [[Thomas Mann]], [[Émile Zola]], [[George Bernard Shaw]],<ref>From the introduction to ''[[Man and Superman]]'': "Bunyan, Blake, Hogarth and Turner (these four apart and above all the English Classics), Goethe, Shelley, Schopenhauer, Wagner, Ibsen, Morris, Tolstoy, and Nietzsche are among the writers whose peculiar sense of the world I recognize as more or less akin to my own."</ref> [[Jorge Luis Borges]] and [[Samuel Beckett]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2017/entries/schopenhauer/|title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|first=Robert|last=Wicks|editor-first=Edward N.|editor-last=Zalta|date=21 September 2018|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|via=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref> == Life == === Early life === [[File:Gdansk Schopenhauer House.jpg|thumb|upright|Schopenhauer's birthplace house, ul. Św. Ducha (formerly Heiligegeistgasse)]] Schopenhauer was born on 22 February 1788, in the city of Danzig (then part of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]; present day [[Gdańsk]], [[Poland]]) on Heiligegeistgasse (known in the present day as Św. Ducha 47), the son of [[Johanna Schopenhauer]] (née Trosiener) and Heinrich Floris Schopenhauer,<ref name="Google Books">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fW5Dl-tUS_oC&pg=PR30&dq=Schopenhauer+%2222+February%22|title=Chronology|last=Schopenhauer|first=Arthur|author2=Günter Zöller|author3=Eric F. J. Payne|year=1999|work=Prize Essay on the Freedom of the Will|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=xxx | isbn=978-0-521-57766-3}}</ref> both descendants of wealthy German-Dutch [[Patrician (post-Roman Europe)|patrician]] families. Both of them weren't very religious,<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 79</ref> supported [[French Revolution]],<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 13</ref> were [[Republicanism|republican]], [[Cosmopolitanism|cosmopolitan]] and [[Anglophilia|Anglophile]].<ref name="autogenerated9">Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 9</ref> When Danzig became part of [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]] in 1793, Heinrich moved to [[Hamburg]] - a free city with republican constitution, protected by Britain and Holland against Prussian agression - although his firm continued trading in Danzig where most of their extended families remained. [[Adele Schopenhauer|Adele]], Arthur's only sibling was born on 12 July 1797. In 1797 Arthur was sent to [[Le Havre]] to live for two years with the family of his father's business associate, Grégoire de Blésimaire. He seemed to enjoy his stay there, learned to speak French fluently and started a friendship with Jean Anthime Grégoire de Blésimaire, his peer, which lasted for a large part of their lives.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 18</ref> As early as 1799, Arthur started playing the flute.<ref name="Flute" />{{rp|30}} In 1803 he joined his parents on their long tour of [[Holland]], Britain, [[France]], [[Switzerland]], [[Austria]] and [[Prussia]]; it was mostly a pleasure tour although Heinrich also visited some of his business associates. Heinrich gave his son a choice - he could stay at home and start preparations for university education, or he could travel with them and then continue his merchant education. Arthur would later deeply regret his choice because he found his merchant training tedious. He spent twelve weeks of the tour attending a school in [[Wimbledon, London|Wimbledon]] where he was very unhappy and appalled by very strict but intellectually shallow [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] religiosity which he would continue to sharply criticize later in life despite his general Anglophilia.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 56</ref> He was also under great pressure from his father who became very critical of his educational results. In fact Heinrich Floris became so fussy that even his wife started to doubt his mental health.<ref name="autogenerated43">Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 43</ref> In 1805, Heinrich Floris died by drowning in a canal by their home in Hamburg. Although it was possible that his death was accident, his wife and son believed that it was suicide because he was very prone to unsociable behavior, [[anxiety]] and [[Major depressive disorder|depression]] which became especially pronounced in his last months of life.<ref>Safranski (1990), p. 12. "There was in the father's life some dark and vague source of fear which later made him hurl himself to his death from the attic of his house in Hamburg."</ref><ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 88</ref> Arthur showed similar moodiness since his youth and often acknowledged that he inherited it from his father; there were also several other instances of serious mental health issues on his father's side of family.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 4</ref> His mother Johanna was generally described as vivacious and sociable.<ref name="autogenerated9"/> Despite the hardships, Schopenhauer seemed to like his father and later mentioned him always in a positive light.<ref name="autogenerated43"/><ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 90</ref> Heinrich Schopenhauer left the family with a decent inheritance that was split in three among Johanna and the children. Arthur Schopenhauer would be entitled to control of his part when he reached the age of majority. He invested it conservatively in government bonds and earned annual interest that was more than double the salary of a university professor.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 136</ref> [[File:ArthurSchopenhauer.jpg|thumb|left|Schopenhauer as a youth]] Arthur endured two long years of drudgery as a merchant in honor of his dead father, and because of his own doubts about being too old to start a life of a scholar.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 120</ref> Most of his prior education was practical merchant training and he had some trouble with learning Latin which was a prerequisite for any academic career.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 117</ref> His mother soon moved with his sister Adele to [[Weimar]]—then the centre of [[German literature]]—to enjoy social life among celebrated writers and artists. Arthur lived in Hamburg with his friend Jean Anthime who was also studying to become a merchant. After quitting his merchant apprenticeship, with some encouragement from his mother, he dedicated himself to studies at the [[Gotha]] [[Gymnasium (school)|gymnasium]] ({{Interlanguage link multi|Gymnasium Ernestinum Gotha|de|3=Ernestinum Gotha|lt=Gymnasium illustre zu Gotha}}) in [[Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg]], but he also enjoyed social life among local nobility spending large amounts of money which caused concern to his frugal mother.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 128</ref> He left Gymnasium after writing a satirical poem about one of the lecturers. Although Arthur claimed that he left voluntarily, his mother's letter indicates that he was expelled.<ref name="autogenerated129">Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 129</ref> === Education === He moved to Weimar but didn't live with his mother who even tried to discourage him from coming by explaining that they wouldn't get along very well.<ref name="autogenerated131">Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 131</ref> Their relationship deteriorated even further due to their temperamental differences. He accused his mother of being financially irresponsible, flirtatious and seeking to remarry, which he considered an insult to his father's memory.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 116</ref><ref name="autogenerated131"/> His mother, while professing her love to him, criticized him sharply for being moody, tactless, and argumentative—and urged him to improve his behavior so he would not alienate people.<ref name="autogenerated129"/> Arthur concentrated on his studies which were now going very well and he also enjoyed the usual social life such as balls, parties and theater. By that time Johanna's famous salon was well established among local intellectuals and dignitaries, most celebrated of them being [[Goethe]]. Arthur attended her parties, usually when he knew that Goethe would be there—though the famous writer and statesman didn't even seem to notice the young and unknown student. It is possible that Goethe kept distance because Johanna warned him about her son's depressive and combative nature, or because Goethe was then on bad terms with Arthur's language instructor and roommate, [[Franz Passow]].<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 134</ref> Schopenhauer was also captivated by the beautiful [[Karoline Jagemann]], mistress of [[Karl August, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach]], and he wrote to her his only known love poem.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 135</ref> Despite his later celebration of asceticism and negative views of sexuality, Schopenhauer occasionally had sexual affairs, usually with women of lower social status, such as servants, actresses, and sometimes even paid prostitutes.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 21</ref> In a letter to his friend Anthime he claims that such affairs continued even in his mature age and admits that he had two out-of-wedlock daughters (born in 1819 and 1836), both of whom died in infancy.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 25</ref> In their youthful correspondence Arthur and Anthime were somewhat boastful and competitive about their sexual exploits—but Schopenhauer seemed aware that women usually didn’t find him very charming or physically attractive, and his desires often remained unfulfilled.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 22</ref> He left Weimar to become a student at the [[Georg August University of Göttingen|University of Göttingen]] in 1809. There are no written reasons about why Schopenhauer chose that university instead of then more famous [[University of Jena]] but Göttingen was known as a more modern, scientifically oriented, with less attention given to theology.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 140</ref> Law or medicine were usual choices for young men of Schopenhauer's status who also needed career and income; he choose [[medicine]] due to his [[Natural science|scientific interests]]. Among his notable professors were [[Bernhard Friedrich Thibaut]], [[Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren]], [[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach]], [[Friedrich Stromeyer]], [[Heinrich Adolf Schrader]], [[Johann Tobias Mayer]] and [[Konrad Johann Martin Langenbeck]].<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 141-144</ref> He studied [[metaphysics]], [[psychology]] and [[logic]] under [[Gottlob Ernst Schulze]], the author of ''[[Aenesidemus (book)|Aenesidemus]]'', who made a strong impression and advised him to concentrate on [[Plato]] and [[Immanuel Kant]].<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 144</ref> He decided to switch from medicine to philosophy around 1810-11 and he left Göttingen which didn't have a strong philosophy program (besides Schulze the only other philosophy professor was [[Friedrich Bouterwek]] whom Schopenhauer disliked<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 150</ref>). He didn't regret his medicinal and scientific studies. He claimed that they were necessary for a philosopher, and even in Berlin he attended more lectures in sciences than in philosophy.<ref name="autogenerated170">Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 170</ref> During his days at Göttingen, he spent a lot of time studying, but also continued his flute playing and social life. His friends included [[Friedrich Gotthilf Osann]], [[Karl Witte]], [[Christian Charles Josias von Bunsen]], and [[William Backhouse Astor Sr.]].<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 151</ref> He arrived to the newly founded [[University of Berlin]] for the winter semester of 1811-12. At the same time his mother just started her literary career; she published her first book in 1810, a biography of her friend [[Karl Ludwig Fernow]], which was a critical success. Arthur attended lectures by the prominent [[post-Kantian]] philosopher [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]] but quickly found many points of disagreement with his ''Wissenschaftslehre'' and he also found his lectures tedious and hard to understand.<ref name="autogenerated159">Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 159</ref> He later mentioned Fichte only in critical, negative terms<ref name="autogenerated159"/>—seeing his philosophy as a lower quality version of Kant's and considering it useful only because Fichte's poor arguments unintentionally highlighted some failings of Kantianism.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 165-169</ref> He also attended the lectures of the famous theologian [[Friedrich Schleiermacher]] whom he also quickly came to dislike.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 174</ref> His notes and comments on Schleiermacher's lectures show that Schopenhauer was becoming very critical of religion and moving towards [[atheism]].<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 175</ref> He learned a lot by self-directed reading; besides Plato, Kant and Fichte he also read the works of [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling|Schelling]], [[Jakob Friedrich Fries|Fries]], [[Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi|Jacobi]], [[Francis Bacon|Bacon]], [[John Locke|Locke]], and a lot of current scientific literature.<ref name="autogenerated170"/> He attended philological courses by [[August Böckh]] and [[Friedrich August Wolf]] and continued his naturalistic interests with courses by [[Martin Heinrich Klaproth]], [[Paul Erman]], [[Johann Elert Bode]], [[Ernst Gottfried Fischer]], [[Johann Horkel]], [[Friedrich Christian Rosenthal]] and [[Hinrich Lichtenstein]] (Lichtenstein was also a friend whom he met at one of his mother's parties in Weimar).<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 171-174</ref> === Early work === Schopenhauer left Berlin in a rush in 1813 fearing that the city could be attacked and that he could be pressed into military service as Prussia just joined the [[War of the Sixth Coalition|war against France]].<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 179</ref> He returned to Weimar but left after less than a month disgusted by the fact that his mother was now living with her supposed lover, Georg Friedrich Conrad Ludwig Müller von Gerstenbergk, a civil servant fourteen years younger than her; he considered the relationship an act of infidelity to his father's memory.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 188</ref> He settled for a while in [[Rudolstadt]] hoping that no army would pass through the small town. He spent his time in solitude, [[hiking]] in the mountains and the [[Thuringian forest]] and writing his dissertation, ''[[On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason]]''. He completed his dissertation at about the same time as the French army was defeated at the [[Battle of Leipzig]]. He became irritated by the arrival of soldiers to the town and accepted his mother's invitation to visit her in Weimar. She tried to convince him that her relationship with Gerstenbergk was platonic and that she had no intentions of remarrying.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 230</ref> But Schopenhauer remained suspicious and often came in conflict with Gerstenbergk because he considered him untalented, pretentious, and [[German nationalism|nationalistic]].<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 231</ref> His mother just published her second book, ''Reminiscences of a Journey in the Years 1803, 1804, and 1805'', a description of their family tour of Europe, which quickly became a hit. She found his dissertation incomprehensible and said it was unlikely that anyone would ever buy a copy. In a fit of temper Arthur told her that people would read his work long after the "rubbish" she wrote was totally forgotten.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://courseweb.stthomas.edu/paschons/language_http/essays/Schopenhauer.html |title=Schopenhauer: A Pessimist in the Optimistic Month of May |publisher=Germanic American Institute |accessdate=12 March 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611051923/http://courseweb.stthomas.edu/paschons/language_http/essays/schopenhauer.html |archivedate=11 June 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/stream/selectedessaysof033377mbp/selectedessaysof033377mbp_djvu.txt |title=Full text of "Selected Essays Of Schopenhauer" |publisher=Archive.org |accessdate=12 March 2010}}</ref> In fact, although they considered her novels of dubious quality, the [[F.A. Brockhaus AG|Brockhaus publishing firm]] held her in high esteem because they consistently sold well. Hans Brockhaus (1888-1965) later claimed that his predecessors "...saw nothing in this manuscript, but wanted to please one of our best-selling authors by publishing her son's work. We published more and more of her son Arthur's work and today nobody remembers Johanna, but her son's works are in steady demand and contribute to Brockhaus'[s] reputation."<ref name=mom>{{citation |last=Fredriksson |first=Einar H. |contribution=The Dutch Publishing Scene: Elsevier and North-Holland |pages=61–76 |title=A Century of Science Publishing: A Collection of Essays |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mwWrRYyck6AC&pg=PA61 |editor-last=Fredriksson |editor-first=Einar H. |display-editors=0 |isbn=978-4-274-90424-0 |publisher=IOS Press |location=Amsterdam |year=2001 }}</ref> He kept large portraits of the pair in his office in [[Leipzig]] for the edification of his new editors.<ref name=mom/> Also contrary to his mother's prediction, Schopenhauer's dissertation made an impression on Goethe to whom he sent it as a gift.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 241</ref> Although it is doubtful that Goethe agreed with Schopenhauer's philosophical positions he was impressed by his intellect and extensive scientific education.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 243</ref> Their subsequent meetings and correspondence were a great honor to a young philosopher who was finally acknowledged by his intellectual hero. They mostly discussed Goethe’s newly published (and somewhat lukewarmly received) work on [[Theory of Colours|color theory]]. Schopenhauer soon started writing his own treatise on the subject, ''[[On Vision and Colors]]'', which in many points differed from his teacher’s. Although they remained polite towards each other, their growing theoretical disagreements – and especially Schopenhauer’s tactless criticisms and extreme self-confidence – soon made Goethe become distant again and after 1816 their correspondence became less frequent.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 247-265</ref> Schopenhauer later admited that he was greatly hurt by this rejection, but he continued to praise Goethe, and considered his color theory a great introduction to his own.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 256</ref><ref name="auto">Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 265</ref><ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 252</ref> Another important experience during his stay in Weimar was his acquaintance with Friedrich Majer – a historian of religion, [[Orientalism|orientalist]] and disciple of [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]] – who introduced him to the [[Eastern philosophy]].<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 266</ref> Schopenhauer was immediately impressed by the ''[[Upanishads]]'' and the [[Buddha]] and put them at par with Plato and Kant.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 268</ref><ref name="auto1">Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 272</ref> He continued his studies by reading the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', an amateurish German journal ''Asiatisches Magazin'' and ''Asiatick Researches'' by [[The Asiatic Society]].<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 267</ref><ref name="auto1"/> Although he loved [[Hinduism|Hindu]] texts he was more interested in [[Buddhism]] which he came to regard as the best religion.<ref name="auto1"/> However, his early studies were constrained by the lack of adequate literature, and were mostly restricted to [[Early Buddhism]]. He also claimed that he formulated most of his ideas independently, and only later realized the similarities with Buddhism.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 274-276</ref> [[Image:Arthur Schopenhauer Portrait by Ludwig Sigismund Ruhl 1815.jpeg|thumb|Schopenhauer in 1815. Portrait by Ludwig Sigismund Ruhl]] As the relationship with his mother fell to a new low he left Weimar and moved to [[Dresden]] in May 1814.<ref name="auto"/> He continued his philosophical studies, enjoyed the cultural life, socialized with intellectuals and engaged in sexual affairs.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 284</ref> His friends in Dresden were [[Johann Gottlob von Quandt]], [[Friedrich Laun]], [[Karl Christian Friedrich Krause]] and Ludwig Sigismund Ruhl, a young painter who made a romanticized portrait of him in which he improved some of Schopenhauer’s unattractive physical features.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 278</ref><ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 283</ref> His criticisms of local artists occasionally caused public quarrels when he ran into them in public.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 282</ref> However, his main occupation during his stay in Dresden was his seminal philosophical work, ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'', which he started writing in 1814 and finished in 1818.<ref>Although the first volume was published by December 1818, it was printed with a title page erroneously giving the year as 1819 (see {{citation |last=Braunschweig |first=Yael |contribution=Schopenhauer and Rossinian Universiality: On the Italianate in Schopenhauer's Metaphysics of Music <!--|pp=283–304--> |title=The Invention of Beethoven and Rossini: Historiography, Analysis, Criticism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NQ_3AQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover |editor-last=Mathew |editor-first=Nicholas |editor2-last=Walton |editor2-first=Benjamin |display-editors=0 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=[[Cambridge, England|Cambridge]] |date=2013 |isbn=978-0-521-76805-4 |p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NQ_3AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA297 297, n. 7]}}).</ref> He was recommended to [[Friedrich Arnold Brockhaus]] by Baron Ferdinand von Biedenfeld, an acquaintance of his mother.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 285</ref> Although the publisher accepted his manuscript, Schopenhauer made a poor impression because of his quarrelsome and fussy attitude and very poor sales of the book after it was published in December 1818.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 285-289</ref> In September 1818, while waiting for his book to be published and conveniently escaping an affair with a maid that caused an unwanted pregnancy,<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 342</ref> Schopenhauer left Dresden for a yearlong vacation in [[Italy]].<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 346</ref> He visited [[Venice]], [[Bologna]], [[Florence]], [[Naples]] and [[Milan]], travelling alone or accompanied by mostly English tourists he met.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 350</ref> He spent winter months in [[Rome]] where he accidentally met his acquaintance [[Karl Witte]] and engaged in numerous quarrels with German tourists in [[Antico Caffè Greco|Caffe Greco]], among them [[Johann Friedrich Böhmer]] who also mentioned his insulting remarks and unpleasant character.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 348-349</ref> He enjoyed art, architecture, ancient ruins, attended plays and operas, continued his philosophical contemplation and love affairs.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 346-350</ref> One of his affairs supposedly became serious, and for a while he contemplated marriage to a rich Italian noblewoman—but despite his mentioning this several times, no details are known and it may have been Schopenhauer exaggerating.<ref>Safranski, Rüdiger (1991) Schopenhauer and the Wild Years of Philosophy. Harvard University Press. p. 244</ref><ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 345</ref> He corresponded regularly with his sister Adele and became close to her as her relationship with Johanna and Gerstenbergk also deteriorated.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 344</ref> She informed him about their financial troubles as the banking house of A. L. Muhl in Danzig – in which her mother invested their whole savings and Arthur a third of his – was near bankruptcy.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 351</ref> Arthur offered to share his assets but his mother refused and became further enraged by his insulting comments.<ref name="auto2">Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 352</ref> The women managed to receive only thirty percent of their savings while Arthur, using his business knowledge, took a suspicious and aggressive stance towards the banker and eventually received his part in full.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 354-356</ref> The affair additionally worsened the relationships among all three members of Schopenhauer family.<ref name="auto2"/><ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 354</ref> He shortened his stay in Italy because of the trouble with Muhl and returned to Dresden.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 356</ref> Disturbed by the financial risk and the lack of responses to his book he decided to take an academic position since it provided him both with income and the opportunity to promote his views. <ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 358</ref> He contacted his friends at universities in Heidelberg, Göttingen and Berlin and found [[Humboldt University of Berlin|Berlin]] most attractive.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 358-362</ref> He scheduled his lectures to coincide with those of the famous philosopher [[G. W. F. Hegel]], whom Schopenhauer described as a "clumsy charlatan".<ref>Schopenhauer, Arthur. Author's preface to "On The Fourfold Root of the Principle of sufficient reason," p. 1 ([[:s:On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason|On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason]] on Wikisource.)</ref> He was especially appalled by Hegel’s supposedly poor knowledge of natural sciences and tried to engage him in a quarrel about it already at his test lecture in March 1820.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 363</ref> Hegel was also facing political suspicions at the time when many progressive professors were [[Carlsbad Decrees|fired]], while Schopenhauer carefully mentioned in his application that he had no interest in politics.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 362</ref> Despite their differences and the arrogant request to schedule lectures at the same time as his own, Hegel still voted to accept Schopenhauer to the university.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 365</ref> However, only five students turned up to Schopenhauer's lectures, and he dropped out of [[academia]]. A late essay, ''On University Philosophy'', expressed his resentment towards the work conducted in academies. === Later life === After his academic failure he continued to travel extensively, visiting [[Leipzig]], [[Nuremberg]], [[Stuttgart]], [[Schaffhausen]], [[Vevey]], [[Milan]] and spending eight months in Florence.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 411</ref> However, before he left for his three-year travel, he had an incident with his Berlin neighbor, forty-seven-year-old seamstress Caroline Louise Marquet. The details of the August 1821 incident are unknown. He claimed that he just pushed her from his entrance after she rudely refused to leave, and she purposely fell on the ground so she could sue him. She claimed that he attacked her so violently that she had become paralyzed on her right side and unable to work. She immediately sued him, and the process lasted until May 1827, when a court found Schopenhauer guilty and forced him to pay her an annual pension until her death in 1842.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 408-411</ref> Schopenhauer enjoyed Italy, where he studied art and socialized with Italian and English nobles.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 411-414</ref> It was his last visit to the country. He left for [[Munich]] and stayed there for a year, mostly recuperating from various health issues, some of them possibly caused by venereal diseases (the treatment his doctor used suggests [[syphilis]]).<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 415</ref> He contacted publishers offering to translate Hume into German and Kant into English but his proposals were declined.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 417</ref><ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 422</ref> Returning to Berlin he began to study Spanish in order to read some of his favorite authors in their original language. He liked [[Pedro Calderón de la Barca]], [[Lope de Vega]], [[Miguel de Cervantes]], and especially [[Baltasar Gracián]].<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 420</ref> He also made failed attempts to publish his translations of their works. Few attempts to revive his lectures – again scheduled at the same time as Hegel’s – also failed, as did his inquiries about relocating to other universities.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 429-432</ref> During his Berlin years Schopenhauer occasionally mentioned his desire to marry and have a family.<ref name="auto3">Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 404</ref><ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 432</ref> For a while he was unsuccessfully courting 17-year-old Flora Weiss, who was 22 years younger than him.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 433</ref> His unpublished writings from that time show that he was already very critical of [[monogamy]] but still not advocating [[polygyny]] – instead musing about a [[Polyamory|polyamorous]] relationship he called ''tetragamy''.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 404-408</ref> He had an on and off relationship with a young dancer Caroline Richter (she also used surname Medon after one of her ex-lovers).<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 403</ref> They met when he was 33 and she was 19 and working at the Berlin Opera. She already had numerous lovers and an out-of-wedlock son, and later gave birth to another son, this time to an unnamed foreign diplomat. (She soon had another pregnancy but it was stillborn).<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 403-404</ref> As Schopenhauer was preparing to escape Berlin in 1831, due to [[cholera]] epidemic, he offered to take her with him on the condition that she leaves her young son.<ref name="auto3"/> She refused and he went alone; in his will he left her a significant sum of money but insisted that it should not be in any way spent on her second son.<ref name="auto3"/> Schopenhauer claimed that in his last year in Berlin he had a prophetic dream which urged him to escape the city.<ref name="auto4">Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 436</ref> As he arrived in his new home in [[Frankfurt]] he supposedly had another supernatural experience, an apparition of his dead father and his mother who was still alive.<ref name="auto4"/> This experience led him to spend some time investigating [[paranormal]] phenomena and [[Magic (supernatural)|magic]]. He was quite critical of the available studies and claimed that they were mostly ignorant or fraudulent, but he did believe that there are authentic cases of such phenomena and tried to explain them through his metaphysics as manifestations of the will.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 437-452</ref> Upon his arrival in Frankfurt he experienced a period of depression and declining health.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 454</ref> He renewed his correspondence with his mother, and she seemed concerned that he might commit suicide like his father.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 454-457</ref> By now Johanna and Adele were living very modestly. Johanna’s writing didn’t bring her much income, and her popularity was waning.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 458</ref> Their correspondence remained reserved, and Arthur Schopenhauer seemed undisturbed by her death in 1838.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 460</ref> His relationship with his sister grew closer and he corresponded with her until she died in 1849.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 463</ref> In July 1832 Schopenhauer left Frankfurt for [[Mannheim]] but returned in July 1833 to remain there for the rest of his life, except for a few short journeys.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 464</ref> He lived alone except for a succession of pet [[poodle]]s named [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]] and Butz. In 1836, he published ''[[On the Will in Nature]]''. In 1836 he sent his essay ''[[On the Freedom of the Will]]'' to the contest of the ''Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences'' and won the prize next year. He sent another essay, ''[[On the Basis of Morality]]'', to the ''Royal Danish Society for Scientific Studies'' but didn’t win the prize despite being the only contestant. The Society was appalled that several distinguished contemporary philosophers were mentioned in a very offensive manner, claimed that the essay missed the point and that the arguments were not adequate.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 483</ref> Schopenhauer, who was very self-confident that he will win, was enraged by this rejection. He published both essays as ''The Two Basic Problems of Ethics'' and in the preface to the second edition of this book, in 1860, he was still pouring insults on Royal Danish Society.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 484</ref> First edition, published in 1841, again failed to draw attention to his philosophy. Two years later, after some negotiations, he managed to convince his publisher, Brockhaus, to print the second, updated edition of ''The World as Will and Representation''. The book was again mostly ignored and few reviews were mixed or negative. However, Schopenhauer did start to attract some followers, mostly outside academia, among practical professionals (several of them were lawyers) who pursued private philosophical studies. He jokingly referred to them as ''evangelists'' and ''apostles''.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 504</ref> One of the most active early followers was [[Julius Frauenstädt]] who wrote numerous articles promoting Schopenhauer's philosophy. He was also instrumental in finding another publisher after Brockhaus refused to publish ''Parerga and Paralipomena'' believing that it would be another failure.<ref name="auto5">Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 506</ref> Though Schopenhauer later stopped corresponding with him, claiming that he did not adhere closely enough to his ideas, Frauenstädt continued to promote Schopehnauer’s work.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 507-508</ref> They renewed their communication in 1859 and Schopenhauer named him heir for his literary estate.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 508</ref> He also became the editor of the first collected works of Schopenhauer.<ref name="auto5"/> In 1848 Schopenhauer witnessed [[German revolutions of 1848–49|violent upheaval]] in Frankfurt after General [[Hans Adolf Erdmann von Auerswald]] and Prince [[Felix Lichnowsky]] were murdered. He became worried for his own safety and property.<ref name="auto6">Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 514</ref> Even earlier in life he had such worries and kept a sword and loaded pistols near his bed to defend himself from thieves.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 465</ref> He gave a friendly welcome to Austrian soldiers who wanted to shoot revolutionaries from his window and as they were leaving he gave one of the officers his opera glasses to help him monitor rebels.<ref name="auto6"/> The rebellion passed without any loss to Schopenhauer and he later praised [[Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz]] for restoring order.<ref name="auto7">Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 515</ref> He even modified his will, leaving a large part of his property to a Prussian fund that helped soldiers who became invalids while fighting rebellion in 1848 or the families of soldiers who died in battle.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 517</ref> As [[Young Hegelians]] were advocating change and progress Schopenhauer claimed that misery is natural for humans—and that even if some utopian society were established, people would still fight each other out of boredom, or would starve due to overpopulation.<ref name="auto7"/> [[File:Schopenhauer.jpg|thumb|left|1855 painting of Schopenhauer by Jules Lunteschütz]] In 1851 Schopenhauer published ''[[Parerga and Paralipomena]]'', which, as the title says, contains essays that are supplementary to his main work, and are mostly comprehensible to readers unfamiliar with his earlier philosophy. It was his first successful, widely read book, partly due to the work of his disciples who wrote praising reviews.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 524</ref> The essays that proved most popular were the ones that actually didn’t contain the basic philosophical ideas of his system.<ref name="auto8">Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 539</ref> Many academic philosophers considered him a great stylist and cultural critic but didn’t take his philosophy seriously.<ref name="auto8"/> His early critics liked to point out similarities of his ideas to those Fichte and Schelling,<ref name="auto9">Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 381-386</ref> or claim that there are numerous contradictions in his philosophy.<ref name="auto9"/><ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 537</ref> Both criticisms enraged Schopenhauer. However, he was becoming less interested in intellectual fights, but encouraged his disciples to do so.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 525</ref> His private notes and correspondence show that he acknowledged some of the criticisms regarding contradictions, inconsistencies, and vagueness in his philosophy, but claimed that he wasn’t concerned about harmony and agreement in his propositions<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 394</ref> and that some of his ideas shouldn’t be taken literally but instead as metaphors.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 510</ref> Academic philosophers were also starting to notice his work. In 1856 University of Leipzig sponsored an essay contest about Schopenhauer’s philosophy which was won by [[Rudolf Seydel]]’s very critical essay.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 536</ref> Schopenhauer’s friend [[Jules Lunteschütz]] made a first of his four portraits of him – which Schopenhauer didn’t particularly like – that was soon sold to a wealthy landowner Carl Ferdinand Wiesike who built a house to display it. Schopenhauer seemed flattered and amused by this, and would claim that it was his first chapel.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 540</ref> As his fame increased copies of his paintings and photographs were being sold and admirers were visiting the places where he lived and wrote his works. People visited Frankfurt’s ''Englischer Hof'' to observe him dining. Admirers gave him gifts and asked for autographs.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 541</ref> He complained, however, that he still felt isolated due to his not very social nature and the fact that many of his good friends already died from old age.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 542</ref> [[File:Schopenhauer-ffm001.jpg|thumb|right|Grave at Frankfurt ''Hauptfriedhof'']] He remained healthy in his old age which he attributed to regular walks no matter the weather, and always getting enough sleep.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 544-545</ref> He had a great appetite and could read without glasses but his [[Hearing loss|hearing]] was declining since his youth and he developed problems with [[rheumatism]].<ref name="auto10">Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 545</ref> He remained active and lucid, continued his reading, writing and correspondences until his death.<ref name="auto10"/> The numerous notes that he made during these years, amongst others on aging, were published [[Posthumous publication|posthumously]] under the title ''Senilia''. In the spring of 1860 his health started to decline, he experienced shortness of breath and heart palpitations; in September he suffered inflammation of the lungs and although he was starting to recover he remained very weak.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 546</ref> His last friend to visit him was Wilhelm Gwinner and according to him Schopenhauer was concerned that he won’t be able to finish his planned additions to ''Parerga and Paralipomena'' but was at peace with dying.<ref>Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 546-547</ref> He died of [[Respiratory failure|pulmonary-respiratory failure]],<ref>Dale Jacquette, ''The Philosophy of Schopenhauer'', Routledge, 2015: "Biographical sketch".</ref> on 21 September 1860 while sitting at home on his couch. He was 72.<ref>''Schopenhauer: his life and philosophy'' by H. Zimmern – 1932 – G. Allen & Unwin.</ref> == Philosophy == === The world as representation === Schopenhauer saw his philosophy as a continuation of that of Kant, and used the results of his epistemological investigations, that is, [[transcendental idealism]], as starting point for his own: {{Quotation|My philosophy is founded on that of Kant, and therefore presupposes a thorough knowledge of it. Kant's teaching produces in the mind of everyone who has comprehended it a fundamental change which is so great that it may be regarded as an intellectual new-birth. It alone is able really to remove the inborn realism which proceeds from the original character of the intellect, which neither Berkeley nor Malebranche succeed in doing, for they remain too much in the universal, while Kant goes into the particular, and indeed in a way that is quite unexampled both before and after him, and which has quite a peculiar, and, we might say, immediate effect upon the mind in consequence of which it undergoes a complete undeception, and forthwith looks at all things in another light. Only in this way can anyone become susceptible to the more positive expositions which I have to give.<ref>{{Cite book|title=World as Will and Representation|last=Arthur Schopenhauer|first=|publisher=|year=|isbn=|volume=Vol. 1, Preface of the First Edition|location=|pages=|translator-first=}}</ref>}} Kant had argued the empirical world is merely a complex of appearances whose existence and connection occur only in our representations.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics|last=Kant|first=Immanuel|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=|nopp=|at=§ 52c|translator-last=Paul Carus}}</ref> Schopenhauer reiterates this in the first sentence of his main work: "The world is my representation." We do not draw empirical laws from nature, but prescribe them to it.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics|last=Kant|first=Immanuel|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=|at=Last sentence of § 36}}</ref> Schopenhauer praises Kant for his distinction between appearance and the [[Thing-in-itself|things-in-themselves]] that appear, whereas the general consensus in [[German Idealism]] was that this was the weakest spot of Kant’s theory,<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Introduction to On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason|author1=David E. Cartwright |author2=Edward E. Erdmann|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=xvi–xvii|quote=He had also rehearsed for the first time his physiological arguments for the intellectual nature of intuition [Anschauung, objective perception] in his On Vision and Colours, and he had discussed how his philosophy was corroborated by the sciences in On Will in Nature. ... Like the German Idealists, Schopenhauer is convinced that Kant’s great unknown, the thing in itself, is the weak point of the critical philosophy.}}</ref> since according to Kant causality can find application on objects of experience only, and consequently, things-in-themselves cannot be the cause of appearances, as Kant argued. The inadmissibility of this reasoning was also acknowledged by Schopenhauer. He insisted that this distinction was a true conclusion, drawn from false premises.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The World as Will and Representation|last=Schopenhauer|first=Arthur|publisher=|year=|isbn=|volume=Vol. 1 Criticism of the Kantian philosophy|location=|pages=|translator-last=J. Kemp|quote=With the proof of the thing in itself it has happened to Kant precisely as with that of the a priori nature of the law of causality. Both doctrines are true, but their proof is false. They thus belong to the class of true conclusions from false premises.}}</ref> === Theory of perception === In November 1813 [[Goethe]] invited Schopenhauer for research on his [[Theory of Colours]]. Although Schopenhauer considered colour theory a minor matter,<ref>Letter to Goethe on 23 Jan 1816. Ich weiß, daß durch mich die Wahrheit geredet hat, – in dieser kleinen Sache, wie dereinst in größern.</ref> he accepted the invitation out of admiration for Goethe. Nevertheless, these investigations led him to his most important discovery in epistemology: finding a demonstration for the a priori nature of causality. Kant openly admitted that it was [[David Hume|Hume]]'s skeptical assault on causality that motivated the critical investigations of ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]''. In it, he gives an elaborate proof to show that causality is given a priori. After [[Gottlob Ernst Schulze|G.E. Schulze]] had made it plausible that Kant had not disproven Hume’s skepticism, it was up to those loyal to the project of Kant to prove this important matter. The difference between the approach of Kant and Schopenhauer was this: Kant simply declared that the empirical content of perception is "given" to us from outside, an expression with which Schopenhauer often expressed his dissatisfaction.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The World as Will and Representation|last=Schopenhauer|first=Arthur|publisher=|year=|isbn=|volume=Vol 1. Criticism of the Kantian Philosophy|location=|pages=|quote=But the whole teaching of Kant contains really nothing more about this than the oft-repeated meaningless expression: 'The empirical element in perception is given from without.' ... always through the same meaningless metaphorical expression: 'The empirical perception is given us.'}}</ref> He, on the other hand, was occupied with: how do we get this empirical content of perception; how is it possible to comprehend subjective sensations ''limited to my skin'' as the objective perception of things that lie ''outside'' of me?<ref>{{Cite book|title=On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason|last=Schopenhauer|first=Arthur|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=|at=§ 21|quote=For sensation is and remains a process within the organism and is limited, as such, to the region within the skin; it cannot therefore contain any thing which lies beyond that region, or, in other words, anything that is outside us. ... It is only when the Understanding begins to apply its sole form, the causal law, that a powerful transformation takes place, by which subjective sensation becomes objective perception.}}</ref> {{Quotation|The sensations in the hand of a man born blind, on feeling an object of cubic shape, are quite uniform and the same on all sides and in every direction: the edges, it is true, press upon a smaller portion of his hand, still nothing at all like a cube is contained in these sensations. His Understanding, however, draws the immediate and intuitive conclusion from the resistance felt, that this resistance must have a cause, which then presents itself through that conclusion as a hard body; and through the movements of his arms in feeling the object, while the hand's sensation remains unaltered, he constructs the cubic shape in Space. If the representation of a cause and of Space, together with their laws, had not already existed within him, the image of a cube could never have proceeded from those successive sensations in his hand.<ref>{{Cite book|title=On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason|last=Schopenhauer|first=Arthur|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=|at=§ 21}}</ref>|sign=|source=}} Causality is therefore not an empirical concept drawn from objective perceptions, but objective perception presupposes knowledge of causality. Hereby Hume's skepticism is disproven.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The World as Will and Representation|last=Schopenhauer|first=Arthur|publisher=|year=|isbn=|volume=Vol. 1, § 4.|location=|pages=|quote=The contrary doctrine that the law of causality results from experience, which was the scepticism of Hume, is first refuted by this. For the independence of the knowledge of causality of all experience,—that is, its a priori character—can only be deduced from the dependence of all experience upon it; and this deduction can only be accomplished by proving, in the manner here indicated, and explained in the passages referred to above, that the knowledge of causality is included in perception in general, to which all experience belongs, and therefore in respect of experience is completely a priori, does not presuppose it, but is presupposed by it as a condition.}}</ref> By this intellectual operation, comprehending every effect in our sensory organs as having an external cause, the external world arises. With vision, finding the cause is essentially simplified due to light acting in straight lines. We are seldom conscious of the process, that interprets the double sensation in both eyes as coming from one object; that turns the upside down impression; and that adds depth to make from the planimetrical data stereometrical perception with distance between objects. Schopenhauer stresses the importance of the intellectual nature of perception, the senses furnish the raw material by which the intellect produces the world as representation. He set out his theory of perception for the first time in ''[[On Vision and Colors]]'',<ref name=":0" /> and in the subsequent editions of Fourfold Root an extensive exposition is given in § 21. === The world as will === {{main|The World as Will and Representation}} Schopenhauer developed a system called [[Voluntarism (philosophy)|metaphysical voluntarism]]. {{Quotation|The kernel and chief point of my doctrine, its Metaphysic proper, is this, that what Kant opposed as ''[[thing-in-itself]]'' to mere appearance (called more decidedly by me "representation") and what he held to be absolutely unknowable, that this ''thing-in-itself'', I say, this substratum of all appearances, and therefore of the whole of Nature, is nothing but what we know directly and intimately and find within ourselves as ''will''; that accordingly, this ''will'', far from being inseparable from, and even a mere result of, knowledge, differs radically and entirely from, and is quite independent of, knowledge, which is secondary and of later origin; and can consequently subsist and manifest itself without knowledge: that this will, being the one and only thing-in-itself, the sole truly real, primary, metaphysical thing in a world in which everything else is only appearance, i.e., mere representation, gives all things, whatever they may be, the power to exist and to act; ... is absolutely identical with the will we find within us and know as intimately as we can know any thing; that, on the other hand, knowledge with its substratum, the intellect, is a merely secondary phenomenon, differing completely from the will, only accompanying its higher degrees of objectification and not essential to it; ... that we are never able therefore to infer absence of will from absence of knowledge.| ''[[s:On the Will in Nature|On the Will in Nature]]''| Introduction}} For Schopenhauer, human desire was futile, illogical, directionless, and, by extension, so was all human action in the world. Einstein paraphrased his views as follows: "Man can indeed do what he wants, but he cannot will what he wants." In this sense, he adhered to the Fichtean principle of idealism: "The world is ''for'' a subject." This idealism so presented, immediately commits it to an ethical attitude, unlike the purely epistemological concerns of [[Descartes]] and [[George Berkeley|Berkeley]]. To Schopenhauer, the Will is a blind force that controls not only the actions of individual, intelligent agents, but ultimately all observable phenomena—an evil to be terminated via mankind's duties: [[asceticism]] and chastity.<ref name="inveigles"/> He is credited with one of the most famous opening lines of philosophy: "The world is my representation." [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] was greatly influenced by this idea of Will, although he eventually rejected it. === Art and aesthetics === {{Main|Arthur Schopenhauer's aesthetics}} For Schopenhauer, human desiring, "willing", and craving cause [[suffering|suffering or pain]]. A temporary way to escape this pain is through aesthetic contemplation (a method comparable to [[Zapffe]]'s "''Sublimation''"). Aesthetic contemplation allows one to escape this pain—albeit temporarily—because it stops one perceiving the world as mere presentation. Instead, one no longer perceives the world as an object of perception (therefore as subject to the Principle of Sufficient Grounds; time, space and causality) from which one is separated; rather one becomes one with that perception: ''"one can thus no longer separate the perceiver from the perception"'' (''The World as Will and Representation'', section 34). From this immersion with the world one no longer views oneself as an individual who suffers in the world due to one's individual will but, rather, becomes a ''"subject of cognition"'' to a perception that is ''"Pure, will-less, timeless"'' (section 34) where the essence, "ideas", of the world are shown. Art is the practical consequence of this brief aesthetic contemplation as it attempts to depict one's immersion with the world, thus tries to depict the essence/pure ideas of the world. Music, for Schopenhauer, was the purest form of art because it was the one that depicted the will itself without it appearing as subject to the Principle of Sufficient Grounds, therefore as an individual object. According to Daniel Albright, "Schopenhauer thought that [[philosophy of music|music]] was the only art that did not merely copy ideas, but actually embodied the will itself".<ref>Daniel Albright, Modernism and Music, 2004, p. 39, footnote 34</ref> He deemed music a timeless, universal language comprehended everywhere, that can imbue global enthusiasm, if in possession of a significant melody.<ref name=Music >{{cite book|last=Schopenhauer|first=Arthur|title=Essays and Aphorisms|year=1970|publisher=Penguin Classics|location='10'|isbn=978-0-14-044227-4|page=162}}</ref> === Mathematics === Schopenhauer's [[Mathematical realism|realist]] views on mathematics are evident in his criticism of the contemporaneous attempts to prove the [[parallel postulate]] in [[Euclidean geometry]]. Writing shortly before the discovery of [[hyperbolic geometry]] demonstrated the logical independence of the [[axiom]]—and long before the [[general theory of relativity]] revealed that it does not necessarily express a property of physical space—Schopenhauer criticized mathematicians for trying to use indirect [[concept]]s to prove what he held was directly evident from [[intuition|intuitive perception]]. {{quote|text=The Euclidean method of demonstration has brought forth from its own womb its most striking parody and caricature in the famous controversy over the theory of ''parallels'', and in the attempts, repeated every year, to prove the eleventh axiom (also known as the fifth postulate). The axiom asserts, and that indeed through the indirect criterion of a third intersecting line, that two lines inclined to each other (for this is the precise meaning of "less than two right angles"), if produced far enough, must meet. Now this truth is supposed to be too complicated to pass as self-evident, and therefore needs a proof; but no such proof can be produced, just because there is nothing more immediate.<ref name="ReferenceB">''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'', vol. 2, chap. 13</ref>}} Throughout his writings,<ref>"I wanted in this way to stress and demonstrate the great difference, indeed opposition, between knowledge of perception and abstract or reflected knowledge. Hitherto this difference has received too little attention, and its establishment is a fundamental feature of my philosophy&nbsp;..." ''Ibid.'', chap. 7.</ref> Schopenhauer criticized the logical derivation of philosophies and mathematics from mere concepts, instead of from intuitive perceptions. {{quote|text=In fact, it seems to me that the logical method is in this way reduced to an absurdity. But it is precisely through the controversies over this, together with the futile attempts to demonstrate the ''directly'' certain as merely ''indirectly'' certain, that the independence and clearness of intuitive evidence appear in contrast with the uselessness and difficulty of logical proof, a contrast as instructive as it is amusing. The direct certainty will not be admitted here, just because it is no merely logical certainty following from the concept, and thus resting solely on the relation of predicate to subject, according to the principle of contradiction. But that eleventh axiom regarding parallel lines is a [[synthetic proposition]] ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'', and as such has the guarantee of pure, not empirical, perception; this perception is just as immediate and certain as is the [[principle of contradiction]] itself, from which all proofs originally derive their certainty. At bottom this holds good of every geometrical theorem&nbsp;...}} Although Schopenhauer could see no justification for trying to prove Euclid's parallel postulate, he did see a reason for examining another of Euclid's axioms.<ref>This comment by Schopenhauer was called "an acute observation" by [[T. L. Heath|Sir Thomas L. Heath]]. In his translation of [[Euclid's Elements|The Elements]], vol. 1, Book I, "Note on Common Notion 4", Heath made this judgment and also noted that Schopenhauer's remark "was a criticism in advance of [[Hermann von Helmholtz|Helmholtz']] theory". Helmholtz had "maintained that geometry requires us to assume the actual existence of rigid bodies and their free mobility in space" and is therefore "dependent on mechanics".</ref> {{quote|text=It surprises me that the eighth axiom,<ref>What Schopenhauer calls the eighth axiom is Euclid's Common Notion 4.</ref> "Figures that coincide with one another are equal to one another", is not rather attacked. For ''"coinciding with one another"'' is either a mere [[Tautology (logic)|tautology]], or something quite [[empirical]], belonging not to pure intuition or perception, but to external sensuous experience. Thus it presupposes mobility of the figures, but [[matter]] alone is movable in [[space]]. Consequently, this reference to coincidence with one another forsakes pure space, the sole element of [[geometry]], in order to pass over to the material and empirical.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>}} This follows [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]'s reasoning.<ref>"Motion of an ''object'' in space does not belong in a pure science, and consequently not in geometry. For the fact that something is movable cannot be cognized ''a priori'', but can be cognized only through experience." (Kant, ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'', B 155, Note)</ref> === Ethics === {{Main|On the Basis of Morality}} The task of ethics is not to prescribe moral actions that ought to be done, but to investigate moral actions. Philosophy is always theoretical: its task to explain what is given.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The World as Will and Representation|last=Schopenhauer|first=Arthur|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=|at=Vol. 1, § 53.}}</ref> According to Kant's teaching of transcendental idealism, space and time are forms of our sensibility due to which the phenomena appear in multiplicity. Reality [[thing-in-itself|in itself]] is free from all multiplicity, not in the sense that an object is one, but that it is outside the ''possibility'' of multiplicity. From this follows that two individuals, though they appear as distinct, are in-themselves not distinct.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The World as Will and Representation|last=Schopenhauer|first=Arthur|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=|at=Vol. 1, § 23.}}</ref> The appearances are entirely subordinated to the [[principle of sufficient reason]]. The egoistic individual who focuses his aims completely on his own interests has therefore to deal with empirical laws as good as he can. What is relevant for ethics are individuals who can act against their own self-interest. If we take for example a man who suffers when he sees his fellow men living in poverty, and consequently uses a significant part of his income to support ''their'' needs instead his ''own'' pleasures, then the simplest way to describe this is that he makes ''less distinction between himself'' and others than is usually made.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The World as Will and Representation|last=Schopenhauer|first=Arthur|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=|at=Vol. 1, § 66.}}</ref> Regarding how the things ''appear'' to us, the egoist is right to assert the gap between two individuals, but the altruist experiences the sufferings of others as his own. In the same way a compassionate man cannot hurt animals, though they appear as distinct from himself. What motivates the altruist is compassion. The sufferings of others is for him not a cold matter to which he is indifferent, but he feels connected to all beings. Compassion is thus the basis of morality.<ref>{{Cite book|title=On the Basis of Morality|last=Schopenhauer|first=Arthur|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=|at=§ 19}}</ref> ==== Eternal justice ==== Schopenhauer calls the principle through which multiplicity appears the ''[[principium individuationis]]''. When we behold nature we see that it is a cruel battle for existence. Individual manifestations of the will can maintain themselves at only at the expense of others—the will, as the only thing that exists, has no other option but to devour itself to experience pleasure. This is a fundamental characteristic of the will, and cannot be circumvented.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Parerga and Paralipomena|last=Schopenhauer|first=Arthur|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=|at=Vol. 2, § 173}}</ref> Tormenter and tormented are one. Suffering is the moral retribution of our attachment to pleasure. Schopenhauer deemed that this truth was expressed by Christian dogma of [[original sin]] and in Eastern religions with the [[Reincarnation|dogma of rebirth.]] ==== Quietism ==== He who sees through the ''principium individuationis'' and comprehends suffering ''in general'' as his own, will see suffering everywhere, and instead of using all his force to fight for the happiness of his individual manifestation, he will abhor life itself, of which he knows how inseparably it is connected with suffering. A happy individual life midst of a world of suffering is for him like beggar who dreams one night that he is a king.<ref name="Ascetic">{{Cite book|title=The World as Will and Representation|last=Schopenhauer|first=Arthur|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=|at=Vol. 1, § 68.}}</ref> Those who have experienced this intuitive knowledge can no longer affirm life, but will exhibit asceticism and quietism, meaning that they are no longer sensitive to motives, are not concerned about their individual welfare, and accept the evil others inflict on them without resisting. They welcome poverty, do not seek nor flee death.<ref name="Ascetic"/> Human life is a ceaseless struggle for satisfaction, and instead of renewing this contract, the ascetic breaks it. It matters little whether these ascetics adhered the dogmata of Christianity or [[Dharmic faith|Dharmic religions]], since their way of living is the result of intuitive knowledge. {{Quotation|The Christian mystic and the teacher of the Vedanta philosophy agree in this respect also, they both regard all outward works and religious exercises as superfluous for him who has attained to perfection. So much agreement in the case of such different ages and nations is a practical proof that what is expressed here is not, as optimistic dullness likes to assert, an eccentricity and perversity of the mind, but an essential side of human nature, which only appears so rarely because of its excellence.<ref name="Ascetic"/>}} Schopenhauer referred to asceticism as the denial of the will to live. === Psychology === Philosophers have not traditionally been impressed by the tribulations of sex, but Schopenhauer addressed it and related concepts forthrightly: {{quote|...&nbsp;one ought rather to be surprised that a thing [sex] which plays throughout so important a part in human life has hitherto practically been disregarded by philosophers altogether, and lies before us as raw and untreated material.<ref>Schopenhauer, Arthur. [[:s:The World as Will and Representation/Supplements to the Fourth Book|''The World as Will and Representation: Supplements to the Fourth Book'']]</ref>}} He named a force within man that he felt took invariable precedence over reason: the Will to Live or Will to Life (''Wille zum Leben''), defined as an inherent drive within human beings, and indeed all creatures, to stay alive; a force that inveigles<ref name="inveigles">{{cite book|title=The Oxford Encyclopedic English Dictionary|year=1991|publisher=Oxford University Press|location='Schopenhauer'|isbn=978-0-19-861248-3|page=1298}}</ref> us into reproducing. Schopenhauer refused to conceive of love as either trifling or accidental, but rather understood it as an immensely powerful force that lay unseen within man's [[psyche (psychology)|psyche]], guaranteeing the quality of the human race: {{quote|The ultimate aim of all love affairs ... is more important than all other aims in man's life; and therefore it is quite worthy of the profound seriousness with which everyone pursues it. What is decided by it is nothing less than the composition of the next generation ...<ref>Schopenhauer, Arthur, [[:s:The World as Will and Representation/Supplements to the Fourth Book|''The World as Will and Representation'', Supplements to the Fourth Book]]</ref>}} It has often been argued that Schopenhauer's thoughts on sexuality foreshadowed the [[evolution|theory of evolution]], a claim which seems to have been met with satisfaction by [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]] as he included a quote of the German philosopher in his [[Descent of Man]] after having read such a claim.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page%3ADescent_of_Man_1875.djvu/602|title=The Descent of Man|last=Darwin|first=Charles|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|page=586}}</ref> This has also been noted about [[Sigmund Freud|Freud's]] concepts of the [[libido]] and the [[unconscious mind]], and [[evolutionary psychology]] in general.<ref>"Nearly a century before Freud ... in Schopenhauer there is, for the first time, an explicit philosophy of the unconscious and of the body." Safranski p. 345.</ref> === Political and social thought === ==== Politics ==== [[File:FFM Wallanlagen Schopenhauer-Denkmal.jpg|thumb|Bust in [[Frankfurt am Main]]]] Schopenhauer's politics were, for the most part, an echo of his system of ethics (the latter being expressed in ''Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik'', available in English as two separate books, ''[[On the Basis of Morality]]'' and ''[[On the Freedom of the Will]]''). Ethics also occupies about one quarter of his central work, ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]''. In occasional political comments in his ''[[Parerga and Paralipomena]]'' and ''Manuscript Remains'', Schopenhauer described himself as a proponent of [[limited government]]. What was essential, he thought, was that the state should "leave each man free to work out his own [[salvation]]," and so long as government was thus limited, he would "prefer to be ruled by a lion than one of [his] fellow rats"—i.e., by a [[monarch]], rather than a [[Republic|democrat]]. Schopenhauer shared the view of [[Thomas Hobbes]] on the necessity of the state, and of state action, to check the destructive tendencies innate to our species. He also defended the independence of the legislative, judicial and executive branches of power, and a monarch as an impartial element able to practise justice (in a practical and everyday sense, not a cosmological one).<ref>''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'', Vol. 2, Ch. 47</ref> He declared monarchy as "that which is natural to man" for "intelligence has always under a monarchical government a much better chance against its irreconcilable and ever-present foe, stupidity" and disparaged republicanism as "unnatural as it is unfavourable to the higher intellectual life and the arts and sciences".<ref>[[s:Government (Schopenhauer)|Government]]</ref> Schopenhauer, by his own admission, did not give much thought to politics, and several times he writes proudly of how little attention he had paid "to political affairs of [his] day". In a life that spanned several revolutions in French and German government, and a few continent-shaking wars, he did indeed maintain his aloof position of "minding not the times but the eternities". He wrote many disparaging remarks about Germany and the Germans. A typical example is, "For a German it is even good to have somewhat lengthy words in his mouth, for he thinks slowly, and they give him time to reflect."<ref>''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'', Vol. 2, Ch. 12</ref> Schopenhauer attributed civilizational primacy to the northern "white races" due to their sensitivity and creativity (except for the ancient Egyptians and Hindus, whom he saw as equal): <blockquote>The highest civilization and culture, apart from the ancient Hindus and Egyptians, are found exclusively among the white races; and even with many dark peoples, the ruling caste or race is fairer in colour than the rest and has, therefore, evidently immigrated, for example, the Brahmans, the Incas, and the rulers of the South Sea Islands. All this is due to the fact that necessity is the mother of invention because those tribes that emigrated early to the north, and there gradually became white, had to develop all their intellectual powers and invent and perfect all the arts in their struggle with need, want and misery, which in their many forms were brought about by the climate. This they had to do in order to make up for the parsimony of nature and out of it all came their high civilization.<ref>''Parerga and Paralipomena'', Volume II, Section 92</ref></blockquote> Despite this, he was adamantly against differing treatment of races, was fervently anti-slavery, and supported the [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionist]] movement in the United States. He describes the treatment of "[our] innocent black brothers whom force and injustice have delivered into [the slave-master's] devilish clutches" as "belonging to the blackest pages of mankind's criminal record".<ref>''Parerga and Paralipomena'', "On Ethics," Sec. 5</ref> Schopenhauer additionally maintained a marked metaphysical and political [[anti-Judaism]]. Schopenhauer argued that Christianity constituted a revolt against what he styled the materialistic basis of Judaism, exhibiting an Indian-influenced ethics reflecting the [[Aryan]]-[[Vedas|Vedic]] theme of spiritual self-conquest. He saw this as opposed to what he held was the ignorant drive toward earthly utopianism and superficiality of a worldly "Jewish" spirit: <blockquote>While all other religions endeavor to explain to the people by symbols the metaphysical significance of life, the religion of the Jews is entirely immanent and furnishes nothing but a mere war-cry in the struggle with other nations.<ref>"Fragments for the history of philosophy", ''Parerga and Paralipomena'', Volume I.</ref></blockquote> ==== Punishment ==== The State, Schopenhauer claimed, punishes criminals to prevent future crimes. It does so by placing "beside every possible motive for committing a wrong a more powerful motive for leaving it undone, in the inescapable punishment. Accordingly, the criminal code is as complete a register as possible of counter-motives to all criminal actions that can possibly be imagined&nbsp;..."<ref name="twwr62">Schopenhauer, ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'', Vol. I, § 62.</ref> He claimed this doctrine was not original to him. Previously, it appeared in the writings of [[Plato]],<ref>"...&nbsp;he who attempts to punish in accordance with reason does not retaliate on account of the past wrong (for he could not undo something which has been done) but for the sake of the future, so that neither the wrongdoer himself, nor others who see him being punished, will do wrong again." Plato, "[[Protagoras (dialogue)|Protagoras]]", 324 B. Plato wrote that punishment should "be an example to other men not to offend". Plato, "[[Laws (dialogue)|Laws]]", Book IX, 863.</ref> [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]], [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], [[Samuel von Pufendorf|Pufendorf]], and [[Paul Johann Anselm Ritter von Feuerbach|Anselm Feuerbach]]. ==== Views on women ==== In Schopenhauer's 1851 essay ''On Women'', he expressed his opposition to what he called "Teutonico-Christian stupidity" of reflexive unexamined reverence ("abgeschmackten Weiberveneration")<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aboq.org/schopenhauer/parerga2/weiber.htm|title=Über die Weiber, §369}}</ref> for the female. Schopenhauer wrote that "Women are directly fitted for acting as the nurses and teachers of our early childhood by the fact that they are themselves childish, frivolous and short-sighted." He opined that women are deficient in artistic faculties and sense of justice, and expressed opposition to [[monogamy]]. Indeed, [[Nigel Rodgers|Rodgers]] and [[Mel Thompson|Thompson]] in ''[[Philosophers Behaving Badly]]'' call Schopenhauer "a misogynist without rival in ... Western philosophy". He claimed that "woman is by nature meant to obey". The essay does give some compliments, however: that "women are decidedly more sober in their judgment than [men] are", and are more sympathetic to the suffering of others. Schopenhauer's writings have influenced many, from [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] to nineteenth-century [[feminists]].<ref>''Feminism and the Limits of Equality'' PA Cain – Ga. L. Rev., 1989</ref> Schopenhauer's [[biology|biological]] analysis of the difference between the sexes, and their separate roles in the struggle for survival and reproduction, anticipates some of the claims that were later ventured by [[sociobiology|sociobiologists]] and [[evolutionary psychology|evolutionary psychologists]].<ref name="Young2005">{{cite book|author=Julian Young|title=Schopenhauer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gfDyeGY0RFMC&pg=PA242|date=23 June 2005|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-33346-7|page=242}}</ref> When the elderly Schopenhauer sat for [[Arthur Schopenhauer (sculpture)|a sculpture portrait]] by the Prussian sculptor [[Elisabet Ney]] in 1859, he was much impressed by the young woman's wit and independence, as well as by her skill as a visual artist.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Arthur Schopenhauer and Elisabet Ney|first=Sandra Salser|last=Long|journal=[[Southwest Review]]|volume=69|number=2|date=Spring 1984|pages=130–47|jstor=43469632}}</ref> After his time with Ney, he told Richard Wagner's friend [[Malwida von Meysenbug]], "I have not yet spoken my last word about women. I believe that if a woman succeeds in withdrawing from the mass, or rather raising herself above the mass, she grows ceaselessly and more than a man."<ref>Safranski (1990), Chapter 24. p. 348.</ref> ==== Heredity and eugenics ==== [[File:Frankfurt Am Main-Portraits-Arthur Schopenhauer-1845.jpg|thumb|upright|Schopenhauer at age 58 on 16 May 1846]] Schopenhauer viewed personality and [[intellect]] as being inherited. He quotes Horace's saying, "From the brave and good are the brave descended" (''Odes'', iv, 4, 29) and Shakespeare's line from ''[[Cymbeline]]'', "Cowards father cowards, and base things sire base" (IV, 2) to reinforce his hereditarian argument.<ref>Payne, ''The World as Will and Representation'', Vol. II, p. 519</ref> Mechanistically, Schopenhauer believed that a person inherits his level of intellect through his mother, and personal character through one's father.<ref>On the Suffering of the World, (1970), p. 35. Penguin Books – Great Ideas</ref> This belief in heritability of traits informed Schopenhauer's view of love – placing it at the highest level of importance. For Schopenhauer the "final aim of all love intrigues, be they comic or tragic, is really of more importance than all other ends in human life. What it all turns upon is nothing less than the composition of the next generation. ... It is not the weal or woe of any one individual, but that of the human race to come, which is here at stake." This view of the importance for the species of whom we choose to love was reflected in his views on [[eugenics]] or good breeding. Here Schopenhauer wrote: <blockquote>With our knowledge of the complete unalterability both of character and of mental faculties, we are led to the view that a real and thorough improvement of the human race might be reached not so much from outside as from within, not so much by theory and instruction as rather by the path of generation. Plato had something of the kind in mind when, in the fifth book of his ''Republic'', he explained his plan for increasing and improving his warrior caste. If we could [[castrate]] all [[criminals|scoundrels]] and stick all stupid geese in a convent, and give men of noble character a whole [[harem]], and procure men, and indeed thorough men, for all girls of intellect and understanding, then a generation would soon arise which would produce a better age than that of [[Pericles]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Schopenhauer | first = Arthur | title = The World as Will and Representation |editor=E. F. J. Payne |volume=II | publisher = Dover Publications | location = New York | year = 1969 | isbn = 978-0-486-21762-8 |page=527 |ref=harv}}</ref></blockquote> In another context, Schopenhauer reiterated his eugenic thesis: "If you want Utopian plans, I would say: the only solution to the problem is the [[despotism]] of the wise and noble members of a genuine aristocracy, a genuine nobility, achieved by [[mating]] the most magnanimous men with the cleverest and most gifted women. This proposal constitutes my Utopia and my Platonic Republic."<ref>''Essays and Aphorisms'', trans. R.J. Hollingdale, Middlesex: London, 1970, p. 154</ref> Analysts (e.g., Keith Ansell-Pearson) have suggested that Schopenhauer's anti-[[egalitarianism|egalitarianist]] sentiment and his support for eugenics influenced the neo-aristocratic philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche, who initially considered Schopenhauer his mentor.<ref>''Nietzsche and modern German thought'' by K. Ansell-Pearson – 1991 – Psychology Press.</ref> ==== Animal welfare ==== {{See also|Animal_rights#Arthur_Schopenhauer|label 1=Arthur Schopenhauer's views on animal rights}} As a consequence of his [[Monism|monistic]] philosophy, Schopenhauer was very concerned about the welfare of animals.<ref>Christina Gerhardt, "Thinking With: Animals in Schopenhauer, Horkheimer and Adorno." Critical Theory and Animals. Ed. John Sanbonmatsu. Lanham: Rowland, 2011. 137–157.</ref><ref>Stephen Puryear, [https://philpapers.org/rec/PURSOT "Schopenhauer on the Rights of Animals." ''European Journal of Philosophy'' 25/2 (2017):250-269].</ref> For him, all individual animals, including humans, are essentially the same, being phenomenal manifestations of the one underlying Will. The word "will" designated, for him, force, power, impulse, energy, and desire; it is the closest word we have that can signify both the real essence of all external things and also our own direct, inner experience. Since every living thing possesses will, then humans and animals are fundamentally the same and can recognize themselves in each other.<ref>"Unlike the intellect, it [the Will] does not depend on the perfection of the organism, but is essentially the same in all animals as what is known to us so intimately. Accordingly, the animal has all the emotions of humans, such as joy, grief, fear, anger, love, hatred, strong desire, envy, and so on. The great difference between human and animal rests solely on the intellect's degrees of perfection. ''On the Will in Nature'', "Physiology and Pathology".</ref> For this reason, he claimed that a good person would have sympathy for animals, who are our fellow sufferers. {{quote|Compassion for animals is intimately associated with goodness of character, and it may be confidently asserted that he who is cruel to living creatures cannot be a good man.|''[[On the basis of morality]]'', § 19}} {{quote|Nothing leads more definitely to a recognition of the identity of the essential nature in animal and human phenomena than a study of zoology and anatomy.|''On the basis of morality'', chapter 8<ref>Quoted in {{cite book | last = Schopenhauer | first = Arthur | title = Philosophical Writings | publisher = Continuum | location = London | year = 1994 | isbn = 978-0-8264-0729-0 |page=233}}</ref>}} {{quote|The assumption that animals are without rights and the illusion that our treatment of them has no moral significance is a positively outrageous example of Western crudity and barbarity. Universal compassion is the only guarantee of morality.|''On the basis of morality'', chapter 8<ref>Quoted in {{cite book | last = Ryder | first = Richard | title = Animal Revolution: Changing Attitudes Towards Speciesism | publisher = Berg Publishers | location = Oxford | year = 2000 | isbn = 978-1-85973-330-1 |page=57}}</ref>}} In 1841, he praised the establishment, in London, of the [[Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals]], and also the Animals' Friends Society in Philadelphia. Schopenhauer even went so far as to protest against the use of the pronoun "it" in reference to animals because it led to the treatment of them as though they were inanimate things.<ref>"... in English all animals are of the neuter gender and so are represented by the pronoun 'it,' just as if they were inanimate things. The effect of this artifice is quite revolting, especially in the case of primates, such as dogs, monkeys, and the like...." ''[[On the basis of morality]]'', § 19.</ref> To reinforce his points, Schopenhauer referred to anecdotal reports of the look in the eyes of a monkey who had been shot<ref>"I recall having read of an Englishman who, while hunting in India, had shot a monkey; he could not forget the look which the dying animal gave him, and since then had never again fired at monkeys." ''[[On the basis of morality]]'', § 19.</ref> and also the grief of a baby elephant whose mother had been killed by a hunter.<ref>"[Sir William Harris] describes how he shot his first elephant, a female. The next morning he went to look for the dead animal; all the other elephants had fled from the neighborhood except a young one, who had spent the night with its dead mother. Forgetting all fear, he came toward the sportsmen with the clearest and liveliest evidence of inconsolable grief, and put his tiny trunk round them in order to appeal to them for help. Harris says he was then filled with real remorse for what he had done, and felt as if he had committed a murder." ''[[On the basis of morality]]'', § 19.</ref> He was very attached to his succession of pet poodles. Schopenhauer criticized [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza's]]<ref>"His contempt for animals, who, as mere things for our use, are declared by him to be without rights, ... in conjunction with Pantheism, is at the same time absurd and abominable." ''The World as Will and Representation'', Vol. 2, Chapter 50.</ref> belief that animals are a mere means for the satisfaction of humans.<ref>Spinoza, ''Ethics'', Pt. IV, Prop. XXXVII, Note I.: "Still I do not deny that beasts feel: what I deny is, that we may not consult our own advantage and use them as we please, treating them in a way which best suits us; for their nature is not like ours&nbsp;..." This is the exact opposite of Schopenhauer's doctrine. Also, ''ibid.'', Appendix, 26, "whatsoever there be in nature beside man, a regard for our advantage does not call on us to preserve, but to preserve or destroy according to its various capacities, and to adapt to our use as best we may."</ref><ref>"Such are the matters which I engage to prove in Prop. xviii of this Part, whereby it is plain that the law against the slaughtering of animals is founded rather on vain superstition and womanish pity than on sound reason. The rational quest of what is useful to us further teaches us the necessity of associating ourselves with our fellow-men, but not with beasts, or things, whose nature is different from our own; we have the same rights in respect to them as they have in respect to us. Nay, as everyone's right is defined by his virtue, or power, men have far greater rights over beasts than beasts have over men. Still I affirm that beasts feel. But I also affirm that we may consult our own advantage and use them as we please, treating them in the way which best suits us; for their nature is not like ours, and their emotions are naturally different from human emotions." ''Ethics'', Part 4, Prop. 37, Note 1.</ref> ==== Views on pederasty ==== In the third, expanded edition of ''The World as Will and Representation'' (1859), Schopenhauer added an appendix to his chapter on the ''Metaphysics of Sexual Love''. He wrote that pederasty did have the benefit of preventing ill-begotten children. Concerning this, he stated that "the vice we are considering appears to work directly against the aims and ends of nature, and that in a matter that is all important and of the greatest concern to her it must in fact serve these very aims, although only indirectly, as a means for preventing greater evils".<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Schopenhauer|1969|p=566}}</ref> Schopenhauer ends the appendix with the statement that "by expounding these paradoxical ideas, I wanted to grant to the professors of philosophy a small favour. I have done so by giving them the opportunity of slandering me by saying that I defend and commend pederasty."<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Schopenhauer|1969|p=567}}</ref> ===Intellectual interests and affinities=== ====[[Indology]]==== [[File:Schopenhauer 1852.jpg|thumb|Photo of Schopenhauer, 1852]] Schopenhauer read the Latin translation of the ancient [[Hindu]] texts, the [[Upanishads]], which French writer [[Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil-Duperron|Anquetil du Perron]] had translated from the Persian translation of Prince [[Dara Shukoh]] entitled ''Sirre-Akbar'' ("The Great Secret"). He was so impressed by their philosophy that he called them "the production of the highest human wisdom", and believed they contained superhuman concepts. The Upanishads was a great source of inspiration to Schopenhauer. Writing about them, he said: <blockquote>It is the most satisfying and elevating reading (with the exception of the original text) which is possible in the world; it has been the solace of my life and will be the solace of my death.<ref>{{cite book|last=Clarke|first=John James|title=Oriental enlightenment|publisher=Routledge|year=1997|page=68|isbn=978-0-415-13376-0}}</ref></blockquote> The book ''Oupnekhat'' (Upanishad) always lay open on his table, and he invariably studied it before sleeping at night. He called the opening up of Sanskrit literature "the greatest gift of our century" and predicted that the philosophy and knowledge of the Upanishads would become the cherished faith of the West.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.philosophy.ru/library/asiatica/indica/authors/motives.html|title=Western Indologists: A Study in Motives|last=Dutt|first=Purohit Bhagavan|accessdate=9 May 2009|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100802010348/http://www.philosophy.ru/library/asiatica/indica/authors/motives.html|archivedate=2 August 2010|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Schopenhauer was first introduced to the 1802 Latin Upanishad translation through Friedrich Majer. They met during the winter of 1813–1814 in [[Weimar]] at the home of Schopenhauer's mother according to the biographer Safranski. Majer was a follower of [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]], and an early [[Indologist]]. Schopenhauer did not begin a serious study of the Indic texts, however, until the summer of 1814. Sansfranski maintains that between 1815 and 1817, Schopenhauer had another important cross-pollination with Indian thought in [[Dresden]]. This was through his neighbor of two years, [[Karl Christian Friedrich Krause]]. Krause was then a minor and rather unorthodox philosopher who attempted to mix his own ideas with that of ancient Indian wisdom. Krause had also mastered [[Sanskrit]], unlike Schopenhauer, and the two developed a professional relationship. It was from Krause that Schopenhauer learned [[meditation]] and received the closest thing to expert advice concerning Indian thought.<ref>Christopher McCoy, 3–4</ref> Most noticeable, in the case of Schopenhauer’s work, was the significance of the [[Chandogya Upanishad]], whose [[Mahāvākyas|Mahāvākya]], [[Tat Tvam Asi]], is mentioned throughout ''The World as Will and Representation''.<ref>Christopher McCoy, 54–56</ref> ==== Buddhism ==== Schopenhauer noted a correspondence between his doctrines and the [[Four Noble Truths]] of [[Buddhism]].<ref>Abelson, Peter (April 1993). [http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/peter2.htm Schopenhauer and Buddhism]. ''Philosophy East and West Volume 43, Number 2'', pp. 255–278. University of Hawaii Press. Retrieved on: 12 April 2008.</ref> Similarities centered on the principles that life involves suffering, that suffering is caused by desire ([[taṇhā]]), and that the extinction of desire leads to liberation. Thus three of the four "truths of the Buddha" correspond to Schopenhauer's doctrine of the will.<ref>[[Christopher Janaway|Janaway]], Christopher, ''Self and World in Schopenhauer's Philosophy'', pp. 28&nbsp;ff.</ref> In Buddhism, however, while greed and lust are always unskillful, desire is ethically variable – it can be skillful, unskillful, or neutral.<ref name="David Burton 2004, page 22">David Burton, "Buddhism, Knowledge and Liberation: A Philosophical Study." Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2004, p. 22.</ref> For Schopenhauer, will had [[ontology|ontological]] primacy over the [[intellect]]. In other words, desire is prior to thought. Schopenhauer felt this was similar to notions of [[puruṣārtha]] or goals of life in [[Vedānta]] [[Hinduism]]. In Schopenhauer's philosophy, denial of the will is attained by either: * personal experience of an extremely great suffering that leads to loss of the will to live; or * knowledge of the essential nature of life in the world through observation of the suffering of other people. However, Buddhist [[nirvāṇa]] is not equivalent to the condition that Schopenhauer described as denial of the will. Nirvāṇa is not the extinguishing of the ''person'' as some Western scholars have thought, but only the "extinguishing" (the literal meaning of nirvana) of the flames of greed, hatred, and delusion that assail a person's character.<ref>John J. Holder, ''Early Buddhist Discourses.'' Hackett Publishing Company, 2006, p. xx.</ref> Occult historian [[Joscelyn Godwin]] (born 1945) stated, "It was Buddhism that inspired the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer, and, through him, attracted [[Richard Wagner]]."<ref>Godwin, J: ''Arktos: The Polar Myth in Science, Symbolism, and Nazi Survival'', p. 38. Adventures Unlimited Press, 1996, {{ISBN|978-0-932813-35-0}}</ref> This [[Orientalism]] reflected the struggle of the German Romantics, in the words of [[Leon Poliakov]], to "free themselves from [[Judeo-Christian]] fetters".<ref>''Arktos'', p. 38.</ref> In contradistinction to Godwin's claim that Buddhism inspired Schopenhauer, the philosopher himself made the following statement in his discussion of religions:<ref> "Schopenhauer is often said to be the first, or indeed the only, modern Western philosopher of any note to attempt any integration of his work with Eastern ways of thinking. That he was the first is surely true, but the claim that he was ''influenced'' by Indian thought needs some qualification. There is a remarkable correspondence, at least in broad terms, between some of the central Schopenhauerian doctrines and Buddhism: notably in the views that empirical existence is suffering, that suffering originates in desires, and that salvation can be attained by the extinction of desires. These three 'truths of the Buddha' are mirrored closely in the essential structure of the doctrine of the will." (On this, see Dorothea W. Dauer, ''Schopenhauer as Transmitter of Buddhist Ideas''. Note also the discussion by Bryan Magee, ''The Philosophy of Schopenhauer'', pp. 14–15, 316–21). Janaway, Christopher, ''Self and World in Schopenhauer's Philosophy'', p. 28&nbsp;f. </ref> <blockquote> If I wished to take the results of my philosophy as the standard of truth, I should have to concede to Buddhism pre-eminence over the others. In any case, it must be a pleasure to me to see my doctrine in such close agreement with a religion that the majority of men on earth hold as their own, for this numbers far more followers than any other. And this agreement must be yet the more pleasing to me, inasmuch as ''in my philosophizing I have certainly not been under its influence'' [emphasis added]. For up till 1818, when my work appeared, there was to be found in Europe only a very few accounts of Buddhism.<ref>''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'', Vol. 2, Ch. 17</ref> </blockquote> Buddhist philosopher [[Nishitani Keiji]], however, sought to distance Buddhism from Schopenhauer.<ref>''Artistic detachment in Japan and the West: psychic distance in comparative aesthetics'' by S. Odin – 2001 – University of Hawaii Press.</ref> While Schopenhauer's philosophy may sound rather mystical in such a summary, his [[methodology]] was resolutely [[empirical]], rather than speculative or transcendental: <blockquote> Philosophy ... is a science, and as such has no articles of faith; accordingly, in it nothing can be assumed as existing except what is either positively given empirically, or demonstrated through indubitable conclusions.<ref>''Parerga & Paralipomena'', vol. I, p. 106., trans. E.F.J. Payne.</ref> </blockquote> Also note: <blockquote> This actual world of what is knowable, in which we are and which is in us, remains both the material and the limit of our consideration.<ref>''World as Will and Representation'', vol. I, p. 273, trans. E.F.J. Payne.</ref> </blockquote> The argument that Buddhism affected Schopenhauer's philosophy more than any other [[Dharma|Dharmic]] faith loses more credence when viewed in light of the fact that Schopenhauer did not begin a serious study of Buddhism until after the publication of ''The World as Will and Representation'' in 1818.<ref>Christopher McCoy, 3</ref> Scholars have started to revise earlier views about Schopenhauer's discovery of Buddhism. Proof of early interest and influence, however, appears in Schopenhauer's 1815/16 notes (transcribed and translated by Urs App) about Buddhism. They are included in a recent case study that traces Schopenhauer's interest in Buddhism and documents its influence.<ref> App, Urs [http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp200_schopenhauer.pdf Arthur Schopenhauer and China. ''Sino-Platonic Papers'' Nr. 200 (April 2010)] (PDF, 8.7&nbsp;Mb PDF, 164 p.; Schopenhauer's early notes on Buddhism reproduced in Appendix). This study provides an overview of the actual discovery of Buddhism by Schopenhauer.</ref> Other scholarly work questions how similar Schopenhauer's philosophy actually is to Buddhism.<ref>Hutton, Kenneth [http://blogs.dickinson.edu/buddhistethics/files/2014/12/Hutton-Schopenhauer.pdf Compassion in Schopenhauer and Śāntideva. ''Journal of Buddhist Ethics'' Vol. 21 (2014)]</ref> ====Magic and occultism==== Some traditions in [[Western esotericism]] and [[parapsychology]] interested Schopenhauer and influenced his philosophical theories. He praised [[animal magnetism]] as evidence for the reality of magic in his ''On the Will in Nature'', and went so far as to accept the division of magic into [[Left-hand path and right-hand path|left-hand and right-hand magic]], although he doubted the existence of demons.<ref name="Myth of Disenchantment">{{Cite book | last = Josephson-Storm | first = Jason | title = The Myth of Disenchantment: Magic, Modernity, and the Birth of the Human Sciences | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | date = 2017 |pages = 187–8 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xZ5yDgAAQBAJ | isbn = 978-0-226-40336-6 }}</ref> Schopenhauer grounded magic in the Will and claimed all forms of magical transformation depended on the human Will, not on ritual. This theory notably parallels [[Aleister Crowley]]'s system of magick and its emphasis on human will.<ref name="Myth of Disenchantment" /> Given the importance of the Will to Schopenhauer's overarching system, this amounts to "suggesting his whole philosophical system had magical powers."<ref>Quote from Josephson-Storm (2017), p. 188.</ref> Schopenhauer rejected the theory of [[disenchantment]] and claimed philosophy should synthesize itself with magic, which he believed amount to "practical metaphysics."<ref>Josephson-Storm (2017), p. 188-9.</ref> [[Neoplatonism]], including the traditions of [[Plotinus]] and to a lesser extent [[Marsilio Ficino]], has also been cited as an influence on Schopenhauer.<ref>{{cite book|last=Anderson |first=Mark |title=Pure: Modernity, Philosophy, and the One |chapter=Experimental Subversions of Modernity |date=2009 |publisher=Sophia Perennis |isbn=978-1597310949}}</ref> ==Interests== Schopenhauer had a wide range of interests, from science and opera to occultism and literature. In his student years Schopenhauer went more often to lectures in the sciences than philosophy. He kept a strong interest as his personal library contained near to 200 books of scientific literature at his death, and his works refer to scientific titles not found in the library.<ref name="Flute">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=meD1bGAjO6wC&pg=PA30|title=Schopenhauer: a Biography|last=Cartwright|first=David E.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-521-82598-6|location=|pages=}}</ref>{{rp|170}} Many evenings were spent in the theatre, opera and ballet; the operas of [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], [[Gioachino Rossini|Rossini]] and [[Vincenzo Bellini|Bellini]] were especially esteemed.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Wagner and the Art of the Theatre|last=Carnegy|first=Patrick|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|page=51}}</ref> Schopenhauer considered music the highest art, and played the flute during his whole life.<ref name="Flute" />{{rp|30}} As a polyglot, the philosopher knew [[German language|German]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[French language|French]], English, [[Latin]] and [[ancient Greek]], and he was an avid reader of poetry and literature. He particularly revered [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]], [[Petrarch]], [[Pedro Calderón de la Barca|Calderón]] and [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]. <blockquote>If Goethe had not been sent into the world simultaneously with Kant in order to counterbalance him, so to speak, in the spirit of the age, the latter would have been haunted like a nightmare many an aspiring mind and would have oppressed it with great affliction. But now the two have an infinitely wholesome effect from opposite directions and will probably raise the German spirit to a height surpassing even that of antiquity.<ref name="Flute" />{{rp|240}} </blockquote> In philosophy, his most important influences were, according to himself, Kant, [[Plato]] and the [[Upanishads]]. Concerning the Upanishads and [[Vedas]], he writes in ''The World as Will and Representation'': <blockquote>If the reader has also received the benefit of the Vedas, the access to which by means of the Upanishads is in my eyes the greatest privilege which this still young century (1818) may claim before all previous centuries, if then the reader, I say, has received his initiation in primeval Indian wisdom, and received it with an open heart, he will be prepared in the very best way for hearing what I have to tell him. It will not sound to him strange, as to many others, much less disagreeable; for I might, if it did not sound conceited, contend that every one of the detached statements which constitute the Upanishads, may be deduced as a necessary result from the fundamental thoughts which I have to enunciate, though those deductions themselves are by no means to be found there.<ref>''The World as Will and Representation'' Preface to the first edition, p. xiii</ref></blockquote> == Thoughts on other philosophers == === Giordano Bruno and Spinoza === Schopenhauer saw [[Giordano Bruno|Bruno]] and [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]] as unique philosophers who were not bound to their age or nation. "Both were fulfilled by the thought, that as manifold the appearances of the world may be, it is still ''one'' being, that appears in all of them. ... Consequently, there is no place for God as creator of the world in their philosophy, but God is the world itself."<ref name="Spinoza and Bruno">{{Cite book|title=The World as Will and Representation|last=Schopenhauer|first=Arthur|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=|at=Vol. 1, Criticism of the Kantian Philosophy. Note 5.}}</ref><ref name="Presentation">{{cite web|url=http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/buch/arthur-schopenhauers-handschriftlicher-nachlass-vorlesungen-und-abhandlungen-4993/3|title=Handschriftlicher, Nachlass, Vorlesungen und Abhandlungen.|last=|first=|date=|website=Gutenberg Spiegel|access-date=}}</ref> Schopenhauer expressed his regret that Spinoza stuck for the presentation of his philosophy with the concepts of [[scholasticism]] and [[Cartesian philosophy]], and tried to use geometrical proofs that do not hold because of the vagueness and wideness of the definitions. It is the common preference of philosophers of abstraction over perception. Bruno on the other hand, who knew much about nature and ancient literature, presents his ideas with Italian vividness, and is amongst philosophers the only one who comes near Plato's poetic and dramatic power of exposition.<ref name="Spinoza and Bruno" /><ref name="Presentation" /> Schopenhauer noted that their philosophies do not provide any ethics, and it is therefore very remarkable that Spinoza called his main work ''[[Ethics (Spinoza)|Ethics]]''. In fact, it could be considered complete from the standpoint of life-affirmation, if one completely ignores morality and self-denial.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Abschnitt: Handschriftlicher Nachlaß|last=|first=|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=|at=§ 588|quote=Es kann daher eine vollkommen wahre Philosophie geben, die ganz von der Verneinung des Lebens abstrahirt, diese ganz ignorirt.}}</ref> It is yet even more remarkable that Schopenhauer mentions Spinoza as an example of the denial of the will, if one uses the French biography by Jean Maximilien Lucas <ref>{{cite web|url=https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Vie_de_Spinoza|title=Vie de Spinoza - Wikisource|website=fr.wikisource.org}}</ref> as the key to ''[[Tractatus de Intellectus Emendatione]]''.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The World as Will and Representation|last=|first=|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=|at=§ 68|quote=We might to a certain extent regard the well-known French biography of Spinoza as a case in point, if we used as a key to it that noble introduction to his very insufficient essay, ''De Emendatione Intellects'', a passage which I can also recommend as the most effectual means I know of stilling the storm of the passions.}}</ref> ===Immanuel Kant=== {{See also|Critique of the Kantian philosophy|Schopenhauer's criticism of Kant's schemata}} The importance of Kant for Schopenhauer, in philosophy as well as on a personal level, can hardly be overstated. The philosophy of Kant was the foundation of his own. Schopenhauer maintained that Kant stands in the same relation to philosophers such as Berkeley and [[Plato]], as Copernicus to [[Hicetas]], [[Philolaus]], and [[Aristarchus of Samos|Aristarchus]]: Kant succeeded in demonstrating what previous philosophers merely asserted. In his study room one bust was of [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], the other was of Kant.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Schopenhauer. Pessimist and Pagan.|last=Jerauld McGill|first=Vivian|publisher=|year=1931|isbn=|location=|page=320}}</ref> The bond which Schopenhauer felt with the philosopher of Königsberg may be esteemed in a poem he dedicated to Kant: {{quotation|With my eyes I followed thee into the blue sky, And there thy flight dissolved from view. Alone I stayed in the crowd below, Thy word and thy book my only solace. —|sign=|source=}} Schopenhauer dedicated one fifth of his main work, ''The World as Will and Representation'', to a criticism of the Kantian philosophy. ===Post-Kantian school=== The leading figures of [[German idealism|post-Kantian philosophy]], Fichte, Schelling and Hegel, were not respected by Schopenhauer. He argued that they were no philosophers at all, who merely sought to impress the public. {{Quotation|All this explains the painful impression with which we are seized when, after studying genuine thinkers, we come to the writings of Fichte and Schelling, or even to the presumptuously scribbled nonsense of Hegel, produced as it was with a boundless, though justified, confidence in German stupidity. With those genuine thinkers one always found an ''honest'' investigation of truth and just as ''honest'' an attempt to communicate their ideas to others. Therefore whoever reads Kant, Locke, Hume, Malebranche, Spinoza, and Descartes feels elevated and agreeably impressed. This is produced through communion with a noble mind which has and awakens ideas and which thinks and sets one thinking. The reverse of all this takes place when we read the above-mentioned three German sophists. An unbiased reader, opening one of their books and then asking himself whether this is the tone of a thinker wanting to instruct or that of a charlatan wanting to impress, cannot be five minutes in any doubt; here everything breathes so much of ''dishonesty''.|sign=Appendix to "Sketch of a History of the Doctrine of the Ideal and the Real"|source=}} [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling|Schelling]] was deemed the most talented of the three, and Schopenhauer wrote that he would recommend his "elucidatory paraphrase of the highly important doctrine of Kant" concerning the intelligible character, if he had been honest enough to admit he was showing off with the thoughts of Kant, instead of hiding this relation in a cunning manner.<ref>{{Cite book|title=On the Freedom of the Will|last=Schopenhauer|first=Arthur|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|page=82}}</ref> Schopenhauer's favourite subject of attacks was [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], whom he considered unworthy even of Fichte and Schelling. Whereas Fichte was merely a windbag, Hegel was a "stupid and clumsy charlatan". [[Karl Popper]] agreed with this distinction.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Open Society and Her Enemies|last=Popper|first=Karl|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|page=52}}</ref> ==Influence== [[File:Arthur_Schopenhauer_by_Elisabet_Ney.jpg|thumb|[[Arthur Schopenhauer (sculpture)|Sculpture of Schopenhauer]] by [[Elisabeth Ney]]]] Schopenhauer had a large posthumous impact and remained the most influential German philosopher until the [[First World War]].<ref name=Weltschmerz>{{Cite book|title=Weltschmerz, Pessimism in German Philosophy, 1860–1900|last=Beiser|first=Frederick C.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0198768715|location=Oxford|pages=14–16|quote=Arthur Schopenhauer was the most famous and influential philosopher in Germany from 1860 until the First World War. ... Schopenhauer had a profound influence on two intellectual movements of the late 19th century that were utterly opposed to him: neo-Kantianism and positivism. He forced these movements to address issues they would otherwise have completely ignored, and in doing so he changed them markedly. ... Schopenhauer set the agenda for his age.}}</ref> His philosophy was a starting point for a new generation of philosophers, which consisted of [[Julius Bahnsen]], [[Paul Deussen]], Lazar von Hellenbach, [[Karl Robert Eduard von Hartmann]], Ernst Otto Lindner, [[Philipp Mainländer]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], Olga Plümacher and Agnes Talbert. His legacy shaped the intellectual debate, and forced movements that were utterly opposed to him, [[neo-Kantianism]] and [[positivism]], to address issues they would otherwise have completely ignored, and in doing so he changed them markedly.<ref name=Weltschmerz/> The French writer [[Maupassant]] commented that "to-day even those who execrate him seem to carry in their own souls particles of his thought."<ref>Beside Schopenhauer's Corpse</ref> Other philosophers of the 19th century who cited his influence include [[Hans Vaihinger]], [[Johannes Volkelt|Volkelt]], [[Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)|Solovyov]] and [[Otto Weininger|Weininger]]. Schopenhauer was well read amongst physicists, most notably Einstein, [[Erwin Schrödinger|Schrödinger]], [[Wolfgang Pauli]],<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Peek behind the Veil of Maya: Einstein, Schopenhauer, and the Historical Background of the Conception of Space as a Ground for the Individuation of Physical Systems|last=Don|first=Howard|publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press|year=1997|isbn=|location=|pages=|quote=Pauli greatly admired Schopenhauer. ... Pauli wrote sympathetically about extrasensory perception, noting approvingly that "even such a thoroughly critical philosopher as Schopenhauer not only regarded parapsychological effects going far beyond what is secured by scientific evidence as possible, but even considered them as a support for his philosophy".}}</ref> and [[Ettore Majorana|Majorana]].<ref name=Majorana /> Einstein described Schopenhauer's thoughts as a "continual consolation" and called him a genius.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Einstein: His Life and Universe|last=Isaacson|first=Walter|publisher=Simon & Schuster|year=2007|isbn=978-0743264747|location=New York|page=367}}</ref> In his Berlin study three figures hung on the wall: [[Michael Faraday|Faraday]], [[James Clerk Maxwell|Maxwell]], Schopenhauer.<ref name="Howard" />{{rp|87}} [[Konrad Wachsmann]] recalled: "He often sat with one of the well-worn Schopenhauer volumes, and as he sat there, he seemed so pleased, as if he were engaged with a serene and cheerful work."<ref name="Howard">{{Cite book|title=A Peek behind the Veil of Maya: Einstein, Schopenhauer, and the Historical Background of the Conception of Space as a Ground for the Individuation of Physical Systems|last=Don|first=Howard|publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press|year=1997|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>{{rp|92}} When [[Erwin Schrödinger]] discovered Schopenhauer ("the greatest savant of the West") he considered switching his study of physics to philosophy.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Einstein's Dice and Schrödinger's Cat: How Two Great Minds Battled Quantum Randomness to Create a Unified Theory of Physics|last=Halpern|first=Paul|publisher=|year=2015|isbn=978-0465040650|location=|page=189}}</ref> He maintained the idealistic views during the rest of his life.<ref name="Howard" />{{rp|132}} [[Wolfgang Pauli]] accepted the main tenet of Schopenhauer's metaphysics, that the [[thing-in-itself]] is will.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/6149849/Schopenhauers_Metaphysics_and_Contemporary_Quantum_Theory|title=Schopenhauers Metaphysics and Contemporary Quantum Theory|last=Raymond B. Marcin|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=|quote=David Lindorff referred to Schopenhauer as Pauli's “favorite philosopher”, and Pauli himself often expressed his agreement with the main tenet of Schopenhauer's philosophy. … Suzanne Gieser cited a 1952 letter from Pauli to Carl Jung, in which Pauli indicated that, while he accepted Schopenhauer's main tenet that the thing-in-itself of all reality is will.}}</ref> But most of all Schopenhauer is famous for his influence on artists. [[Richard Wagner]] became one of the earliest and most famous adherents of the Schopenhauerian philosophy.<ref>See e.g. Magee (2000) 276–278.</ref> The admiration was not mutual, and Schopenhauer proclaimed: "I remain faithful to Rossini and Mozart!"<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Invention of Beethoven and Rossini: Historiography, Analysis, Criticism|last=Nicholas Mathew, Benjamin Walton|first=|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|page=296}}</ref> See also [[Tristan und Isolde#Influence of Schopenhauer on Tristan und Isolde|Influence of Schopenhauer on Tristan und Isolde]]. {{Css Image Crop|Image = DAN-28a-Danzig-500MIL Mark (1923).jpg|bSize = 235|cWidth = 235|cHeight = 133|oTop = 2|oLeft = 0|Location = right|Description= Schopenhauer depicted on a 500 million Danzig [[German Papiermark#German Papiermark of Danzig|papiermark]] note (1923).}} Under the influence of Schopenhauer [[Leo Tolstoy]] became convinced that the truth of all religions lies in self-renunciation. When he read his philosophy he exclaimed "at present I am convinced that Schopenhauer is the greatest genius among men. ... It is the whole world in an incomparably beautiful and clear reflection."<ref>Tolstoy's letter to Afanasy Fet on August 30, 1869. "Do you know what this summer has meant for me? Constant raptures over Schopenhauer and a whole series of spiritual delights as I've never experienced before. I have brought all of his works and read him over and over, Kant too by the way. Assuredly no student has ever learned and discovered so much in one semester as I have during this summer. I do not know if I shall ever change my opinion, but at present I am convinced that Schopenhauer is the greatest genius among men. You say he is so-so, he has written a few things on philosophy? What is so-so? It is the whole world in an incomparably beautiful and clear reflection. I have started to translate him. Won't you help me? Indeed, I cannot understand how his name can be unknown. The only explanation for this can only be the one he so often repeats, that is, that there is scarcely anyone but idiots in the world."</ref> He said that what he has written in ''[[War and Peace]]'' is also said by Schopenhauer in ''The World as Will and Representation''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/316432|title=Quietism from the Side of Happiness: Tolstoy, Schopenhauer, War and Peace|last=Thompson|first=Caleb|date=|website=|access-date=}}</ref> [[Jorge Luis Borges]] remarked that the reason he had never attempted to write a systematic account of his world view, despite his penchant for philosophy and metaphysics in particular, was because Schopenhauer had already written it for him.{{sfn|Magee|1997|p=413}} Other figures in literature who were strongly influenced by Schopenhauer were [[Thomas Mann]], [[Afanasy Fet]], [[Joris-Karl Huysmans|J.-K. Huysmans]] and [[George Santayana]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Santayana and Schopenhauer|last=Caleb Flamm|first=Matthew|journal=Transactions of the Charles S. Peirce Society|volume=38|issue=3|pages=413–431|access-date=|quote=A thinker of whom it is well known that Santayana had an early, deep admiration, namely, Schopenhauer|jstor = 40320900|year=2002}}</ref> [[Sergei Prokofiev]], although initially reluctant to engage with works noted for their pessimism, became fascinated with Schopenhauer after reading ''Aphorisms on the Wisdom of LifeI'' in ''Parerga and ParalipomenaI.'' "With his truths Schopenhauer gave me a spiritual world and an awareness of happiness."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sergey Prokofiev and His World|last=Morrison|first=Simon|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|isbn=9780691138954|location=|pages=19, 20}}</ref> [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] owed the awakening of his philosophical interest to reading ''The World as Will and Representation'' and admitted that he was one of the few philosophers that he respected, dedicating to him his essay ''Schopenhauer als Erzieher''<ref>[[s:Schopenhauer as Educator|Schopenhauer as Educator]]</ref> one of his ''[[Untimely Meditations]]''. [[File:DBP 1988 1357 Arthur Schopenhauer.jpg|thumb|Commemorative stamp of the Deutsche Bundespost]] As a teenager, [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] adopted Schopenhauer's epistemological idealism. However, after his study of the philosophy of mathematics, he rejected epistemological [[transcendental idealism]] for [[Gottlob Frege]]'s conceptual [[Metaphysical realism|realism]]. In later years, Wittgenstein was highly dismissive of Schopenhauer, describing him as an ultimately shallow thinker: "Schopenhauer has quite a crude mind ... where real depth starts, his comes to an end."<ref name="Culture & Value, p.24, 1933–4"/><ref>Malcolm, Norman. Ludwig Wittgenstein: A Memoir. Oxford University Press, 1958, p. 6</ref> His friend [[Bertrand Russell]] had a low opinion on the philosopher, and attacked him in his famous [[History of Western Philosophy (Russell)|''History of Western Philosophy'']] for hypocritically praising asceticism yet not acting upon it.<ref>{{cite book|last=Russell|first=Bertrand|title=History of Western Philosophy|year=1946|publisher=George Allen and Unwin LTD|location=Start of 2nd paragraph|page=786}}</ref> On the opposite isle of Russell on the foundations of mathematics, the Dutch mathematician [[L. E. J. Brouwer]] incorporated the ideas of Kant and Schopenhauer in [[intuitionism]], where mathematics is considered a purely mental activity, instead of an analytic activity wherein objective properties of reality are revealed. Brouwer was also influenced by Schopenhauer's metaphysics, and wrote an essay on mysticism. == Selected bibliography == <!--older texts use "Ueber" instead of "Über"--> * ''[[On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason]] (Ueber die vierfache Wurzel des Satzes vom zureichenden Grunde''), 1813 * ''[[On Vision and Colors]]'' (''Ueber das Sehn und die Farben''), 1816 {{ISBN|978-0-85496-988-3}} * ''Theory of Colors (Theoria colorum)'', 1830. * ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'' (alternatively translated in English as ''The World as Will and Idea''; original German is ''Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung''): vol. 1818/1819, vol. 2, 1844 ** Vol. 1 Dover edition 1966, {{ISBN|978-0-486-21761-1}} ** Vol. 2 Dover edition 1966, {{ISBN|978-0-486-21762-8}} ** Peter Smith Publisher hardcover set 1969, {{ISBN|978-0-8446-2885-1}} ** Everyman Paperback combined abridged edition (290 pp.) {{ISBN|978-0-460-87505-9}} * ''[[The Art of Being Right]] (Eristische Dialektik: Die Kunst, Recht zu Behalten)'', 1831 * ''[[On the Will in Nature]] (Ueber den Willen in der Natur)'', 1836 {{ISBN|978-0-85496-999-9}} * ''[[On the Freedom of the Will]] (Ueber die Freiheit des menschlichen Willens''), 1839 {{ISBN|978-0-631-14552-3}} * ''[[On the Basis of Morality]] (Ueber die Grundlage der Moral)'', 1840 * ''The Two Basic Problems of Ethics: On the Freedom of the Will, On the Basis of Morality (Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik: Ueber die Freiheit des menschlichen Willens, Ueber das Fundament der Moral''), 1841. * ''[[Parerga and Paralipomena]]'', 1851; English translation by E. F. J. Payne, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1974, 2 volumes: ** Printings: *** 1974 Hardcover, by ISBN **** Vols. 1 and 2, {{ISBN|978-0-19-519813-3}}, **** Vol. 1, ISBN **** Vol. 2, {{ISBN|978-0-19-824527-8}}, *** 1974/1980 Paperback, Vol. 1, {{ISBN|978-0-19-824634-3}}, Vol. 2, {{ISBN|978-0-19-824635-0}}, *** 2001 Paperback, Vol. 1, {{ISBN|978-0-19-924220-7}}, Vol. 2, {{ISBN|978-0-19-924221-4}} ** ''Essays and Aphorisms'', being excerpts from Volume 2 of ''Parerga und Paralipomena'', selected and translated by R. J. Hollingdale, with Introduction by R J Hollingdale, Penguin Classics, 1970, Paperback 1973: {{ISBN|978-0-14-044227-4}} * ''An Enquiry concerning Ghost-seeing, and what is connected therewith (Versuch über das Geistersehn und was damit zusammenhangt)'', 1851 * Arthur Schopenhauer, ''Manuscript Remains'', Volume II, Berg Publishers Ltd., {{ISBN|978-0-85496-539-7}} === Online === * {{gutenberg author|id=Arthur+Schopenhauer | name=Arthur Schopenhauer}} * ''[http://www.logicien.fr Illustrated version of the "Art of Being Right"] and links to logic and sophisms used by the stratagems. * ''[http://coolhaus.de/art-of-controversy/ The Art Of Controversy (Die Kunst, Recht zu behalten)]''. (bilingual) [''[[The Art of Being Right]]''] * ''[http://librivox.org/studies-in-pessimism-by-arthur-schopenhauer/ Studies in Pessimism]'' – audiobook from [[LibriVox]] * ''The World as Will and Idea'' at [[Internet Archive]]: ** ''[https://archive.org/details/theworldaswillan01schouoft Volume I]'' ** ''[https://archive.org/details/theworldaswill02schouoft Volume II]'' ** ''[https://archive.org/details/theworldaswillan03schouoft Volume III]'' * ''On the fourfold root of the principle of sufficient reason'' and ''On the will in nature.'' Two essays: ** [https://archive.org/details/onthefourfoldroo00schouoft Internet Archive.] Translated by Mrs. Karl Hillebrand (1903). ** [http://dlxs2.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=cdl;idno=cdl322 Cornell University Library Historical Monographs Collection.] Reprinted by [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1429739630/ Cornell University Library Digital Collections] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081029052257/http://www.schopenhauersource.org/type_list.php?type=manuscript Facsimile edition of Schopenhauer's manuscripts] in [http://www.schopenhauersource.org/ SchopenhauerSource] * ''[http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/s/schopenhauer/arthur/essays/ Essays of Schopenhauer]'' == See also == {{Portal|Philosophy}} * [[Eye of a needle]] * [[God in Buddhism]] * [[Massacre of the Innocents (Guido Reni)|''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)]] * [[Misotheism]] * [[Mortal coil]] * [[Nihilism]] * [[Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism]] == References == === Citations === {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} === Sources === {{Refbegin|30em}} * Albright, Daniel (2004) ''Modernism and Music: An Anthology of Sources''. University of Chicago Press. {{ISBN|978-0-226-01267-4}} * [[Frederick C. Beiser|Beiser, Frederick C.]], ''Weltschmerz: Pessimism in German Philosophy, 1860-1900'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016). * Hannan, Barbara, ''The Riddle of the World: A Reconsideration of Schopenhauer's Philosophy'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009). * [[Bryan Magee|Magee, Bryan]], ''Confessions of a Philosopher'', Random House, 1998, {{ISBN|978-0-375-50028-2}}. Chapters 20, 21. * [[Rüdiger Safranski|Safranski, Rüdiger]] (1990) ''Schopenhauer and the Wild Years of Philosophy''. Harvard University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-674-79275-3}}; orig. German ''Schopenhauer und Die wilden Jahre der Philosophie'', Carl Hanser Verlag (1987) * [[Thomas Mann]] editor, ''The Living Thoughts of Schopenhauer'', Longmans Green & Co., 1939 {{Refend}} == Further reading == === Biographies === * Cartwright, David. ''Schopenhauer: A Biography'', Cambridge University Press, 2010. {{ISBN|978-0-521-82598-6}} * [[Frederick Copleston]], ''Arthur Schopenhauer, philosopher of pessimism'' (Burns, Oates & Washbourne, 1946) * O.F.Damm, ''Arthur Schopenhauer – eine Biographie'', (Reclam, 1912) * Kuno Fischer, ''Arthur Schopenhauer'' (Heidelberg: Winter, 1893); revised as ''Schopenhauers Leben, Werke und Lehre'' (Heidelberg: Winter, 1898). * Eduard Grisebach, ''Schopenhauer – Geschichte seines Lebens'' (Berlin: Hofmann, 1876). * D.W. Hamlyn, ''Schopenhauer'', London: Routledge & Kegan Paul (1980, 1985) * Heinrich Hasse, ''Schopenhauer''. (Reinhardt, 1926) * Arthur Hübscher, ''Arthur Schopenhauer – Ein Lebensbild'' (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1938). * [[Thomas Mann]], ''Schopenhauer'' (Bermann-Fischer, 1938) * [[Jack Matthews (author)|Matthews, Jack]], ''Schopenhauer's Will: Das Testament'', Nine Point Publishing, 2015. {{ISBN|978-0985827885}}. A recent creative biography by philosophical novelist [[Jack Matthews (author)|Jack Matthews]]. * Rüdiger Safranski, ''Schopenhauer und die wilden Jahre der Philosophie – Eine Biographie'', hard cover Carl Hanser Verlag, München 1987, {{ISBN|978-3-446-14490-3}}, pocket edition Fischer: {{ISBN|978-3-596-14299-6}}. * Rüdiger Safranski, ''Schopenhauer and the Wild Years of Philosophy'', trans. Ewald Osers (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1989) * Walther Schneider, ''Schopenhauer – Eine Biographie'' (Vienna: Bermann-Fischer, 1937). * William Wallace, ''Life of Arthur Schopenhauer'' (London: Scott, 1890; repr., St. Clair Shores, Mich.: Scholarly Press, 1970) * Helen Zimmern, ''[https://archive.org/stream/arthurschopenha00zimmuoft#page/n7/mode/2up Arthur Schopenhauer: His Life and His Philosophy]'' (London: Longmans, Green & Co, 1876) === Other books === * App, Urs. [http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp200_schopenhauer.pdf Arthur Schopenhauer and China. ''Sino-Platonic Papers'' Nr. 200 (April 2010)] (PDF, 8.7&nbsp;Mb PDF, 164 p.). Contains extensive appendixes with transcriptions and English translations of Schopenhauer's early notes about Buddhism and Indian philosophy. * Atwell, John. ''Schopenhauer on the Character of the World, The Metaphysics of Will''. * --------, ''Schopenhauer, The Human Character''. * Edwards, Anthony. ''An Evolutionary Epistemological Critique of Schopenhauer's Metaphysics''. 123 Books, 2011. * [[Frederick Copleston|Copleston, Frederick]], ''Schopenhauer: Philosopher of Pessimism'', 1946 (reprinted London: Search Press, 1975). * [[Patrick Gardiner|Gardiner, Patrick]], 1963. ''Schopenhauer''. Penguin Books. * --------, ''Schopenhauer: A Very Short introduction''. * Janaway, Christopher, 2003. ''Self and World in Schopenhauer's Philosophy''. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-825003-6}} * [[Bryan Magee|Magee, Bryan]], ''The Philosophy of Schopenhauer'', Oxford University Press (1988, reprint 1997). {{ISBN|978-0-19-823722-8}} * Mannion, Gerard, "Schopenhauer, Religion and Morality – The Humble Path to Ethics", Ashgate Press, New Critical Thinking in Philosophy Series, 2003, 314pp. * Trottier, Danick. ''L’influence de la philosophie schopenhauerienne dans la vie et l’oeuvre de Richard Wagner ; et, Qu’est-ce qui séduit, obsède, magnétise le philosophe dans l’art des sons? deux études en esthétique musicale'', Université du Québec à Montréal, Département de musique, 2000. * [[Helen Zimmern|Zimmern, Helen]], ''[[s:Arthur Schopenhauer, his Life and Philosophy|Arthur Schopenhauer, his Life and Philosophy]]'', London, [[Longman|Longman, and Co.]], 1876. === Articles === * {{Cite journal | doi = 10.2307/1399616 | last1 = Abelson | first1 = Peter | year = 1993 | title = Schopenhauer and Buddhism | url = http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/peter2.htm | journal = Philosophy East and West | volume = 43 | issue = 2| pages = 255–78 | jstor = 1399616 }} * Jiménez, Camilo, 2006, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20070702122520/http://www.avinus-magazin.eu/html/jimenez_-_der_junge_schopenhau.html Tagebuch eines Ehrgeizigen: Arthur Schopenhauers Studienjahre in Berlin,]" ''Avinus Magazin'' (in German). * Luchte, James, 2009, "[http://luchte.wordpress.com/the-body-of-sublime-knowledge-the-aesthetic-phenomenology-of-arthur-schopenhauer/ The Body of Sublime Knowledge: The Aesthetic Phenomenology of Arthur Schopenhauer,]" ''Heythrop Journal'', Volume 50, Number 2, pp.&nbsp;228–242. * Mazard, Eisel, 2005, "[http://www.pratyeka.org/schopenhauer/ Schopenhauer and the Empirical Critique of Idealism in the History of Ideas.]" On Schopenhauer's (debated) place in the history of European philosophy and his relation to his predecessors. * Moges, Awet, 2006, "[http://www.galilean-library.org/manuscript.php?postid=43800 Schopenhauer's Philosophy.]" Galileian Library. * [[Sangharakshita]], 2004, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20040826122437/http://www.centrebouddhisteparis.org/En_Anglais/Sangharakshita_en_anglais/Aesthetic_appreciation/aesthetic_appreciation.html Schopenhauer and aesthetic appreciation.]" * {{Cite journal | last1 = Young | first1 = Christopher | last2 = Brook | first2 = Andrew | year = 1994 | title = Schopenhauer and Freud | url = https://carleton.ca/~abrook/SCHOPENY.htm | journal = International Journal of Psychoanalysis | volume = 75 | issue = | pages = 101–18 | pmid = 8005756 }} * [https://books.google.com/books?id=ungVAQAAIAAJ&pg=PP11 Oxenford's "Iconoclasm in German Philosophy," (See p. 388)] == External links == {{Sister project links|v=no|n=no|b=no|wikt=no|author=yes}} * {{Gutenberg author |id=Schopenhauer,+Arthur | name=Arthur Schopenhauer}} * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Arthur Schopenhauer}} * {{Librivox author |id=165}} * {{cite SEP |url-id=schopenhauer |title=Arthur Schopenhauer |last=Wicks |first=Robert}} * [http://www.iep.utm.edu/schopenh/ ''Arthur Schopenhauer''] an article by Mary Troxell in [[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] 2011 * [http://www.schopenhauersource.org/ Schopenhauersource: Reproductions of Schopenhauer's manuscripts] * [https://archive.org/details/cu31924029023327 Kant's philosophy as rectified by Schopenhauer] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110421040017/http://www.weple.org/timeline.html#ids=14631,12007,12598,700,10671,9518,37304,95184,&title=8%20German%20Philosophers Timeline of German Philosophers] * [http://ljhammond.com/classics/cl1.htm#scho A Quick Introduction to Schopenhauer] * {{Find a Grave|12793}} * Ross, Kelley L., 1998, "[http://www.friesian.com/arthur.htm Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860).]" Two short essays, on Schopenhauer's life and work, and on his dim view of academia. {{Schopenhauer|state=uncollapsed}} {{Continental philosophy}} {{metaphysics}} {{ethics}} {{Aesthetics}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Schopenhauer, Arthur}} [[Category:Arthur Schopenhauer| ]] [[Category:1788 births]] [[Category:1860 deaths]] [[Category:19th-century atheists]] [[Category:19th-century German writers]] [[Category:19th-century German philosophers]] [[Category:Anti-natalists]] [[Category:Aphorists]] [[Category:Atheist philosophers]] [[Category:German atheists]] [[Category:German monarchists]] [[Category:German people of Dutch descent]] [[Category:German philosophers]] [[Category:Anti-nationalists]] [[Category:Humboldt University of Berlin faculty]] [[Category:Idealists]] [[Category:Kantian philosophers]] [[Category:Metaphysicians]] [[Category:Monism]] [[Category:People from Gdańsk]] [[Category:University of Göttingen alumni]] [[Category:Philosophers of art]] [[Category:Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery]] nsdiyx7uuv2sxmn0mgadfhpd3ixvirj 0 701 860470869 860219494 2018-09-20T21:45:34Z Marek69 1469567 [[WP:AWB/T|Typo fixing]], [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser/General fixes|general fixes]] and clean up, [[WP:AWB/T|typo(s) fixed]]: on-board → on board wikitext text/x-wiki {{distinguish|Anguilla}} {{pp-pc1|small=yes}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{other use}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2017}} {{Coord|12|30|S|18|30|E|display=title}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Republic of Angola | common_name = Angola | native_name = {{native name|pt|República de Angola}} | 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Resolution 397|full membership]] | established_date3 = 22 November 1976 | established_event4 = [[Constitution of Angola|Current constitution]] | established_date4 = 21 January 2010 | area_km2 = 1246700 | area_rank = 22nd | area_sq_mi = 481354 | percent_water = negligible | population_estimate = | population_census = 25,789,024<ref name="INE Angola">[http://aiangola.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Publicação-Resultados-Definitivos-Censo-Geral-2014_Versão-22032016_DEFINITIVA-18H17.pdf 2014 population census (INE Angola)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506013702/http://aiangola.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Publica%C3%A7%C3%A3o-Resultados-Definitivos-Censo-Geral-2014_Vers%C3%A3o-22032016_DEFINITIVA-18H17.pdf|date=6 May 2016}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2014 | population_estimate_rank = 59th | population_census_year = 2014 | population_density_km2 = 20.69 | population_density_sq_mi = 53.57 | population_density_rank = 199th | GDP_PPP = $217.974&nbsp;billion<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2015/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2018&ey=2020&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&pr1.x=67&pr1.y=1&c=614%2C674%2C678%2C688%2C728%2C694%2C662%2C199%2C734%2C738%2C746%2C754&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a=|title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects: Angola|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2018 | GDP_PPP_rank = 64th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $7,943<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 107th | GDP_nominal = $112.533 billion<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_rank = 61st | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 91st | Gini = 42.7 | Gini_year = 2009 | Gini_ref = <ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI|title=Gini Index|publisher=World Bank|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150209003326/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI|archivedate=9 February 2015}}</ref> | GDP_nominal_year = 2018 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = $4,101<ref name=imf2/> | HDI = 0.581<!-- number only --> | HDI_year = 2018<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year --> | HDI_change = increase<!-- increase/decrease/steady --> | HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=http://www.hdr.undp.org/en/2018-update|title=2018 Human Development Report|year=2018|accessdate=14 September 2018|publisher=United Nations Development Programme}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 147th | currency = [[Angolan kwanza|Kwanza]] | currency_code = AOA | time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +1 | utc_offset_DST = | time_zone_DST = | drives_on = Right | calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Angola|+244]] | cctld = [[.ao]] }} '''Angola''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-Angola-pronunciation.ogg|æ|n|ˈ|ɡ|oʊ|l|ə}}; {{IPA-pt|ɐ̃ˈɡɔlɐ|lang}}), officially the '''Republic of Angola''' ({{lang-pt|República de Angola}}; [[Kikongo]], [[Kimbundu]] and {{lang-umb|Repubilika ya Ngola}}), is a west-coast [[country]] of [[Southern Africa|south]]-[[central Africa]]. It is the [[List of African countries by area|seventh-largest]] country in [[Africa]], bordered by [[Namibia]] to the south, the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] to the north, [[Zambia]] to the east, and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the west. Angola has an [[exclave]] province, the province of [[Cabinda Province|Cabinda]] that borders the [[Republic of the Congo]] and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The capital and largest city of Angola is [[Luanda]]. Although inhabited since the [[Paleolithic Era]], what is now Angola was molded by [[Portuguese colonization of Africa|Portuguese colonisation]]. It began with, and was for centuries limited to, coastal settlements and [[trading post]]s established starting in the 16th century. In the 19th century, European settlers slowly and hesitantly began to establish themselves in the interior. The [[Portuguese West Africa|Portuguese colony]] that became Angola did not have its present borders until the early 20th century because of resistance by groups such as the Cuamato, the [[Oukwanyama|Kwanyama]] and the [[Mbunda people|Mbunda]]. After a protracted [[Angolan War of Independence|anti-colonial struggle]], independence was achieved in 1975 as the [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] [[People's Republic of Angola]], a [[one-party state]] supported by the [[Soviet Union]] and [[Cuba]]. The [[Angolan Civil War|civil war]] between the ruling [[People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola]] (MPLA) and the insurgent anti-communist [[National Union for the Total Independence of Angola]] (UNITA), supported by the United States and [[apartheid South Africa]], lasted until 2002. It has since become a relatively stable [[Unitary state|unitary]] [[presidential republic]]. Angola has vast [[Mineral reserve|mineral]] and [[petroleum reserves]], and its economy is among the fastest-growing in the world, especially since the end of the civil war; however, the [[standard of living]] remains low for most of the population, and [[life expectancy]] in Angola is among the lowest in the world, while [[infant mortality]] is among the highest.<ref>{{cite web|title=Life expectancy at birth|year=2014|work=World Fact Book|publisher=United States Central Intelligence Agency|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2102rank.html}}</ref> Angola's economic growth is highly uneven, with most of the nation's [[wealth concentration|wealth concentrated]] in a disproportionately small sector of the population.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2010/04/13/transparency-and-accountability-angola|title=Transparency and Accountability in Angola|website=Human Rights Watch|access-date=1 April 2016}}</ref> Angola is a member state of the [[United Nations]], [[OPEC]], [[African Union]], the [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]], and the [[Southern African Development Community]]. A highly multiethnic country, Angola's 25.8 million people span tribal groups, customs, and traditions. Angolan culture reflects centuries of Portuguese rule, in the predominance of the [[Portuguese language]] and of the [[Catholic Church]]. ==Etymology== The name ''Angola'' comes from the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] colonial name ''[[Angola (Portugal)|Reino de Angola]] (Kingdom of Angola)'', which appeared as early as [[Dias de Novais]]'s 1571 charter.<ref>Heywood, Linda M. & Thornton, John K. (2007) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=S42CypbRTlQC&pg=PA82 Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the foundation of the Americas, 1585–1660]''. Cambridge University Press. p. 82. {{ISBN|0521770653}}</ref> The [[toponym]] was derived by the Portuguese from the title ''[[List of Ngolas of Ndongo|ngola]]'' held by the kings of [[Kingdom of Ndongo|Ndongo]]. Ndongo in the [[highland]]s, between the [[Kwanza River|Kwanza]] and [[Lukala River]]s, was nominally a possession of the [[Kingdom of Kongo]], but was seeking greater independence in the 16th century.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}} ==History== {{Main|History of Angola}} ===Early migrations and political units=== [[File:KingdomNdongo1711.png|thumb|left|Territory comprising [[Kingdom of Ndongo]], present-day Angola]] Modern Angola was populated predominantly by [[nomad]]ic [[Khoi]] and [[San people|San]] prior to the first [[Bantu migration]]s. The Khoi and San peoples were neither [[Pastoralism|pastoralist]]s nor [[cultivator]]s, but [[hunter-gatherer]]s.<ref name=Henderson>{{cite book|last=Henderson|first=Lawrence|title=Angola: Five Centuries of Conflict|date=1979|pages=40–42|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca|isbn=978-0812216202}}</ref> They were displaced by [[Bantu peoples]] arriving from the north, most of whom likely originated in what is today northwestern [[Nigeria]] and southern [[Niger]].<ref name=Miller1>{{cite book|last=Miller|first=Josep h|title=Kings and Kinsmen: Early Mbundu States in Angola|date=1979|pages=55–56|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca|isbn=978-0198227045}}</ref> Bantu speakers introduced the cultivation of [[banana]]s and [[taro]], as well as large cattle herds, to Angola's central highlands and the Luanda plain.<ref name=Hendese Bantu established a number of political entities; the best-known of these was the [[Kingdom of the Kongo]], based in Angola, which extended northward to what is now the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], the [[Republic of the Congo]] and [[Gabon]]. It established [[trade route]]s with other city-states and civilisations up and down the coast of southwestern and western Africa and even with [[Great Zimbabwe]] and the [[Mutapa Empire]], although it engaged in little or no transoceanic trade.<ref name="The Story of Africa">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/1624_story_of_africa/page45.shtml|title=The Story of Africa|publisher=[[BBC]]|accessdate=27 June 2010}}</ref> To its south lay the [[Kingdom of Ndongo]], from which the area of the later Portuguese colony was sometimes known as ''Dongo''.{{sfnp|EB|1878}} ===Portuguese colonisation=== {{Main|Colonial history of Angola|Portuguese Angola}} [[File:Queen Nzinga 1657.png|thumb|[[Queen Nzinga]] in peace negotiations with the Portuguese governor in [[Luanda]], 1657.]] [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portuguese]] [[Age of Discovery|explorer]] [[Diogo Cão]] reached the area in 1484.{{sfnp|EB|1878}} The previous year, the Portuguese had established relations with the [[Kingdom of Kongo|Kongo]], which stretched at the time from modern [[Gabon]] in the north to the [[Kwanza River]] in the south. The Portuguese established their primary early trading post at [[Soyo]], which is now the northernmost city in Angola apart from the [[Cabinda Province|Cabinda]] [[exclave]]. [[Paulo Dias de Novais]] founded São Paulo de Loanda ([[Luanda]]) in 1575 with a hundred families of settlers and four hundred soldiers. [[Benguela]] was fortified in 1587 and became a township in 1617. The Portuguese established several other settlements, forts and trading posts along the Angolan coast, principally trading in [[Slavery in Angola|Angolan slaves]] for [[Captaincies of Brazil|Brazilian]] [[plantations in the American South|plantations]]. Local slave dealers provided a large number of slaves for the [[Portuguese Empire]],<ref name=Fleisch>{{cite encyclopedia|author=Fleisch, Axel|title=Angola: Slave Trade, Abolition of|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set|editor-last=Shillington|editor-first=Kevin|volume=1|pages=131–133|publisher=Routledge|year=2004|isbn=1-57958-245-1}}</ref> usually in exchange for manufactured goods from Europe.<ref>{{cite book|title=Angola in the Eighteenth Century: Slave trading in the 1700s|work=Angola President Jose Eduardo Dos Santos Handbook|author=Global Investment and Business Center|publisher=Int'l Business Publications|date=1 January 2006|page=153|isbn=0739716069}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|accessdate=14 May 2016|page=27|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/AFRICAEXT/Resources/africa-brazil-bridging-chapter2.pdf|title=The History of Brazil–Africa Relations|author=World Bank|work=Bridging the Atlantic}}</ref> This part of the [[Atlantic slave trade]] continued until after [[Empire of Brazil|Brazil's]] [[independence of Brazil|independence]] in the 1820s.<ref name="Handbook">{{Cite book|title=Angola, a Country Study|edition=Third|editor-last=Collelo|editor-first=Thomas|year=1991|publisher=Department of the Army, [[American University]]|location=Washington, D.C.|series=Area Handbook Series|isbn=978-0160308444|pages=14–26}}</ref> Despite Portugal's territorial claims in Angola, its control over much of the country's vast interior was minimal.{{sfnp|EB|1878}} In the 16th century Portugal gained control of the coast through a series of treaties and wars. Life for European colonists was difficult and progress slow. [[John Iliffe (historian)|John Iliffe]] notes that "Portuguese records of Angola from the 16th century show that a great [[famine]] occurred on average every seventy years; accompanied by epidemic disease, it might kill one-third or one-half of the population, destroying the demographic growth of a generation and forcing colonists back into the river valleys".<ref>Iliffe, John (2007) [https://books.google.com/books?id=bNGN2URP_rUC ''Africans: the history of a continent'']. Cambridge University Press. p. 68. {{ISBN|0-521-68297-5}}. For valuable complements for the 16th and 17th centuries see Beatrix Heintze, ''Studien zur Geschichte Angolas im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert'', Colónia/Alemanha: Köppe, 1996</ref> [[File:Kongo audience.jpg|thumb|left|An illustration depicting Portuguese encounter with Kongo Royal family.]] During the [[Portuguese Restoration War]], the [[Dutch West India Company]] [[Dutch Loango-Angola|occupied]] the principal settlement of Luanda in 1641, using alliances with local peoples to carry out attacks against Portuguese holdings elsewhere.<ref name="Handbook"/> A fleet under [[Salvador de Sá]] retook Luanda in 1648; reconquest of the rest of the territory was completed by 1650. New treaties with the [[Kingdom of Kongo|Kongo]] were signed in 1649; others with [[Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba|Njinga]]'s Kingdom of [[Matamba]] and [[Ndongo]] followed in 1656. The conquest of [[Pungo Andongo]] in 1671 was the last major Portuguese expansion from Luanda, as attempts to invade Kongo in 1670 and Matamba in 1681 failed. Colonial outposts also expanded inward from Benguela, but until the late 19th century the inroads from Luanda and Benguela were very limited.{{sfnp|EB|1878}} Hamstrung by a series of political upheavals in the early 1800s, Portugal was slow to mount a large scale annexation of Angolan territory.<ref name="Handbook"/> The [[slave trade]] was abolished in Angola in 1836, and in 1854 the colonial government freed all its existing slaves.<ref name="Handbook"/> Four years later, a more progressive administration appointed by Lisbon abolished [[slavery]] altogether. However, these decrees remained largely unenforceable, and the Portuguese depended on assistance from the British [[Royal Navy]] to enforce their ban on the slave trade.<ref name="Handbook"/> This coincided with a series of renewed military expeditions into the [[hinterland]]. By the mid-nineteenth century Portugal had established its dominion as far east as the [[Congo River]] and as far south as [[Moçâmedes|Mossâmedes]].<ref name="Handbook"/> Until the late 1880s, Lisbon entertained proposals to link Angola with its [[colony]] in [[Mozambique]] but was blocked by British and Belgian opposition.<ref name=Corrado>{{cite book|last=Corrado|first=Jacopo|title=The Creole Elite and the Rise of Angolan Protonationalism: 1870–1920|date=2008|pages=11–13|publisher=Cambria Press|location=Amherst, New York|isbn=978-1604975291}}</ref> In this period, the Portuguese came up against different forms of armed resistance from various peoples in Angola.<ref>See René Pélissier, ''Les guerres grises: Résistance et revoltes en Angola, (1845-1941)'', Éditions Pélissier, Montamets, 78630 Orgeval (France), 1977</ref> The [[Berlin Conference]] in 1884–1885 set the colony's borders, delineating the boundaries of Portuguese claims in Angola,<ref name=Corrado/> although many details were unresolved until the 1920s.<ref>See René Pélissier, ''La colonie du Minotaure. Nationalismes et révoltes en Angola (1926–1961)'', éditions Pélissier, Montamets, 78630 Orgeval (France), 1979</ref> Trade between Portugal and her African territories also rapidly increased as a result of protective [[tariff]]s, leading to increased development, and a wave of new Portuguese immigrants.<ref name=Corrado/> ===Rise of Angolan nationalism=== {{Main|Angolan War of Independence|Portuguese Colonial War}} [[File:Sempreatentos...aoperigo!.jpg|thumb|Portuguese troops on patrol during the [[Portuguese Colonial War]].<!-- Unclear whether this image was taken in Angola or Mozambique -->]] Under colonial law, black Angolans were forbidden from forming political parties or labour unions.<ref name=Okoth>{{cite book|last=Okoth|first=Assa|title=A History of Africa: African nationalism and the de-colonisation process|date=2006|pages=143–147|publisher=East African Educational Publishers|location=Nairobi|isbn=9966-25-358-0}}</ref> The first nationalist movements did not take root until after [[World War II]], spearheaded by a largely Westernised, Portuguese-speaking urban class which included many [[mestiço]]s.<ref name="Dowden">{{cite book| author = Dowden, Richard| title = Africa: Altered States, Ordinary Miracles|year= 2010|pages= 207–208| publisher = Portobello Books| location = London| isbn= 978-1-58648-753-9}}</ref> During the early 1960s they were joined by other associations stemming from ''ad hoc'' labour activism in the rural workforce.<ref name=Okoth/> Portugal's refusal to address increasing Angolan demands for [[self-determination]] provoked an armed conflict which erupted in 1961 with the [[Baixa de Cassanje revolt]] and gradually evolved into a protracted [[Angolan War of Independence|war of independence]] that persisted for the next twelve years.<ref name="Cornwell">{{cite web |title=The War of Independence|last=Cornwell|first=Richard|url=http://www.issafrica.org/pubs/books/Angola/4cornwell.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221015144/http://www.issafrica.org/pubs/books/Angola/4cornwell.pdf|dead-url=yes|archive-date=21 February 2015|location=Pretoria|publisher=Institute for Security Studies|date=1 November 2000|accessdate=20 February 2015}}</ref> Throughout the conflict, three militant nationalist movements with their own partisan guerrilla wings emerged from the fighting between the Portuguese government and local forces, supported to varying degrees by the [[Portuguese Communist Party]].<ref name="Dowden"/><ref name="Stockwell">{{cite book|title=In Search Of Enemies|last=Stockwell|first=John|location=London|publisher=Futura Publications Limited|year=1979|origyear=1978|isbn=978-0393009262|pages=44–45}}</ref> The ''[[FNLA|National Front for the Liberation of Angola]]'' (FNLA) recruited from [[Bakongo]] refugees in [[Zaire]].<ref name="Hanlon">{{cite book|title=Beggar Your Neighbours: Apartheid Power in Southern Africa|last=Hanlon|first=Joseph|location=Bloomington|publisher=Indiana University Press|date=1986|isbn=978-0253331311|page=155}}</ref> Benefiting from particularly favourable political circumstances in [[Kinshasha|Léopoldville]], and especially from a common border with Zaire, Angolan political exiles were able to build up a power base among a large expatriate community from related families, clans, and traditions.<ref name="Chabal">{{cite book|title=A History of Postcolonial Lusophone Africa|last=Chabal|first=Patrick|location=Bloomington|publisher=Indiana University Press|date=2002|isbn=978-0253215659|page=142}}</ref> People on both sides of the border spoke mutually intelligible dialects and enjoyed shared ties to the historical Kingdom of Kongo.<ref name="Chabal"/> Though as foreigners skilled Angolans could not take advantage of [[Mobutu Sese Seko]]'s state employment programme, some found work as middlemen for the absentee owners of various lucrative private ventures. The migrants eventually formed the FNLA with the intention of making a bid for political power upon their envisaged return to Angola.<ref name="Chabal"/> A largely [[Ovimbundu]] guerrilla initiative against the Portuguese in central Angola from 1966 was spearheaded by [[Jonas Savimbi]] and the ''[[UNITA|National Union for the Total Independence of Angola]]'' (UNITA).<ref name="Hanlon"/> It remained handicapped by its geographic remoteness from friendly borders, the ethnic fragmentation of the Ovimbundu, and the isolation of peasants on European plantations where they had little opportunity to mobilise.<ref name="Chabal"/> [[File:F.N.L.A. in Zaïre.jpg|thumb|left|FNLA insurgents being trained in [[Zaire]] in 1973]] During the late 1950s, the rise of the Marxist–Leninist ''[[MPLA|Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola]]'' (MPLA) in the east and Dembos hills north of Luanda came to hold special significance. Formed as a coalition resistance movement by the [[Angolan Communist Party]],<ref name="Cornwell"/> the organisation's leadership remained predominantly [[Ambundu]] and courted public sector workers in [[Luanda]].<ref name="Hanlon"/> Although both the MPLA and its rivals accepted material assistance from the [[Soviet Union]] or the [[People's Republic of China]], the former harboured strong anti-imperialist views and was openly critical of the [[United States]] and its support for Portugal.<ref name="Stockwell"/> This allowed it to win important ground on the diplomatic front, soliciting support from nonaligned governments in [[Morocco]], [[Ghana]], [[Guinea]], [[Mali]], and the [[United Arab Republic]].<ref name="Cornwell"/> The MPLA attempted to move its headquarters from [[Conakry]] to Léopoldville in October 1961, renewing efforts to create a common front with the FNLA, then known as the ''Union of Angolan Peoples'' (UPA) and its leader [[Holden Roberto]]. Roberto turned down the offer.<ref name="Cornwell"/> When the MPLA first attempted to insert its own insurgents into Angola, the cadres were ambushed and annihilated by UPA partisans on Roberto's orders—setting a precedent for the bitter factional strife which would later ignite the [[Angolan Civil War]].<ref name="Cornwell"/> ===Civil war=== {{Main|Angolan Civil War}} {{Further|Alvor Agreement|Cuban intervention in Angola}} [[File:Angola 1978.jpg|thumb|[[Agostinho Neto]], MPLA leader and [[List of heads of state of Angola|Angola's first president]], meets with Poland's ambassador in Luanda, 1978]] Throughout the war of independence, the three rival nationalist movements were severely hampered by political and military factionalism, as well as their inability to unite guerrilla efforts against the Portuguese.<ref name=Rothschild1>{{cite book|last=Rothschild|first=Donald|title=Managing Ethnic Conflict in Africa: Pressures and Incentives for Cooperation|date=1997|pages=115–120|publisher=The Brookings Institution|location=Washington|isbn=978-0815775935}}</ref> Between 1961 and 1975 the MPLA, UNITA, and the FNLA competed for influence in the Angolan population and the international community.<ref name=Rothschild1/> The [[Soviet Union]] and [[Cuba]] became especially sympathetic towards the MPLA and supplied that party with arms, ammunition, funding, and training.<ref name="Rothschild1"/> They also backed UNITA militants until it became clear that the latter was at irreconcilable odds with the MPLA.<ref name=Revolution>{{cite book|last=Domínguez|first=Jorge|title=To Make a World Safe for Revolution: Cuba's Foreign Policy|date=1989|pages=131–133|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0674893252}}</ref> The collapse of Portugal's [[Estado Novo (Portugal)|Estado Novo]] government following the 1974 [[Carnation Revolution]] suspended all Portuguese military activity in Africa and the brokering of a ceasefire pending negotiations for Angolan independence.<ref name=Rothschild1/> Encouraged by the [[Organisation of African Unity]], Holden Roberto, Jonas Savimbi, and MPLA chairman [[Agostinho Neto]] met in [[Mombasa]] in early January 1975 and agreed to form a coalition government.<ref name="Weigert">{{cite book|title=Angola: A Modern Military History|last=Weigert|first=Stephen|year=2011|location=Basingstoke|publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |isbn=978-0230117778|pages=56–65}}</ref> This was ratified by the [[Alvor Agreement]] later that month, which called for general elections and set the country's independence date for 11 November 1975.<ref name="Weigert"/> All three factions, however, followed up on the ceasefire by taking advantage of the gradual Portuguese withdrawal to seize various strategic positions, acquire more arms, and enlarge their militant forces.<ref name="Weigert"/> The rapid influx of weapons from numerous external sources, especially the Soviet Union and the United States, as well as the escalation of tensions between the nationalist parties, fueled a new outbreak of hostilities.<ref name="Weigert"/> With tacit American and Zairean support the FNLA began massing large numbers of troops in northern Angola in an attempt to gain military superiority.<ref name=Rothschild1/> Meanwhile, the MPLA began securing control of Luanda, a traditional Ambundu stronghold.<ref name=Rothschild1/> Sporadic violence broke out in Luanda over the next few months after the FNLA attacked MPLA forces in March 1975.<ref name="Weigert"/> The fighting intensified with street clashes in April and May, and UNITA became involved after over two hundred of its members were massacred by an MPLA contingent that June.<ref name="Weigert"/> An upswing in Soviet arms shipments to the MPLA influenced a decision by the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] to likewise provide substantial covert aid to the FNLA and UNITA.<ref name=Vanneman>{{cite book|last=Vanneman|first=Peter|title=Soviet Strategy in Southern Africa: Gorbachev's Pragmatic Approach|date=1990|pages=48–49|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|location=Stanford|isbn=978-0817989026}}</ref> In August 1975, the MPLA requested direct assistance from the Soviet Union in the form of ground troops.<ref name=Vanneman/> The Soviets declined, offering to send advisers but no troops; however, Cuba was more forthcoming and in late September dispatched nearly five hundred combat personnel to Angola, along with sophisticated weaponry and supplies.<ref name=Revolution/> By independence there were over a thousand Cuban soldiers in the country.<ref name=Vanneman/> They were kept supplied by a massive [[Cuba–Angola airbridge|airbridge]] carried out with Soviet aircraft.<ref name=Vanneman/> The persistent buildup of Cuban and Soviet military aid allowed the MPLA to drive its opponents from Luanda and blunt an abortive intervention by Zairean and [[South Africa]]n troops, which had deployed in a belated attempt to assist the FNLA and UNITA.<ref name="Weigert"/> The FNLA was largely annihilated, although UNITA managed to withdraw its civil officials and militia from Luanda and seek sanctuary in the southern provinces.<ref name=Rothschild1/> From there, Savimbi continued to mount a determined insurgent campaign against the MPLA.<ref name=Vanneman/> [[File:FAPLA car burning.PNG|thumb|left|An MPLA staff car burns after being destroyed in the fighting outside Novo Redondo (present-day [[Sumbe]]) in late 1975.]] Between 1975 and 1991, the MPLA implemented an economic and political system based on the principles of [[scientific socialism]], incorporating [[Planned economy|central planning]] and a [[Marxist–Leninist]] [[one-party state]].<ref name=Arming>{{cite book|last=Ferreira|first=Manuel|editor-last1=Brauer|editor-first1=Jurgen|editor-last2=Dunne|editor-first2=J. Paul|title=Arming the South: The Economics of Military Expenditure, Arms Production and Arms Trade in Developing Countries|date=2002|publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan|location=Basingstoke|isbn=978-0-230-50125-6|pages=251–255}}</ref> It embarked on an ambitious programme of [[Nationalization|nationalisation]], and the domestic private sector was essentially abolished.<ref name="Arming"/> Privately owned enterprises were nationalised and incorporated into a single umbrella of state-owned enterprises known as ''Unidades Economicas Estatais'' (UEE).<ref name="Arming"/> Under the MPLA, Angola experienced a significant degree of modern [[industrialisation]].<ref name=Arming/> However, corruption and graft also increased and public resources were either allocated inefficiently or simply embezzled by officials for personal enrichment.<ref name=SSG1>{{cite book|last=Akongdit|first=Addis Ababa Othow|title=Impact of Political Stability on Economic Development: Case of South Sudan|date=2013|pages=74–75|publisher=AuthorHouse Ltd, Publishers|location=Bloomington|isbn=978-1491876442}}</ref> The ruling party survived an attempted coup d'état by the [[Maoism|Maoist]]-oriented [[Communist Organization of Angola|Communist Organisation of Angola]] (OCA) in 1977, which was suppressed after a series of bloody political purges left thousands of OCA supporters dead.<ref name=Tucker1>{{cite book|last=Tucker|first=Spencer|title=Encyclopedia of Insurgency and Counterinsurgency: A New Era of Modern Warfare|date=2013|pages=374–375|publisher=ABC-CLIO Ltd, Publishers|location=Santa Barbara|isbn=978-1610692793}}</ref> The MPLA abandoned its former Marxist ideology at its third party congress in 1990, and declared [[social democracy]] to be its new platform.<ref name=Tucker1/> Angola subsequently became a member of the [[International Monetary Fund]]; restrictions on the market economy were also reduced in an attempt to draw foreign investment.<ref name=Tordoff1>{{cite book|last=Tordoff|first=William|title=Government and Politics in Africa|edition=Third|date=1997|pages=97–98|publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan|location=Basingstoke|isbn=978-0333694749}}</ref> By May 1991 it reached a peace agreement with UNITA, the [[Bicesse Accords]], which scheduled [[Angolan general election, 1992|new general elections]] for September 1992.<ref name=Tordoff1/> When the MPLA secured a major electoral victory, UNITA objected to the results of both the presidential and legislative vote count and returned to war.<ref name=Tordoff1/> Following the election, the [[Halloween massacre (Angola)|Halloween massacre]] occurred from October 30 to November 1, where MPLA forces killed thousands of UNITA supporters.<ref>{{cite book|last=W. James|first=Martin|year=2004|title=Historical Dictionary of Angola|pages=161–162|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1538111239}}</ref> ===Ceasefire with UNITA=== {{Main|2000s in Angola}} [[File:Cabinda, R. Congo, D.R. Congo, Angola.png|thumb|{{legend|#ff0000|[[Cabinda Province]]}}{{legend|#00ff00|Republic of the Congo}}{{legend|#0000ff|Democratic Republic of the Congo}}{{legend|#ff00ff|The rest of Angola}}]] On 22 March 2002, Jonas Savimbi was killed in action against government troops. UNITA and the MPLA reached a cease-fire shortly afterwards. UNITA gave up its armed wing and assumed the role of a major opposition party. Although the political situation of the country began to stabilise, regular democratic processes did not prevail until the [[elections in Angola]] in 2008 and 2012 and the adoption of a new [[Constitution of Angola|constitution]] in 2010, all of which strengthened the prevailing [[dominant-party system]]. Angola has a serious humanitarian crisis; the result of the prolonged war, of the abundance of [[minefield]]s, of the continued political (and to a much lesser degree) military activities in favour of the independence of the [[exclave]] of [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] (carried out in the context of the protracted [[Cabinda War|Cabinda conflict]] by the [[Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda|FLEC]]), but most of all, by the depredation of the country's rich mineral resources by the régime.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}} While most of the internally displaced have now settled around the capital, in the so-called ''[[wikt:musseque|musseque]]s'', the general situation for Angolans remains desperate.<ref>Lari (2004), Human Rights Watch (2005)</ref><ref>For an overall analysis see Ricardo Soares de Oliveira, Magnificant and Beggar Land: Angola since the Civil War, London: Hurst, 2015</ref> [[Drought]] in 2016 caused the worst food crisis in [[Southern Africa]] in 25 years. Drought affected 1.4 million people across seven of Angola's 18 provinces. Food prices rose and acute [[malnutrition]] rates doubled, with more than 95,000 children affected. [[Food insecurity]] was expected{{by whom|date=December 2016}} to worsen from July to December 2016.<ref> {{cite web | url = http://theguardian.com/global-development/2016/may/22/southern-africa-worst-global-food-crisis-25-years | title = How southern Africa is coping with worst global food crisis for 25 years | publisher = The Guardian | quote = Drought is affecting 1.4 million people across seven of Angola’s 18 provinces. Food prices have rocketed and acute malnutrition rates have doubled, with more than 95,000 children affected. Food insecurity is expected to worsen from July to the end of the year. | access-date = 31 December 2016 }} </ref> ==Geography== {{Main|Geography of Angola}} At {{convert|481321|sqmi|km2|order=flip|abbr=on}},<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html|title=CIA – The World Factbook – Country Comparison :: Area|publisher=United States Central Intelligence Agency|accessdate=13 July 2014}}</ref> Angola is the world's twenty-third largest country. It is comparable in size to Mali, or twice the size of France or Texas. It lies mostly between latitudes [[4th parallel south|4°]] and [[18th parallel south|18°S]], and longitudes [[12th meridian east|12°]] and [[24th meridian east|24°E]]. Angola is bordered by [[Namibia]] to the south, [[Zambia]] to the east, the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] to the north-east and the [[South Atlantic Ocean]] to the west. The coastal [[exclave]] of [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] in the north, borders the [[Republic of the Congo]] to the north, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the south.<ref>{{cite web|title=Cabinda|publisher=Global Security|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/cabinda.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140708141035/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/cabinda.htm|archivedate=8 July 2014|deadurl=no}}</ref> Angola's capital, [[Luanda]], lies on the Atlantic coast in the northwest of the country. <gallery mode="packed" caption="Geography of Angola"> File:Beach of Coatinha in Benguela, Angola.jpg|Coatinha beach in [[Benguela]]. File:Miradouro da Lua (Angola).jpg|Miradouro da Lua on the south coast of [[Luanda]]. File:Epupa Falls 2.jpg|[[Epupa Falls]], [[Cunene River]] on the border of Angola and [[Namibia]]. File:Black Stones Pungo Adongo.JPG|[[Black Rocks at Pungo Andongo]] near Malange. File:Angola Topography.png|Topographic map of Angola. </gallery> ==Climate== {{Main|Climate of Angola}} [[File:Angola map of Köppen climate classification.svg|thumb|Angola map of Köppen climate classification.]] Angola, although located in a [[tropical zone]], has a climate that is not characterized for this region, due to the confluence of three factors: *The [[Benguela Current]], cold, along the southern part of the coast; *The relief in the interior; *Influence of the [[Namib Desert]] in the southwest. As a result, Angola's climate is characterized by two seasons: rainfall from October to April and drought, known as ''Cacimbo'', from May to August, drier, as the name implies, and with lower temperatures. On the other hand, while the coastline has high rainfall rates, decreasing from North to South and from {{convert|800|mm|abbr=off}} to {{convert|50|mm|abbr=off}}, with average annual temperatures above {{convert|23|°C}}, the interior zone can be divided into three areas: *North, with high rainfall and high temperatures; *Central Plateau, with a dry season and average temperatures of the order of 19&nbsp;°C; *South with very high thermal amplitudes due to the proximity of the [[Kalahari Desert]] and the influence of masses of tropical air.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Mulenga, Henry Mubanga|year=1999|title=Southern African climate anomalies, summer rainfall and the Angola low|series=PhD Dissertation|publisher=University of Cape Town|oclc=85939351}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Jury, M. R.|author2=Matari, E .E.|author3=Matitu, M.|year=2008|title=Equatorial African climate teleconnections|journal=Theoretical and Applied Climatology|volume=95|issue=3–4|pages=407–416|doi=10.1007/s00704-008-0018-4|bibcode=2009ThApC..95..407J}}</ref> ==Politics== {{Main|Politics of Angola}} {{See also|Elections in Angola|Constitution of Angola|List of political parties in Angola||Foreign relations of Angola|List of diplomatic missions of Angola}} [[File:Vladimir Putin with Jose Eduardo dos Santos-1.jpg|thumb|left|[[José Eduardo dos Santos]] meets with [[Vladimir Putin]].]] [[File:Angola National Assembly Building (19898889148).jpg|thumb|left|The National Assembly building in Luanda was built by a Portuguese company in 2013 at a cost of US$185 million]] The Angolan government is composed of three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial. The executive branch of the government is composed of the President, the Vice-Presidents and the Council of Ministers. The legislative branch comprises a 220-seat [[Unicameralism|unicameral]] legislature elected from both provincial and nationwide constituencies. For decades, political power has been concentrated in the presidency. The [[Constitution of Angola|Constitution of 2010]] establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system is based on Portuguese law and customary law but is weak and fragmented, and courts operate in only 12 of more than 140 municipalities.<ref>{{cite web|title=Angola|url=https://www.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/angola/19488.htm|website=State.gov|publisher=US Department of State|accessdate=22 November 2016}}</ref> A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court does not hold the powers of [[judicial review]].<ref name="CIA"/> Governors of the 18 provinces are appointed by the president. After the end of the civil war the regime came under pressure from within as well as from the international community to become more democratic and less authoritarian. Its reaction was to implement a number of changes without substantially changing its character.<ref>Péclard, Didier (ed.) (2008) ''L'Angola dans la paix: Autoritarisme et reconversions'', special issue of ''Politique africains'' (Paris), p. 110.</ref> Angola is classified as 'not free' by [[Freedom House]] in the [[Freedom in the World]] 2014 report.<ref name=freedomhouse>{{cite web|title=Angola|url=https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2014/angola|work=Freedom in the World 2014|publisher=Freedom House|accessdate=7 February 2015}}</ref> The report noted that the [[Angolan legislative election, 2012|August 2012 parliamentary elections]], in which the ruling [[Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola]] won more than 70% of the vote, suffered from serious flaws, including outdated and inaccurate voter rolls.<ref name=freedomhouse/> Voter turnout dropped from 80% in 2008 to 60%.<ref name=freedomhouse/> Angola scored poorly on the 2013 [[Ibrahim Index of African Governance]]. It was ranked 39 out of 52 [[sub-Saharan Africa]]n countries, scoring particularly badly in the areas of participation and human rights, sustainable economic opportunity and human development. The Ibrahim Index uses a number of variables to compile its list which reflects the state of governance in Africa.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.moibrahimfoundation.org/iiag/| title=Ibrahim Index of African Governance| publisher=Mo Ibrahim Foundation| accessdate=9 August 2014}}</ref> [[File:José Eduardo dos Santos 3.jpg|thumb|right|[[José Eduardo dos Santos]], second President of Angola from 1979 to 2017.]] The [[Constitution of Angola|new constitution]], adopted in 2010, did away with presidential elections, introducing a system in which the president and the vice-president of the political party that wins the parliamentary elections automatically become president and vice-president. Directly or indirectly, the president controls all other organs of the state, so there is ''de facto'' no [[separation of powers]].<ref>Miranda, Jorge (2010) "A Constituição de Angola de 2010", ''O Direito'' (Lisbon), vol. 142.</ref> In the classifications used in constitutional law, this government falls under the category of ''authoritarian regime.'' <ref>{{Cite book|title=Angola Party Politics: Into the African Trend|last=Amundsen|first=Inge|publisher=Chr. Michelsen Institute (CMI) and Centro de Estudos e Investigação Científica (CEIC)|year=2011|type=PDF}}</ref> On 16 October 2014, Angola was elected for the second time as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council, with 190 favourable votes out of 193. The mandate began on 1 January 2015 and lasts for two years.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/2014/10/16/us-un-securitycouncil-election-idUSKCN0I522T20141016 Venezuela, Malaysia, Angola, N.Z., Spain win U.N. Council seats] Reuters, 16 October 2014</ref> Also that month, the country took on the leadership of the African ministers and governors at the [[International Monetary Fund]] and the [[World Bank]], following debates at the annual meetings of both entities.<ref>[http://www.rna.ao/canalA/noticias.cgi?ID=95233 Angola assume presidência do grupo africano junto do FMI e BM (in Portuguese)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020170103/http://www.rna.ao/canalA/noticias.cgi?ID=95233|date=20 October 2014 }} Rádio Nacional de Angola, 10 December 2014</ref> Since January 2014 the Republic of Angola has held the rotating presidency of the [[International Conference on the Great Lakes Region]] (ICGLR).<ref>[http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/en_us/noticias/politica/2014/0/3/Angola-takes-over-rotative-presidency-Great-Lakes-Region,48aaaa5e in-50c6-47cf-9a2f-191c6d9d06ba.html Angola takes over rotative presidency of Great Lakes Region] Angola Press Agency, 13 January 2014</ref> In 2015, the executive secretary of ICGLR, [[Ntumba Luaba]], called Angola an example to be followed because of the significant progress it made over the 12 years of peace, particularly in terms of socioeconomic and political-military stability.<ref>[http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/en_us/noticias/politica/2015/0/2/Angola-should-example-for-Great-Lakes-region-Ntumba-Luaba,92246d08-3ad0-4fd8-b107-7c87e4965de8.html Angola should be an example for Great Lakes region – Ntumba Luaba] Angola Press Agency, 8 January 2015</ref> After 38 years of rule, in 2017 President dos Santos stepped down from MPLA leadership.<ref>[https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-02-03/angola-ruling-party-names-joao-lourenco-presidential-candidate Angolan Leader Dos Santos to Step Down After 38 Years in Power]. Bloomberg (3 February 2017). Retrieved on 26 April 2017.</ref> The leader of the winning party at the parliamentary elections in August 2017 become the next president of Angola. The MPLA selected Defense Minister General [[João Lourenço]] and won the election.<ref>[http://www.lefigaro.fr/international/2016/12/05/01003-20161205ARTFIG00307-en-angola-le-ministre-de-la-defense-devrait-succeder-au-president-dos-santos.php En Angola, le ministre de la Défense devrait succèder au président Dos Santos]. Lefigaro.fr. Retrieved on 26 April 2017.</ref> In what has been described as a political purge<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://beninwebtv.com/2017/11/angola-purge-sein-de-sonangol-emporte-isabel-santos/|title=Angola : une purge au sein de la Sonangol emporte Isabel dos Santos|date=15 November 2017|work=BENIN WEB TV|accessdate=21 November 2017|language=fr-FR}}{{dead link|date=April 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>{{by whom|date=November 2017}} to cement his power and reduce the influence of the Dos Santos family, Lourenço subsequently sacked the chief of the national police, Ambrósio de Lemos, and the head of the intelligence service, Apolinário José Pereira. Both are considered allies of former president Dos Santos.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-angola-police/angolas-lourenco-replaces-police-and-intelligence-chiefs-idUSKBN1DK1SH|title=Angola's Lourenco replaces police and intelligence chiefs|last=|first=|date=20 November 2017|work=[[Reuters]]|accessdate=21 November 2017}}</ref> He also removed [[Isabel dos Santos|Isabel Dos Santos]], daughter of the former president, as head of the country's state oil company Sonangol.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-42003016|title=Angola sacks Africa's richest woman|date=15 November 2017|work=[[BBC News]]|publisher=[[BBC|British Broadcasting Corporation]]|accessdate=21 November 2017|language=en-GB}}</ref> ===Armed forces=== {{Main|Angolan Armed Forces}} [[File:Angolan Air Force Ilyushin Il-76TD Karpezo-1.jpg|thumb|Angolan Air Force Ilyushin Il-76TD Karpezo-1]] [[File:Angolan soldiers training in Russia.png|thumb|[[Angolan Army]] training in Russia. From left to right, the ranks of the men are Second Lieutenant, First Lieutenant, and Captain.]] The Angolan Armed Forces (AAF) is headed by a Chief of Staff who reports to the Minister of Defence. There are three divisions—the Army (Exército), Navy (Marinha de Guerra, MGA) and [[National Air Force of Angola|National Air Force]] (Força Aérea Nacional, FAN). Total manpower is about 110,000.{{citation needed|date=September 2012}} Its equipment includes Russian-manufactured fighters, bombers and transport planes. There are also Brazilian-made [[EMB-312 Tucano]]s for training, Czech-made L-39s for training and bombing, and a variety of western-made aircraft such as the C-212\Aviocar, Sud Aviation Alouette III, etc. A small number of AAF personnel are stationed in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (Kinshasa) and the [[Republic of the Congo]] (Brazzaville). ===Police=== The National Police departments are Public Order, Criminal Investigation, Traffic and Transport, Investigation and Inspection of Economic Activities, Taxation and Frontier Supervision, Riot Police and the Rapid Intervention Police. The National Police are in the process of standing up an air wing,{{when|date=November 2017}} to provide helicopter support for operations. The National Police are developing their criminal investigation and forensic capabilities. The force has an estimated 6,000 patrol officers, 2,500 taxation and frontier supervision officers, 182 criminal investigators and 100 financial crimes detectives and around 90 economic activity inspectors.{{citation needed|date=September 2012}} The National Police have implemented a modernisation and development plan to increase the capabilities and efficiency of the total force. In addition to administrative reorganisation, modernisation projects include procurement of new vehicles, aircraft and equipment, construction of new police stations and forensic laboratories, restructured training programmes and the replacement of [[AKM rifle]]s with 9&nbsp;mm [[Uzi]]s for officers in urban areas. ===Justice=== A Supreme Court serves as a court of appeal. The Constitutional Court is the supreme body of the constitutional jurisdiction, its Organic Law was approved by Law no. 2/08, of June 17, and the legal system is based on Portuguese and customary laws, but it is weak and fragmented. There are only 12 courts in more than 140 counties in the country. With the approval of Law no. 2/08, of June 17 – Organic Law of the Constitutional Court and Law n. 3/08, of June 17 – Organic Law of the Constitutional Process, the Legal Creation of the Constitutional Court. Its first task was the validation of the candidacies of the political parties to the legislative elections of 5 September 2008.Thus, on June 25, 2008, the Constitutional Court was institutionalized and its Judicial Counselors assumed the position before the President of the Republic. Currently, seven advisory judges are present, four men and three women. In 2014, a new penal code took effect in Angola. The classification of [[money-laundering]] as a crime is one of the novelties in the new legislation.<ref>[http://www.noticiasaominuto.com/mundo/280463/angola-com-novo-codigo-penal-ainda-este-ano Angola com novo Código Penal ainda este ano], Notícias ao Minuto, 24 September 2014</ref> ===Foreign relations=== [[File:Diplomatic missions of Angola.PNG|thumb|upright=1.15|Diplomatic missions of Angola.]] On 16 October 2014, Angola was elected for the second time a non-permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, with 190 favorable votes out of a total of 193. The term of office begins on 1 January 2015 and lasts for two years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.publico.pt/mundo/noticia/angola-eleita-como-membro-naopermanente-no-conselho-de-seguranca-da-onu-1673156|title=Angola eleita para o Conselho de Segurança da ONU}} Public, 16 October 2014</ref> Since January 2014, the Republic of Angola has been chairing the International Conference for the Great Lakes Region (CIRGL). [80] In 2015, CIRGL Executive Secretary Ntumba Luaba said that Angola is the example to be followed by the members of the organization, due to the significant progress made during the 12 years of peace, namely in terms of socio-economic stability and political- military.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://expansao.co.ao/Artigo/Geral/52550|title=Angola deve servir de exemplo para os países da CIRGL – Ntumba Luaba}} Expansion, 08 January 2015</ref> ===Human rights=== {{see also|Human rights in Angola|LGBT rights in Angola}} [[Homosexuality|Homosexual]] acts are currently illegal in Angola.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/gay-lesbian-bisexual-relationships-illegal-in-74-countries-a7033666.html|title= LGBT relationships are illegal in 74 countries, research finds| work = The Independent| date=17 May 2016}}</ref> However, in February 2017, the Angolan Parliament approved a new penal code which does not outlaw homosexual acts. The law will take effect in late 2017.{{citation needed|date=August 2017}} In 2010, the Angolan Government refused to receive openly gay Isi Yanouka as the new Israeli ambassador, allegedly due to his [[sexual orientation]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Hartman|first=Ben|url=http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?id=174356|title=Was diplomat denied post in Angola because he is openly gay?|publisher=[[Jerusalem Post|Jpost.com]]|date=30 April 2010}}</ref> ==Administrative divisions== {{Main|Provinces of Angola|Municipalities of Angola|Communes of Angola}} [[File:Angola Provinces numbered 300px.png|thumb|Map of Angola with the provinces numbered]] {{As of|March 2016}}, Angola is divided into [[Provinces of Angola|eighteen provinces]] (''províncias'') and [[Municipalities of Angola|162 municipalities]]. The municipalities are further divided into 559 communes (townships).<ref name="acd">{{cite web|url=http://aiangola.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Publica%C3%A7%C3%A3o-Resultados-Definitivos-Censo-Geral-2014_Vers%C3%A3o-22032016_DEFINITIVA-18H17.pdf|format=PDF|title=Resultados Resultados Definitivos do Recenseamento Geral da População e da Habitação de Angola 2014|publisher=Instituto Nacional de Estatística|date=March 2016|page=27|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506013702/http://aiangola.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Publica%C3%A7%C3%A3o-Resultados-Definitivos-Censo-Geral-2014_Vers%C3%A3o-22032016_DEFINITIVA-18H17.pdf|archivedate=6 May 2016 }}</ref> The provinces are: {{colbegin}} #[[Bengo (province)|Bengo]] #[[Benguela Province|Benguela]] #[[Bié (province)|Bié]] #[[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] #[[Cuando Cubango]] #[[Cuanza Norte]] #[[Cuanza Sul]] #[[Cunene (province)|Cunene]] #[[Huambo Province|Huambo]] #[[Huíla Province|Huíla]] #[[Luanda Province|Luanda]] #[[Lunda Norte]] #[[Lunda Sul]] #[[Malanje Province|Malanje]] #[[Moxico (province)|Moxico]] #[[Namibe Province|Namibe]] #[[Uíge Province|Uíge]] #[[Zaire Province|Zaire]] {{colend}} ===Exclave of Cabinda=== {{Main|Cabinda (province)|l1=Cabinda|Republic of Cabinda}} [[File:Flag of Cabinda.svg|thumb|left|Flag of the [[Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda|Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC)]]]] With an area of approximately {{convert|7283|km2|sqmi}}, the Northern Angolan province of Cabinda is unusual in being separated from the rest of the country by a strip, some {{convert|60|km}} wide, of the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] along the lower [[Congo River]]. Cabinda borders the [[Congo Republic]] to the north and north-northeast and the DRC to the east and south. The town of Cabinda is the chief population centre. According to a 1995 census, Cabinda had an estimated population of 600,000, approximately 400,000 of whom live in neighbouring countries. Population estimates are, however, highly unreliable. Consisting largely of tropical forest, Cabinda produces hardwoods, coffee, cocoa, crude rubber and palm oil. The product for which it is best known, however, is its oil, which has given it the nickname, "the Kuwait of Africa". Cabinda's petroleum production from its considerable offshore reserves now accounts for more than half of Angola's output.<ref>{{cite news|title=Angola profile|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13036732| publisher=BBC News| date=22 December 2013}}</ref> Most of the oil along its coast was discovered under [[Portuguese Angola|Portuguese rule]] by the Cabinda Gulf Oil Company (CABGOC) from 1968 onwards. Ever since [[Portugal]] handed over sovereignty of its former overseas province of Angola to the local independence groups (MPLA, UNITA and FNLA), the territory of Cabinda has been a focus of separatist guerrilla actions opposing the [[Government of Angola]] (which has employed its armed forces, the FAA—Forças Armadas Angolanas) and Cabindan separatists. The [[Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda]]-[[Forças Armadas de Cabinda|Armed Forces of Cabinda]] (FLEC-FAC) announced a virtual Federal Republic of Cabinda under the Presidency of N'Zita Henriques Tiago. One of the characteristics of the Cabindan independence movement is its constant fragmentation, into smaller and smaller factions. ==Economy== {{Main|Economy of Angola}} [[File:First WAFMAX in Angola 3 (8222830479).jpg|thumb|A booming economy due to oil revenues and stable politics, Angola has seen an increase in its international trading sector.]] [[File:Luanda-Sonangol.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Luanda city centre.]] [[File:Banco Nacional de Angola in Luanda - Angola 2015.jpg|thumb|The Banco Nacional de Angola building on the Marginal in Luanda dates from 1956.]] [[File:Boeing 747-357M, TAAG Angola Airlines AN0387063.jpg|thumb|[[TAAG Angolan Airlines]] is Angola's national airline.]] [[File:New housing development area.jpg|thumb|New suburb (new housing area) in Luanda built in 2010.]] [[File:Offshore platform on move to final destination, Ilha de Luanda.JPG|thumb|Offshore [[petrol]] platform prepared for moving to final destination on high sea, Luanda, Angola, Atlantic Ocean]] Angola has diamonds, oil, gold, copper and a rich wildlife (dramatically impoverished during the civil war), forest and fossil fuels. Since independence, oil and diamonds have been the most important economic resource. Smallholder and [[plantation]] agriculture dramatically dropped in the [[Angolan Civil War]], but began to recover after 2002. The transformation industry{{clarify|date=November 2017}} of the late colonial period collapsed at independence, because of the exodus of most of the ethnic Portuguese population, but it has begun to re-emerge with updated technologies, partly because of an influx of new Portuguese entrepreneurs. Similar developments have taken place in the service sector. Angola's economy has in recent years moved on from the disarray caused by a quarter-century of [[Angolan civil war]] to become the fastest-growing economy in Africa and one of the fastest-growing in the world, with an average [[GDP]] growth of 20% between 2005 and 2007.<ref>[http://www.mfw4a.org/angola/angola-financial-sector-profile.html Angola Financial Sector Profile: MFW4A – Making Finance Work for Africa]. MFW4A. Retrieved 9 August 2013.</ref> In the period 2001–10, Angola had the world's highest [[annual average GDP growth]], at 11.1%. In 2004, the [[Exim Bank of China]] approved a $2&nbsp;billion [[line of credit]] to Angola, to be used for rebuilding Angola's [[infrastructure]], and to limit the influence of the [[International Monetary Fund]] there.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pinr.com/report.php?ac=view_report&report_id=460|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060505120801/http://www.pinr.com/report.php?ac=view_report&report_id=460&language_id=1|archivedate=5 May 2006|title=The Increasing Importance of African Oil|work=Power and Interest Report|date=20 March 2006}}</ref> China is Angola's biggest trade partner and [[export]] destination as well as the fourth-largest source of [[import]]s. Bilateral trade reached $27.67&nbsp;billion in 2011, up 11.5% year-on-year. China's imports, mainly [[crude oil]] and diamonds, increased 9.1% to $24.89&nbsp;billion while China's exports to Angola, including mechanical and electrical products, machinery parts and construction materials, surged 38.8%.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}} The oil [[Overproduction|glut]] led to a local [[price]] for unleaded gasoline of [[Pound sterling|£]]0.37 a gallon.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/expat/expatnews/8632811/Luanda-capital-of-Angola-retains-title-of-worlds-most-expensive-for-expats.html Luanda, capital of Angola, retains title of world's most expensive for expats. ''The Daily Telegraph''. Retrieved 9 August 2013.]</ref> ''[[The Economist]]'' reported in 2008 that diamonds and oil make up 60% of Angola's economy, almost all of the country's [[revenue]] and all of its dominant [[export]]s.<ref>[http://www.economist.com/node/12009946 "Marching towards riches and democracy?"] [[The Economist]]. 30 August 2008. p. 46.</ref> Growth is almost entirely driven by rising [[Extraction of petroleum|oil production]] which surpassed {{convert|1.4|Moilbbl/d|m3/d}} in late 2005 and was expected to grow to {{convert|2|Moilbbl/d|m3/d}} by 2007. Control of the [[Petroleum industry|oil industry]] is consolidated in [[Sonangol Group]], a conglomerate owned by the Angolan government. In December 2006, Angola was admitted as a member of [[OPEC]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Angola: Country Admitted As Opec Member|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200612140990.html|date=14 December 2006|publisher=Angola Press Agency}}</ref> Operations in its [[List of diamond mines|diamond mines]] include partnerships between state-run [[Endiama]] and mining companies such as [[ALROSA]] which operate in Angola.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.angolancentenary.com/press6.pdf|title=Angolan Diamond Centenary Conference 2013 Highlights Endiama and Alrosa Joint Venture for Future Geological Exploration of diamond deposits of Angola’s Territory|series=Press release|publisher=angolancentenary.com|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131114012955/http://www.angolancentenary.com/press6.pdf|archivedate=14 November 2013|df=dmy}}</ref> The Angolan economy grew 18% in 2005, 26% in 2006 and 17.6% in 2007. Due to the global [[recession]] the economy contracted an estimated −0.3% in 2009.<ref name=CIA/> The security brought about by the 2002 peace settlement has allowed the resettlement of 4&nbsp;million displaced persons and a resulting large-scale increases in agriculture production. Although the country's economy has grown significantly since Angola achieved political stability in 2002, mainly due to fast-rising earnings in the oil sector, Angola faces huge social and economic problems. These are in part a result of almost continual armed conflict from 1961 on, although the highest level of destruction and socio-economic damage took place after the 1975 independence, during the long years of [[Angolan Civil War|civil war]]. However, high [[poverty rate]]s and blatant [[social inequality]] chiefly stem from persistent [[authoritarianism]], "neo-patrimonial" practices at all levels of the political, administrative, military and economic structures, and of [[Corruption in Angola|a pervasive corruption]].<ref>Anti-corruption watchdog [[Transparency International]] rates Angola one of the 10 most corrupt countries in the world.</ref><ref>Dolan, Kerry A. (23 January 2013). [https://www.forbes.com/sites/kerryadolan/2013/01/23/isabel-dos-santos-daughter-of-angolas-president-is-africas-first-woman-billionaire/ "Isabel Dos Santos, Daughter Of Angola's President, Is Africa's First Woman Billionaire"]. ''Forbes''.</ref> The main beneficiaries are political, administrative, economic and military power holders, who have accumulated (and continue to accumulate) enormous wealth.<ref>This process is well analyzed by authors like [[Christine Messiant]], Tony Hodges and others. For an eloquent illustration, see the Angolan magazine ''Infra-Estruturas África'' 7/2010.</ref> "Secondary beneficiaries" are the middle strata which are about to become [[social class]]es. However, almost half the population has to be considered poor, with dramatic differences between the countryside and the cities (where by now slightly more than 50% of the people live). A study carried out in 2008 by the Angolan Instituto Nacional de Estatística found that in rural areas roughly 58% must be classified as "poor" according to UN norms, but in the urban areas only 19%, and an overall rate of 37%.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20131026082704/http://www.exameangola.com/pt/?det=16943&id=2000&mid= País ao raios X]. ''Angola Exame''. 12 November 2010</ref> In cities, a majority of families, well beyond those officially classified as poor, must adopt a variety of survival strategies.<ref>Udelsmann Rodrigues, Cristina (2006) ''O Trabalho Dignifica o Homem: Estratégias de Sobrevivência em Luanda'', Lisbon: Colibri.</ref>{{clarify|date=November 2017}} In urban areas social inequality is most evident and it's extreme in Luanda.<ref>As an excellent illustration see ''Luanda: A vida na cidade dos extremos'', in: ''Visão'', 11 November 2010.</ref> In the [[Human Development Index]] Angola constantly ranks in the bottom group.<ref>The HDI 2010 lists Angola in the 146th position among 169 countries—one position below that of Haiti. MLP l [http://www.undp.org/publications/hdr2010/en/HDR_2010_EN_Table1.pdf ''Human Development Index and its components.''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110428201043/http://www.undp.org/publications/hdr2010/en/HDR_2010_EN_Table1.pdf|date=28 April 2011}}</ref> According to [[the Heritage Foundation]], a conservative American [[think tank]], oil production from Angola has increased so significantly that Angola now is China's biggest supplier of oil.<ref>{{cite web|last=Alt|first=Robert|url=http://www.heritage.org/research/africa/HL1006.CFM|title=Into Africa: China's Grab for Influence and Oil|publisher=Heritage.org|accessdate=27 June 2010}}</ref> “China has extended three multibillion dollar lines of credit to the Angolan government; two loans of $2 billion from China Exim Bank, one in 2004, the second in 2007, as well as one loan in 2005 of $2.9 billion from [[China International Fund]] Ltd.”<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cfr.org/world/angolas-political-economic-development/p16820|title=Angola’s Political and Economic Development|date=|website=Council on Foreign Relations|publisher=|accessdate=}}</ref> Growing oil revenues also created opportunities for [[Corruption in Angola|corruption]]: according to a recent [[Human Rights Watch]] report, 32&nbsp;billion US dollars disappeared from government accounts in 2007–2010.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=22 December 2011|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2011/12/20/angola-explain-missing-government-funds|title=Angola: Explain Missing Government Funds|publisher=Human Rights Watch|date=20 December 2011}}</ref> Furthermore, [[Sonangol]], the state-run oil company, controls 51% of Cabinda’s oil. Due to this market control the company ends up determining the profit received by the government and the taxes it pays. The council of foreign affairs states that the World Bank mentioned that Sonangol " is a taxpayer, it carries out quasi-fiscal activities, it invests public funds, and, as concessionaire, it is a sector regulator. This multifarious work programme creates conflicts of interest and characterises a complex relationship between Sonangol and the government that weakens the formal budgetary process and creates uncertainty as regards the actual fiscal stance of the state."<ref>"Angola's political and economical development" [http://www.cfr.org/world/angolas-political-economic-development/p16820 (Council of Foreign Relation)http://www.cfr.org/world/angolas-political-economic-development/p16820]</ref> Before independence in 1975, [[Angola (Portugal)|Angola]] was a breadbasket of southern Africa and a major exporter of [[banana]]s, coffee and [[sisal]], but [[Angolan Civil War|three decades of civil war]] (1975–2002) destroyed fertile countryside, left it littered with [[landmine]]s and drove millions into the cities. The country now depends on expensive food imports, mainly from South Africa and [[Portugal]], while more than 90% of farming is done at the family and subsistence level. Thousands of Angolan small-scale farmers are trapped in poverty.<ref>Redvers, Louise [http://ipsnews.net/africa/nota.asp?idnews=47123 POVERTY-ANGOLA: Inter Press Service News Agency – NGOs Sceptical of Govt's Rural Development Plans] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100512215958/http://ipsnews.net/africa/nota.asp?idnews=47123|date=12 May 2010}}.</ref> The enormous differences between the regions pose a serious structural problem for the Angolan economy, illustrated by the fact that about one third of economic activities are concentrated in Luanda and neighbouring Bengo province, while several areas of the interior suffer economic stagnation and even regression.<ref>Manuel Alves da Rocha (2010) [http://www.ceic-ucan.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/desigualdades-e-assimetrias-regionais-em-angola.pdf ''Desigualdades e assimetrias regionais em Angola: Os factores da competitividade territorial''], Luanda: Centro de Estudos e Investigação Científica da Universidade Católica de Angola.</ref> One of the economic consequences of the social and regional disparities is a sharp increase in Angolan private investments abroad. The small fringe of Angolan society where most of the asset accumulation takes place seeks to spread its assets, for reasons of security and profit. For the time being, the biggest share of these investments is concentrated in Portugal where the [[Angolans in Portugal|Angolan presence]] (including the family of the state president) in banks as well as in the domains of energy, [[Telecommunications in Angola|telecommunications]], and [[mass media]] has become notable, as has the acquisition of vineyards and orchards as well as of touristic enterprises.<ref>"A força do kwanza", ''Visão'' (Lisbon), 993, 15 May 2012, pp. 50–54</ref> [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] nations are globally achieving impressive improvements in well-being, according to a report by [[Tony Blair]]'s Africa Governance Initiative and [[the Boston Consulting Group]].<ref>[http://www.tonyblairoffice.org/africa/news-entry/The-New-Prosperity-Strategies-for-Improving-Well-Being-in-Sub-Saharan-Afri/ The New Prosperity: Strategies for Improving Well-Being in Sub-Saharan Africa] Tony Blair Africa Governance Initiative 1 May 2013</ref> Angola has upgraded critical infrastructure, an investment made possible by funds from the nation's development of oil resources. According to this report, just slightly more than ten years after the end of the [[Angolan Civil War|civil war]] Angola's standard of living has overall greatly improved. Life expectancy, which was just 46 years in 2002, reached 51 in 2011. Mortality rates for children fell from 25 percent in 2001 to 19 percent in 2010 and the number of students enrolled in primary school has tripled since 2001.<ref>[https://www.bcgperspectives.com/Images/BCG_The_New_Prosperity_tcm80-133457.pdf The New Prosperity: Strategies for Improving Well-Being in Sub-Saharan Africa] Report by The Boston Consulting Group and Tony Blair Africa Governance Initiative, May 2013</ref> However, at the same time the social and economic inequality that has characterised the country since long has not diminished, but on the contrary deepened in all respects. With a stock of assets corresponding to 70&nbsp;billion Kz (6.8&nbsp;billion USD), Angola is now the third largest financial market in sub-Saharan Africa, surpassed only by [[Nigeria]] and South Africa. According to the Angolan Minister of Economy, Abraão Gourgel, the financial market of the country grew modestly from 2002 and now lies in third place at the level of sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>[http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2014/07/23/angola-is-the-third-largest-sub-saharan-financial-market/ Angola is the third-largest sub-Saharan financial market], MacauHub, 23 July 2014</ref> Angola's economy is expected to grow by 3.9 percent in 2014 said the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF), robust growth in the non-oil economy, mainly driven by a very good performance in the agricultural sector, is expected to offset a temporary drop in oil production.<ref>[http://en.starafrica.com/news/angolas-economy-to-grow-by-3-9-percent-imf.html Angola’s economy to grow by 3.9 percent-IMF] StarAfrica, 4 September 2014</ref> Angola's financial system is maintained by the [[National Bank of Angola]] and managed by governor [[:no:Jose de Lima Massano|Jose de Lima Massano]]. According to a study on the banking sector, carried out by [[Deloitte]], the monetary policy led by [[Banco Nacional de Angola]] (BNA), the Angolan national bank, allowed a decrease in the inflation rate put at 7.96% in December 2013, which contributed to the sector's growth trend.<ref>[http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/pt_pt/noticias/economia/2014/8/39/Angola-Sector-bancario-mantem-crescimento-2013,cd70b614-7123-4e91-b07f-caed89276592.html Angola: Sector bancário mantém crescimento em 2013], Angola Press (26 September 2014)</ref> Estimates released by Angola's central bank, said country's economy should grow at an annual average rate of 5 percent over the next four years, boosted by the increasing participation of the private sector.<ref>[https://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFKCN0HV1EN20141006 Angola seen growing average 5 percent: Central Bank], Reuters (Africa), 10 June 2014</ref> On 19 December 2014, the Capital Market in Angola started. [[Angola Stock Exchange|BODIVA]] (Angola Securities and Debt Stock Exchange, in English) received the secondary public debt market, and it is expected to start the corporate debt market by 2015, but the stock market should be a reality only in 2016.<ref>[http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/en_us/noticias/economia/2014/11/51/Angola-CMC-prepares-launch-debt-secondary-market,54877cb4-fc83-4047-8752-a27150a365dc.html CMC prepares launch of debt secondary market] Angola Press Agency, 16 December 2014</ref> ===Agriculture=== {{Main|Agriculture in Angola}} Agriculture and forestry is an area of potential opportunity for the country. The African Economic Outlook organization states that “Angola requires 4.5 million tonnes a year of grain but grows only about 55% of the [[corn]] it needs, 20% of the [[rice]] and just 5% of its required [[wheat]]”.<ref>Muzima, Joel. Mazivila, Domingos. “Angola 2014” Retrieved from [http://www.africaneconomicoutlook.org www.africaneconomicoutlook.org] </ref> In addition, the World Bank estimates that “less than 3 percent of Angola's abundant fertile land is cultivated and the economic potential of the forestry sector remains largely unexploited" .<ref>“Country partnership strategy for the republic of Angola” (15 August 2013). World Bank (Report No. 76225-A0) </ref> ===Transport=== {{unreferenced section|date=November 2017}} {{Main|Transport in Angola}} [[File:Aeroport-4-de-Fevereiro-Chegadas LWS1962.JPG|thumb|[[Luanda Airport|Quatro de Fevereiro Luanda Airport]] arrivals.]] [[File:Benguela Railway Station (19603443258).jpg|thumb|Train station in [[Benguela]].]] [[File:Cargamento de mineirios, Namibe.JPG|thumb|Ship loading minerals at Namibe harbour, Angola.]] Transport in Angola consists of: *Three separate [[Rail transport in Angola|railway systems]] totalling {{convert|2,761|km|mi|abbr=on}} *{{convert|76626|km|0|abbr=on}} of highway of which {{convert|19156|km|0|abbr=on}} is paved *1,295 navigable inland waterways *Eight major [[sea port]]s *243 [[List of airports in Angola|airports]], of which 32 are paved. Travel on highways outside of towns and cities in Angola (and in some cases within) is often not best advised for those without four-by-four vehicles. While a reasonable road infrastructure has existed within Angola, time and the war have taken their toll on the road surfaces, leaving many severely potholed, littered with broken asphalt. In many areas drivers have established alternate tracks to avoid the worst parts of the surface, although careful attention must be paid to the presence or absence of landmine warning markers by the side of the road. The Angolan government has contracted the restoration of many of the country's roads. The road between Lubango and Namibe, for example, was completed recently with funding from the European Union, and is comparable to many European main routes. Completing the road infrastructure is likely to take some decades, but substantial efforts are already being made. Transport is an important aspect in Angola because it is strategically located and it could become a regional logistics hub. In addition Angola has some of the most important and biggest ports and so it is vital to connect them to the interior of the country as well as to neighbouring countries. [[Tourism in Angola|Tourism]] is restarting on the heels of the long ended stop in the civil war, and very few tourists venture anywhere in Angola yet due to lack of infrastructure. ===Telecommunications=== The [[telecommunication]]s industry is considered one of the main strategic sectors in Angola.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.anip.co.ao/index.php?pag=conteudos&id=6|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130411062215/http://www.anip.co.ao/index.php?pag=conteudos&id=6|dead-url=yes|archive-date=11 April 2013|title=Sectores Económicos Prioritários|publisher=ANIP|language=Portuguese }}</ref> In October 2014, the building of an [[optic fiber]] underwater cable was announced.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/pt_pt/noticias/economia/2014/9/42/Angola-Cables-parceiros-estrangeiros-anunciam-construcao-cabo-submarino,db62f448-710d-4cc5-80c5-fcee32a1a991.html|title=Angola Cables e parceiros estrangeiros anunciam construção de cabo submarino|date=14 October 2014|publisher=ANGOP|language=Portuguese}}</ref> This project aims to turn Angola into a continental hub, thus improving Internet connections both nationally and internationally.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oglobo.globo.com/sociedade/tecnologia/cabo-submarino-que-ligara-brasil-africa-tera-capacidade-de-40-terabits-por-segundo-11456022|title=Cabo submarino que ligará Brasil à África terá capacidade de 40 terabits por segundo|author=Machado, André|date=30 January 2014|publisher=O Globo|language=Portuguese}}</ref> On 11 March 2015, the First Angolan Forum of Telecommunications and Information Technology was held in [[Luanda]] under the motto "The challenges of telecommunications in the current context of Angola",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jornaldeangola.sapo.ao/politica/nacao_esta_mais_ligada|title=Nação está mais ligada|author=Inácio, Adelina|date=12 March 2015|publisher=Jornal de Angola|language=Portuguese}}</ref> to promote debate on topical issues on [[telecommunications]] in Angola and worldwide.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/en_us/noticias/economia/2015/2/11/Angola-has-about-million-mobile-phone-network-users-Minister,2053f698-ce71-4ed2-9910-cd5819ad539d.html|title=Angola has about 14 million mobile phone network users – Minister|date=12 March 2015|publisher=ANGOP}}</ref> A study of this sector, presented at the forum, said Angola had the first telecommunications operator in Africa to test LTE – with speeds up to 400Mbit/s – and mobile penetration of about 75%; there are about 3.5 million [[smartphone]] in the Angolan market; There are about {{convert|25,000|km|mi|abbr=off}} of optical fibre installed in the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.platinaline.com/index.php/component/k2/item/14117-angola-com-crescimento-anual-superior-a-55-no-sector-das-tic|title=Angola com crescimento anual superior a 55% no sector das TIC|date=12 March 2015|publisher=Platina Line|language=Portuguese}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.verangola.net/Artigos/Sector-das-TIC-com-crescimento-anual-superior-a-55-por-cento-na-ultima-decada=005331|title=Sector das TIC com crescimento anual superior a 55 por cento na última década|date=13 March 2015|publisher=Ver Angola|language=Portuguese}}</ref> The first Angolan [[satellite]], [[Angosat 1|AngoSat-1]], was launched into orbit on 26 December 2017.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.satbeams.com/satellites?norad=43087|title=Satbeams - World Of Satellites at your fingertips|website=Satbeams Web and Mobile|access-date=2018-09-17}}</ref> It was launched from the [[Baikonur Cosmodrome|Baikonur space center]] in Kazakhstan on board a [[Zenit-3F|Zenit 3F]] rocket. The satellite was built by Russia’s [[RSC Energia]], a subsidiary of the state-run space industry player [[Roscosmos]]. The satellite payload was supplied by [[Airbus Defence & Space]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/angosat-1.htm|title=AngoSat 1|website=space.skyrocket.de|access-date=2018-09-17}}</ref> Due to an on-board power failure during solar panel deployment, on Dec. 27, RSC Energia revealed that they lost communications contact with the satellite. Although, subsequent attempts to restore communications with the satellite were successful, the satellite eventually stopped sending data and RSC Energia confirmed that AngoSat-1 was inoperable. The launch of AngoSat-1 was aimed at ensuring telecommunications throughout the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/en_us/noticias/ciencia-e-tecnologia/2014/8/37/Conclusion-works-Angosat-project-set-for-2016,580015f8-0b1f-46b1-b6b1-ebfd1beb5253.html|title=Conclusion works of "Angosat" project set for 2016|date=8 September 2014|publisher=ANGOP}}</ref> According to Aristides Safeca, Secretary of State for Telecommunications, the satellite was aimed at providing telecommunications services, TV, internet and [[e-government]] and was expected to remain in orbit "at best" for 18 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://observador.pt/2014/11/04/primeiro-satelite-angolano-pronto-para-ser-lancado-em-2016/|title=Primeiro satélite angolano pronto para ser lançado em 2016|author=Agência Lusa|date=4 November 2014|publisher=Observador|language=Portuguese}}</ref> A replacement satellite named AngoSat-2 is in the works and is expected to be in service by 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ggpen.gov.ao/LerMais/?cd=19|title=GGPEN - Leia Mais|website=www.ggpen.gov.ao|access-date=2018-09-17}}</ref> ===Technology=== The management of the [[top-level domain]] '.ao' will pass from [[Portugal]] to Angola in 2015, following new legislation.<ref>[http://www.telecompaper.com/news/angola-to-manage-own-internet-domain-from-2015--1037238 Angola to manage own internet domain from 2015] Telecompaper, 16 September 2014</ref> A joint decree of minister of Telecommunications and Information Technologies José Carvalho da Rocha and the minister of Science and Technology, Maria Cândida Pereira Teixeira, states that "under the massification" of that Angolan domain, "conditions are created for the transfer of the domain root '.ao' of Portugal to Angola".<ref>[http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2014/09/16/angola-manages-its-own-internet-domain/ Angola manages its own Internet domain] Macauhub, 16 September 2014</ref> ==Demographics== {{Main|Demographics of Angola}} [[File:Angola Population Pyramid 2012.png|thumb|left|Population Pyramid of Angola in 2012]] {|class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 10px" ! colspan="4" style="text-align:center; background:#cfb;"|Population in Angola<ref>"[http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2000/annex-tables.pdf Table 2. Total population by country, 1950, 2000, 2015, 2025 and 2050 (medium-variant)]". (PDF). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs/Population Division. p. 27.</ref><ref>"[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/print_ao.html Angola]". CIA World Factbook.</ref> |- ! style="background:#cfb;"|Year ! style="background:#cfb;"|Million |- |style="text-align:left;"|1950||style="text-align:right;"|4.1 |- |style="text-align:left;"|2000||style="text-align:right;"|13.1 |- |style="text-align:left;"|2014||style="text-align:right;"|25.8 |} Angola has a population of 24,383,301 inhabitants according to the preliminary results of its 2014 census, the first one conducted or carried out since 15 December 1970.<ref name="INE Angola"/> It is composed of [[Ovimbundu]] (language [[Umbundu]]) 37%, [[Northern Mbundu people|Ambundu]] (language [[Kimbundu]]) 23%, [[Bakongo]] 13%, and 32% other ethnic groups (including the [[Chokwe people|Chokwe]], the [[Ovambo people|Ovambo]], the [[Ganguela]] and the [[Xindonga]]) as well as about 2% ''[[mestiço]]s'' (mixed European and African), 1.6% Chinese and 1% European.<ref name=CIA/> The Ambundu and Ovimbundu ethnic groups combined form a majority of the population, at 62%.<ref>As no reliable census data exist at this stage (2011), all these numbers are rough estimates only, subject to adjustments and updates.</ref> The population is forecast to grow to over 60 million people to 2050, 2.7 times the 2014 population.<ref>[http://www.prb.org/DataFinder/Topic/Rankings.aspx?ind=1&loc=294 2050 Population as a Multiple of 2014] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402101305/http://www.prb.org/DataFinder/Topic/Rankings.aspx?ind=1&loc=294|date=2 April 2015 }}. PRB 2014 World Population Data Sheet</ref> However, on 23 March 2016, official data revealed by Angola's National Statistic Institute – Instituto Nacional de Estatística (INE), states that Angola has a population of 25.789.024 inhabitants. It is estimated that Angola was host to 12,100 refugees and 2,900 asylum seekers by the end of 2007. 11,400 of those refugees were originally from the Democratic Republic of Congo, who arrived in the 1970s.<ref>U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110126130051/http://www.refugees.org/countryreports.aspx?id=2117 "World Refugee Survey 2008"]. p. 37</ref> {{As of|2008}} there were an estimated 400,000 [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] migrant workers,<ref>[http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,USCRI,,COD,456d621e2,485f50c0c,0.html World Refugee Survey 2008 – Angola] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510005710/http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country%2C%2CUSCRI%2C%2CCOD%2C456d621e2%2C485f50c0c%2C0.html|date=10 May 2011}}, UNHCR. NB: This figure is highly doubtful, as it makes no clear distinction between migrant workers, refugees and immigrants.</ref> at least 220,000 [[Portuguese Angolans|Portuguese]],<ref name="Observatório da Emigração">{{cite web|title=José Eduardo dos Santos diz que trabalhadores portugueses são bem-vindos em Angola|url=http://www.observatorioemigracao.secomunidades.pt/np4/3607.html|publisher=Observatório da Emigração|accessdate=22 July 2013|quote=…presença de cerca de 200 mil trabalhadores portugueses no país…}}</ref> and about 259,000 [[Chinese people in Angola|Chinese living in Angola]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://visao.sapo.pt/angola-cerca-de-259000-chineses-vivem-atualmente-no-pais=f660830|title=Angola: Cerca de 259.000 chineses vivem atualmente no país|work=Visão|date=25 April 2012|accessdate=13 January 2013}}</ref> Since 2003, more than 400,000 [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congolese]] migrants have been expelled from Angola.<ref>"[http://www.ipsnews.net/2012/05/calls-for-angola-to-investigate-abuse-of-congolese-migrants/ Calls for Angola to Investigate Abuse of Congolese Migrants]". [[Inter Press Service]]. 21 May 2012</ref> Prior to independence in 1975, Angola had a community of approximately 350,000 Portuguese,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Bender, Gerald|author2= Yoder, Stanley|title=Whites in Angola on the Eve of Independence. The Politics of Numbers|journal=Africa Today|volume=21|issue=4|year=1974|pages=23–27|jstor=4185453}}</ref><ref>[http://www.economist.com/world/mideast-africa/displayStory.cfm?story_id=12079340 Flight from Angola], ''The Economist '', 16 August 1975 puts the number at 500,000, but this is an estimate lacking appropriate sources.</ref> but the vast majority left after independence and the ensuing civil war. However, Angola has recovered its Portuguese minority in recent years; currently, there are about 200,000 registered with the consulates, and increasing due to the debt crisis in Portugal and the relative prosperity in Angola.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.publico.pt/economia/noticia/jose-eduardo-dos-santos-diz-que-trabalhadores-portugueses-sao-bem-vindos-em-angola-1596693|location=Lisbon|work=Público|first1=Rita|last1=Siza|title=José Eduardo dos Santos diz que trabalhadores portugueses são bem-vindos em Angola|date=6 June 2013}}</ref> The Chinese population stands at 258,920, mostly composed of temporary migrants.<ref>Phillips, Tom (26 August 2012) "[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/9500517/Chinese-gangsters-repatriated-from-Angola.html Chinese 'gangsters' repatriated from Angola]", ''The Daily Telegraph''</ref> Also, there is a small [[Brazil]]ian community of about 5,000 people.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://globalvoices.org/2008/08/17/angola-brazil-a-culture-shock-divide/|title=Angola, Brazil: A culture shock divide · Global Voices|date=17 August 2008|publisher=}}</ref> The [[total fertility rate]] of Angola is 5.54 children born per woman (2012 estimates), the 11th highest in the world.<ref name=CIA>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ao.html|title=CIA – The World Factbook|publisher=United States Central Intelligence Agency }}</ref> ===Languages=== {{Multiple issues|section=yes| {{Essay|section|date=December 2016}} {{Refimprove section|date=December 2016}}}} {{Main|Languages of Angola}} [[File:Angola Ethnic map 1970.svg|thumb|right|Ethnic groups of Angola 1970]] The languages in Angola are those originally spoken by the different ethnic groups and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], introduced during the Portuguese colonial era. The most widely spoken indigenous languages are [[Umbundu]], [[Kimbundu]] and [[Kikongo]], in that order. Portuguese is the official language of the country. Although the exact numbers of those fluent in Portuguese or who speak Portuguese as a first language are unknown, a 2012 study mentions that Portuguese is the first language of 39% of the population.<ref>Silva, José António Maria da Conceição (2004) [http://poing.me/layar/Colombia/brochuranoCrop.pdf Angola]. 7th World Urban Forum</ref> In 2014, a census carried out by the Instituto Nacional de Estatística in Angola mentions that 71.15% of the nearly 25.8 million inhabitants of Angola (meaning around 18.3 million people) use Portuguese as a first or second language.<ref name="Angola: português é falado por 71,15% de angolanos">{{cite web|title=Angola: português é falado por 71,15% de angolanos|url=http://aiangola.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Publica%C3%A7%C3%A3o-Resultados-Definitivos-Censo-Geral-2014_Vers%C3%A3o-22032016_DEFINITIVA-18H17.pdf|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226100353/http://aiangola.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Publica%C3%A7%C3%A3o-Resultados-Definitivos-Censo-Geral-2014_Vers%C3%A3o-22032016_DEFINITIVA-18H17.pdf|archivedate=26 December 2016}}</ref> ===Religion=== {{Main|Religion in Angola|Christianity in Angola|Islam in Angola}} [[File:Igreja Benguela, Angola.jpg|thumb|right|Catholic church in Benguela]] There are about 1,000 religious communities, mostly Christian, in Angola.<ref>Viegas, Fátima (2008) ''Panorâmica das Religiões em Angola Independente (1975–2008)'', Ministério da Cultura/Instituto Nacional para os Assuntos Religiosos, Luanda</ref> While reliable statistics are nonexistent, estimates have it that more than half of the population are Catholics, while about a quarter adhere to the Protestant churches introduced during the colonial period: the [[Congregationalist]]s mainly among the [[Ovimbundu]] of the Central Highlands and the coastal region to its west, the [[Methodists]] concentrating on the [[Kimbundu]] speaking strip from Luanda to Malanje, the [[Baptists]] almost exclusively among the [[Bakongo]] of the north-west (now present in Luanda as well) and dispersed [[Adventists]], [[Reformed]] and [[Lutherans]].<ref>Schubert, Benedict (1997) ''Der Krieg und die Kirchen: Angola 1961–1991''. Exodus, Luzern/Switzerland</ref><ref>Lawrence W. Henderson (1989) ''The Church in Angola: A river of many currents'', Cleveland: Pilgrim Press</ref> In Luanda and region there subsists a nucleus of the "[[syncretic]]" [[Tocoists]] and in the north-west a sprinkling of [[Kimbanguism]] can be found, spreading from the Congo/Zaïre. Since independence, hundreds of [[Pentecostal]] and similar communities have sprung up in the cities, where by now about 50% of the population is living; several of these communities/churches are of Brazilian origin. {{As of|2008}} the [[U.S. Department of State]] estimates the Muslim population at 80,000–90,000, less than 1% of the population,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2008/108352.htm|title=Angola|publisher=State.gov|date=19 September 2008|accessdate=13 July 2014}}</ref> while the [[Islam in Angola|Islamic Community of Angola]] puts the figure closer to 500,000.<ref>[http://www.opais.net/pt/opais/?id=1657&det=23057 Surgimento do Islão em Angola]. ''O Pais''. 2 September 2011. p. 18</ref> Muslims consist largely of migrants from West Africa and the Middle East (especially [[Lebanon]]), although some are local converts.<ref name="customs">Oyebade, Adebayo O. ''Culture And Customs of Angola'', 2006. Pages 45–46.</ref> The Angolan government does not [[Islam in Angola#Legal status|legally recognize]] any Muslim organizations and often shuts down mosques or prevents their construction.<ref name=IRFR2012>{{cite web|title=ANGOLA 2012 INTERNATIONAL RELIGIOUS FREEDOM REPORT|url=https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/208328.pdf|publisher=state.gov}}</ref> In a study assessing nations' levels of religious regulation and persecution with scores ranging from 0 to 10 where 0 represented low levels of regulation or persecution, Angola was scored 0.8 on Government Regulation of Religion, 4.0 on Social Regulation of Religion, 0 on Government Favoritism of Religion and 0 on Religious Persecution.<ref>[http://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_7_3.asp Angola: Religious Freedom Profile at the Association of Religion Data Archives] Brian J Grim and Roger Finke. "International Religion Indexes: Government Regulation, Government Favoritism and Social Regulation of Religion". Interdisciplinary Journal of Research on Religion. 2 (2006) Article 1: www.religjournal.com.</ref> Foreign [[Missionary|missionaries]] were very active prior to independence in 1975, although since the beginning of the anti-colonial fight in 1961 the Portuguese colonial authorities expelled a series of Protestant missionaries and closed mission stations based on the belief that the missionaries were inciting pro-independence sentiments. Missionaries have been able to return to the country since the early 1990s, although security conditions due to the civil war have prevented them until 2002 from restoring many of their former inland mission stations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2001/5511.htm|title=International Religious Freedom Report – Angola|publisher=U.S. Department of State|date=1 January 2004|accessdate=27 June 2010}}</ref> The Catholic Church and some major Protestant denominations mostly keep to themselves in contrast to the "New Churches" which actively proselytize. Catholics, as well as some major Protestant denominations, provide help for the poor in the form of crop seeds, farm animals, medical care and education.<ref name="books.google.com">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=DeVqVy21g9sC&pg=PA40|title=Culture and customs of Angola|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=Westport, Connecticut|isbn=978-0-313-33147-3|page=40|year=2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pcusa.org/hunger/downloads/2005intgrants.pdf|title=International Grants 2005|format=PDF|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081113131805/http://www.pcusa.org/hunger/downloads/2005intgrants.pdf|archivedate=13 November 2008}}</ref> ===Largest cities=== {{Largest cities of Angola}} ==Health== {{Main|Health in Angola}} [[File:Angolan woman with children outside health clinic (5686703351).jpg|thumb|Angolan woman with children outside a health clinic]] Epidemics of [[cholera]], [[malaria]], [[rabies]] and African [[hemorrhagic]] fevers like [[Marburg virus|Marburg hemorrhagic fever]], are common diseases in several parts of the country. Many regions in this country have high incidence rates of [[tuberculosis]] and high [[HIV/AIDS in Africa|HIV prevalence]] rates. [[Dengue]], [[filariasis]], [[leishmaniasis]] and [[onchocerciasis]] (river blindness) are other diseases carried by insects that also occur in the region. Angola has one of the highest [[infant mortality rate]]s in the world and one of the world's lowest [[life expectancies]]. A 2007 survey concluded that low and deficient [[niacin]] status was common in Angola.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Seal, AJ|title=Low and deficient niacin status and pellagra are endemic in postwar Angola|journal=Am. J. Clin. Nutr.|volume=85|issue=1|pages=218–24|date=January 2007|pmid=17209199|last2=Creeke|last3=Dibari|last4=Cheung|last5=Kyroussis|last6=Semedo|last7=Van Den Briel|hdl=10144/125625|hdl-access=free}}</ref> [[Demographic and Health Surveys]] is currently conducting several surveys in Angola on malaria, domestic violence and more.<ref name="Angola Surveys">[http://www.measuredhs.com/countries/metadata.cfm?surv_id=344&ctry_id=76&SrvyTp=ctry&cn=Angola Angola Surveys], measuredhs.com</ref> In September 2014, the Angolan Institute for Cancer Control (IACC) was created by presidential decree, and it will integrate the National Health Service in Angola.<ref>[http://www.noticiasaominuto.com/mundo/273191/novo-instituto-oncologico-de-angola-quer-ser-referencia-em-africa Novo instituto oncológico de Angola quer ser referência em África], Notícias ao Minuto (Source: Lusa Agency), 9 September 2014</ref> The purpose of this new centre is to ensure health and medical care in [[oncology]], policy implementation, programmes and plans for prevention and specialised treatment.<ref>[https://diariodigital.sapo.pt/news.asp?id_news=728577 Novo instituto oncológico de Angola quer ser referência em África] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303221827/http://diariodigital.sapo.pt/news.asp?id_news=728577|date=3 March 2016 }}, Diário Digital (Source: Lusa Agency), 9 September 2014</ref> This cancer institute will be assumed as a reference institution in the central and southern regions of Africa.<ref>[http://www.verangola.net/Artigos/Novo-instituto-oncologico-angolano-quer-ser-instituicao-de-referencia-no-continente=004333 Novo instituto oncológico angolano quer ser instituição de referência no continente], Ver Angola, 11 September 2014</ref> In 2014, Angola launched a national campaign of [[vaccination]] against [[measles]], extended to every child under ten years old and aiming to go to all 18 provinces in the country.<ref>[http://allafrica.com/stories/201410010149.html Angola: Over 30,000 Children Vaccinated Against Measles in Huila], All Africa, 30 September 2014</ref> The measure is part of the Strategic Plan for the Elimination of Measles 2014–2020 created by the Angolan Ministry of Health which includes strengthening routine immunisation, a proper dealing with measles cases, national campaigns, introducing a second dose of vaccination in the national routine vaccination calendar and active epidemiological surveillance for measles. This campaign took place together with the vaccination against [[polio]] and [[vitamin A]] supplementation.<ref>[http://www.noticiasaominuto.com/mundo/277391/angola-lanca-vacinacao-nacional-contra-sarampo Angola lança vacinação nacional contra sarampo], Notícias ao Minuto (Source: Lusa Agency), 18 September 2014</ref> A [[2016 Angola and DR Congo yellow fever outbreak|yellow fever]] outbreak, the worst in the country in three decades<ref>{{cite web|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2016/05/19/health/yellow-fever-who/index.html#|title=WHO: Yellow fever outbreak is 'serious and of great concern'|publisher=}}</ref> began in December 2015. By August 2016, when the outbreak began to subside, nearly 4,000 people were suspected of being infected. As many as 369 may have died. The outbreak began in the capital, Luanda, and spread to at least 16 of the 18 provinces. ==Education== {{Main|Education in Angola}} [[File:Lyceum Salvador Correia in Luanda, Angola.jpg|thumb|left|Lyceum Salvador Correia in Luanda]] [[File:Kuito class.jpg|thumb|left|Kuito class, Angola]] Although by law education in Angola is compulsory and free for eight years, the government reports that a percentage of pupils are not attending due to a lack of school buildings and teachers.<ref name=ilab>"Botswana". [https://web.archive.org/web/20140109071239/http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/tda2005/tda2005.pdf ''2005 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor'']. [[Bureau of International Labor Affairs]], [[U.S. Department of Labor]] (2006). ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the [[public domain]].</ref> Pupils are often responsible for paying additional school-related expenses, including fees for books and supplies.<ref name=ilab/> In 1999, the gross primary enrollment rate was 74 percent and in 1998, the most recent year for which data are available, the net primary enrollment rate was 61 percent.<ref name=ilab/> Gross and net enrollment ratios are based on the number of pupils formally registered in primary school and therefore do not necessarily reflect actual school attendance.<ref name=ilab/> There continue to be significant disparities in enrollment between rural and urban areas. In 1995, 71.2 percent of children ages 7 to 14 years were attending school.<ref name=ilab/> It is reported that higher percentages of boys attend school than girls.<ref name=ilab/> During the [[Angolan Civil War]] (1975–2002), nearly half of all schools were reportedly looted and destroyed, leading to current problems with overcrowding.<ref name=ilab/> The Ministry of Education recruited 20,000 new teachers in 2005 and continued to implement teacher trainings.<ref name=ilab/> Teachers tend to be underpaid, inadequately trained and overworked (sometimes teaching two or three shifts a day).<ref name=ilab/> Some teachers may reportedly demand payment or bribes directly from their pupils.<ref name=ilab/> Other factors, such as the presence of landmines, lack of resources and identity papers, and poor health prevent children from regularly attending school.<ref name=ilab/> Although budgetary allocations for education were increased in 2004, the education system in Angola continues to be extremely under-funded.<ref name=ilab/> According to estimates by the [[UNESCO Institute for Statistics]], the adult literacy rate in 2011 was 70.4%.<ref name=unescolit>{{cite web|title=National adult literacy rates (15+), youth literacy rates (15–24) and elderly literacy rates (65+)|url=http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=210|publisher=UNESCO Institute for Statistics}}</ref> By 2015, this had increased to 71.1%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.uis.unesco.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=EDULIT_DS&popupcustomise=true&lang=en#|title=Education|first=|last=UIS|website=data.uis.unesco.org}}</ref> 82.9% of males and 54.2% of women are literate as of 2001.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/angola_statistics.html|title=Angola – Statistics|website=[[UNICEF]]|accessdate=27 June 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613004722/http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/angola_statistics.html|archivedate=13 June 2010|deadurl=no}}</ref> Since independence from Portugal in 1975, a number of Angolan students continued to be admitted every year at high schools, [[politechnic|polytechnical]] institutes and universities in [[Portugal]], Brazil and [[Cuba]] through bilateral agreements; in general, these students belong to the elites. In September 2014, the Angolan Ministry of Education announced an investment of 16 million [[Euro]]s in the computerisation of over 300 classrooms across the country. The project also includes training teachers at a national level, "as a way to introduce and use new information technologies in primary schools, thus reflecting an improvement in the quality of teaching."<ref>[http://www.ionline.pt/artigos/mundo/angola-investe-16-milhoes-na-informatizacao-300-salas-aula-todo-pais Angola investe 16 milhões na informatização de 300 salas de aula em todo o país], jornal i (28 September 2014)</ref> In 2010, the Angolan government started building the [[Angolan Media Libraries Network]], distributed throughout several provinces in the country to facilitate the people's access to information and knowledge. Each site has a bibliographic archive, multimedia resources and computers with Internet access, as well as areas for reading, researching and socialising.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20161212180948/http://mediatecas.ao/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Plano_Director_Maio_2013.pdf Sumário Executivo do Plano Director da ReMA]. Rede de Mediatecas de Angola (May 2013)</ref> The plan envisages the establishment of one media library in each Angolan province by 2017. The project also includes the implementation of several media libraries, in order to provide the several contents available in the fixed media libraries to the most isolated populations in the country.<ref>[http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/en_us/noticias/educacao/2015/0/2/Government-open-digital-libraries-every-province,744c2f6f-7d66-49cf-8e56-85c0d6969725.html Government to open digital libraries in every province] Angola Press Agency, 8 January 2015</ref> At this time, the mobile media libraries are already operating in the provinces of Luanda, Malanje, Uíge, Cabinda and Lunda South. As for REMA, the provinces of Luanda, Benguela, Lubango and Soyo have currently working media libraries.<ref>[http://jornaldeangola.sapo.ao/regioes/malanje/mediateca_movel_aberta_ao_publico Mediateca móvel aberta ao público] {{webarchive|url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20150209181727/http%3A//m.ja.sapo.ao/regioes/malanje/mediateca_movel_aberta_ao_publico|date=9 February 2015}} Jornal de Angola, 9 January 2015</ref> ==Culture== {{Main|Culture of Angola}} {{see also|Music of Angola|Angolan cuisine}} [[File:African Art, Yombe sculpture, Louvre.jpg|thumb|[[Yombe people|Yombe]]-sculpture, 19th century]] The ''[[Substratum|substrate]]'' of Angolan culture is African, predominantly [[Bantu people|Bantu]], while [[culture of Portugal|Portuguese culture]] has had a significant impact, specifically in terms of language and religion. The diverse ethnic communities – the [[Ovimbundu]], [[Northern Mbundu people|Ambundu]], [[Bakongo]], [[Chokwe people|Chokwe]], [[Mbunda people|Mbunda]] and other peoples – to varying degrees maintain their own cultural traits, traditions and languages, but in the cities, where slightly more than half of the population now lives, a mixed culture has been emerging since colonial times; in [[Luanda]], since its foundation in the 16th century. In this urban culture, the Portuguese heritage has become more and more dominant. African roots are evident in music and dance, and is moulding the way in which Portuguese is spoken. This process is well reflected in contemporary Angolan literature, especially in the works of [[Angolan literature|Angolan authors]]. In 2014, Angola resumed the National Festival of Angolan Culture after a 25-year break. The festival took place in all the provincial capitals and lasted for 20 days, with the theme ''Culture as a Factor of Peace and Development''.<ref>[http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/en_us/noticias/lazer-e-cultura/2014/11/51/Retrospect2014-Fenacult-marks-cultural-year,58a0fcae-b594-4edd-bc8b-1d7e2e798f14.html Retrospect2014: Fenacult marks cultural year] Angola Press Agency, 18 December 2014</ref> ===Cinema=== In 1972, one of Angola's first feature films, [[Sarah Maldoror]]'s [[Co-production (media)|internationally co-produced]] ''[[Sambizanga]]'', was released at the [[Carthage Film Festival]] to critical acclaim, winning the ''Tanit d'Or'', the festival's highest prize.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dovey|first1=Lindiwe|title=Curating Africa in the Age of Film Festivals|date=11 March 2015|publisher=[[Palgrave MacMillan]]|location=New York, NY|isbn=1137404140|url=https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=H7u_BwAAQBAJ|accessdate=15 September 2018}}</ref> ===Sports=== [[File:Estadio-11Nov-Luanda 03 linke-Seite-Bogen LWS-2011-08-NC 0991.jpg|thumb|Interior of 11 November stadium in Luanda, Angola, with Tribunes and running track]] [[Basketball]] is the most popular sport in Angola. Its [[Angola national basketball team|national team]] has won the [[AfroBasket]] 11 times and holds the record of most titles. As a top team in Africa, it's a regular competitor at the [[Basketball at the Summer Olympics|Summer Olympic Games]] and the [[FIBA World Cup]]. In football, Angola hosted the [[2010 Africa Cup of Nations]]. The [[Angola national football team]] qualified for the [[2006 FIFA World Cup]], as this was their first appearance on the World Cup finals stage. They were eliminated after one defeat and two draws in the group stage. They won 3 [[COSAFA Cup]]s and finished runner up in [[2011 African Nations Championship]]. Angola has participated in the [[World Women's Handball Championship]] for several years. The country has also appeared in the [[Angola at the Olympics|Summer Olympics]] for seven years and both regularly competes in and once has hosted the [[FIRS Roller Hockey World Cup]], where the best finish is sixth. Angola is also often believed to have historic roots in the [[martial art]] "[[Capoeira Angola]]" and "[[Batuque (game)|Batuque]]" which were practiced by [[Slavery in Angola|enslaved African Angolans]] transported as part of the [[Atlantic slave trade]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Poncianinho, Mestre|author2=Almeida, Ponciano|title=Capoeira: The Essential Guide to Mastering the Art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fKKGUCJ5PAwC&pg=PA18|year=2007|publisher=New Holland Publishers|isbn=978-1-84537-761-8|pages=18–}}</ref> ==See also== {{portal|Angola|Africa|Geography}} *[[Outline of Angola]] *[[Index of Angola-related articles]] {{clear}} ==Notes== {{Reflist|30em}} ==References== *{{cite EB9|mode=cs2|wstitle=Angola|volume=2|ref={{harvid|EB|1878}}|page=45}} *{{cite EB1911|mode=cs2|wstitle=Angola|volume=2|ref={{harvid|EB|1911}}|pages=38–40}} *Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website. The information given there is, however, corrected and updated on the basis of the other sources indicated. ==External links== {{Sister project links|voy=Angola|Angola}} {{Wikibooks|Wikijunior:Countries A-Z|Angola}} {{Wikivoyage}} *{{Official website|http://www.angola.gov.ao}} {{pt icon}} *{{CIA World Factbook link|ao|Angola}} *{{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Angola}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080704131403/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/angola.htm Angola] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''. *[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13036732 Angola profile] from the [[BBC News]]. *{{Wikiatlas|Angola}} *[http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=AO Key Development Forecasts for Angola] from [[International Futures]]. *[https://web.archive.org/web/20120401150404/http://www.bti-project.org/country-reports/esa/ago/ Bertelsmann Transformation Index 2012 – Angola Country Report] *Markus Weimer, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20120801221204/http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Research/Africa/0312pp_weimer.pdf The Peace Dividend: Analysis of a Decade of Angolan Indicators, 2002–2012]". *[https://www.academia.edu/12759680/The_participation_of_Hungarian_soldiers_in_UN_peacekeeping_operations_in_Angola The participation of Hungarian soldiers in UN peacekeeping operations in Angola] {{Angola topics}} {{Countries of Africa}} {{Sport in Africa}} {{Navboxes |title = International membership and history |list = {{Southern African Development Community}} {{African Union}} {{Community of Portuguese Language Countries|collapsed}} {{Portuguese overseas empire}} }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Angola]] [[Category:1975 establishments in Angola]] [[Category:Bantu countries and territories]] [[Category:Central African countries]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:Former Portuguese colonies]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of OPEC]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Portuguese-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:Southern African countries]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1975]] peyd8frpxpgl8u7rzbcj5awfpr0527p 0 704 857075718 857075056 2018-08-29T12:00:04Z Afus199620 30645640 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} This article is about the [[demographics|demographic]] features of the [[population]] of [[Angola]], including [[population density]], [[Ethnic group|ethnicity]], education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. [[Image:Angola demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of [[Angola]], Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]] According to 2014 census data, Angola had a population of 25,789,024 inhabitants in 2014.<ref>[http://aiangola.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Publicação-Resultados-Definitivos-Censo-Geral-2014_Versão-22032016_DEFINITIVA-18H17.pdf] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506013702/http://aiangola.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Publica%C3%A7%C3%A3o-Resultados-Definitivos-Censo-Geral-2014_Vers%C3%A3o-22032016_DEFINITIVA-18H17.pdf |date=May 6, 2016 }}</ref> Ethnically, there are three main groups, each speaking a [[Bantu language]]: the [[Southern Mbundu people|Ovimbundu]] who represent 37% of the population, the [[Northern Mbundu people|Ambundu]] with 25%, and the [[Kongo people|Bakongo]] 13%. Other numerically important groups include the closely interrelated [[Chokwe people|Chokwe]] and [[Lunda people|Lunda]], the [[Ganguela]] and [[Nyaneka]]-[[Khumbi]] (in both cases classification terms that stand for a variety of small groups), the [[Ovambo people|Ovambo]], the [[Herero people|Herero]], the [[Xindonga]] and scattered residual groups of [[San people|San]]. In addition, mixed race (European and African) people amount to about 2%, with a small (1%) population of whites, mainly ethnically [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]]. As a [[Angola (Portugal)|former overseas territory of Portugal]] until 1975, Angola possesses a Portuguese population of over 200,000, a number that has been growing from 2000 onwards, because of Angola's growing demand for qualified human resources.<ref>In 1974, white Angolans made up a population of 330,000 to 350,000 people in an overall population of 6.3 million Angolans at that time. The only reliable source on these numbers is Gerald Bender & Stanley Yoder, ''Whites in Angola on the Eve of Independence: The Politics of Numbers'', ''Africa Today'', 21 (4) 1974, pp. 23 - 37. Today, many Angolans who are not ethnic Portuguese can claim Portuguese nationality under Portuguese law. Estimates on the overall population are given in [http://www.opais.net/pt/opais/?det=7192 O País]</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/12079340?story_id=12079340|title=Flight from Angola|date=1975-08-16|work=The Economist|access-date=2017-07-10|issn=0013-0613}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/angola/34.htm|title=Angola - The Portuguese Coup d'Etat and the End of the Colonial Era|website=countrystudies.us|access-date=2017-07-10}}</ref><ref>{{pt icon}} [https://jn.sapo.pt/PaginaInicial/Sociedade/Interior.aspx?content_id=1165354 Portugueses em Angola quadruplicaram], [[Jornal de Notícias]] (March 10, 2009)</ref> Besides the Portuguese, significant numbers of people from other European and from diverse Latin American countries (especially Brazil) can be found. From the 2000s, many Chinese have settled and started up small businesses, while at least as many have come as workers for large enterprises (construction or other). Observers claim that the Chinese community in Angola might include as many as 300,000 persons at the end of 2010, but reliable statistics are not at this stage available.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/9052011.stm|title=BBC News - Chinese karaoke fans sing Angola's praises|website=news.bbc.co.uk|language=en-GB|access-date=2017-07-18}}</ref> In 1974/75, over 25,000 [[Cuba]]n soldiers arrived in Angola to help the MPLA forces at the beginning of the [[Angolan Civil War]]. Once this was over, a massive development cooperation in the field of health and education brought in numerous civil personnel from Cuba. However, only a very small percentage of all these people has remained in Angola, either for personal reasons (intermarriage) or as professionals (e.g., medical doctors). The largest religious denomination is [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]], to which adheres about half the population. Roughly 26% are followers of traditional forms of [[Protestantism]] (Congregationals, Methodists, Baptista, Lutherans, Reformed), but over the last decades there has in addition been a growth of Pentecostal communities and [[African Initiated Church]]es. In 2006, one out of 221 people were [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]. Blacks from Mali, Nigeria and Senegal are mostly Sunnite Muslims, but do not make up more than 1 - 2% of the population. By now few Angolans retain [[African traditional religion]]s following different ethnic faiths. ==Population== According to {{UN_Population|source}} the total population was {{UN_Population|Angola}} in {{UN_Population|Year}}, compared to only 4 148 000 in 1950. The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 46.6%, 50.9% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 2.5% was 65 years or older .<ref name="WPP 2010">{{cite web|url=http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/index.htm|title=Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat, World Population Prospects: The 2010 Revision|website=Esa.un.org|accessdate=2017-08-27}}</ref> [[Image:Angola Population Pyramid 2012.png|thumb|370px|[[Population pyramid]] for Angola]] {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: right;" |- ! ! width="80pt"|Total population<ref>{{cite web |url=http://aiangola.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Publica%C3%A7%C3%A3o-Resultados-Definitivos-Censo-Geral-2014_Vers%C3%A3o-22032016_DEFINITIVA-18H17.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2017-01-10 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506013702/http://aiangola.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Publica%C3%A7%C3%A3o-Resultados-Definitivos-Censo-Geral-2014_Vers%C3%A3o-22032016_DEFINITIVA-18H17.pdf |archivedate=May 6, 2016 |df=mdy-all }} </ref> ! width="80pt"|Population aged 0–14 (%) ! width="80pt"|Population aged 15–64 (%) ! width="80pt"|Population aged 65+ (%) |- | 1950 |4 148 000||41.2||55.7||3.1 |- | 1955 |4 542 000||42.4||54.9||2.7 |- | 1960 |4 963 000||43.7||53.6||2.7 |- | 1965 |5 431 000||45.3||52.0||2.7 |- | 1970 |5 926 000||46.0||51.3||2.7 |- | 1975 |6 637 000||46.2||51.1||2.7 |- | 1980 |7 638 000||46.5||50.8||2.7 |- | 1985 |9 066 000||47.0||50.4||2.7 |- | 1990 |10 335 000||47.5||49.9||2.6 |- | 1995 |12 105 000||47.6||49.8||2.5 |- | 2000 |13 926 000||47.7||49.9||2.5 |- | 2005 |16 489 000||47.6||49.9||2.5 |- | 2010 |19 082 000||46.6||50.9||2.5 |- | 2014 |25 789 000||47.3||50.3||2.4 |} Structure of the population (DHS 2011) (Males 19 707, Females 20 356 = 40 063) : {| class="wikitable" |- ! width="80pt"|Age Group ! width="80pt"|Male (%) ! width="80pt"|Female (%) ! width="80pt"|Total (%) |- | align="right" | 0-4 | align="right" | 21,3 | align="right" | 21,3 | align="right" | 21,3 |- | align="right" | 5-9 | align="right" | 15,5 | align="right" | 13,7 | align="right" | 14,6 |- | align="right" | 10-14 | align="right" | 12,2 | align="right" | 12,1 | align="right" | 12,1 |- | align="right" | 15-19 | align="right" | 9,7 | align="right" | 10,9 | align="right" | 10,3 |- | align="right" | 20-24 | align="right" | 8,1 | align="right" | 10,1 | align="right" | 9,1 |- | align="right" | 25-29 | align="right" | 7,8 | align="right" | 7,7 | align="right" | 7,7 |- | align="right" | 30-34 | align="right" | 5,5 | align="right" | 5,0 | align="right" | 5,3 |- | align="right" | 35-39 | align="right" | 4,4 | align="right" | 4,5 | align="right" | 4,4 |- | align="right" | 40-44 | align="right" | 3,4 | align="right" | 2,8 | align="right" | 3,1 |- | align="right" | 45-49 | align="right" | 3,1 | align="right" | 2,0 | align="right" | 2,5 |- | align="right" | 50-54 | align="right" | 2,9 | align="right" | 4,7 | align="right" | 3,8 |- | align="right" | 55-59 | align="right" | 2,0 | align="right" | 1,9 | align="right" | 1,9 |- | align="right" | 60-64 | align="right" | 1,6 | align="right" | 1,5 | align="right" | 1,6 |- | align="right" | 65-69 | align="right" | 1,0 | align="right" | 0,7 | align="right" | 0,8 |- | align="right" | 70-74 | align="right" | 0,8 | align="right" | 0,5 | align="right" | 0,6 |- | align="right" | 75-79 | align="right" | 0,4 | align="right" | 0,3 | align="right" | 0,3 |- | align="right" | 80+ | align="right" | 0,4 | align="right" | 0,3 | align="right" | 0,4 |- | align="right" | unknown | align="right" | 0,1 | align="right" | 0,0 | align="right" | 0,1 |- |} {| class="wikitable" |- ! width="50"|Age group ! width="80pt"|Male (%) ! width="80"|Female (%) ! width="80"|Total (%) |- | align="right" | 0-14 | align="right" | 49,0 | align="right" | 47,1 | align="right" | 48,0 |- | align="right" | 15-64 | align="right" | 48,3 | align="right" | 51,1 | align="right" | 49,8 |- | align="right" | 65+ | align="right" | 2,6 | align="right" | 1,8 | align="right" | 2,1 |- |} ==Vital statistics== Registration of vital events is in Angola not complete. The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates. <ref name="WPP 2010"/> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: right;" |- ! width="40pt"|Period ! width="70pt"|Live births per year ! width="70pt"|Deaths per year ! width="70pt"|Natural change per year ! width="70pt"|CBR* ! width="70pt"|CDR* ! width="70pt"|NC* ! width="70pt"|TFR* ! width="70pt"|IMR* |- | 1950-1955 || 235 000|| 156 000|| 79 000||54.0||35.9||18.1||7.00||230 |- | 1955-1960 || 259 000|| 159 000|| 99 000||54.4||33.5||20.9||7.20||215 |- | 1960-1965 || 282 000|| 162 000|| 121 000||54.3||31.1||23.2||7.40||200 |- | 1965-1970 || 302 000|| 163 000|| 139 000||53.2||28.7||24.5||7.40||186 |- | 1970-1975 || 325 000|| 166 000|| 160 000||51.8||26.4||25.5||7.20||173 |- | 1975-1980 || 374 000|| 176 000|| 197 000||52.4||24.7||27.7||7.20||161 |- | 1980-1985 || 441 000|| 202 000|| 239 000||52.8||24.2||28.6||7.20||157 |- | 1985-1990 || 512 000|| 228 000|| 284 000||52.8||23.5||29.3||7.20||153 |- | 1990-1995 || 584 000|| 259 000|| 325 000||52.1||23.1||29.0||7.10||150 |- | 1995-2000 || 664 000|| 274 000|| 390 000||51.0||21.1||29.9||6.92||138 |- | 2000-2005 || 746 000|| 268 000|| 478 000||49.0||17.6||31.4||6.63||116 |- | 2005-2010 || 774 000|| 272 000|| 502 000||43.5||15.3||28.2||5.79||104 |- |align="left" colspan="9" | * <small> CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1000); NC = natural change (per 1000); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman)</small> |} ===Fertility and Births=== Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted TFR) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR):<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://microdata.worldbank.org/index.php/catalog/dhs#_r=&collection=&country=&dtype=&from=1890&page=1&ps=&sk=&sort_by=nation&sort_order=&to=2014&topic=&view=s&vk=|title=MEASURE DHS: Demographic and Health Surveys|website=microdata.worldbank.org|access-date=2017-07-18}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! style="width:50pt;"| Year ! style="width:50pt;"| CBR (Total) ! style="width:50pt;"| TFR (Total) ! style="width:50pt;"| CBR (Urban) ! style="width:50pt;"| TFR (Urban) ! style="width:50pt;"| CBR (Rural) ! style="width:50pt;"| TFR (Rural) |- | 2006-2007 | style="text-align:right;"| 42.4 | style="text-align:right;"| 5.8 | style="text-align:right;"| 35.0 | style="text-align:right;"| 4.4 | style="text-align:right;"| 50.2 | style="text-align:right;"| 7.7 |- | 2011 | style="text-align:right;"| 45.5 | style="text-align:right;"| 6.3 | style="text-align:right;"| 36.5 | style="text-align:right;"| 4.6 | style="text-align:right;"| 51.8 | style="text-align:right;"| 7.7 |- | 2014 (census) | style="text-align:right;"| | style="text-align:right;"| 5.7 | style="text-align:right;"| | style="text-align:right;"| 5.2 | style="text-align:right;"| | style="text-align:right;"| 6.5 |- | 2015-16 | style="text-align:right;"| 43.4 | style="text-align:right;"| 6.2 (5.2) | style="text-align:right;"| 40.6 | style="text-align:right;"| 5.3 (4.4) | style="text-align:right;"| 48.4 | style="text-align:right;"| 8.2 (7.1) |- |} === Life expectancy === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" !Period !Life expectancy in <br /> Years<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/DataQuery/|title=World Population Prospects - Population Division - United Nations|website=esa.un.org|access-date=2018-08-26}}</ref> |- |1950–1955 |31.39 |- |1955–1960 |{{increase}} 32.54 |- |1960–1965 |{{increase}} 34.09 |- |1965–1970 |{{increase}} 36.04 |- |1970–1975 |{{increase}} 38.05 |- |1975–1980 |{{increase}} 40.00 |- |1980–1985 |{{increase}} 40.89 |- |1985–1990 |{{increase}} 41.48 |- |1990–1995 |{{increase}} 42.22 |- |1995–2000 |{{increase}} 44.73 |- |2000–2005 |{{increase}} 49.98 |- |2005–2010 |{{increase}} 55.59 |- |2010–2015 |{{increase}} 60.19 |} ==CIA World Factbook demographic statistics== The following demographic statistics are from the [[CIA World Factbook]], unless otherwise indicated. ===Population=== *29,310,273 (July 2017 est.) ====Population growth==== The population is growing by 3.52% annually. There are 44.2 births and 9.2 deaths per 1,000 citizens. The net migration rate is 0.2 migrants per 1,000 citizens. The fertility rate of Angola is 6.16 children born per woman as of 2017. The [[infant mortality]] rate is 67.6 deaths for every 1,000 live births with 73.3 deaths for males and 61.8 deaths for females for every 1,000 live births. Life expectancy at birth is 60.2 years; 58.2 years for males and 62.3 years for females. ===Sex ratio=== *At birth: 1.05 male(s)/female *Under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female *15–64 years: 1.03 male(s)/female *65 years and older: .79 male(s)/female *Total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2011 est.) ===Health=== {{See also|HIV/AIDS in Angola}} According to the CIA World Factbook, 2% of adults (aged 15–49) are living with HIV/AIDS (as of 2009).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2155rank.html|title=The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency|website=www.cia.gov|language=en|access-date=2017-07-10}}</ref> The risk of contracting disease is very high. There are food and waterborne diseases, bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever; vectorborne diseases, malaria, African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness); respiratory disease: meningococcal meningitis, and schistosomiasis, a water contact disease, as of 2005. ===Ethnic groups=== [[File:Angola Ethnic map 1970.svg|thumb|right|300px|Ethnic groups of Angola 1970]] Roughly 37% of Angolans are [[Ovimbundu]], 25% are [[Northern Mbundu people|Ambundu]], 13% are [[Bakongo]], 2% are [[mestiço]], 1-2% are [[White Africans of European ancestry|white Africans]], and people from other African ethnicities make up 22% of Angola's population. ===Religions=== {{Main article|Religion in Angola}} Angola is a majority Christian country. Official statistics don't exist, but it is estimated that over 80% belong to a Christian church or community. More than half are [[Catholic Church|Catholic]], the remaining ones comprising members of traditional [[Protestant]] churches as well as of [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] communities. Only 1 - 2% are [[Muslim]]s - generally immigrants from other African countries. Traditional indigenous religions are practized by a very small minority, generally in peripheral rural societies. ===Education=== {{Main article|Education in Angola}} Literacy is quite low, with 71.1% of the population over the age of 15 able to read and write in Portuguese. 82% of males and 60.7% of women are literate as of 2015. ===Languages=== {{Main article|Languages of Angola}} [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] is the official language of Angola, but [[Bantu language|Bantu]] and other African languages are also widely spoken. In fact, [[Kikongo]], [[Kimbundu languages|Kimbundu]], [[Umbundu]], [[Chokwe language|Tuchokwe]], [[Ganguela|Nganguela]], and [[Kwanyama dialect|Ukanyama]] have the official status of "national languages". The mastery of Portuguese is widespread; in the cities the overwhelming majority are either fluent in Portuguese or have at least a reasonable working knowledge of this language; an increasing minority are native Portuguese speakers and have a poor, if any, knowledge of an African language. ==References== {{Reflist}} *{{CIA World Factbook|year=2007}} *{{StateDept}} 2003 ==External links== {{Commons category|Demographics of Angola}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091005014319/http://www.worldmapper.org/countrycartograms/carto_ago.htm Population cartogram of Angola] {{Ethnic groups in Angola}} {{Africa in topic|Demographics of}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Demographics Of Angola}} [[Category:Angolan society]] [[Category:Demographics by country|Angola]] [[Category:Demographics of Africa|Angola]] 236rws5r1q9qzr7d0gqpmdu95w6ajs8 0 705 861591129 856336637 2018-09-28T15:15:52Z GreenC bot 27823944 Reformat 2 archive links. [[User:GreenC/WaybackMedic_2.1|Wayback Medic 2.1]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{Politics of Angola}} Since the adoption of a new [[Constitution of Angola#2010 constitution|constitution in 2010]], the '''politics of Angola''' takes place in a framework of a [[presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]], whereby the [[President of Angola]] is both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]], and of a [[multi-party system]]. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in the President, the [[Forms of government|government]] and parliament.<ref>{{cite web|title=Constituent Assembly approves Angolan Constitution|url=http://www.portalangop.co.ao/motix/en_us/noticias/politica/2010/0/3/Constituent-Assembly-approves-Angolan-Constitution,7c03e88b-4d2c-425f-bacd-caf923937062.html|website=Angola Press|accessdate=4 July 2015}}</ref> [[Angola]] changed from a [[One-party state|one-party]] [[Marxist]]-[[Leninist]] system ruled by the [[Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola]] (MPLA), in place since independence in 1975, to a multiparty democracy based on a new constitution adopted in 1992. That same year the first parliamentary and presidential elections were held. The MPLA won an absolute majority in the parliamentary elections. In the presidential elections, President [[José Eduardo dos Santos]] won the first round election with more than 49% of the vote to [[Jonas Savimbi]]'s 40%. A runoff election would have been necessary, but never took place. The renewal of civil war immediately after the elections, which were considered as fraudulent by UNITA, and the collapse of the [[Lusaka Protocol]], created a split situation. To a certain degree the new democratic institutions worked, notably the [[National Assembly of Angola|National Assembly]], with the active participation of UNITA's and the FNLA's elected MPs - while José Eduardo dos Santos continued to exercise his functions without democratic legitimation. However the armed forces of the MPLA (now the official armed forces of the Angolan state) and of UNITA fought each other until the leader of UNITA, Jonas Savimbi, was killed in action in 2002.<ref>From 1998 to 2002, there existed even a Government of National Unity and Reconciliation which included ministers from both FNLA and UNITA.</ref> From 2002 to 2010, the system as defined by the [[Constitution of Angola#1992 constitution|constitution of 1992]] functioned in a relatively normal way. The executive branch of the government was composed of the President, the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers. The Council of Ministers, composed of all ministers and vice ministers, met regularly to discuss policy issues. Governors of the 18 provinces were appointed by and served at the pleasure of the president.<ref>{{cite web|title=Angola: Constitution of 1992|url=http://www.content.eisa.org.za/old-page/angola-constitution-1992|website=Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa|accessdate=4 July 2015|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704183133/http://www.content.eisa.org.za/old-page/angola-constitution-1992|archivedate=4 July 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The Constitutional Law of 1992 established the broad outlines of government structure and the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system was based on Portuguese and customary law but was weak and fragmented. Courts operated in only 12 of more than 140 municipalities. A Supreme Court served as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court with powers of judicial review was never constituted despite statutory authorization. In practice, power was more and more concentrated in the hands of the President who, supported by an ever-increasing staff, largely controlled parliament, government, and the judiciary.<ref>http://www.bertensmann-transformation-index.de/bti/laendergutachten/laendergutachten/oestliches-und-suedliches-afrika/angola{{Dead link|date=August 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The 26-year-long civil war has ravaged the country's political and social institutions. The UN estimates of 1.8 million [[internally displaced person]]s (IDPs), while generally the accepted figure for war-affected people is 4 million. Daily conditions of life throughout the country and specifically [[Luanda]] (population approximately 6 million) mirror the collapse of administrative infrastructure as well as many social institutions. The ongoing grave economic situation largely prevents any government support for social institutions. Hospitals are without medicines or basic equipment, schools are without books, and public employees often lack the basic supplies for their day-to-day work. ==Executive branch== The 2010 constitution grants the President almost absolute power. Elections for the National assembly are to take place every five years, and the President is automatically the leader of the winning party or coalition. It is for the President to appoint (and dismiss) all of the following: * The members of the government (state ministers, ministers, state secretaries and vice-ministers); * The members of the Constitutional Court; * The members of the Supreme Court; * The members of the Court of Auditors; * The members of the Military Supreme Court; * The Governor and Vice-Governors of the Nacional Angolan Bank; * The General-Attorney, the Vice-General-Attorneys and their deputies (as well as the military homologous); * The Governors of the provinces; * The members of the Republic Council; * The members of the National Security Council; * The members of the Superior Magistrates Councils; * The General Chief of the Armed Forces and his deputy; * All other command posts in the military; * The Police General Commander, and the 2nd in command; * All other command posts in the police; * The chiefs and directors of the intelligence and security organs. The President is also provided a variety of powers, like defining the policy of the country. Even though it's not up to him/her to make laws (only to promulgate them and make edicts), the President is the leader of the winning party. The only "relevant" post that is not directly appointed by the President is the Vice-President, which is the second in the winning party.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.angolaembassy.org.il/documents/AngolaConstitution05.02.2010.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=3 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328113805/http://www.angolaembassy.org.il/documents/AngolaConstitution05.02.2010.pdf |archive-date=28 March 2012 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref> ==Legislative branch== The [[National Assembly of Angola|National Assembly]] (''Assembleia Nacional'') has 223 members, elected for a four-year term, 130 members by [[proportional representation]], 90 members in provincial districts, and 3 members to represent Angolans abroad. The next general elections, due for 1997, have been rescheduled for 5 September 2008. The ruling party MPLA won 82% (191 seats in the National Assembly) and the main opposition party won only 10% (16 seats). The elections however have been described as only partly free but certainly not fair.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.kas.de/proj/home/pub/8/2/year-2008/dokument_id-15323/index.html |title=Archived copy |access-date=15 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090428070220/http://www.kas.de/proj/home/pub/8/2/year-2008/dokument_id-15323/index.html |archive-date=28 April 2009 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref> A White Book on the elections in 2008 lists up all irregularities surrounding the Parliamentary elections of 2008.<ref>http://www.kas.de/proj/home/pub/8/2/year-2009/dokument_id-17396/index.html{{dead link|date=March 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ==Political parties and elections== {{elect|List of political parties in Angola|Elections in Angola}} ==Judicial branch== Supreme Court (or "Tribunal da Relacao") judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the president. The Constitutional Court, with the power of judicial review, contains 11 justices. Four are appointed by the President, four by the National Assembly, two by the Superior Council of the Judiciary, and one elected by the public.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tribunalconstitucional.ao/Conteudos/Artigos/detalhe_artigo.aspx?idc=148&idsc=156&idl=1|title=Tribunal Constitucional de Angola - Tribunal|website=www.tribunalconstitucional.ao|language=pt|access-date=2017-07-10}}</ref> ==Administrative divisions== Angola has eighteen provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Bengo, Benguela, Bie, Cabinda, Cuando Cubango, Cuanza Norte, Cuanza Sul, Cunene, Huambo, Huila, Luanda, Lunda Norte, Lunda Sul, Malanje, Moxico, Namibe, Uige, Zaire ==Political pressure groups and leaders== [[Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda]] or FLEC ([[Henrique N'zita Tiago]]; [[António Bento Bembe]]) * ''note:'' FLEC is waging a small-scale, highly factionalized, armed struggle for the independence of Cabinda Province ==International organization participation== [[African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States]], [[AfDB]], [[CEEAC]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Africa]], [[FAO]], [[Group of 77]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Criminal Court]] (signatory), [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement]], [[International Development Association]], [[IFAD]], [[International Finance Corporation|IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[International Labour Organization]], [[International Monetary Fund]], [[International Maritime Organization]], [[Interpol (organization)|Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration]], [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] (correspondent), [[ITU]], Non-Aligned Council (temporary), [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNIDO]], [[UPU]], [[World Customs Organization]], [[World Federation of Trade Unions]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTrO]] ==See also== * {{illm|Government of the Republic of Angola|pt|Governo da República de Angola}} ==References== {{reflist}} ==Further reading== *ANGOLA LIVRO BRANCO SOBRE AS ELEIÇÕES DE 2008. http://www.kas.de/proj/home/pub/8/2/year-2009/dokument_id-17396/index.html{{dead link|date=March 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} *Bösl, Anton (2008). Angola's Parliamentary Elections in 2008. A Country on its Way to One-Party-Democracy, KAS Auslandsinformationen 10/2008. http://www.kas.de/wf/de/33.15186/ * Amundsen, I. (2011) Angola Party Politics: Into the African Trend. ''Angola Brief vol. 1 no. 9'' [http://www.cmi.no/publications/file/4025-angola-party-politics-into-the-african-trend.pdf] ==External links== *[http://www.cmi.no The Chr. Michelsen Institute] The largest centre for development research in Scandinavia. In particular, see their collaborative [http://www.cmi.no/angola/ Angola Programme]. {{Africa in topic|Politics of}} {{Angola topics|state=uncollapsed}} {{use dmy dates|date=September 2010}} [[Category:Politics of Angola| ]] 5mxzn2v6jryjmb4ndjdfknt2fkj1pfj 0 706 859125501 858333185 2018-09-11T21:48:35Z GL19GL61 25608111 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox economy |country = Angola |image = Marginal Avenida 4 de Fevreiro Luanda March 2013 14.JPG |width = 270px |caption = [[Luanda]] is the financial center of [[Angola]] |currency = [[Angolan kwanza]] (AOA) |fixed exchange = |year = Calendar Year |organs = [[African Union|AU]], [[African Development Bank]], [[Southern African Development Community|SADC]], [[World Bank]], [[IMF]], [[World Trade Organization|WTO]], [[Group of 77]], [[OPEC]] |gdp = {{increase}} $194 billion ([[purchasing power parity|PPP]]) (2017 est.)<br />Rank: 65 (2017 est.) |growth = 3% (2015), 0.0% (2016), <br> 1.2% (2017e), 1.7% (2018f) <ref name=" World Bank">{{cite web|url= https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/29801/9781464812576.pdf|title= World Bank forecasts for Angola, June 2018 (p. 153) |publisher=[[World Bank]]|accessdate=6 September 2018}}</ref> |per capita = $6,500 ([[purchasing power parity|PPP]]) (2012 est.)<br />Rank: 144 (2012 est.) |sectors = [[agriculture]] 10.2% <br> [[industry]] 61.4% <br> [[Service (economics)|services]] 28.4% (2011 est.) |components = |inflation = {{decrease}} 8.8% (2013) |poverty = 40.5% (2006 est.) |gini = N/A |labor = 8.468 million (2012 est.) |occupations = [[agriculture]] 85% <br> [[industry]] and [[Service (economics)|services]] 15% (2003 est.) |unemployment = N/A |average gross salary = |average net salary = |industries = [[petroleum]], [[uranium]], [[diamonds]], [[gold]], [[bauxite]], [[iron ore]], [[phosphates]], [[feldspar]], [[metal]] products, [[fish processing]], [[food processing]], [[brewing]], [[tobacco]] products, [[sugar]], [[textile]]s, commercial [[ship]] repair |edbr = 182nd (2017)<ref name=" World Bank and International Financial Corporation ">{{cite web |url=http://www.doingbusiness.org/data/exploreeconomies/angola |title=Ease of Doing Business in Angola |publisher=Doingbusiness.org |accessdate=2017-01-24 }}</ref> |exports = {{increase}} $69.26 billion (2012 est.) |export-goods = [[crude oil]], [[petroleum product]]s, [[diamond]]s, [[fish]], [[fish products]], [[coffee]], [[sisal]], [[cotton]], [[lumber]] |export-partners = {{flag|China}} 45.8% <br> {{flag|United States}} 13.7% <br> {{flag|India}} 11.0% <br> {{flag|South Africa}} 4.1% (2012 est.)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2050.html#ao|title=Export Partners of Angola|publisher=[[CIA World Factbook]]|year=2012|accessdate=2013-07-27}}</ref> |imports = {{increase}} $22.86 billion (2012 est.) |import-goods = [[machinery]], [[electrical equipment]], [[vehicle]]s and spare parts, [[military technology]], [[medicines]], [[textile]]s, [[food]] |import-partners = {{flag|China}} 20.8% <br> {{flag|Portugal}} 19.5% <br> {{flag|United States}} 7.7% <br> {{flag|South Africa}} 7.1% <br> {{flag|Brazil}} 5.9% (2012 est.)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2061.html#ao|title=Import Partners of Angola|publisher=[[CIA World Factbook]]|year=2012|accessdate=2013-07-27}}</ref> |FDI = {{increase}} $17.15 billion (31 December 2012 est.) |gross external debt = {{increase}} $21.78 billion (31 December 2012 est.) |debt = {{Decrease}} 16.2% of GDP (2012 est.) |deficit = {{increase}} 5.9% of GDP (2012 est.) |revenue = $51.24 billion (2012 est.) |expenses = $44.23 billion (2012 est.) |aid = $383.5 million (1999 est.) |credit = |reserves = {{increase}} $33.41 billion (31 December 2012 est.) |cianame = ao |spelling = }} The '''Economy of Angola''' is one of the fastest-growing in the world,<ref name="fastest">Birgitte Refslund Sørensen and Marc Vincent. ''Caught Between Borders: Response Strategies of the Internally Displaced'', 2001. Page 17.</ref> with reported annual average [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] growth of 11.1 percent from 2001 to 2010.<ref> {{cite news |author=Graphic detail Charts, maps and infographics |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/dailychart/2011/01/daily_chart |title=Daily chart: Africa's impressive growth |publisher=The Economist |date=2011-01-06 |accessdate=2014-07-13 }}</ref> It is still recovering from 27 years of the [[Angolan Civil War|civil war]] that plagued the country from its [[Alvor Agreement|independence in 1975]] to 2002. Despite extensive [[Crude oil|oil and gas]] resources, [[diamond]]s, [[Hydroelectricity|hydroelectric]] potential, and rich [[Agriculture|agricultural]] land, Angola remains poor, and a third of the population relies on subsistence agriculture. Since 2002, when the 27-year civil war ended, the nation has worked to repair and improve ravaged infrastructure and weakened political and social institutions. High international oil prices and rising oil production have contributed to the very strong economic growth since 1998,<ref>[[Google Public Data]]. Retrieved 2013-8-14.</ref> but corruption and public-sector mismanagement remain, particularly in the oil sector, which accounts for over 50 percent of GDP, over 90 percent of export revenue, and over 80 percent of government revenue. ==History== The [[Portuguese exploration of Africa|Portuguese explorer]] [[Diogo Cão]] reached the Angolan coast in 1484,<ref>{{cite EB9|ref=harv |wstitle=Angola |volume=2 |page=45 }}</ref> after which [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]] began to found trading posts and forts along the shore. [[Paulo Dias de Novais]] founded Sāo Paulo de Loanda ([[Luanda]]) in 1575. São Felipe de Benguella ([[Benguela]]) followed in 1587. The principal early trade was in [[Atlantic slave trade|slaves]]. Portuguese merchants purchased the slaves from the local [[Imbangala]] and [[Northern Mbundu people|Mbundu]] peoples, [[Slavery in Africa|notable slave hunters]], and sold them to the [[sugarcane]] [[Sugar plantations in the Caribbean|plantation]]s in [[Captaincies of Brazil|Brazil]]. Brazilian ships were frequent visitors to Luanda and Benguela and Angola functioned as a kind of colony of Brazil, with Brazilian [[Jesuits]] active in its religious and educational centers. The [[Portuguese Empire]] was neglected during the period of the [[Iberian Union]], which lasted from 1580 to 1640. The [[Netherlands|Dutch]], bitter enemies of their former masters in [[Kingdom of Spain|Spain]], invaded many Portuguese overseas possessions. During Portugal's separatist war against Spain, the Dutch occupied Luanda from 1640 to 1648, calling it "Fort Aardenburgh". The Dutch used the territory to supply their own slaves to the sugarcane plantations of [[Northeast Region, Brazil|Northeastern Brazil]] ([[Pernambuco]], [[Olinda]], [[Recife]]), which they had also seized from Portugal. [[John Maurice, Prince of Nassau-Siegen]], conquered the Portuguese possessions of [[Elmina|Saint George del Mina]], Saint Thomas, and Luanda, Angola, on the west coast of Africa. Portugal recovered the territory between 1648 and 1650. In the high plains, the Planalto, the most important native states were [[Bié Province|Bié]] and [[Bailundo]], the latter being noted for its production of foodstuffs and rubber. Portugal expanded into their territory,{{when|date=June 2015}} but did not control much of the interior prior to the late 19th century.{{sfn|Baynes|1878|p=45}} The Portuguese started to develop townships, trading posts, logging camps and small processing factories. From 1764 onwards,{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} there was a gradual change from a slave-based society to one based on production for domestic consumption and export. Following the [[independence of Brazil]] in 1822, the slave trade was formally abolished in 1836. However it did continue locally into the 20th century. In 1844, Angola's ports were opened to foreign shipping. By 1850, Luanda was one of the greatest and most developed Portuguese cities in the vast [[Portuguese Empire]] outside of [[Mainland Portugal]],{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} full of trading companies,{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} exporting peanut oil,{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} copal,{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} timber,{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} and cocoa.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} The principal exports of the post-slave economy in the 19th century were [[rubber]], beeswax, and ivory.{{sfn|Baynes|1878|p=45}} Maize, tobacco, dried meat and [[cassava]] flour also began to be locally produced.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} Prior to the [[First World War]], exportation of [[coffee]], [[palm tree|palm]] kernels and [[palm oil|oil]], [[cattle]], [[leather]] and [[Hide (skin)|hides]], and [[salt fish]] joined the principal exports, with small quantities of gold and [[cotton]] also being produced.<ref>{{cite EB1911|ref=harv |wstitle=Angola |volume=2 |page=39}}</ref> Grains, sugar, and rum were also produced for local consumption.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=39}} The principal imports were foodstuffs, cotton goods, hardware, and British coal.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=39}} Legislation against foreign traders was implemented in the 1890s. The territory's prosperity, however, continued to depend on plantations worked by labor "indentured" from the interior.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=40}} From the 1920s to the 1960s, strong economic growth, abundant natural resources and development of infrastructure, led to the arrival of even more Portuguese settlers.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} [[Petroleum]] was known to exist as early as the mid-19th century,{{sfn|Baynes|1878|p=45}} but modern exploitation didn't begin until in 1955. Production began in the [[Cuanza basin]] in the 1950s, in the [[Congo basin]] in the 1960s, and in the [[exclave]] of [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] in 1968. The [[Portuguese government]] granted operating rights for Block Zero to the Cabinda Gulf Oil Company, a subsidiary of [[ChevronTexaco]], in 1955.<ref name="opec"/> Oil production surpassed the exportation of [[coffee]] as Angola's largest export in 1973. {|class=wikitable |- !colspan=3|Angolan oil production rates |- !Year !thousand barrels per day !thousand cubic metres per day |- |1974 |{{convert|172|oilbbl|0|disp=table}} |- |1991 |{{convert|490|oilbbl|0|disp=table}} |- |1995<ref name="oilhistory">Tvedten, Inge. ''Angola: Struggle for Peace and Reconstruction'', 1997. Page 82.</ref> |{{convert|635|oilbbl|0|disp=table}} |- |2001<ref name="fastest"/> |{{convert|800|oilbbl|0|disp=table}} |- |2006<ref name="oilview">OECD, International Energy Agency. ''Angola: towards an energy strategy'', 2006. Page 19.</ref> |{{convert|1460|oilbbl|0|disp=table}} |} A military-led coup d'état, started on April 25, 1974, in Lisbon, overthrew the [[Marcelo Caetano]] government in Portugal, and promised to hand over power to an independent Angolan government. [[Mobutu Sese Seko]], the [[President of Zaire]], met with [[António de Spínola]], the transitional [[President of Portugal]], on September 15, 1974, on [[Sal island]] in [[Cape Verde]], crafting a plan to empower [[Holden Roberto]] of the [[National Liberation Front of Angola]], [[Jonas Savimbi]] of [[UNITA]], and [[Daniel Chipenda]] of the [[MPLA]]'s eastern faction at the expense of MPLA leader [[Agostinho Neto]] while retaining the façade of national unity. Mobutu and Spínola wanted to present Chipenda as the MPLA head, Mobutu particularly preferring Chipenda over Neto because Chipenda supported autonomy for [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]]. The Angolan [[exclave]] has immense petroleum reserves estimated at around 300 million tons (~300{{e|9}}&nbsp;kg) which Zaire, and thus the Mobutu government, depended on for economic survival.<ref name="petroleum">Erik P. Hoffmann and Frederic J. Fleron. ''The Conduct of Soviet Foreign Policy'', 1980. Page 524.</ref> After independence thousands of white Portuguese left, most of them to [[Portugal]] and many travelling overland to [[South Africa]]. There was an immediate crisis because the indigenous African population lacked the skills and knowledge needed to run the country and maintain its well-developed infrastructure. The Angolan government created [[Sonangol]], a state-run oil company, in 1976. Two years later Sonangol received the rights to oil exploration and production in all of Angola.<ref name="opec">{{cite web |url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Angola/pdf.pdf |format=PDF |title=Angola |work=Energy Information Administration |publisher=Eia.doe.gov |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926035705/http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Angola/pdf.pdf |archivedate=September 26, 2007 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> After independence from Portugal in 1975, Angola was ravaged by a horrific [[Angolan Civil War|civil war]] between 1975 and 2002. ===1990s=== [[United Nations Angola Verification Mission III]] and [[MONUA]] spent [[USD]]1.5 billion overseeing implementation of the [[Lusaka Protocol]], a 1994 peace accord that ultimately failed to end the civil war. The protocol prohibited [[UNITA]] from buying foreign arms, a provision the [[United Nations]] largely did not enforce, so both sides continued to build up their stockpile. UNITA purchased weapons in 1996 and 1997 from private sources in [[Albania]] and [[Bulgaria]], and from [[Zaire]], [[South Africa]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Zambia]], [[Togo]], and [[Burkina Faso]]. In October 1997 the UN imposed travel sanctions on UNITA leaders, but the UN waited until July 1998 to limit UNITA's exportation of diamonds and freeze UNITA bank accounts. While the U.S. government gave USD250 million to UNITA between 1986 and 1991, UNITA made USD1.72 billion between 1994 and 1999 exporting diamonds, primarily through Zaire to Europe. At the same time the Angolan government received large amounts of weapons from the governments of [[Belarus]], [[Brazil]], Bulgaria, [[China]], and [[South Africa]]. While no arms shipment to the government violated the protocol, no country informed the U.N. Register on Conventional Weapons as required.<ref name="lusaka">Vines, Alex. ''Angola Unravels: The Rise and Fall of the Lusaka Peace Process'', 1999. Human Rights Watch.</ref> Despite the increase in civil warfare in late 1998, the economy grew by an estimated 4% in 1999. The government introduced new currency denominations in 1999, including a 1 and 5 kwanza note.{{cite web |url=http://infoweb.newsbank.com/resources/doc/nb/news/12E64CD19E1EC120?p=WORLDNEWS |title= Central Bank governor explains arrangements for new currency |publisher=BBC Selected Transcripts: Africa |date=1999-11-10 |access-date=2017-10-10}} ===2000s=== An economic reform effort was launched in 1998.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=U.S. Department of State |accessdate=Aug 14, 2013 |title=Angola }}</ref> Angola ranked 160 of 174 nations in the [[United Nations Human Development Index]] in 2000.<ref name="fastest"/> In April 2000 Angola started an [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) Staff-Monitored Program (SMP). The program formally lapsed in June 2001, but the IMF remains engaged. In this context the Government of Angola has succeeded in unifying exchange rates and has raised fuel, electricity, and water rates. The Commercial Code, telecommunications law, and Foreign Investment Code are being modernized. A privatization effort, prepared with [[World Bank]] assistance, has begun with the [[Banco de Comércio e Indústria|BCI]] bank. Nevertheless, a legacy of fiscal mismanagement and corruption persists.{{Citation needed|date=July 2007}} The civil war [[Internally displaced person|internally displaced]] 3.8 million people, 32% of the population, by 2001.<ref name="fastest"/> The security brought about by the 2002 peace settlement has led to the resettlement of 4 million displaced persons, thus resulting in large-scale increases in [[agriculture]] production.{{Citation needed|date=July 2007}} Angola produced over {{convert|3|e6carat|kg|abbr=off}} of diamonds in 2003,<ref name="threemct">{{cite web |url=http://www.mbendi.co.za/indy/ming/dmnd/af/p0005.htm |title=Diamond Mining in Africa - Overview |publisher=Mbendi.co.za |date=2014-03-31 |accessdate=2014-07-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070707125413/http://www.mbendi.co.za/indy/ming/dmnd/af/p0005.htm |archive-date=July 7, 2007 |dead-url=yes |df=mdy-all }}</ref> and production was expected to grow to {{convert|10|e6carat|kg|abbr=off}} per year by 2007. In 2004 China's Eximbank approved a $2 billion line of credit to Angola to rebuild infrastructure.<ref name="eximbank">[http://www.iie-angola-us.org/full_headlines.php?id=440 ] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805192137/http://www.iie-angola-us.org/full_headlines.php?id=440 |date=August 5, 2009 }}</ref> The economy grew 18% in 2005 and growth was expected to reach 26% in 2006 and stay above 10% for the rest of the decade.{{Citation needed|date=July 2007}} The construction industry is taking advantage of the growing economy, with various housing projects stimulated by the government initiatives for example the ''Angola Investe'' program and the ''[[Grupo Opaia SA#Casa Feliz|Casa Feliz]]'' or ''[[Grupo Opaia SA#Opaia Águas (Water)|Meña]]'' projects. Not all public construction projects are functional. A case in point: [[Kilamba Kiaxi]], where a whole new satellite town of Luanda, consisting of housing facilities for several hundreds of thousands of people, was completely uninhabited for over four years because of skyrocketing prices, but completely sold out after the government decreased the original price and created mortgage plans at around the election time thus made it affordable for middle-class people. ChevronTexaco started pumping {{convert|50|koilbbl/d|abbr=on}} from Block 14 in January 2000, but production decreased to {{convert|57|koilbbl/d|abbr=on}} in 2007 due to poor-quality oil.<ref name="opec"/> Angola joined the [[Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries]] on January 1, 2007.<ref name="opec"/> Cabinda Gulf Oil Company found Malange-1, an oil reservoir in Block 14, on August 9, 2007.<ref name="malfound">{{cite web |url=http://www.rigzone.com/news/article.asp?a_id=48798 |title=Chevron Finds Success on Angolan Block 14, Again |publisher=Rigzone |date=2007-08-09 |accessdate=2014-07-13 }} </ref> ==Overview== {{See also|Agriculture in Angola|Fishing in Angola}} Despite its abundant natural resources, output per capita is among the world's lowest. Subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihood for 85% of the population. Oil production and the supporting activities are vital to the economy, contributing about 45% to GDP and 90% of exports. Growth is almost entirely driven by rising oil production which surpassed {{convert|1.4|Moilbbl/d}} in late-2005 and which is expected to grow to {{convert|2|Moilbbl/d}} by 2007. Control of the oil industry is consolidated in [[Sonangol Group]], a conglomerate owned by the Angolan government. With revenues booming from oil exports, the government has started to implement ambitious development programs to build roads and other basic infrastructure for the nation.{{Citation needed|date=July 2007}} In the last decade of the colonial period, Angola was a major African food exporter but now imports almost all its food. Severe wartime conditions, including extensive planting of landmines throughout the countryside, have brought agricultural activities to a near-standstill. Some efforts to recover have gone forward, however, notably in fisheries. [[Coffee]] production, though a fraction of its pre-1975 level, is sufficient for domestic needs and some exports. Expanding oil production is now almost half of GDP and 90% of exports, at {{convert|800|koilbbl/d}}. Diamonds provided much of the revenue for [[Jonas Savimbi]]'s [[UNITA]] rebellion through illicit trade. Other rich resources await development: gold, forest products, fisheries, iron ore, coffee, and fruits.{{Citation needed|date=July 2007}} This is a chart of trend of [[Real versus nominal value (economics)|nominal]] [[gross domestic product]] of Angola at market prices using International Monetary Fund data;<ref name="gdptrend">{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/01/data/dbcoutm.cfm?SD=1995&ED=2005&R1=1&R2=1&CS=3&SS=2&OS=C&DD=0&OUT=1&C=614&S=NGDP-NGDPD&RequestTimeout=120&CMP=0 |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects |publisher=Imf.org |date=2003-04-29 |accessdate=2014-07-13}}</ref> figures are in millions of units. {|class="wikitable" |- !Year || Gross Domestic Product (*$1,000,000) || US Dollar Exchange || Per Capita Income<br/> (as % of USA) |- |1980 || || || 6.33 |- |1985 || || || 4.46 |- |1990 || || || 4.42 |- |1995 || 5,066 || 14 Angolan Kwanza || 1.58 |- |2000 || 9,135 || 91,666 Angolan Kwanza || 1.96 |- |2005 || 28,860 || 2,515,452 Angolan Kwanza || 4.73 |} ==Foreign trade== {{see also|Angola–United States relations}} Exports in 2004 reached [[United States dollar|US$]]10,530,764,911. The vast majority of Angola's exports, 92% in 2004, are petroleum products. US$785 million worth of diamonds, 7.5% of exports, were sold abroad that year.<ref name="exports">{{cite web|url=http://www.afrol.com/articles/16248 |title=afrol News - 99.4% of Angola's exports are oil, diamonds |publisher=Afrol.com |date= |accessdate=2014-07-13}}</ref> Nearly all of Angola's oil goes to the United States, {{convert|526|koilbbl/d|abbr=on}} in 2006, making it the eighth largest supplier of oil to the United States, and to [[China]], {{convert|477|koilbbl/d|abbr=on}} in 2006. In the first quarter of 2008, Angola became the main exporter of oil to China.<ref name="China">{{cite web|last=Zhu |first=Winnie |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aqJ3Wjxs.OWs |title=Angola Overtakes Saudi Arabia as Biggest Oil Supplier to China |publisher=Bloomberg |date=2008-04-21 |accessdate=2014-07-13}}</ref> The rest of its petroleum exports go to [[Europe]] and [[Latin America]].<ref name="opec"/> U.S. companies account for more than half the investment in Angola, with Chevron-Texaco leading the way. The U.S. exports industrial goods and services, primarily oilfield equipment, mining equipment, chemicals, aircraft, and food, to Angola, while principally importing petroleum.{{Citation needed|date=July 2007}} Trade between Angola and [[South Africa]] exceeded USD&nbsp;300 million in 2007.<ref name="safrica">[http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/news.php?ID=3726 ] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071228175919/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/news.php?ID=3726 |date=December 28, 2007 }}</ref> From the 2000s many Chinese have settled and started up businesses.<ref>{{cite web|last=Rowlatt |first=Justin |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/9052011.stm |title=Chinese karaoke fans sing Angola's praises |publisher=BBC News |date=2010-10-02 |accessdate=2014-07-13}}</ref> ==Resources== ===Petroleum=== [[File:Tree map export 2009 Angola.jpeg|thumb|Angolan exports in 2009]] Angola produces and exports more petroleum than any other nation in [[sub-Saharan Africa]], surpassing [[Nigeria]] in the [[2000s in Angola|2000s]]. In January 2007 Angola became a member of [[OPEC]]. By 2010 production is expected to double the 2006 output level with development of deep-water offshore oil fields. Oil sales generated USD&nbsp;1.71 billion in tax revenue in 2004 and now makes up 80% of the government's budget, a 5% increase from 2003, and 45% of [[GDP]].<ref name="oilview"/><ref name="budgincrease">OECD (2006). Page 30.</ref> [[Chevron Corporation]] produces and receives {{convert|400|koilbbl/d|abbr=on}}, 27% of Angolan oil. [[Total S.A.]], [[ExxonMobil]], [[Eni]], [[Petrobras]] and [[BP]] also operate in the country.<ref name="oilhistory"/> Block Zero provides the majority of Angola's crude oil production<ref name="zero">OECD (2006). Page 132.</ref> with {{convert|370|koilbbl/d|abbr=on}} produced annually<!-- per day per year ...? -->. The largest fields in Block Zero are Takula (Area A), Numbi (Area A), and Kokongo (Area B). Chevron operates in Block Zero with a 39.2% share. [[SONANGOL]], the state oil company, Total, and Eni own the rest of the block. Chevron also operates Angola's first producing deepwater section, Block 14, with {{convert|57|koilbbl/d|abbr=on}}.<ref name="opec"/> The [[United Nations]] has criticized the Angolan government for using torture, rape, summary executions, arbitrary detention, and disappearances, actions which Angolan government has justified on the need to maintain oil output.<ref name="hroil">Omeje, Kenneth C. ''High Stakes And Stakeholders: Oil Conflict And Security in Nigeria'', 2006. Page 157.</ref> Angola is the third-largest trading partner of the United States in Sub-Saharan Africa, largely because of its petroleum exports.<ref name="thirdlargest">United States Congress. ''Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations for 1998: Hearings'', 1997. Page 269.</ref> The U.S. imports 7% of its oil from Angola, about three times as much as it imported from [[Kuwait]] just prior to the [[Gulf War]] in 1991. The U.S. Government has invested USD $4 billion in Angola's petroleum sector.<ref name="kuwait">Vines, Alex. ''Angola Unravels: The Rise and Fall of the Lusaka Peace Process'', 1999. Human Rights Watch. Page 189.</ref> Oil makes up over 90% of Angola's exports.<ref> {{cite web |url=http://www.angola.org/index.php?page=economy |title=Economy |work=Embassy of Angola, Washington D.C. }}</ref> ===Diamonds=== {{Main|Mining in Angola}} Angola is the third largest producer of diamonds in Africa and has only explored 40% of the diamond-rich territory within the country, but has had difficulty in attracting foreign investment because of corruption, human rights violations, and diamond smuggling.<ref name="cfr">{{Cite news|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200705071105.html|title=Angola: U.S. Must Strengthen Ties to Protect Strategic Energy and Security Interests|date=2007-05-07|work=Council on Foreign Relations (New York)|access-date=2017-07-31}}</ref> Production rose by 30% in 2006 and [[Endiama]], the national diamond company of Angola, expects production to increase by 8% in 2007 to 10 million carats annually. The government is trying to attract foreign companies to the [[Provinces of Angola|provinces]] of [[Bié (province)|Bié]], [[Malanje (province)|Malanje]] and [[Uíge Province|Uíge]].<ref name="diaexploration"> {{cite web |url = http://africa.reuters.com/business/news/usnBAN637551.html |title = Reuters.com |publisher = Africa.reuters.com |date = 2009-02-09 |accessdate = 2014-07-13 |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20071228235821/http://africa.reuters.com/business/news/usnBAN637551.html |archivedate = December 28, 2007 |df = mdy-all }} </ref> The Angolan government loses $375 million annually from diamond smuggling. In 2003 the government began Operation Brilliant, an anti-smuggling investigation that arrested and deported 250,000 smugglers between 2003 and 2006. [[Rafael Marques (journalist)|Rafael Marques]], a journalist and human rights activist, described the diamond industry in his 2006 ''Angola's Deadly Diamonds'' report as plagued by "murders, beatings, arbitrary detentions and other human rights violations." Marques called on foreign countries to boycott Angola's "[[conflict diamonds]]".<ref name="marques"> {{cite web |url=http://www.afrol.com/articles/15888 |title=afrol News - Angola to double diamond production in 2006 |publisher=Afrol.com |date= |accessdate=2014-07-13}}</ref> In December 2014, the [[Bureau of International Labor Affairs]] issued a ''[[List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor]]''<ref>[http://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods/ List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor]</ref> that classified Angola as one of the major diamond-producing African countries relying on both child labor and forced labor. The [[United States Department of Labor|U.S. Department of Labor]] reported that "there is little publicly available information on [Angola's] efforts to enforce child labor law".<ref>[http://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/child-labor/angola.htm 2013 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor - Angola -]</ref> Diamonds accounted for 1.48% of Angolan exports in 2014.<ref> {{cite web |url=http://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/profile/country/ago/ |title=Angola |publisher=OEC |work=Countries }}</ref> ===Iron=== {{Main|Mining in Angola}} Under Portuguese rule, [[Angola (Portugal)|Angola]] began mining [[iron]] in 1957, producing 1.2 million tons in 1967 and 6.2 million tons by 1971. In the early 1970s, 70% of Portuguese Angola's iron exports went to [[Western Europe]] and [[Japan]].<ref name="diaexploration"/> After independence in 1975, the [[Angolan Civil War]] (1975–2002) destroyed most of the territory's mining infrastructure. The redevelopment of the Angolan mining industry started in the late 2000s. ==See also== *[[Banco Espírito Santo Angola]] ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Further reading== *McCormick, Shawn H. ''The Angolan Economy: Prospects for Growth in a Postwar Environment'', 1994. *OECD, International Energy Agency. ''Angola: Towards an Energy Strategy'', 2006. *{{cite web|url=http://www.mfw4a.org/angola/angola-financial-sector-profile.html |title=Angola Financial Sector Profile: MFW4A - Making Finance Work for Africa |publisher=MFW4A |date= |accessdate=2014-07-13}} ==External links== *{{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Angola/Business_and_Economy/Economic_Development}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20000816233248/http://www.mbendi.co.za/land/af/an/p0005.htm MBendi overview of Angola] *[http://www.trademap.org/open_access/Index.aspx?proceed=true&reporter=024 Angola latest trade data on ITC Trade Map] *[http://www.cotecna.com/en/Tools/~/media/Documents/Datasheets%20-%20Factsheets/Angola/Angola-Cotecna-Datasheet.ashx Exports to Angola Datasheet] {{Economy of Angola}} {{OPEC}}{{Africa in topic|Economy of}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Economy Of Angola}} [[Category:African Union member economies|Angola]] [[Category:Economy of Angola| ]] [[Category:OPEC|Angola]] [[Category:World Trade Organization member economies|Angola]] [[Category:Blood diamonds]] ba4mm9dxgdvzpmq8v7lsdlkvom97htz 0 708 855206200 789921848 2018-08-16T17:16:35Z Trinaliv 33912720 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2012}} {{More footnotes|date=February 2012}} '''Transport in [[Angola]]''' comprises: == Railways == {{main|Rail transport in Angola}} There are three separate railway lines in Angola: * [[Luanda Railway]] ([[Caminhos de Ferro de Luanda|CFL]]) (northern) * [[Benguela Railway]] ([[Caminho de Ferro de Benguela|CFB]]) (central) * [[Moçâmedes Railway]] ([[Moçâmedes Railway|CFM]]) (southern) Reconstruction of these three lines began in 2005 and is expected to be completed by the end of the year 2012. The [[Benguela Railway]] already connects to the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]. == Waterways == * 1,300&nbsp;km navigable (2008) :''country comparison to the world:'' 36 == Pipelines == * gas, 2&nbsp;km; crude oil 87&nbsp;km (2008) In April 2012, the Zambian Development Agency (ZDA) and an Angolan company signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) to build a multi-product pipeline from [[Lobito]] to [[Lusaka]], [[Zambia]], to deliver various refined products to Zambia.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.times.co.zm/?p=4888|title=Govt, Angola Ink U.S.$2.5 Billion Oil Deal |author=Chila Namaiko |publisher=Times of Zambia|location=Lusaka, Zambia|date=14 April 2012|accessdate=29 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.times.co.zm/?p=8706 |title=Angola ready to ‘oil’ Zambia|work=Times of Zambia|location=Lusaka, Zambia|date=9 May 2012|accessdate=29 May 2012}}</ref> Angola plans to build an oil refinery in Lobito in the coming years. == Ports and harbors == [[File:Cargamento de mineirios, Namibe.JPG|thumb|Ship loading minerals at Moçâmedes harbour, Angola]] The government plans to build a deep-water port at [[Barra do Dande]], north of Luanda, in [[Bengo (province)|Bengo]] province near [[Caxito]].<ref name="Angop_2011-11-26_17-44">{{Cite news|url=http://www.portalangop.co.ao/motix/pt_pt/noticias/transporte/2011/10/47/Futuro-porto-Barra-Dande-sera-dos-maiores-Africa,f783485b-ea77-47e9-b395-a74ed09d6188.html|title=Futuro porto da Barra do Dande será um dos maiores de África|work=ANGOP|access-date=2017-07-10|language=PT-PT}}</ref> == Merchant marine == * ''total:'' 6 :''country comparison to the world:'' 128 * ''by type:'' cargo 1, passenger/cargo 2, petroleum tanker 2, roll on/roll off 1 * ''foreign owned:'' 1 (Spain) * ''registered in other countries:'' 6 (Bahamas) (2008) {{Portal:Nautical/Fleet/Angola}} == Airports == * 211 (2008) {{main|List of airports in Angola}} === Airports - with paved runways === * ''total:'' 30 * ''over 3,047 m:'' 5 * ''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 8 * ''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 12 * ''914 to 1,523 m:'' 4 * ''under 914 m:'' 1 (2008) === Airports - with unpaved runways === * ''total:'' 181 (2008) * ''over 3,047 m:'' 2 * ''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 5 * ''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 32 * ''914 to 1,523 m:'' 100 * ''under 914 m:'' 42 (2008) === Angolan Airlines === * [[TAAG Angola Airlines]] * [[Sonair]] === History === Angola had an estimated total of 43 airports as of 2004, of which 31 had paved runways as of 2005. There is an [[Luanda International Airport|international airport at Luanda]]. International and domestic services are maintained by [[TAAG Angola Airlines]], [[Aeroflot]], [[British Airways]], [[Brussels Airlines]], [[Lufthansa]], [[Air France]], [[Air Namibia]], [[Cubana]], [[Ethiopian Airlines]], [[Emirates (airline)|Emirates]], [[Delta Air Lines]], [[Royal Air Maroc]], [[Iberia Airlines|Iberia]], [[Hainan Airlines]], [[Kenya Airways]], [[South African Airways]], [[TAP Air Portugal]] and several regional carriers. In 2003, domestic and international carriers carried 198,000 passengers. There are airstrips for domestic transport at [[Benguela]], [[Cabinda (city)|Cabinda]], [[Huambo]], [[Moçâmedes]], and [[Catumbela]]. == References == ''This article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2003.'' <references/> {{CIA World Factbook}} {{Economy of Angola}} {{Angola topics}} {{Africa topic|Transport in}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Transport In Angola}} [[Category:Transport in Angola| ]] 07oe6bjtsb9nfh0rhssiu25m8eewiol 0 709 857954119 855195783 2018-09-04T03:12:02Z Fenetrejones 32992551 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} {{refimprove|date=November 2012}} {{Infobox national military |country = Angola |name = Angolan Armed Forces |native_name = Forças Armadas Angolanas |image = Flag of Angola.svg |caption = Flag of Angola |image2 = |caption2 = |founded = |current_form = |disbanded = |branches = [[Angolan Army]]<br>[[Angolan Navy]]<br>[[National Air Force of Angola]] |headquarters = [[Ministry of Defence (Angola)|Ministry of Defence]], Rua 17 de Setembro, Luanada, Angola<ref name="Military Technology 2008, p.301">Military Technology, World Defence Almanac, Vol. XXXII, Issue 1, 2008, p.301</ref> <!-- Leadership --> |commander-in-chief = [[João Lourenço]] |commander-in-chief_title = [[President of Angola]], Commander-in-Chief |minister = Salviano de Jesus Sequeira |minister_title = Minister of Defence |commander = General Geraldo Sachipengo Nunda<ref>http://portangola.co.ao{{dead link|date=October 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Geraldo Sachipengo Nunda is a former [[UNITA]] general. See http://www.angonoticias.com/Artigos/item/27403.</ref> |commander_title = Chief of General Staff <!-- Manpower --> |age = |conscription = Universal compulsory service for 24 months plus training |manpower_data = |active = 90,000<ref name="globalfirepower.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.globalfirepower.com/country-military-strength-detail.asp?country_id=angola|title=2017 Angola Military Strength|publisher=}}</ref> |ranked = |reserve = 30,000<ref name="globalfirepower.com"/> |deployed = <!-- Financial --> |amount = $6.8 billion (2014)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://demilitarize.org/angolan-military-expenditure-top-13-billion-2019/|title=Angolan military expenditure to top $13 billion by 2019 - Global Campaign on Military Spending|date=December 8, 2014|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.defenceweb.co.za/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=37185:angolan-military-expenditure-to-top-13-billion-by-2019&catid=50:Land&Itemid=105|title=Angolan military expenditure to top $13 billion by 2019 - defenceWeb|first=Guy|last=Martin|website=www.defenceweb.co.za}}</ref> |percent_GDP = 5.25% (2014) <!-- Industrial --> |domestic_suppliers = |foreign_suppliers = {{flag|Russia}}<ref>http://www.russiadefence.net/t2786-russia-angola-weapons-deal</ref> |imports = |exports = <!-- Related articles --> |history = [[South African Border War]] <br /> [[Angolan War of Independence]] <br /> [[Angolan Civil War]] <br /> [[First Congo War]] <br /> [[Republic of the Congo Civil War (1997-99)|Republic of the Congo Civil War]] <br /> [[Second Congo War]] <br /> [[2012 Guinea-Bissau coup d'état]] |ranks = [[Military ranks of Angola]] }} The '''Angolan Armed Forces''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''Forças Armadas Angolanas'') or '''FAA''' are the [[military]] of [[Angola]]. The FAA include the General Staff of the Armed Forces and three components: the Army (''Exército''), the Navy (''Marinha de Guerra'') and the National Air Force (''National Air Force''). Reported total manpower in 2013 was about 107,000.<ref>International Institute for Strategic Studies, The Military Balance 2013, 493.</ref> The FAA is headed by Chief of the General Staff [[Geraldo Sachipengo Nunda]] since 2010, who reports to the Minister of National Defense, currently Salviano de Jesus Sequeira. ==History== The FAA succeeded to the previous [[People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola]] (FAPLA) following the abortive [[Bicesse Accord]] with the [[Armed Forces of the Liberation of Angola]] (FALA), armed wing of the [[National Union for the Total Independence of Angola]] (UNITA). As part of the peace agreement, troops from both armies were to be [[demilitarized]] and then integrated. Integration was never completed as UNITA and FALA went back to war in 1992. Later, consequences for FALA personnel in Luanda were harsh with FAPLA veterans persecuting their erstwhile opponents in certain areas and reports of [[vigilantism]]. == Army == [[File:Angolan soldiers training in Russia.png|300px|right|thumb|Angolan Second Lieutenant, First Lieutenant, and Captain training in Russia in August 2015]] ===General description=== The Army (''Exército'') is the land component of the FAA. It is organized in six military regions (Cabinda, Luanda, North, Center, East and South), with an infantry division being based in each one. Distributed by the six military regions / infantry divisions, there are 25 motorized infantry brigades, one tank brigade and one engineering brigade. The Army also includes an artillery regiment, the Military Artillery School, the Army Military Academy, an anti-aircraft defense group, a composite land artillery group, a military police regiment, a logistical transportation regiment and a field artillery brigade. The Army further includes the Special Forces Brigade (including Commandos and Special Operations units), but this unit is under the direct command of the General Staff of the FAA. ===History=== On August 1, 1974 a few months after a military [[coup d'état]] had overthrown the [[Lisbon]] regime and proclaimed its intention of granting independence to Angola, the MPLA announced the formation of FAPLA, which replaced the EPLA. By 1976 FAPLA had been transformed from lightly armed guerrilla units into a national [[army]] capable of sustained field operations.<ref name="ReferenceA">[[Library of Congress Country Studies]]</ref> In 1990-91, the Army had ten military regions and an estimated 73+ 'brigades', each with a mean strength of 1,000 and comprising inf, tank, APC, artillery, and AA units as required.<ref>IISS Military Balance 1990 or 1991</ref> The [[Library of Congress]] said in 1990 that '[t]he regular army's 91,500 troops were organized into more than seventy brigades ranging from 750 to 1,200 men each and deployed throughout the ten military regions. Most regions were commanded by lieutenant colonels, with majors as deputy commanders, but some regions were commanded by majors. Each region consisted of one to four provinces, with one or more infantry brigades assigned to it. The brigades were generally dispersed in battalion or smaller unit formations to protect strategic terrain, urban centers, settlements, and critical infrastructure such as bridges and factories. Counterintelligence agents were assigned to all field units to thwart UNITA infiltration. The army's diverse combat capabilities were indicated by its many regular and motorised infantry brigades with organic or attached armor, artillery, and air defense units; two militia infantry brigades; four antiaircraft artillery brigades; ten tank battalions; and six artillery battalions. These forces were concentrated most heavily in places of strategic importance and recurring conflict: the oil-producing [[Cabinda Province]], the area around the capital, and the southern provinces where UNITA and South African forces operated.' It was reported in 2011 that the army was by far the largest of the services with about 120,000 men and women.<ref>[http://www.globaldefence.net/streitkraefte-der-welt/afrika/346-angola.html Global Defence.net: Angolan Armed Forces] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110909095916/http://www.globaldefence.net/streitkraefte-der-welt/afrika/346-angola.html |date=September 9, 2011 }} retrieved August 21, 2011 (de)</ref> The Angolan Army has around 29,000 "ghost workers" who remain enrolled in the ranks of the FAA and therefore receive a salary.<ref>[http://www.radioecclesia.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1686:18-anos-das-for-armadas-angolanas&catid=130:sociedade&Itemid=483, Rádio Ecclesia: 18 anos das Forças Armadas Angolanas] retrieved August 22, 2011 (pt)</ref> In 2013, the [[International Institute for Strategic Studies]] reported that the FAA had six divisions, the 1st, 5th, and 6th with two or three infantry brigades, and the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th with five to six infantry brigades. The 4th Division included a tank regiment. A separate tank brigade and special forces brigade were also reported.<ref>IISS 2013, 493.</ref> As of 2011, the IISS reported the ground forces had 42 armoured/infantry regiments ('detachments/groups - strength varies') and 16 infantry '[[brigade]]s'.<ref>IISS Military Balance 2011, 410.</ref> These probably comprised [[infantry]], [[tank]]s, [[Armoured personnel carriers|APC]], [[artillery]], and [[Anti-aircraft warfare|AA units]] as required. Major equipment included over 140 [[main battle tank]]s, 600 [[reconnaissance]] vehicles, over 920 [[armored fighting vehicles|AFV]]s, [[infantry fighting vehicle]]s, 298 [[howitzers]].<ref name="Defenceweb.co.za">Defenceweb.co.za, [http://www.defenceweb.co.za/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=29331:angola&catid=119:african-militaries&Itemid=255 Angola], February 2013.</ref> It was reported on May 3, 2007, that the Special Forces Brigade of the Angolan Armed Forces (FAA) located at Cabo Ledo region, northern [[Bengo Province]], would host a 29th anniversary celebration for the entire armed forces. The brigade was reportedly formed on 5 May 1978 and under the command at the time of Colonel Paulo Falcao.<ref>[http://www.portalangop.co.ao/ango